Research, The Research Process, Research Methodology LECTURE 2 (BIOLOGY 199) MARILEN M. PARUNGAO
Nov 21, 2014
Research, The Research Process, Research
MethodologyLECTURE 2 (BIOLOGY 199)
MARILEN M. PARUNGAO
RESEARCH
viewed as a problem-solving activity
follows a logical series of steps (research process) which makes it different from other problem-solving activities
Research Methodology (Leedy, 1997)
the core concept underlying the research process
the methodology controls the study itself and the processes needed to realize the study
the methodology controls and dictates the acquisition of data, arranges them in logical relationships, sets up a means of refining the raw data, contrives an approach so that meanings that lie below the surface of those data become manifest, and finally issues a conclusion or series of conclusions that lead to an expansion of knowledge
the entire process is a unified effort as well as an appreciation of its component parts
The Process of Research: Logical Steps
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION (LOOKING FOR A TOPIC)
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
RESEARCHABILITY OF THE PROBLEM
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
THE HEART OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT
REQUIREMENT: TO STATE THE PROBLEM WITH UNWAVERING CLARITY, PRECISION
WHAT IF I SIMPLY CANNOT FIND A GOOD PROBLEM?
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
WHERE TO FIND INTERESTING PROBLEMS...
JOURNALS, BOOKS, ABSTRACTS (LIBRARY/TRUSTED LINKS)
RECOMMENDATION SECTIONS OF THESES AND DISSERTATIONS/JOURNAL ARTICLES
IDEAS FROM YOUR MENTOR OR PROFESSOR
IDEAS FROM SEMINARS, RESEARCH COLLOQUIA AND CONFERENCES
PERSONAL/FAMILY EXPERIENCES
RARE/INTERESTING OCCURRENCES WHICH NEEDS TO BE EXPLAINED
TOP TEN CAUSES OF MORTALITY/MORBIDITY IN YOUR LOCALITY
CHARACTERISTIC OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
SHOULD BE OF GREAT INTEREST TO YOU
USEFUL FOR THE CONCERNED PEOPLE IN A PARTICULAR FIELD
POSSESS NOVELTY
LAYS FOUNDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH IN THE FIELD
CAN BE COMPLETED IN THE ALLOTTED TIME DESIRED
MUST USE APPROPRIATE AND UP-TO-DATE TECHNOOLOGY
DOES NOT CARRY ETHICAL OR MORAL IMPEDIMENTS
A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM SHOULD BE
SMARTSPECIFIC, MEASURABLE, ACHIEVABLE,
REALISTIC, TIME-BOUND
IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF RESEARCH?
EXTERNAL FACTORS
NOVELTY AND AVOIDANCE OF UNNECESSARY REPETITION
PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE PROBLEM
IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF RESEARCH?
PERSONAL FACTORS
TRAINING AND PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS
TIME REQUIREMENTS
AVAILABILITY OF SUBJECTS AND EQUIPMENTS
SPECIALIZED WORKING CONDITIONS
HAZARDS TO BE ENCOUNTERED
RESEARCH FUNDS (COST)
STATING YOUR RESEARCH PROBLEM
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST BE STATED IN A CLEAR AND COMPLETE GRAMMATICAL SENTENCE IN AS FEW WORDS AS POSSIBLE!
WHAT’S WRONG WITH THESE RESEARCH
BUSING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
RETIREMENT PLANS OF ADULTS
EFFECT OF PHARMACEUTICALS ON EMBRYO
E. COLI AND WATER QUALITY
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
REFLECT THE QUESTIONS WHOSE ANSWERS THE INVESTIGATOR WANTS TO STUDY YIELD TO
CAN BE EXPRESSED EITHER IN THE FORM OF A STATEMENT OR A QUESTION
SERVES AS THE STEERING WHEEL IN THE CONDUCT OF A RESEARCH PROJECT
SERVES A S AGUIDE IN SPECIFYING VARIABLES TILL INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
SAMPLE OBJECTIVES
TO DEVELOP AN OPTIMIZED PROTOCOL TO DETECT FLAVIVIRUSES IN SERUM SAMPLES USING PCR
TO DETERMINE THE EFFICACY OF ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF PROBIOTICS IN MANAGING OBESITY
TO ESTABLISH THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANT HEIGHT AND FERTILIZER CONCENTRATION IN CORN
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVESPHRASED CLEARLY, UNAMBIGUOUSLY AND SPECIFICALLY
STATED IN MEASURABLE TERMS AND DO NOT INVOLVE VALUE JUDGEMENT
GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
a generic statement which describes in broad terms what the study wishes to accomplish
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE
contain indicators on how to accomplish the stated objectives and therefore, gives direction to the research process; identifies in detail and measureable terms the aims of the research study
EXAMPLE
General Objectives:
To investigate the histological effects of neem seed kernel extract on mouse testis
Specific Objectives
To determine/identify the changes in testes histology due to neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) exposure
To determine the relationship between neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) and occurrence of abnormal sperm morphology
To provide a feasible physiological basis for the anti-libido property of neem extract
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
After the research problem has been identified and the objectives formulated, a review of related literature needs to be done.
Two Important Uses:
• To get acquainted with the existing studies related to the research to be conducted relative to:
- who have done the work on the problem area- what has been found- research design utilized- statistical analysis applied- problem met and how were they resolved
• To establish a rationale or a theoretical or conceptual framework based on previous research studies done.
