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ENZYMES
The sum of all chemical reaction in the body are called Metabolism
Metabolic reactions are either catabolic or anabolic
Catabolic reactions involve the breaking down of substance into its reactants
Anabolic reactions involve the building up of large molecule from smaller one
Enzymes acts on substrate, the beginning ingredient of the reaction, to make products in a chemical reaction
Enzymes are proteins.
Every type of enzyme has a specific shape as it is made up of a specific pattern of amino acids.
The active sites are the areas that substrates will bind to and catalyse chemical reactions. hen an enzyme binds to a substrate it
makes a new molecule called the enzyme substrate comple!
Enzymes usually function at a specific temperature and p" range.
#f an enzyme is sub$ect to p" and temperatures outside the ranges, it may change shape and block the active sites of substrates. This
is called denaturing.
The suffi! %ase is added to the end of the name to indicate it is an enzyme.
The function of enzyme is to speed up the chemical reactions that take place in the body.
&or a chemical reaction to take place the molecules involved need to collide at the correct orientation and with the right amount of
energy. This is called the activation energy.
Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to progress.
Enzymes are needed in only very small amount to catalyse the reaction and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction % thereforethey can be used numerous times
#n an anabolic reaction enzymes work by binding to a substrate and forming an enzyme substrate comple!, lowering the activation
energy and releasing products.
Two theories involved in enzyme action' lock and key and induced fit theory
The lock and key theory states that the enzyme is like the lock and the substrate is like the key. (nly when the substrate fits the
enzyme active sites perfectly will the reaction be catalysed. )ust as the key is specific to lock, so is a substrate specific to its enzyme.
An enzyme will not work unless the substrate matches its active sites. (nly then the reaction will be catalysed.
The induced fit theory states that the substrate plays a role in determining the final shape of the enzyme substrate comple! and the
active site is more fle!ible than was first thought. The substrate enters in and binds to the enzyme, shaping the active site and
properly aligning the enzyme for the reaction to take place. (ther substrates may fit into the active site, but unless they are able toproperly shape the enzyme, a reaction will not be catalysed.
The substrate helps to determine the shape of the active site of the enzyme in a catabolic reaction
Enzymes sometimes need assistance from other molecules to function correctly. These helper molecule can be coenzymes, which are
organic, such as vitamins, or cofactors , which are inorganic and include minerals.
*+ is a disease involving single amino acid in enzymes.
The environment outside the human body is constantly changing but Enzymes have a specific conditions under which they can
operate at an optimal level. (utside these conditions their activity decreases and the enzyme can become denatured. #t is therefore
vital that the conditions within the body are maintained at a constant level for optimal enzyme, and therefore metabolic efficiency.
"omeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
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#f a condition within the body changes, such as rise in temperature, the process of homeostasis ensures that mechanisms within the
body detect this change and counteracts it so that the body temperature remains at -/c
"omeostatic mechanisms can be affected by infections
Negative feedback
"omeostatic consists of 0 stages'
1. Changes from the stable state are detected by organs called receptors or sensors. 2eceptors are organs that contain
neurons, which detect changes to parts of the body such as skin, the eye or the ear
0. Those changes are counteracted using effectors organs. Effectors organs bring about a response to the change, for
e!ample the muscle in the skin will contract to produce goose bumps in cold weather
This type of a reaction, where the response is to reduce and counteract the stimulus is called a negative feedback system.
A negative feedback system causes the body to respond so that a reversal in the direction of a change occurs. This tends to
keep the internal environment at a constant regardless of the e!ternal environment, thus maintaining homeostasis.
#n between the stage of detection and counteraction, the brain and spinal cord will coordinate the response to the change.
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Nervous system
The nervous system is an essential element in the process of homeostasis. #t enables the detection of changes to body and
then coordinate the responses the body will make to counteract these changes.
The nervous system is made up of two interacting elements % the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system
Central nervous system
The C34 is composed of brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord transmits message from the receptor organs such as eye,
ear or skin via the sensory neurons to special regions in the brain. The hypothalamus is one of these regions, and is tucked
deep within the brain.
