Bhushan Power & Steel Limited, a fully integrated 2.3 Million TPA Steel making Company with turnover of INR 4217 Crores (USD 937 Million) and 7 World Class ISO 9000 Certified State of the Art Plants at Chandigarh, Derabassi, Kolkata and Orissa in India. A leading manufacturer of flat, rounds and long products including value added products with total steel value chain right from Coal Mining, Billets, HR Coils, Pig Iron, CR Coils, GP/GC, Precision Tubes, Black Pipe/GI Pipe, Cable Tapes, Tor Steel, Wire Rod and Special Alloy Steel. Successfully commissioned 2.3 Million TPA Greenfield Steel and Power Plant in Orissa with HR Coil making facility —First in Private Sector in the State of Orissa. For the Orissa plant, technology and equipments are procured from world-renowned companies like Lurgi from Germany, ABB Ltd., SMS Siemag etc. Bhushan is selling its Value added range of products in Secondary Steel through a large distribution network in India (comprising more than 35 sales offices) and Abroad. A rock-solid foundation combined with continuous upgradation and innovation has ensured that we have constantly surpassed our goals. Our end-to-end portfolio offers a wide spectrum of products with consistently superior quality. In addition to our export thrust, we supply to fast-growing sectors like automotive, white goods, construction, furniture, fasteners, telecommunication, etc. Growing from strength to strength 1970 - Started with very small initial outlay for manufacturing Door Hinges & later on, Rail Track Fasteners. 1973 - Manufacturing facilities set up for Tor Steel and Wire Rod in Chandigarh.
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Bhushan Power & Steel Limited, a fully integrated 2.3 Million TPA Steel making
Company with turnover of INR 4217 Crores (USD 937 Million) and 7 World Class
ISO 9000 Certified State of the Art Plants at Chandigarh, Derabassi, Kolkata and
Orissa in India.
A leading manufacturer of flat, rounds and long products including value added
products with total steel value chain right from Coal Mining, Billets, HR Coils, Pig
Iron, CR Coils, GP/GC, Precision Tubes, Black Pipe/GI Pipe, Cable Tapes, Tor
Steel, Wire Rod and Special Alloy Steel.
Successfully commissioned 2.3 Million TPA Greenfield Steel and Power Plant in
Orissa with HR Coil making facility
—First in Private Sector in the State of Orissa. For the Orissa plant, technology
and equipments are procured from world-renowned companies like Lurgi from
Germany, ABB Ltd., SMS Siemag etc. Bhushan is selling its Value added range of
products in Secondary Steel through a large distribution network in India
(comprising more than 35 sales offices) and Abroad.
A rock-solid foundation combined with continuous upgradation and innovation has
ensured that we have constantly surpassed our goals. Our end-to-end portfolio
offers a wide spectrum of products with consistently superior quality. In addition to
our export thrust, we supply to fast-growing sectors like automotive, white goods,
construction, furniture, fasteners, telecommunication, etc.
Growing from strength to strength
1970 - Started with very small initial outlay for manufacturing Door Hinges & later on, Rail Track
Fasteners.
1973 - Manufacturing facilities set up for Tor Steel and Wire Rod in Chandigarh.
1981 - Rolling Mill Project commissioned at Chandigarh for Round and Narrow Strips.
1985 - Backward Integration Project for Steel Melting facilities.
1986 - Upgrading of Mini Steel Plant with continuous casting and ladle furnace facilities. 1997 -
Commissioning of Narrow Width Cold Rolling Project at Chandigarh.
1998 - Commissioning of Precision Pipe Project at Chandigarh.
2001 - Commissioning of Cold Rolling & Galvanizing Complex at Kolkata.
2002 - Addition of narrow width Cold Rolling facilities at Kolkata.
2003 - Expansion of wide width Cold Rolling facilities, ERW Water Pipes & Tubes down stream
facilities at Kolkata.
2004 - Further expansion of Cold Rolling facilities at Kolkata.
2005 - Commissioning of Orissa Project consisting of 4 DRI Kilns, Steel Making Facilities, Coal
Washery and 100 MW Power Plant.