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
Researcher must be shrewd in narrowing the scope of his study without becoming concerned with a trivial problem
Assumptions, restrictions and limitation must be explicit with respect to the coverage of the study
Helps focus attention on valid objectives, & helps minimize the dangers of over generalization
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DELIMITING THE PROBLEM
the scope of the problem
time allotted for the conduct of the study
cost and funding
cooperation/coordination needed from other institutions or researchers
availability of research subjects
availability of equipment needed
ethical considerations
EXAMPLE
Impact of continuing education for health workers
The effect of continuing education activities conducted by the Department of Health (DOH) for its staff on their performance
The effect of workshops/seminars conducted by the DOH for its staff on their ability to manage the different programs of the DOH in the field
To determine the effect of the Master Trainor’s Course conducted by the DOH on the capabilities of the participants to plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate the training programs they conduct in the field
FORMULATION OF A TESTABLE
HYPOTHESIS
DEFINITION
A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or events which have occurred or will occur (Gay,1976)
States the researcher’s expectations concerning the relationship between two or more variables in the research problem
Testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
Stated in declarative form
Stated in definite terms, the relationship between variables
Should reflect the theory or literature that it is based on
Should be brief and to the point
Should be testable
TWO TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
“RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND THE NULL HYPOTHESIS”
THE NULL HYPOTHESIS
Ho
Never true or established but can be possibly disproved in the course of the experimentation
No difference relationship between the variables we want to study
May act as a starting point and as a benchmark against which the researcher will measure the actual outcome of the study once the researcher has collected the data
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
HA
Alternative hypothesis
Relationship is always positive
EXAMPLES
Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal lagging
HA : Vitamin C does inhibit chromosomal lagging by 50% compared to placebo
Ho : Cerebral artery bypass is as effective as standard medical therapy
HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective than standard medical therapy
TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Non-directional – reflects a difference between groups, but the direction of the difference (unequal) is NOT specified
Directional – reflects a difference between groups and the difference is specified
IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH VARIABLES
Variable – any trait/characteristic that manifest differences irrespective of whether the differences are qualitative or quantitative
Qualitative – eye color, shape of teeth, sex
Quantitative – weight, height, length, light intensity, temperature
TYPES OF VARIABLE
Independent – the treatment variable
variables in the course of an experiment in an effort to understand the effects of this manipulation on some outcome (which you know as the dependent variable)
the variable which is presumed to cause, effect, influence, or stimulate the outcome
Dependent – outcome variables in a research study
refers to the outcome or response variable
Extraneous Variable – by themselves produce changes which may be mistaken to be the effect of the independent variable being considered
Controlled, held constant or randomized – so the effects are neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all conditions
TRY THIS...
PROBLEM: the effect of carbon dioxide loading on plant morphology
Identify the:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Intervening/extraneous variable
CONSTRUCTION OF A RESEARCH DESIGN
represents the “plan of attack” of the researcher
in answering the research objectives
in obtaining all the relevant data in relation to objectives and hypothesis
the specific areas of concern in the choice of a research design are the following
selection and number of subjects
control and manipulation of relevant variables
establishment of criteria to evaluate outcomes
instrumentation
maximization of internal and external validity
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
research objectives
feasibility
ethical considerations
economy and efficiency
internal and external validity
INTERNAL VALIDITY
refers to extent to which investigator is able to control the different biases affecting the study and in the end, measures what he really intends to measure
Did the experimental treatment really bring about a change in the dependent variable?
Did the independent variable make a significant difference?
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
refers to the extent to which the investigator is able to generalize the results of his study
Are the results applicable to groups and environment outside of experimental setting?
DESIGN THE TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION
Experimentation
Questionnaire
Interview schedule and forms
DESIGN THE PLAN FOR DATA ANALYSIS
A number of researchers think about data analysis only after all data has been collected
Consequences:
Some very important variables in study are either not measured at all or collected using a measurement scale which is inconsistent with desired mode of data analysis
Objectives are too ambitious or non-measurable, given the nature of the data that were collected
THE SOLUTION...
A good practice is to construct a dummy table
Dummy Tables – skeleton tables drawn to help the investigator conceptualize how the data is going to be organized and presented after it has been collected
COLLECTION OF DATA
Essential phase of the research process
Researcher employs specialized tools, instruments and procedures depending upon the method designed for such activity
DATA PROCESSING
Process the information gathered to prepare for and facilitate analysis and interpretation of data.
Editing of data collection forms and coding of responses are procedures usually done in this stage
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Involves quantification, description, and classification of data
Statistics play a major role
Researcher must be familiar with basic statistical concepts and procedures and must know their limitations as well as the areas where they may be appropriately applied
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Researcher summarizes the discussion on the research findings and make a clear concluding remarks
Researcher identifies major points that were not raised in the present study and could lay the framework for future undertakings
WRITING OF RESEARCH REPORT
Researcher prepares report of different activities he has undertaken together with his findings
Report must be well-organized and presented in proper form and style
The basic principles of technical report writing are followed
REPORT OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
Publish findings in scientific journals and news releases
Presentation of results in scientific meetings
SO...READY TO DO YOUR RESEARCH???