Societal Societal Bilingualism Bilingualism Nigel Musk Nigel Musk Master’s Course Spring Term: Language & Culture Master’s Course Spring Term: Language & Culture http://www liu se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language and culture in europe?l=en http://www.liu.se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language-and-culture-in-europe?l=en Course Structure Course Structure 1. Language Contact language change 2. Individual Bilingualism code-switching & code-mixing 3. Societal Bilingualism diglossia, language maintenance, language shift & language death (obsolescence) 4. Language Policy and Language Planning national languages, the EU and multilingualism, language revitalisation & bilingual education Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situations situations 1. Standard-with-dialects 2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism) 3. Diglossia Some Some snapshots of bilingualism in snapshots of bilingualism in Some Some snapshots of bilingualism in snapshots of bilingualism in Wales Wales TV series: Pam Fi Duw? (Why Me God?) – life in and around a bilingual (Welsh) secondary school Welsh homepages Si ti Signposting Demographics Demographics Official Language Policy & Planning
12
Embed
Bilingualism 2 [Kompatibilitetsläge] - Linköping University · Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia bilingualism: “The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed)
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Master’s Course Spring Term: Language & Culture Master’s Course Spring Term: Language & Culture
http://www liu se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language and culture in europe?l=enhttp://www.liu.se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language-and-culture-in-europe?l=en
Three (prototypical) sociolinguisticThree (prototypical) sociolinguisticThree (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situationssituations
1. Standard-with-dialects
2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism)
3. Diglossia
Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia
bilingualism: “The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed) use
of two languages ” (Concise O ford Companion to the English Lang age 1998)of two languages. (Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998)
“Bilingualism is the use of two (or more) languages in one’s everyday
life and not knowing two or more languages equally well andlife and not knowing two or more languages equally well and
optimally.” (Grosjean 2002: 2)
diglossia: in some speech communities there is “one particular kind ofdiglossia: in some speech communities there is one particular kind of
standardization where two varieties of a language exist side by side
throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play” g y, g p y
(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 65), one of which is a superposed variety, that is,
not a primary “native” variety, but one learnt in addition to the native
variety.
DiglossiaDiglossia: high : high vsvs lowlow
“The varieties are called H and L, the first being
generally a standard variety used for ‘high’ purposes
and the second often a ‘low’ spoken vernacular. […]
L is typically acquired at home as a mother tongue […]
H, on the other hand, is learned through schooling and
never at home, and is related to institutions outside the
home.”(Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998, my highlighting)
Ferguson’s nine criteria forFerguson’s nine criteria forFerguson s nine criteria for Ferguson s nine criteria for determining determining diglossiadiglossia (2000 [1959])(2000 [1959])
1. function
2. prestige
3. literary heritagey g
4. acquisition
5 standardisation5. standardisation
6. stability
7. grammar
8. lexicon
9. phonology
Ferguson’s four prototypical cases ofFerguson’s four prototypical cases ofFerguson s four prototypical cases of Ferguson s four prototypical cases of diglossiadiglossia (2000 [1959])(2000 [1959])
Situation 'high' variety 'low' varietyArabic Classic Arabic Vario s regionalArabic Classic Arabic Various regional
colloquial varietiesSwiss German Standard German Swiss GermanSwiss German Standard German Swiss GermanHaitian Standard French Haiti CreoleGreek Katharévousa Dhimotiki
The case of Arabic The case of Arabic diglossiadiglossia(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 68)(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 68)
Situation H L
Sermon in church or mosque xInstructions to servants, waiters, worksmen, clerks xPersonal letter xPersonal letter xSpeeches in parliament, political speeches xUniversity lecture xyConversations with family, friends, colleagues xNews broadcasts xRadio 'soap opera' xRadio soap opera xNewspaper editorial, new story, caption on picture xCaption on political cartoon xPoetry xFolk literature x
Fishman’s extension of Fishman’s extension of diglossiadiglossia(2000 [1967])(2000 [1967])
Both diglossia and bilingualism - clearly defined or separate functionsfunctionse.g. Spanish (H) and Guaraní (a typologically unrelated indigenous language) in Paraguay “where almost the entire population speaks both” (83)population speaks both” (83)
Bilingualism without diglossia - the two languages or varieties lack clearly defined or separate functions- may be indicative of “rapid social change, of great social unrest, of widespread abandonment of prior norms before the consolidation of new ones” (85) prone to be unstable andconsolidation of new ones (85) prone to be unstable and transitional (87)
e.g. industrialisation in the Western world with means of d i f h i (H) d l b fproduction from one speech community (H) and labour force
Diglossia without bilingualism - two or more speech communities “united religiously, politically or economicallycommunities united religiously, politically or economically into a single functioning unit” (84)
- typically an impermeable group boundary between a small H speaking élite and the L speaking masses i e bilingualismH-speaking élite and the L-speaking masses, i.e. bilingualism is not widespread. e.g. French-speaking élites in a number of otherwise non-French-speaking European countries prior to World War I.