2007 - Commissioning of further expansion of Orissa Project consisting of HR Coil Mill, Steel
An electric arc furnace (EAF) is a furnace that heats charged material by means of an electric arc.
Arc furnaces range in size from small units of approximately one ton capacity (used in foundries for producing cast iron products) up to about 400 ton units used for secondary steelmaking. Arc furnaces used in research laboratories and by dentists may have a capacity of only a few dozen grams. Industrial electric arc furnace temperatures can be up to 1,800 degrees Celsius, while laboratory units can exceed 3000 °C. Arc furnaces differ from induction furnaces in that the charge material is directly exposed to an electric arc, and the current in the furnace terminals passes through the charged material
Construction
A schematic cross-section through an EAF. Three electrodes (black), molten bath (red), tapping spout at left, refractory brick movable roof, brick shell, and a refractory-lined bowl-shaped hearth.
An electric arc furnace used for steelmaking consists of a refractory-lined vessel, usually water-cooled in larger sizes, covered with a retractable roof, and through which one or more graphite electrodes enter the furnace. The furnace is primarily split into three sections:
the shell, which consists of the sidewalls and lower steel 'bowl'; the hearth, which consists of the refractory that lines the lower bowl; the roof, which may be refractory-lined or water-cooled, and can be shaped as a section
of a sphere, or as a frustum (conical section). The roof also supports the refractory delta in its centre, through which one or more graphite electrodes enter.
The hearth may be hemispherical in shape, or in an eccentric bottom tapping furnace (see below), the hearth has the shape of a halved egg. In modern meltshops, the furnace is often raised off the ground floor, so that ladles and slag pots can easily be maneuvered under either end of the furnace. Separate from the furnace structure is the electrode support and electrical system, and the tilting platform on which the furnace rests. Two configurations are possible: the electrode supports and the roof tilt with the furnace, or are fixed to the raised platform.
A typical alternating current furnace has three electrodes. Electrodes are round in section, and typically in segments with threaded couplings, so that as the electrodes wear, new segments can be added. The arc forms between the charged material and the electrode, the charge is heated both by current passing through the charge and by the radiant energy evolved by the arc. The electrodes are automatically raised and lowered by a positioning system, which may use either electric winch hoists or hydraulic cylinders. The regulating system maintains approximately constant current and power input during the melting of the charge, even though scrap may move
under the electrodes as it melts. The mast arms holding the electrodes carry heavy busbars, which may be hollow water-cooled copper pipes carrying current to the electrode holders. Modern systems use 'hot arms', where the whole arm carries the current, increasing efficiency. These can be made from copper-clad steel or aluminium. Since the electrodes move up and down automatically for regulation of the arc, and are raised to allow removal of the furnace roof, heavy water-cooled cables connect the bus tubes/arms with the transformer located adjacent to the furnace. To protect the transformer from heat, it is installed in a vault.
The furnace is built on a tilting platform so that the liquid steel can be poured into another vessel for transport. The operation of tilting the furnace to pour molten steel is called "tapping". Originally, all steelmaking furnaces had a tapping spout closed with refractory that washed out when the furnace was tilted, but often modern furnaces have an eccentric bottom tap-hole (EBT) to reduce inclusion of nitrogen and slag in the liquid steel. These furnaces have a taphole that passes vertically through the hearth and shell, and is set off-centre in the narrow 'nose' of the egg-shaped hearth. It is filled with refractory sand, such as olivine, when it is closed off. Modern plants may have two shells with a single set of electrodes that can be transferred between the two; one shell preheats scrap while the other shell is utilised for meltdown. Other DC-based furnaces have a similar arrangement, but have electrodes for each shell and one set of electronics.
A mid-sized modern steelmaking furnace would have a transformer rated about 60,000,000 volt-amperes (60 MVA), with a secondary voltage between 400 and 900 volts and a secondary current in excess of 44,000 amperes. In a modern shop such a furnace would be expected to produce a quantity of 80 metric tonnes of liquid steel in approximately 60 minutes from charging with cold scrap to tapping the furnace. In comparison, basic oxygen furnaces can have a capacity of 150-300 tonnes per batch, or 'heat', and can produce a heat in 30–40 minutes. Enormous variations exist in furnace design details and operation, depending on the end product and local conditions, as well as ongoing research to improve furnace efficiency - the largest scrap-only furnace (in terms of tapping weight and transformer rating) is in Turkey, with a tap weight of 300 metric tonnes and a transformer of 300 MVA.