The hypothalamus receives stimuli from sensory neurons and then coordinates the correct response necessary to
counteract the change by sending out messages to the effector organs via the motor neurons..
The hypothalamus also controls the release of many hormones that produce slow % acting changes in the body, which also
contributes to homeostasis.
*eripheral nervous system
The *34 is composed of all the neurons outside the C34. These include sensory and motor neurons. 4ensory
neurons transmit message from the receptor organs such as the eyes to the C34. Motor neurons transmit
messages from the C34 to the effector organs such as the muscles to activate a response.ECT(T"E2M4
Ectotherms are organisms that have appro!imately the same body temperature as the ambient temperature. They have a
limited ability to maintain their body temperature at the one level, as it changes according to the surrounding
environment. E!ample, plants, invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and fish.
E35(T"E2M4
Endotherms are animals that physiological structures that enable them to maintain their body temperature within a
narrow range regardless of ambient temperature. They use the heat produced from metabolism to help maintain their
body temperatures.
RESPONSES TO TEMPERATURE CHANGE
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6ecause of changing temperature, especially on land, animals must possess specialised features, or adaptation that
enables them to survive. These adaptations can be classified as physiological, structural or behavioural.
*hysiological adaptations
A physiological adaptation is a feature that helps to regulate a function within an organism. They usually have to do with
the functioning of biochemical reactions within cells and tissues of animals.
4tructural adaptations
4tructural adaptations are those that have a connection with morphology or physical features of an organism, such as the
length of a bird/s beak or the shape of the animal/s body. They include any body part or structure that allows anorganism to better suit its environment. 4ometimes adaptations are both physiological and structural, like the length of a
kidney tubule, which helps to decrease water loss.
6ehavioural adaptations
6ehavioural adaptations are ways an animal behaves that help it survive in its natural environment. E!amples include
migration and nocturnal activity.
Australian Ecotherm e!ample'
Australian Endotherm E!ample
Plants response to temperaturechange
Plants are ectothermic – they are not able to maintain a
constant temperature. Therefore they have range of
adaptations
Leaf fall – in hot conditions plants will reduce the surface
area that is exposed to heat by dropping their leaves. This
also reduced the amount of water lost through
transpiration.
Radiation – some plants living in very exposed areas, such
as sand dunes, reduce the amount of heat being absorbed
by having shiny leaves that reect solar radiation.
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eat shoc! protein" heat shoc! proteins are produced by
plants when they are under stress from very high
temperatures. These molecules are thought to stop the
denaturing of en#ymes within the cell, so normal cell
reaction can continue.
Transpiration –the movement of water up the plant from the
roots to the leaves via transpiration stream serves to cool
the plant during hot condition. The evaporation of water
from the stomates of the leaf also serves to cool the plant.
$ie bac! – often in harsh conditions the shoots and leaves of
a plant may die, but left in the soil are bulbs, roots or
rhi#oids that will begin to grow again when favourable
condition return.
%rientation of leaves – eucalyptus leaves are often
characterised by dropping towards the ground. This vertical
orientation has the advantage of reducing the amount oflight rays that are in contact with the surface area of the
leaf, therefore reducing the amount of heat it is exposed to.
&eed dispersal – some 'ustralian native plants rely on
extremely high temperatures, such as those produced by
(re, to germinate their seeds. Plant seeds from such species
as )an!sia are only able to open their seed coats when they
are exposed to (re. &eeds then germinate and produce
another plant.
*ernalisation – is the process whereby plants must be
exposed to cold conditions for them to produce owers andtherefore reproduce. The presence of cold conditions will
stimulate the owers to grow and by the time they are
mature, spring should be near. +ce formation between the cells – most plants are able to tolerate
fairly low temperatures compared to animals. This is due in part to
their cell walls. hen temperatures reach below free#ing, ice will
form in cells. -ortunately, the solution within plant cell is higher in
solutes than the solution between the cells. +t has a lower free#ing
point. This means that ice crystal will form (rst in the gaps
between the plant cells. )ecause of the presence of cell wall, this
protects cytoplasm from being damaged by the crystal and thecell should survive.
