Beyond smell and taste: Psychology, flavour, and our response to the multi-sensory aspects of food G Neil Martin Institute for Cultural Research Monograph Series
Oct 29, 2015
Beyondsmellandtaste:Psychology,flavour,andour
responsetothemultisensoryaspectsoffood
GNeilMartin
InstituteforCulturalResearchMonographSeries
2
Beyondsmellandtaste:Psychology,flavour,andourresponsetothemulti
sensoryaspectsoffood
GNeilMartin,MA,PhD,FRSA,CSci,MBPsS
HumanOlfactionLaboratory
DepartmentofPsychology
SchoolofHealthandSocialSciences
MiddlesexUniversity
TheBurroughs
Hendon
London
NW44BT
Tel: +4402084116292
Email: [email protected]
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‘Isupposeyouthinkasmellisasimplething?’,theSergeantsaid
smiling.
‘Asmell?’
‘Asmellisthemostcomplicatedphenomenonintheworld,’hesaid,
‘anditcannotbeunraveledbythehumansnoutorunderstood
properlyalthoughdogshaveabetterwaywithsmellsthanwehave.’
‘Butdogsareverypoorridersonbicycles,’MacCruiskeensaid,
presentingtheothersideofthecomparison.
FlannO’Brien,TheThirdPoliceman
Smellandtaste:anatomy,psychologyandfunction
O’Brien’scopperwasperspicacious,inmanyways,andhewasnotalone.
AlexanderGrahamBell,commentingontheunfathomablesenseofsmell,wrote:
“Haveyouanambitiontofoundanewscience?Whynotmeasureasmell?Can
youmeasureasmell?Canyoumeasurethedifferencebetweenonesmelland
another?...Odoursarebecomingmoreandmoreimportantintheworldof
scienceandmedicine‐andtheneedofmoreknowledge,assurelyasthesun
shines.”
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Thesenseofsmellisoneoftheoldest,under‐appreciatedand,atleastonone
importantlevel,theleastwell‐understoodofthefivesenses.Echoingthewell‐
informedassessmentsfromquartersoflawenforcementandtelephony,Coco
Chanelagreed(“Themostmysterious,themosthumanthing,issmell”).
Surprisingly,however,thebasicneurophysiology–themechanics‐ofscent
perceptionisreasonablywell‐understood:itistheequivalenttoour
understandingofthesameprocessesinvision.This,initself,isquitean
achievementgiventheamountofworkandeffortthathasbeeninvestedin
studyingvision.Visionisourdominantsense:Sincewebecamebipedaland
raisedoutnosesfromtheground,visionusurpedolfactionwhichbecame,ina
clichéworntoitsepidermis,theCinderellaofthesenses,rarelyblandishedand
normallyrelegatedtothesensorycloakroom.Mostindividualswhenasked
whichsensetheycoulddowithout,wouldinvariablyelecttojettisonthesenseof
smell(MartinApena,Chaudry,Mulligan,&Nixon,2001).But,atthelevelof
neurophysiologyandanatomy,wenowunderstandmuch,suchaswhatoccursat
theolfactoryreceptorswhentheyarestimulatedandhowsignalsaretransduced
bytheolfactoryapparatustobecomeactionpotentialswhichtraveltothe
primaryolfactorycortexandbeyond:inshort,theneurophysiologywhichallows
ustomakepsychologyfromthechemistrythatentersournostrils.Wealso
knowthat18differentmembersofamultigenefamilyencodetheseven
transmembraneproteinsintheepithelium:or,putsimply,thatstructurally
similarodoursmayactivatethesamereceptorsandthatsubfamiliesofreceptor
mayrecognisevariationsinaparticulargroupofodorants.