To produce a ton of steel in an electric arc furnace requires approximately 400 kilowatt-hours per short ton of electricity, or about 440kWh per metric tonne; the theoretical minimum amount of energy required to melt a tonne of scrap steel is 300kWh (melting point 1520°C/2768°F). Therefore, the 300-tonne, 300 MVA EAF mentioned above will require approximately 132 MWh of energy to melt the steel, and a 'power-on time' (the time that steel is being melted with an arc) of approximately 37 minutes, allowing for the power factor. Electric arc steelmaking is only economical where there is plentiful electricity, with a well-developed electrical grid.
Working of Electric arc furnace
An arc furnace pouring out steel into a small ladle car. The transformer vault can be seen at the right side of the picture. For scale, note the operator standing on the platform at upper left. This is a 1941-era photograph and so does not have the extensive dust collection system that a modern installation would have, nor is the operator wearing a hard hat nor dust mask.
Scrap metal is delivered to a scrap bay, located next to the melt shop. Scrap generally comes in two main grades: shred (whitegoods, cars and other objects made of similar light-gauge steel) and heavy melt (large slabs and beams), along with some direct reduced iron (DRI) or pig iron for chemical balance. Some furnaces melt almost 100% DRI.
The scrap is loaded into large buckets called baskets, with 'clamshell' doors for a base. Care is taken to layer the scrap in the basket to ensure good furnace operation; heavy melt is placed on top of a light layer of protective shred, on top of which is placed more shred. These layers should be present in the furnace after charging. After loading, the basket may pass to a scrap pre-heater, which uses hot furnace off-gases to heat the scrap and recover energy, increasing plant efficiency.
The scrap basket is then taken to the melt shop, the roof is swung off the furnace, and the furnace is charged with scrap from the basket. Charging is one of the more dangerous operations for the EAF operators. There is a lot of energy generated by multiple tonnes of falling metal; any liquid metal in the furnace is often displaced upwards and outwards by the solid scrap, and the grease and dust on the scrap is ignited if the furnace is hot, resulting in a fireball erupting. In some twin-shell furnaces, the scrap is charged into the second shell while the first is being melted down, and pre-heated with off-gas from the active shell. Other operations are continuous charging - pre-heating scrap on a conveyor belt, which then discharges the scrap into the furnace proper, or charging the scrap from a shaft set above the furnace, with off-gases directed through the shaft. Other furnaces can be charged with hot (molten) metal from other operations.
After charging, the roof is swung back over the furnace and meltdown commences. The electrodes are lowered onto the scrap, an arc is struck and the electrodes are then set to bore into the layer of shred at the top of the furnace. Lower voltages are selected for this first part of the operation to protect the roof and walls from excessive heat and damage from the arcs. Once the electrodes have reached the heavy melt at the base of the furnace and the arcs are shielded by the scrap, the voltage can be increased and the electrodes raised slightly, lengthening the arcs and increasing power to the melt. This enables a molten pool to form more rapidly, reducing tap-to-tap times. Oxygen is also supersonically blown into the scrap, combusting or cutting the steel, and extra chemical
heat is provided by wall-mounted oxygen-fuel burners. Both processes accelerate scrap meltdown.
An important part of steelmaking is the formation of slag, which floats on the surface of the molten steel. Slag usually consists of metal oxides, and acts as a destination for oxidised impurities, as a thermal blanket (stopping excessive heat loss) and helping to reduce erosion of the refractory lining. For a furnace with basic refractories, which includes most carbon steel-producing furnaces, the usual slag formers are calcium oxide (CaO, in the form of burnt lime) and magnesium oxide (MgO, in the form of dolomite and magnesite). These slag formers are either charged with the scrap, or blown into the furnace during meltdown. Another major component of EAF slag is iron oxide from steel combusting with the injected oxygen. Later in the heat, carbon (in the form of coke or coal) is injected into this slag layer, reacting with the iron oxide to form metallic iron and carbon monoxide gas, which then causes the slag to foam, allowing greater thermal efficiency, and better arc stability and electrical efficiency. The slag blanket also covers the arcs, preventing damage to the furnace roof and sidewalls from radiant heat.