What is in blood?
/ of the substance called blood is made up of a
pale, straw"coloured uid called Plasma. Red
blood cells comprise another 0/ of the blood,
while white blood cell ma!e up less than 1.2/ and
platelets comprise less than 1.12/.
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'll the di3erent type of blood cells develop from a
haematopoietic steam cell found in the bone
marrow – the 4elly li!e material inside your bones
Red blood cell are called erythrocytes
Red blood cells are what ma!e the blood loo! red.This is due to the presence haemoglobin a
molecule that incorporates iron. +t is the
haemoglobin in red blood cell that allows these
cells to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Red blood cell
- Contain No nucleus or organelle- Ver small- !hic"er at the edge than in the centre# $orming a shape "no%n as
biconca&e disc'
White blood cells
- (lso called leucoctes
- )a&e nucleus- *arger than red blood cell- )a&e no de+nite shape- Role in helping "eep the bod $ree $rom in$ection- !%o tpes, phagoctes and lmphoctes- Phagoctes , the engul$ and ingest $oreign bodies in the blood- *mphoctes , manu$acture antibodies
Platelets
- Not actuall cells but $ragments o$ cells- When ou cut oursel$# platelets are essential to clot the blood#
pre&enting ecessi&e bleeding' Clotting occurs %hen platelets clump
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together at the site o$ in.ur# acting in combination %ith other $actors in
the blood to plug up an holes that appears in blood &essels'
Substances transported b blood
Role of blood is to transport substances that are
essential to life, such as oxygen, water and glucose
throughout the entire body. )lood also removes
waste products from cells, which would poison them
if left there.
/gen and carbon dioide
" 5ost important role that blood performs is to carry
oxygen around the body." 6very cell in the body must have its own supply of
oxygen. This is because oxygen, along with glucose, is an
essential reactant in cellular respiration " the chemical
reaction that provides cells with energy.
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!he process o$ producing energ re0uires ogen and produces carbon dioide
as %aste products'
!he component o$ red blood cell capable o$ transporting both ogen and
carbon dioide in haemoglobin
)aemoglobin %or"s e1ecti&el as carrier molecule because it contains iron# an
element that easil combines %ith ogen' )uman red blood cells contain no
nuclei so that the can carr as man haemoglobin molecules as possible
!he structure o$ red blood cells and the structure o$ haemoglobin maimise the
amount o$ ogen that can be carried in the blood' )aemoglobin can be
considered an adapti&e ad&antage o$ organisms %ith large ogen re0uirements#
since it is an adaptation that gi&es these organisms a sur&i&al ad&antage'
/gen enters the bloodstream at the lungs' 2n man thousands o$ al&eoli 3 the
tin air sacs inside each lung 3 ogen mo&es &ia di1usion $rom the inhaled air4%here there is higher concentration o$ ogen5 into the red blood cells 4%here
there is lo%er concentration o$ ogen5' )ere it binds to haemoglobin to $orm
ohaemoglobin and is carried &ia the arteries and capillaries to the tissues o$
the bod' 2n the cells that ma"e up these tissues# ogen concentrations are
lo%er than in the blood and so ogen readil di1uses across'
(s it is essential that the bod6s cell is pro&ided %ith ogen# it is essential that
their carbon dioide is remo&ed' 2$ allo%ed to accumulate# the carbon dioide
%ould combine %ith %ater to $orm carbonic acid# lo%ering the p) to le&els at
%hich an en7me in cells could not $unction properl' 2t is there$ore necessar $or
blood to continuall ta"e carbon dioide a%a $rom cell# "eeping the p) %ithin a
tolerable range $or the bod6s tissues'
!he carbon dioide produced b cells as a %aste product o$ respiration is
transported &ia the opposite route' Carbon dioide in the bod6s tissues di1uses
across to the bloodstream and tra&els in the blood to the lungs' )ere# the carbon
dioide di1uses out o$ the blood 4%here the concentration o$ carbon dioide is
high5 into the al&eoli 4%here the concentration is lo%5 and is ehaled b the
lungs'
8 $orms o$ carbon dioide carried b the blood' !he ma.orit enters the red bloodcells' )ere# most is con&erted to bicarbonate ions %hile a smaller proportion
combines %ith haemoglobin to $orm carbamate' !he carbon dioide that
combines %ith haemoglobin does so as the ogen that the haemoglobin has
been carring $rom the lungs to the bod6s tissue is released 49disassociates65'
!he remainder o$ the carbon dioide dissol&es directl into the plasma'
/ther substances carried b the:lood
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" Plasma is made up of 71/ of water." The watery nature of plasma enables blood cells to be
suspended and move freely through even the tiniest blood
vessels of the body. &ome of the water in the plasma passes by
di3usion into the cell of tissues as the blood moves through
the body. &imilarly, excess water may move from the body8scell to plasma.