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Butwhathappensbeyondneurophysiologyiscomplex.Comparedtotaste,the
wayinwhichscentisprocessedandrepresentedinthebrainisamessyaffair
moreakintoatrainofdivergentcarriagesthanthestatelyLandauoftaste.The
anatomyoftastefollowsafairlywellestablishedcorticalpathway:Threecranial
nervesprojectfromdifferentpartsofthetonguetotwostructuresdeepinthe
brain(thelateralsolitarytractandthalamus)andthenontotheprimarytaste
cortex(theinsulaandvariousfrontalopercula)andsecondarytastecortex(the
orbitofrontalcortex)furtherupthebrain.Themechanicsofthesenseofsmell,
conversely,aremuchmorecomplex.
First,andatasuperficiallevel,itistheonlysensewithreceptorsdirectly
exposedtotheenvironment.Thesereceptorsarelocatedinameshofprocesses
calledtheolfactoryepithelium(afewcmsquaredinhumans;ahundredtimes
thatnumberinothermammalssuchasdogs)locatedinsideandatthetopofthe
nose.Odourmoleculesareinhaledanddeliveredtotheepitheliumwherethey
bindtoolfactoryreceptorswhichdeconstructorinterpretthechemicalsignals
conveyedbytheodour.Second,signalsaresentfromheretotwoverysmall,
balloon‐likestructuresbeneaththefrontofthebrain,theolfactorybulbs,where
thefirststageofanalysisofolfactoryinformationoccurs.Projectionsare
ipsilateral‐informationissentfromtheleftnaristotheleftolfactorybulb.The
signalsspreadoutinthebulbspatially,aprocessthatisdeterminedbythe
strengthofthesignalandintensityoftheodour‐thestrongerandmoreintense
thesignal,thegreaterthespatialdistributionofthesignal.Third,projectionsare
sentfromheretocorticalandsubcorticalareasofthebrain,specificallythe
anteriorolfactorynucleus,thepiriformcortex,theentorhinalcortex,the
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hippocampusandtheamygdala(collectively,calledtheprimaryolfactory
cortex).Unlikeeveryothersense,olfactiondoesnotprojecttothethalamus
beforethecortex(thethalamusisthebrain’ssensoryrelaystation)andithas
beensuggestedthattheolfactorybulbsundertakethisrelayroleintheolfactory
system.Theprimaryolfactoryareaincludesstructuresinvolvedinbasic
behavioursuchasmotivation,thirst,hunger,sexandaggression.These
structureswereoncecollectivelytermed(byPaulBroca)rhinencephalonor
“smellbrain”,astheywerethoughttobedisproportionallyinvolvedinthesense
ofsmell.
Whatoccursatthecortexofthebrainiswhatallowsustorespondatthe
behavourallevel.Theeffectofscentonbehaviour‐cognition,mood,person
perception,altruism,decision‐making,memory,vigilance,painperception,and
soon‐canbedramatic.Thereisanincreasingbodyofresearchdemonstrating
thatexposuretoambientodourcanhavenegativeandpositiveeffectson
cognitiveperformanceandmood(someofthesestudiesarereviewedinGould&
Martin(2001)andMartin(2006a)).
Butperhapsscent’smostimportantcontributiontohumanbehaviour–more
thanequaltoitsessentialfunctionasawarningdevicenotifyingusofharmand
danger‐isitsroleinflavour.Withtaste,temperature,texture,mouthfeeland
colour,odouristheprincipalcontributortotheperceptionandidentificationof
foodandthepleasurewederivefromit.Itisprobablyanunderestimatetosay
that80%offoodflavourisolfactory.AsAnthemeBrillat‐Savarinwrote,not
whollycorrectly,inThePhysiologyofTaste:“Iamnotonlyconvincedthat
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withouttheco‐operationofsmelltherecanbenocompletedegustation,butIam
alsotemptedtobelievethatsmellandtasteareinfactasinglesense,whose
laboratoryisthemouthandwhosechimneyisthenose…Whensmellis
intercepted,tasteisparalysed.”Substitute‘flavour’for‘taste’andthisis
accurate.Thereasonfortheunderestimationisthegeneralconfusioncausedby
tasteandsmellandtheirroleinchemoreception.Therearefivebasictastes–
sweet,salty,bitter,sourandumami‐‐withpossiblyoneortwootherminor
tastes(suchasmetallicandastringent).Thenumberofodourswecandetect,
however,runsintothousandsandwewouldbeabletodiscriminatebetweenthe
majorityofthem.Theodourmoleculesinfoodallowustoidentifyfoodandits
flavourandthisfunctionismediatedbytwotypesofbreathing‐‐throughthe
nose(orthonasalbreathing)andviathebackofthethroat(retronasalbreathing,
whichstimulatesnasopharyngealreceptors).AccordingtoRozin(1982),thetwo
typesofbreathingallowtwotypesofidentification‐‐onedistal,oneproximal.