Once flat bath conditions are reached, i.e. the scrap has been completely melted down, another bucket of scrap can be charged into the furnace and melted down, although EAF development is moving towards single-charge designs. After the second charge is completely melted, refining operations take place to check and correct the steel chemistry and superheat the melt above its freezing temperature in preparation for tapping. More slag formers are introduced and more oxygen is blown into the bath, burning out impurities such as silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese and calcium and removing their oxides to the slag. Removal of carbon takes place after these elements have burnt out first, as they have a greater affinity for oxygen. Metals that have a poorer affinity for oxygen than iron, such as nickel and copper, cannot be removed through oxidation and must be controlled through scrap chemistry alone, such as introducing the direct reduced iron and pig iron mentioned earlier. A foaming slag is maintained throughout, and often overflows the furnace to pour out of the slag door into the slag pit. Temperature sampling and chemical sampling take place via automatic lances. Oxygen and carbon can be automatically measured via special probes that dip into the steel, but for all other elements, a 'chill' sample - a small, solidified sample of the steel - is analysed on an arc-emission spectrometer.
Once the temperature and chemistry are correct, the steel is tapped out into a preheated ladle through tilting the furnace. For plain-carbon steel furnaces, as soon as slag is detected during tapping the furnace is rapidly tilted back towards the deslagging side, minimising slag carryover into the ladle. For some special steel grades, including stainless steel, the slag is poured into the ladle as well, to be treated at the ladle furnace to recover valuable alloying elements. During tapping some alloy additions are introduced into the metal stream, and some more lime is added on top of the ladle to begin building a new slag layer. Often, a few tonnes of liquid steel and slag is left in the furnace in order to form a 'hot heel', which helps preheat the next charge of scrap and accelerate its meltdown. During and after tapping, the furnace is 'turned around': the slag door is cleaned of solidified slag, repairs may take place, and electrodes are inspected for
damage or lengthened through the addition of new segments; the taphole is filled with sand at the completion of tapping.
Ladle (metallurgy)
A ladle of molten iron is poured into an open hearth furnace for conversion into steel at Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp., 1941
In foundry work a ladle is a container used to transport and pour out molten metals. It needs to be:
Strong enough to contain a heavy load of metal. Heat-resistant like a furnace. Heat-insulated as much as can be managed, to avoid losing heat and overheating its
surroundings.
For foundries making small castings, a hand-held ladle somewhat resembling a kitchen ladle for
soup is enough, with a long handle to keep the heat of the metal away from the person holding it.
For bigger castings and in steel mills, it can run on wheels, a purpose-built carrying car or be slung
from an overhead crane.
Ladles are most commonly made of fabricated steel. The most common shape is a vertical cylinder,
but other shapes are possible: the most common of these is known as a 'torpedo' ladle, is shaped as
a horizontal cylinder suspended between two bogies, and is commonly used to transport liquid iron
from a blast furnace. Between the molten metal and the steel shape is a refractory material that may
be from 1 mm (0.04") to 150 mm (6") thick or more. The refractory material protects the steel shell
and acts as a thermal barrier to contain the heat.
Ladles can be "lip pour" design or "bottom pour" design:
For lip pour design the ladle is tilted and the molten metal pours out of the ladle like water from a pitcher.
For bottom pour ladles, a stopper rod is inserted into a tapping hole in the bottom of the ladle. To pour metal the stopper is raised vertically to allow the metal to flow out the bottom of the ladle. To stop pouring the stopper rod is inserted back into the drain hole. Large ladles in the steelmaking industry may use slide gates below the taphole.
Ladles can be either open-topped or covered. Covered ladles have a (sometimes removable) dome-
shaped lid to contain radiant heat; they lose heat slower than open-topped ladles. Small ladles do
not commonly have covers, although a ceramic blanket may be used instead (where available).