Neither diglossia nor bilingualism - theoretically possible, but perhaps only in small isolated and undifferentiated speechperhaps only in small, isolated and undifferentiated speech communities. - but since “[a]ll communities seem to have certain
i i hi h i li i d” hiceremonies or pursuits to which access is limited”, this category “tends to be self liquidating.” (87)
A broad definition of A broad definition of diglossiadiglossia
Broad diglossia is the reservation of highly valued segments g g y g
of a community’s linguistic repertoire (which are not the first to
be learned, but are learned later and more consciously, usually , y, y
through formal education), for situations perceived as more
formal and guarded; and the reservation of less highly valued g ; g y
segments (which are learned first with little or no conscious
effort), of any degree of linguistic relatedness to the higher ), y g g g
valued segments, from stylistic differences to separate
languages, for situations perceived as more informal and g g p
intimate. (Fasold 1990 [1984]: 53, my highlighting)
The genetic (relatedness) question – do the languages need to be typologically related for diglossia to pertain?
Arguments for:Diglossia is one kind of societal bilingualism not vice versa (Co lmas 2005 Diglossia is one kind of societal bilingualism not vice versa (Coulmas 2005: 133)
Broad diglossia focusses heavily on the complementary distribution of d ( d )codes (Hudson 2002: 39)
Language shift can only normally be H L, since H is learnt as an additional (non-native) variety
Arguments against: narrow definition runs the risk of concealing the inevitable connections
between ‘classic’ diglossia and the other two broad categoriesbetween classic diglossia and the other two broad categories
Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia in Wales 1 in Wales 1 (Musk 2006b: 79)(Musk 2006b: 79)
Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia in Wales 2in Wales 2
vernacular: Galle’ nw at least halacould they send
literary: Gallent (hwy) o leiaf anfoncould (they) they of least send( y) y
They could at least send
l t i l C âplant nw i ysgol Cymrâg.children their to school Welsheu plant (hwy) i ysgol Gymraeg.p ( y) y g y gtheir children (their) to school Welshtheir children to a Welsh school
Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia in Wales 3in Wales 3(Musk 2006: 368)(Musk 2006: 368)
1 Cornilov: a fi’n ┌meddwl┐ ┌siarad┐ cymraeg nawr naturally ynand I part. think speak Welsh now part.and I think speaking Welsh now naturallyand I think speaking Welsh now naturally
2 Batman: └a- ┘ │ │?
3 A Man: └ie ┘yeahyeah
4 Cornilov: golygu ((points towards himself with both hands & mean
means5 smiles)) naturally yn golygu ca’l geirie saesneg5 smiles)) naturally yn golygu ca l geirie saesneg
part. mean get words Englishnaturally means having English words
6 ynddo ┌fe he┐fyd ┌ie?┐= in him him too yeahin him him too yeah
in it too yeah?7 A Man: └ie ┘ │ │
yeah8 Batman: └ie ┘=8 Batman: ie
yeah
Language shiftLanguage shift
Early model:y
Haugen on Norwegian in N. American context (1953: 370ff):
A > Ab > AB > aB > B
A = language of monolingual (Norwegian) minority speech community
Ab = A-dominant bilingualismAB = balanced bilingualismaB = B-dominant bilingualismB = language of monolingual (English) majority speech communityg g g g j
Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/ Accounting for language shift/ language maintenancelanguage maintenance
Three categories of accounts (H lt t & St d 1996 568 73)Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam & Stroud 1996: 568-73)
1. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions
2. Studies focussing on the connections between societal
factors speaker perceptions & actual language practicesfactors, speaker perceptions & actual language practices
3. Studies focussing on speakers’ language competence & the
structural (linguistic) consequences
MacroMacro--societal factors 1societal factors 1
Examples of macro-societal factors: migration industrialisationExamples of macro societal factors: migration, industrialisation,
language policy and planning, urbanisation (Fasold 1984: 217)
Giles, Bourhis & Taylor (1977) divide contributory factors into three
”that which makes a group behave as a distinctive and active collective entity in i i i ”intergroup situations” (308)
The case of Breton 1The case of Breton 1
The case of Breton 2The case of Breton 2 MacroMacro--societal factors 2societal factors 2
Critique of macro-societal modelsq
They fail to account for the dynamic processes operating between
macro and micro levels:macro and micro levels:
“Socio-structural approaches, however useful for defining macro-
factors of change fail to account for the influence of interveningfactors of change, fail to account for the influence of intervening
variables such as the importance of social networks, individual
perceptions of the relative ethnolinguistic vitality of groups inperceptions of the relative ethnolinguistic vitality of groups in
contact, and the communication interactions of participants.”(Hamers & Blanc 2000: 298-299)
Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/ Accounting for language shift/ language maintenancelanguage maintenance
Three categories of accounts (H lt t & St d 1996 568 73)Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam & Stroud 1996: 568-73)
1. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions
2. Studies focussing on the connections between societal
factors speaker perceptions & actual language practicesfactors, speaker perceptions & actual language practices
3. Studies focussing on speakers’ language competence & the
structural (linguistic) consequences
I t ti b t i t lI t ti b t i t lInterconnections between societal Interconnections between societal factors and language practices 1factors and language practices 1
Micro-interactionist perspective describes bilingual speakers’ use of p p g p
their linguistic repertoire as one aspect of their communicative
competence (Martin Jones 1989: 107)competence (Martin-Jones 1989: 107)
sees speakers as active interlocutors, who are free to make
language choices to express particular social and cultural
meanings
may involve attention to minute detail, including code-mixing
and code-switching
I t ti b t i t lI t ti b t i t lInterconnections between societal Interconnections between societal factors and language practices 2factors and language practices 2
Susan Gal’s (1979) study of language shift in Oberwart/Felsőőr( ) y g g /
(on Austrian-Hungarian border) combining three complementary
approaches:approaches:
1. Examining historical (generational) pattern of language shift to
German
2. Observing and audio-recording everyday language practices of
limited number of bilingual individuals
3. Interviewing same individuals to uncover values & associations g
underlying their language practices
Choice ofChoice ofChoice of Choice of language language
in in OberwartOberwart//FelsőőrFelsőőr
(Gal 1979: 135)(Gal 1979: 135)( )( )
I t ti b t i t lI t ti b t i t lInterconnections between societal Interconnections between societal factors and language practices 3factors and language practices 3
Critique of Gal’s studyq y
leans heavily towards evolutionism; peasantry has no place in
modern-day society and is doomed for extinction and with itmodern-day society and is doomed for extinction and with it
any associated language (here: Hungarian) (Williams 1992: 116)
plays up the degree of freedom to choose language as rational plays up the degree of freedom to choose language as rational
beings according to their chosen cultural identity and plays
down the operation of inequalities of power (M ti J 1989down the operation of inequalities of power (Martin-Jones 1989:
114)
I t ti b t i t lI t ti b t i t lInterconnections between societal Interconnections between societal factors and language practices 4factors and language practices 4
Critique of Gal’s study (cont.)q y ( )
indexicality between social identity and language, between
‘peasantness’ and Hungarian e g code-switching amongpeasantness and Hungarian, e.g. code-switching among
middle-generation bilinguals is a sign of being “committed
neither to the peasant nor to the worker way of life” (21)neither to the peasant nor to the worker way of life (21)
states categorically that code-switching mirrors the process of
language shift implying that language is normally and ideallylanguage shift implying that language is normally and ideally
monolingual, even in bilingual speech communities (Musk 2006a: 73-74)(Musk 2006a: 73 74)
ModelsModelsModels Models of of
analysisanalysis(Martin(Martin Jones 2001)Jones 2001)(Martin(Martin--Jones 2001)Jones 2001)
Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/ Accounting for language shift/ language maintenancelanguage maintenance
Three categories of accounts (H lt t & St d 1996 568 73)Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam & Stroud 1996: 568-73)
1. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions
2. Studies focussing on the connections between societal
factors speaker perceptions & actual language practicesfactors, speaker perceptions & actual language practices
3. Studies focussing on speakers’ language competence & the
structural (linguistic) consequences
L t & t t lL t & t t lLanguage competence & structural Language competence & structural consequences 1consequences 1
Linguistic perspective - how the social processes operating in situations g p p p p g
of language contact & language shift impact on the linguistic
resources of a minority languagey g g
convergent innovations – changes analogous with
dominant contact languagedominant contact language
divergent innovations – changes not analogous with
d i t t t ldominant contact language
Yet both types may be responsive to the presence of a more
dominant language (Woolard 1989: 363)
L t & t t lL t & t t lLanguage competence & structural Language competence & structural consequences 2consequences 2
Nancy Dorian’s (1981) study of language death in East Sutherlandy ( ) y g g
(a dialect of Scottish Gaelic) in three coastal fishing villages