Whentheolfactoryreceptorsareimpaired‐‐astheyarewhenindividualshavea
coldorinfluenza‐‐peoplereport(incorrectly)beingunableto‘taste’food
althoughtasteisrelativelywell‐preserved.Peopleareabletodeterminewhether
whattheyingestissweet,saltyandsoon,butareunabletodetectthearomaof
food,thatwhichgivesthefooditsidentity.Anon‐viraldemonstrationcanbe
achievedifapersonpinchestheirnoseshutwhileasmallamountoftwofruit
juicesisplacedonthetongue(withoutthemseeingthecolour,obviously).The
individualshouldbeabletodetectthetaste‐whetheritissourorsweet‐butnot
beabletonamethefruit.Whenthenaresarereleasedandtheolfactory
receptorsarestimulatedbytheingressofairflowcarryingtheodourmolecules,
thefoodwillbeidentified.
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Ourabilitytodetectodourisgood–betterthanasmokedetector(cf.Cain,
1977).AccordingtoEngen(1982),wecanrecogniseodourswithin0tothree
secondsofencounteringthem,andatadistanceofbetweenoneandtwometres
TheJapaneseSanitationCentrenotesthatwe(humans)candetectthe
malodorousisoamylmercaptan(avariantofwhichisaddedtoodourless
propanegastomakeitpungent)at.77partspertrillion(Nagata&Takeu,1990).
Wecanprobablydetectethylmercaptan(whichisaddedtogas)ataround1part
perbillion(Whisman,Goetzinger,Cotton&Brinkman,1978),theequivalent,as
YeshurunandSobelnote(2010),ofthreedropsinanOlympicSwimmingPool.
Porterandcolleaguesasked32participantstofollowa10mtrailofchocolate
essentialoilinopengrasswhileparticipantswerekneelingandblindfolded
(Porter,Craven,Khan,Chang,Kang,Judkewicz,Volpe,Settles,&Sobel,2007).
Twothirdsofthemwereabletodothiseffectively.Withincreasedtraining–‐
threetimesaday,threedaysaweekfortwoweeks‐theamountofdeviation
fromthescenttrailreducedandspeedalongthetrailincreased.Sniffingalso
increasedoverthreedaysandthissniffingincreasedwithincreasingspeedalong
thetrail.
Whiledetectionisgood,discriminationiscomparativelymoderate.Ourability
todiscriminatebetweentwoodoursisgoodbutdiscriminationbetweenodours
inmixturesislimitedtothree,fouratmostandnomorethanthat(Berglund,
1974).Therightnostrilhasanadvantageintermsof‘spatialreach’(the
maximumspatialdistanceatwhichanodourcanbedetected).Porteretal
(2007)foundthatthiswas1.5to2cmintherightand1to1.5cmontheleft.
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Porteretalalsocomparedpeople’sabilitytotrackodourmonorhinally(one
nostril)andbirhinally(bothnostrils).Participantswere30%lessaccuratewhen
sniffingwithonenostrilcomparedwithboth(66%)andwere20%slower.The
studyofbothtypesofsniffingisimportantbecausebothnostrilsdonotoperate
equivalentlyacrosstheday.Thereisevidenceofasymmetricalairflowacrossthe
daywhereonenostrilismorereceptivetoairflowandisbetteratdetectionthan
istheother.