Medium and large ladles which are suspended from a crane have a bale which holds the ladle on
bearings, called trunnions. To tilt the ladle a worm gear mechanism is used, which tilts the cylindrical
shell while the bale carries the weight. The gear mechanism may be hand operated with a large
wheel or may be operated by an electric motor or pneumatic motor. Internal friction brakes are used
to regulate the tilting speed of the ladle. The largest ladles are poured using a special, two-winch
crane, where the main winch carries the ladle while the second winch engages a lug at the bottom of
the ladle. Raising the second winch then rotates the ladle on its trunnions.
Some ladles are designed for special purposes such as adding alloys to the molten metal. Ladles
may also have porous plugs inserted into the base, so gases can be bubbled through the ladle to
enhance alloying or metallic treatment practices.
CONTINUOS CASTING MACHINE.
Continuous casting, also called strand casting, is the process whereby molten metal is solidified
into a "semifinished" billet, bloom, or slab for subsequent rolling in the finishing mills. Prior to the
introduction of continuous casting in the 1950s, steel was poured into stationary molds to form
ingots. Since then, "continuous casting" has evolved to achieve improved yield, quality, productivity
and cost efficiency. It allows lower-cost production of metal sections with better quality, due to the
inherently lower costs of continuous, standardised production of a product, as well as providing
increased control over the process through automation. This process is used most frequently to cast
steel (in terms of tonnage cast). Aluminium and copper are also continuously cast.
Sir Henry Bessemer, of Bessemer converter fame, received a patent in 1857 for casting metal
between two contra-rotating rollers. The basic outline of this system has recently been implemented
today in the casting of steel strip.
Equipment and process
1. Ladle 2. Stopper 3. Tundish 4. Shroud 5. Mold 6. Roll support 7. Turning zone 8. Shroud 9. Bath level 10. Meniscus 11. Withdrawal unit 12. Slab
In a true "Horizontal Casting Machine", the mold axis is horizontal and the flow of steel is horizontal
from liquid to thin shell to solid (no bending). In this type of machine, either strand oscillation or mold
oscillation is used to prevent sticking in the mold.
After exiting the spray-chamber, the strand passes through straightening rolls (if cast on other than a
vertical machine) and withdrawal rolls. There may be a hot rolling stand after withdrawal, in order to
take advantage of the metal's hot condition to pre-shape the final strand. Finally, the strand is cut
into predetermined lengths by mechanical shears or by travelling oxyacetylene torches, is marked
for identification and either taken to a stockpile or the next forming process.
In many cases the strand may continue through additional rollers and other mechanisms which
might flatten, roll or extrude the metal into its final shape.
Aluminium and copper can be cast horizontally and can be more easily cast into near net shape,
especially strip, due to their lower melting temperatures.
Range of continuously cast sections
Casting machines are designated to be billet, bloom or slab casters. Slab casters tend to cast sections with an aspect ratio that is much wider than it is thick:
o Conventional slabs lie in the range 100–1600 mm wide by 180–250 mm thick and up to 12 m long with conventional casting speeds of up to 1.4 m/minute, (however slab widths and casting speeds are currently increasing).
o Wider slabs are available up to 3250×150 mm, for example at Nanjing Iron & Steel in China.
o Thin slabs: 1680×50 mm Conventional bloom casters cast sections above 200×200 mm e.g. the Aldwarke Bloom caster in
Rotherham, UK, casts sections of 560×400 mm. The bloom length can vary from 4 to 10 m Billet casters cast smaller section sizes, such as below 200 mm square, with lengths up to 12 m
long. Cast speeds can reach up to 4 m/minute. Rounds: either 500 mm or 140 mm in diameter Conventional beam blanks: look similar to I-beams in cross-section; 1048×450 mm or
438×381 mm overall Near net shape beam blanks: 850×250 mm overall Strip: 2–5 mm thick by 760–1330 mm wide
Startup, control of the process and problems
Starting a continuous casting machine involves placing a dummy bar (essentially a curved metal
beam) up through the spray chamber to close off the base of the mould. Metal is poured into the
mould and withdrawn with the dummy bar once it solidifies. It is extremely important that the metal
supply afterwards be guaranteed to avoid unnecessary shutdowns and restarts, known as
'turnarounds'. Each time the caster stops and restarts, a new tundish is required, as any uncast
metal in the tundish cannot be drained and instead freezes into a 'skull'. Avoiding turnarounds
requires the meltshop, including ladle furnaces (if any) to keep tight control on the temperature of the
metal, which can vary dramatically with alloying additions, slag cover and deslagging, and the
preheating of the ladle before it accepts metal, among other parameters. However, the cast rate may
be lowered by reducing the amount of metal in the tundish (although this can increase wear on the
tundish), or if the caster has multiple strands, one or more strands may be shut down to
accommodate upstream delays. Turnarounds may be scheduled into a production sequence if the
tundish temperature becomes too high after a certain number of heats.