" The water in the plasma also performs the role of solvent in
which a variety of important substances are dissolved." Plasma proteins perform an important role in helping carry
hormones, fat soluble vitamins and other molecules around the
body. %ther solute in the plasma are salts, made up of
combination of metal and non metal ions. These are carried by
the plasma in the form of their component ions" 'lso carried in the plasma are essential nutrients produced by
the body during the process of digestion" These include glucose, amino acids and lipids" 5ost fats are bro!en down by the body are assembled into
pac!ages called chylomicrons – a combination of lipids and
proteins 9 called lipoproteins: carry cholesterol around the
circulatory system" %ther waste products produced by body rather than carbon
dioxide are nitrogenous waste – nitrogen containing
compounds produced when excess proteins are bro!en down." +n mammal urea is the main nitrogenous waste. These wastes
are transported by blood to the !idneys, where urine is
produced to carry the wastes outside the body.
!he mo&ements o$ blood around the bod
" 6very cell in the body needs its own supply of blood so that it
obtains the oxygen and nutrients it re;uires and has carbon
dioxide and other substances removed. The body therefore
needs a way of continually moving fresh blood through its
tissues. This role if performed by circulatory system, which is
made up of heart, the blood and the blood vessels.
" )lood (rst travels from the heart to the lungs 9via pulmonaryartery – the only artery in the body to contain deoxygenated
blood: to pic! up a fresh supply of oxygen before returning to
the heart and being pumped to the rest of the body. This
oxygenated blood leaves the heart via ma4or blood vessels
called arteries. 's the arteries ta!e blood further from the
heart, they branch into smaller vessels called arterioles then
even smaller vessels called capillaries." )lood is moved through the body by the continuous pumping
action of the heart. -rom the right hand side of the heart,
blood is pumped to the lungs to pic! up oxygen. This blood
returns to the left side of the heart to be pumped to the rest of
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the body. )lood returning from the body ta!es the opposite
path.
(rteries
The blood in artery travel away from the heart to thefurthest reaches of the body. To do this it must be
pumped under high pressure.
'rteries have thic! muscular wall to cope with pressure,
'rteries wall are also ;uite elastic, enabling them to
expand and contrast to ad4ust to the amount of blood
travelling through them at any one time.
The main artery leaving the heart is called aorta. +t is
very big in diameter.
The aorta carries oxygenated blood at high pressure
away from the heart to the tissues of the body. ' second main artery leaving the heart is pulmonary
artery. This carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
'rteries are composed of three layers< an outer layer of
connective tissue with elastic (bres, a middle layer of
muscular tissue also with elastic (bres and an inner layer
of epithelial cells.
The outer layer is tough to protect the artery and is made
up of connective tissue that holds the artery (rmly in its
place in the body and also allows it to stretch. The middle
layer is muscular and elastic, ma!ing the artery strong
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and exible. The inner layer is very smooth so that the
blood can ow easily through it.
6ach time the heart beats= the artery expands and (lls
with blood. hen the heart relaxes the artery contracts,
exerting a force to help push the blood along.