Participants divided into three groups according to their languageParticipants divided into three groups according to their language
competence (traditional linguistic features present among the older
Gaelic speakers):Gaelic speakers):
1. older fluent speakers
2. younger fluent speakers
3. semi-speakers (criteria: conditions of transmission,
competence & language use)
Deviant (“incorrect”) marking of Deviant (“incorrect”) marking of gender in East Sutherland Gaelic gender in East Sutherland Gaelic (Dorian 1981: 124(Dorian 1981: 124--129)129)
100
90
100
7170
80
90
Incorrect mutation after definiteti l (f )
4133.5
52.5
33.540
50
60
%
article (fem. nouns)
Incorrect mutation of attrib. adj.after fem. noun
Masc pronoun to replace fem
7
20
10
20
30Masc. pronoun to replace fem.noun
00
10
Semi-speakers Younger fluentspeakers
Older fluentspeakersspeakers speakers
Speaker category
L t & t t lL t & t t lLanguage competence & structural Language competence & structural consequences 3consequences 3
Conclusions of Dorian’s (1981) studyy
“There have been no startling departures to report in terms of types
of change. […] But if the types of change are not unusual, it seems g [ ] yp g ,
possible that the amount of change is.” (151, my highlighting)
Thus her crucial point is that “change in six rather prominent categories of p g p g
the nominal and verbal grammar” taking place at about the same
time may be symptomatic of language death (152 , my highlighting)y y p g g
Nevertheless, “sociolinguistic factors, rather than purely linguistic features,
distinguish change in dying languages from change in healthy g g y g g g g y
languages.” (154 , my highlighting)
Bibliography 1Bibliography 1
Coulmas, F. (2005) “Diglossia and bilingualism: functional restrictions on language choice.” Sociolinguistics. The study of speakers’ choices. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 126-139. Dorian, N. C. (1981) Language Death. The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Fasold, R. W. (1990 [1984]). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell.Fi h J A (2000 [1967]) “Bili li ith d ith t di l i di l i ith d ith tFishman, J. A. (2000 [1967]) “Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without
bilingualism.” Ed. L. Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge, 89-106.Ferguson, C. A. (2000 [1959]) “Diglossia.” Ed. L. Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge,
65-80.65 80Gal, S. (1979) Language Shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria. New
York: Academic Press.Giles, H., R. Bourhis & H. Taylor. (1997) “Towards a Theory of Language in Ethnic Group Relations.”
Language, Ethnicity and Intergroup Relations. Ed. H. Giles. London: Academic Press, 307-349.Grosjean, F. (2002) An interview of François Grosjean on bilingualism. By J. Navracsics (14 April
2006) <http://www.unine.ch/ltlp/pub/grosjean_interview.rtf>H J F & M H A Bl (2000 2nd diti ) Bili lit d Bili li C b idHamers J. F. & M. H. A. Blanc. (2000, 2nd edition) Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Bibliography 2Bibliography 2
Haugen, E. (1953) The Norwegian Language in America: a Study in Bilingual Behavior. Vol 1 The Bilingual Community Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania PressVol. 1, The Bilingual Community. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Hudson, A. (2002) “Outline of a theory of diglossia.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 157: 1-48.
Hyltenstam, K. & C. Stroud. (1996) “Language maintenance.” Kontaktlinguistik. Contact Linguistics. Linguistique de contact. Ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenössischer Forschung An International Handbook of Contemporary Research ManuelForschung. An International Handbook of Contemporary Research. Manuel international des recherches contemporaines. Eds. Goebl, Nelde, Stary & Wölck. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 567-578.
Martin-Jones, M. (1989) “Language, power and linguistic minorities: the need for an alternative approach to bilingualism, language maintenance and shift.” Social Anthropology and the Politics of Language. Ed. R. Grillo. London: Routledge, 106-p gy g g g ,125.
Bibliography 3Bibliography 3
Martin-Jones, M. (2001). Unpublished lecture notes accompanying the course modules: “Bilingual Education: ED30810” & “Bilingualism: ED32220” at the University ofBilingual Education: ED30810 & Bilingualism: ED32220 at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth.
Musk, N. (2006a, Final Seminar Draft) Performing Bilingualism in Wales with the Spotlight on Welsh. Linköping: Linköping University.
Musk, N. (2006b) Performing Bilingualism in Wales with the Spotlight on Welsh. Linköping: LiU-Tryck <http://www liu se/isk/research/avhandlingar/#Musk>Linköping: LiU-Tryck. <http://www.liu.se/isk/research/avhandlingar/#Musk>
Williams, G. (1992) Sociolinguistics. A Sociological Critique. London: Routledge.
Woolard, K. (1989) “Language convergence and language death as social processes.” Investigating obsolescence. Studies in language contraction and death. Ed. N. Dorian. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 41-59.