Many continuous casting operations are now fully computer-controlled. Several electromagnetic and
thermal sensors in the ladle shroud, tundish and mould sense the metal level or weight, flow rate
and temperature of the hot metal, and the programmable logic controller (PLC) can set the rate of
strand withdrawal via speed control of the withdrawal rolls. The flow of metal into the moulds can be
controlled via two methods:
By slide gates or stopper rods at the top of the mould shrouds If the metal is open-poured, then the metal flow into the moulds is controlled solely by the
internal diameter of the metering nozzles. These nozzles are usually interchangeable.
Overall casting speed can be adjusted by altering the amount of metal in the tundish, via the ladle
slide gate. The PLC can also set the mould oscillation rate and the rate of mould powder feed, as
well as the spray water flow. Computer control also allows vital casting data to be repeated to other
manufacturing centres (particularly the steelmaking furnaces), allowing their work rates to be
adjusted to avoid 'overflow' or 'underrun' of product.
While the large amount of automation helps produce castings with no shrinkage and little
segregation, continuous casting is of no use if the metal is not clean beforehand, or becomes 'dirty'
during the casting process. One of the main methods through which hot metal may become dirty is
by oxidation, which occurs rapidly at molten metal temperatures (up to 1700 °C); inclusions of gas,
slag or undissolved alloys may also be present. To prevent oxidation, the metal is isolated from the
atmosphere as much as possible. To achieve this, exposed metal surfaces are covered – by the
shrouds, or in the case of the ladle, tundish and mould, by synthetic slag. In the tundish, any
inclusions – gas bubbles, other slag or oxides, or undissolved alloys – may also be trapped in the
slag layer.
A major problem that may occur in continuous casting is breakout. This is when the thin shell of the
strand breaks, allowing the still-molten metal inside the strand to spill out and foul the machine,
requiring a turnaround. Often, breakout is due to too high a withdrawal rate, as the shell has not had
the time to solidify to the required thickness, or the metal is too hot, which means that final
solidification takes place well below the straightening rolls and the strand breaks due to stresses
applied during straightening. A breakout can also occur if solidifying steel sticks to the mould
surface, causing a tear in the shell of the strand. If the incoming metal is overheated, it is preferable
to stop the caster than to risk a breakout. Additionally, lead contamination of the metal (caused by
counterweights or lead-acid batteries in the initial steel charge) can form a thin film between the
mould wall and the steel, inhibiting heat removal and shell growth and increasing the risk of
breakouts.
Another problem that may occur is a carbon boil – oxygen dissolved in the steel reacts with also-
present carbon to generate bubbles of carbon monoxide. As the term boil suggests, this reaction is
Oxy-gas torches are used for or have been used for:
Welding metal: see below. Cutting metal: see below. Also, oxy-hydrogen flames are used:
o In Stone Work for "flaming" where the stone is heated and a top layer crackles and breaks. A steel circular brush is attached to an angle grinder and used to remove the first layer leaving behind a bumpy surface similar to hammered bronze.
o In the glass industry for "fire polishing". o In jewelry production for "water welding" using a water torch. o Formerly, to heat lumps of quicklime to obtain a bright white light called limelight, in
theatres or optical ("magic") lanterns. o Formerly, in platinum works, as platinum is only fusible in the oxy-hydrogen flame and
in an electric furnace.
In short, oxy-fuel equipment is quite versatile – not only because it is preferred for some sorts of iron
or steel welding but also because it lends itself to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating (for
annealing or tempering, bending or forming), the loosening of corroded nuts and bolts, and also is
the ubiquitous means for oxy-fuel cutting of ferrous metals.