Veins
• :lood coming into the heart mo&es through &eins'
• ;eogenated blood $rom the bod enters the heart &ia a &essel
called &ena ca&a# %hile ogenated blood $rom the lungs enters
the heart &ia the pulmonar &eins'
• :lood returning $rom the bod does not ha&e as much 9push6
pro&ided b the pumping action o$ the heart as blood lea&ing the
heart' 2n addition it is o$ten tra&elling against gra&it# particularl
blood returning $rom the legs and lo%er bod' !he blood in &eins
is there$ore under lo%er pressure than in the arteries' !his is
re
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>apillaries are made up of endothelium< a single layer of
at, overlapping cells. The diameter of capillary is 4ust wide
enough for a slow, single (le of red blood cell to pass
through. This maximises the opportunities for the exchange
of gases, nutrients and wastes between the blood cells andthe tissue cells.
+n any given area of tissue, the capillaries can be seen to
form a networ! of vessels running between an arteriole 9a
vessel which has branched o3 an artery: and a venule
9 which has branched o3 a vein:
%xygen, water and water soluble molecules move from
arteriole into the capillaries then into the tissue cells.
astes such as carbon dioxide move from the tissue cells
into the capillaries and on to the venule. +n this way the
body8s tissues are e?ciently supplied with substances they
need while wastes are removed.
T6 6'RT" blood would not be able to
move through the blood
vessels if it were not for the
continual pumping action of the
heart." The right hand pump deals with
deoxygenated blood returning
from the body. This blood
enters the heart through the
vena cava and is pumped to the
lungs through the pulmonary
artery." The left hand pump deals with
oxygenated blood returning
from the lungs. This bloodcomes into the heart through the pulmonary vein and is
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pumped out of the heart to the rest of the body through
aorta." %n each side of the heart, blood is !ept moving in the
right direction by valves, which prevent the bac!ow of
blood.T6 >'@A+@A >%5P%&+T+%@ %- )L%%$
=Y*EM
- =lem is the tissue that carries %ater and dissol&ed mineral ions
through a plant'- !he lem runs all the %a through the roots# the stem and into the
lea&es'- !he transport o$ %ater through the lem o$ a plant occurs in one
direction onl 3 up%ards- 2n the lem o$ a
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- >or additional support# specialised cells called +bres run alongside the
tubes'- :oth tracheids and &essels cells are dead at maturit# lea&ing hollo%
tubes that not onl ecientl transport %ater but also pro&ide internal
support $or the gro%ing plant'
-
Water root hairs roots cell %alls
!he process thought to initiate the mo&ement o$ %ater in the lem o$ a plant is
transpiration 3 the loss o$ %ater $rom the cells in lea&es' (ccording to this theor#
%ater lost through stomates o$ lea&es is replaced $rom the
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Sie&e cells are
the main
conducting cells o$ the phloem' !hese are elongated cells# %hich .oin together to
$orm &ertical columns called sie&e tubes' (t the end o$ each cell is a per$orated
sie&e plate 3a specialised membrane %ith man small openings or pores to allo%
substances to pass through $rom one cell to another'
(longside the sie&e cells are companion cells# %hich are attached through their
cell %alls b +ne connecting tube called plasmodesmata'
Companion cells are belie&ed to help maintain the sie&e cells b per$orming
some o$ their metabolic $unctions $or them'
!he cells o$ phloem remain li&ing although the lose their nucleus and man
other organelles as the mature'
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!he
mo&ement o$ material $rom the lea$ to the phloem and $rom the phloem to %here
it is needed re0uires energ ependiture b the
plant and is there$ore regarded as acti&e transport'Mo&ement o$ nutrients along the phloem is b
passi&e transport'
W(!ER
(n ade0uate suppl o$
%ater $or cell is necessar$or se&eral reasons,
- Water is the
medium that
transports and
distributes
man
substances in
and bet%een cells'- 2t is the sol&ent in %hich man important ions and molecules re0uired
$or metabolic reactions are dissol&ed such substances are onl able to
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mo&e to %here the are needed because the are in a0ueous solution