Apparatus
The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of an oxygen source and a fuel gas source
(usually cylinders), two pressure regulators and two flexible hoses (one of each for each cylinder),
and a torch. This sort of torch can also be used for soldering and brazing. The cylinders are often
carried in a special wheeled trolley.
There have been examples of oxyhydrogen cutting sets with small (scuba-sized) gas cylinders worn
on the user's back in a backpack harness, for rescue work and similar.
There are also examples of pressurized liquid fuel cutting torches, usually using gasoline. These are
used for their increased portability.
Regulator
The regulator is used to control pressure from the tanks to the required pressure in the hose. The
flow rate is then adjusted by the operator using needle valves on the torch. Accurate flow control
with a needle valve relies on a constant inlet pressure to it.
Most regulators have two stages: the first stage of the regulator is a fixed-pressure regulator whose
function is to release the gas from the cylinder at a constant intermediate pressure, despite the
pressure in the cylinder falling as the gas in the cylinder is used. This is similar to the first stage of a
scuba-diving regulator. The adjustable second stage of the regulator controls the pressure reduction
from the intermediate pressure to the low outlet pressure. The regulator has two pressure gauges,
one indicating cylinder pressure, the other indicating hose pressure. The adjustment knob of the
will tend to remove the oxygen from iron oxides which may be present, a fact which has caused the
flame to be known as a "reducing flame" [2].
The oxidizing flame is the third possible flame adjustment. It occurs when the ratio of oxygen to
acetylene required for a neutral flame has been changed to give an excess of oxygen. This flame
type is observed when welders add more oxygen to the neutral flame. This flame is hotter than the
other two flames because the combustible gases will not have to search so far to find the necessary
amount of oxygen, nor heat up as much thermally inert carbon.[2] It is called an oxidizing flame
because of its effect on metal. This flame adjustment is generally not preferred. The oxidizing flame
creates undesirable oxides to the structural and mechanical detriment of most metals. In an oxidizing
flame, the inner cone acquires a purplish tinge, gets pinched and smaller at the tip, and the sound of
the flame gets harsh. A slightly oxidizing flame is used in braze-welding and bronze-surfacing while
a more strongly oxidizing flame is used in fusion welding certain brasses and bronzes [2]
The size of the flame can be adjusted to a limited extent by the valves on the torch and by the
regulator settings, but in the main it depends on the size of the orifice in the tip. In fact, the tip should
be chosen first according to the job at hand, and then the regulators set accordingly.
Welding
The flame is applied to the base metal and held until a small puddle of molten metal is formed. The
puddle is moved along the path where the weld bead is desired. Usually, more metal is added to the
puddle as it is moved along by means of dipping metal from a welding rod or filler rod into the molten
metal puddle. The metal puddle will travel towards where the metal is the hottest. This is
accomplished through torch manipulation by the welder.
The amount of heat applied to the metal is a function of the welding tip size, the speed of travel, and
the welding position. The flame size is determined by the welding tip size. The proper tip size is
determined by the metal thickness and the joint design.
Welding gas pressures using oxy-acetylene are set in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations. The welder will modify the speed of welding travel to maintain a uniform bead
width. Uniformity is a quality attribute indicating good workmanship. Trained welders are taught to
keep the bead the same size at the beginning of the weld as at the end. If the bead gets too wide,
the welder increases the speed of welding travel. If the bead gets too narrow or if the weld puddle is
lost, the welder slows down the speed of travel. Welding in the vertical or overhead positions is
typically slower than welding in the flat or horizontal positions.
The welder must add the filler rod to the molten puddle. The welder must also keep the filler metal in
the hot outer flame zone when not adding it to the puddle to protect filler metal from oxidation. Do
not let the welding flame burn off the filler metal. The metal will not wet into the base metal and will
look like a series of cold dots on the base metal. There is very little strength in a cold weld. When the
filler metal is properly added to the molten puddle, the resulting weld will be stronger than the
original base metal.
Cutting
For cutting, the set-up is a little different. A cutting torch has a 60- or 90-degree angled head with
orifices placed around a central jet. The outer jets are for preheat flames of oxygen and acetylene.
The central jet carries only oxygen for cutting. The use of a number of preheating flames, rather than
a single flame makes it possible to change the direction of the cut as desired without changing the
position of the nozzle or the angle which the torch makes with the direction of the cut, as well as
giving a better preheat balance [2]. Manufacturers have developed custom tips for Mapp, propane,
and polypropylene gases to optimize the flames from these alternate fuel gases.
The flame is not intended to melt the metal, but to bring it to its ignition temperature.
The torch's trigger blows extra oxygen at higher pressures down the torch's third tube out of the
central jet into the workpiece, causing the metal to burn and blowing the resulting molten oxide
through to the other side. The ideal kerf is a narrow gap with a sharp edge on either side of the
workpiece; overheating the workpiece and thus melting through it causes a rounded edge.
Oxygen Rich Butane Torch Flame
Fuel Rich Butane Torch Flame
Cutting is initiated by heating the edge or leading face (as in cutting shapes such as round rod) of
the steel to the ignition temperature (approximately bright cherry red heat) using the pre-heat jets
only, then using the separate cutting oxygen valve to release the oxygen from the central jet [2]. The
oxygen chemically combines with the iron in the ferrous material to instantly oxidize the iron into
molten iron oxide, producing the cut. Initiating a cut in the middle of a workpiece is known as
piercing.
It is worth noting several things at this point:
The oxygen flowrate is critical — too little will make a slow ragged cut; too much will waste oxygen and produce a wide concave cut. Oxygen Lances and other custom made torches do not have a separate pressure control for the cutting oxygen, so the cutting oxygen pressure must be controlled using the oxygen regulator. The oxygen cutting pressure should match the cutting tip oxygen orifice. Consult the tip manufacturer's equipment data for the proper cutting oxygen pressures for the specific cutting tip [2].
The oxidation of iron by this method is highly exothermic. Once started, steel can be cut at a surprising rate, far faster than if it was merely melted through. At this point, the pre-heat jets are there purely for assistance. The rise in temperature will be obvious by the intense glare from the ejected material, even through proper goggles. (A thermic lance is a tool which also uses rapid oxidation of iron to cut through almost any material.)
Since the melted metal flows out of the workpiece, there must be room on the opposite side of the workpiece for the spray to exit. When possible, pieces of metal are cut on a grate that lets the melted metal fall freely to the ground. The same equipment can be used for oxyacetylene blowtorches and welding torches, by exchanging the part of the torch in front of the torch valves.
For a basic oxy-acetylene rig, the cutting speed in light steel section will usually be nearly twice as
fast as a petrol-driven cut-off grinder. The advantages when cutting large sections are obvious - an
oxy-fuel torch is light, small and quiet and needs very little effort to use, whereas a cut-off grinder is
heavy and noisy and needs considerable operator exertion and may vibrate severely, leading to stiff
hands and possible long-term repetitive strain injury. Oxy-acetylene torches can easily cut through
ferrous materials in excess of 50 mm (2 inches). Oxygen Lances are used in scrapping operations
and cut sections thicker than 200 mm (8 inches). Cut-off grinders are useless for these kinds of
application.
Robotic oxy-fuel cutters sometimes use a high-speed divergent nozzle. This uses an oxygen jet that
opens slightly along its passage. This allows the compressed oxygen to expand as it leaves, forming
a high-velocity jet that spreads less than a parallel-bore nozzle, allowing a cleaner cut. These are not
used for cutting by hand since they need very accurate positioning above the work. Their ability to
produce almost any shape from large steel plates gives them a secure future in shipbuilding and in
many other industries.
Oxy-propane torches are usually used for cutting up scrap to save money, as LPG is far cheaper
joule-for-joule than acetylene, although propane does not produce acetylene's very neat cut profile.
Propane also finds a place in production, for cutting very large sections.
Oxy-acetylene can only cut low to medium carbon steels and wrought iron. High carbon steels
cannot be cut because the melting point is very close to the temperature of the flame, and so the
slag from the cutting action does not eject as sparks, but rather mixes with the clean melt near the
cut. This keeps the oxygen from reaching the clean metal and burning it. In the case of cast iron,
graphite between the grains and the shape of the grains themselves interfere with cutting action of