and there$ore able to di1use across cells and bet%een cells'- Metabolic reactions that occur %ithin cells can onl occur in solution'
Water itsel$ is a reactant or product o$ man cellular reactions# $or
eample it is a product o$ cellular respiration
- !he optimal $unctioning o$ cells is reliant on their %ater content being"ept %ithin a &er narro% range'
- !he concentration o$ %ater inside cells should match the concentration
o$ %ater outside cells 3 a situation re$erred to as isotonic' 2$ these
concentrations do not match# %ater %ill mo&e b osmosis $rom the area
o$ higher concentration to the area o$ lo%er concentration' !his lea&es
cell &ulnerable to losing or gaining too much %ater'- 2n mammals# %ater determines the concentration o$ &arious substances
in the blood' 2t also helps maintain bod temperature# as it can readil
absorb and trans$er heat' Water "eeps respirator sur$aces moist to
allo% ecient gas echange# and acts as lubricant $or other sur$aces#such as those in the .oints o$ the bod'- !he regulation o$ %ater concentration and also the concentration o$
solutes in order to maintain homeostasis is "no%n as osmoregulation'
E=CRE!2/N /> W(S!ES
- *i"e Carbon dioide# other %aste products produced b li&ing organism
are toic to cells and must be remo&ed' 2n particular nitrogenous
%ates must be remo&ed 0uic"l becaue the ha&e the abilit to harm
en7mes and slo% do%n chemical reactions# change p) and inter$ere
%ith the transport o$ substances across cell membrane'- !he remo&al o$ metabolic %astes $rom the bod is termed ecretion'- !he main metabolic %astes produced b mammals are ecess %ater#
carbon dioide# ecess salts and nitrogenous %astes such as urea'- !he main organ in&ol&ed in ecretion are lungs and "idne'-
- 2n unicellular organisms the
ecretion o$ dissol&ed nitrogenous
%astes occurs solel b the process o$ di1usion and osmosis'
- di1usion is the passi&e mo&ement o$ molecules $rom an area %here the
are moire concentrated to an area %here the are less concentrated'
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- /smosis relates speci+call to the di1usion o$ %ater molecules'
- :oth are $orms o$ passi&e transport
- 2n an organism made up o$ one cell# the cell membrane is selecti&el
permeable# allo%ing %ater molecules to enter b osmosis %hen necessasar and
nitrogenous %aste to eit &ia di1usion'
- !he large sur$ace area to &olume ratio o$ unicellular organisms ensures
these processes occur easil and e1ecti&el
- Multicellular organisms are too large to rel on the processes o$ di1usion
and osmosis to ecrete their nitrogenous %astes' !hese %astes cannot simpl
di1use across a single cell membrane to lea&e the organism# as the do in
unicellular organisms'
- 2n mammals# "idne ha&e de&eloped $or ecrete %astes
- nitrogenous %aste is $ormed as a result o$ the brea"do%n o$ amino acids
and occurs in three di1erent $orms 3 ammonia# urea and uric acid
!)E @2;NEY
- !he @idne is the main organ in&ol&ed in osmoregulation and the
ecretion o$ %astes in mammals'- !he "idne +lters the blood o$ metabolic %astes products such as urea
and maintains a stable concentration o$ %ater in the bloodstream'
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-
@2;NEY S!RAC!ARE !he "idnes are &er comple organs' !he can be di&ided into three distinct
parts,
B the corte# %hich is the outer region
the medulla# %hich is the middle area
8 the pel&is# %hich is on the inside
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- !he $unctional unit o$
the "idne is called the nephron'- !he "idne has millions o$ nephrons contained in its corte and
medulla'- !he nephorn $unctions to +lter the blood o$ metabolic %astes# ma"e
and secrete urine# and reabsorb %ater to maintain homeostasis'-
B' >iltration,
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/SM/REDA*(!2/N (N; !)E @2;NEY 2N>2S)
2n +sh @idne is used to ecrete metabolic %aste and help in osmoregulation
ho%e&er the gills are also used to ecrete or absorb salt
!)E R/*E /> )/RM/NES
!he "idne in mammals pla a ma.or role in maintaining %ater and salt le&el in
the blood' !he "idne are aided in this b hormones 3 chemical compounds
produced b the glands o$ the bod6s endocrine sstem'
!he t%o main hormones in&ol&ed in osmoregulation are (;) 4anti 3diuretic
hormone# also called &asopressin5 and aldosterone'
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