Someodourswecannotdetectandthisfailurehasageneticbasis.Specific
anosmia‐‐afailuretobeabletodetectaspecificodour‐‐ismorecommonthan
istheequivalentphenomenoninothersensorymodalitiesapartfrom,possibly,
achromatopsia(colourblindness).Forexample,thearomaticsteroid
androstenoneisundetectabletoaround50%ofthepopulation(although
individualscanbetrained,veryslowly,todoso).Ofthehalfabletodetectthe
chemical,halffinditunpleasant(musky,urinous).Thesignificanceofthis
steroidliesinitsputativeroleasapheromoneinnon‐humanmammals.It
producesstereotypicalbehaviourprincipallyinvolvingmarkingterritoryor
sexualarousal/mateattraction.Thesow,forexample,isextremelysensitiveto
androstenoneandadoptsthepositionoflardosis,readyingherselfformating,
whenexposedtoit.Trufflesalsocontainandrostenone,whichiswhysowsare
usedashuntersofthedelicacy(Casanovawasthoughttosustainhisprodigious
sexualperformancebyconsumingtruffles).Casanovaaside,our(human)failure
todetectthechemicalconsciouslyeitherreflectsafunctionalfailure,orafailure
todevelop(ortheevolvingoutof)theorgannecessaryforthechemicaltoexert
itseffect(thevomeronasalorgan),ortheirrelevanceofsuchsteroidstosexual
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behaviourinourvision‐dominatedlives.Thereislittleevidencetoindicatethat
exposuretoandrostenonecanenhanceorprovokesexualdesireorarousalin
humans.
Beyondcongenitalspecificanosmia,andincontrasttoourgooddetectionability,
theabilitytolabel,nameoridentifyodourscorrectlyispoor.SherlockHolmes
contendedthatanygooddetectiveneededaknowledgeofatleast75perfumes.
Mostindividualswouldbedefeatedbythisambition.Normally,wedescribea
scentbyreferencetoanobjectand,eventhen,ouridentificationofthisobject
maynotbeaccurate.Webelieveastimulus‘smellslike’somethingorother.We
areextremelysusceptibletosuggestionwhenperceivingscent,aphenomenon
thatmightbeattributabletoitsinvisible,non‐linguisticnature.Slosson(1899)
describedanexperimentinwhichalecturerplacedtwobottlesofodourless
wateroneithersideofthelecturetheatre.Heinformedonesideoftheaudience
thatthebottlecontainedapleasantodour;theother,thatitcontainedan
unpleasantone.Attheendofthelecture,themajorityoftheaudience,when
asked,claimedtobeabletodetectascentandtheirhedonicresponsematched
thequalityoftheodourinthebottle.Experimentssincethenhavereplicatedthis
generaleffect:Peoplereportmoresymptomsofgood‐healthwhentheysniff
odourlesswaterwhichtheybelieveisapleasantscent,andjudgeanidentical
odourdifferentlydependingonwhetheritislabeled‘cheese’or‘bodyodour’(De
Araujo,Rolls,Velazco,Margot&Cayeux,2005).Thelatterstudyfoundthatthe
odourofcheesewasjudgedasmorepleasantandbrainactivationchanged
dependingonwhetherindividualsbelievedtheysmelledcheeseorbodyodour.
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Thisdemonstratestheimportanceofcognitivemediationintheperceptionof
odour(apointhighlightedbelow).
These,then,aretheconventionalcontributionsthesensesmaketoour
perceptionoffoodatthemostbasiclevelandarewell‐documented(e.g.,Martin,
2006b;2013).Smellandtasteinteractwithvision,auditionandsomatosensation
(andthelastthreeinteractwitheachother)tochangebehaviourinawaythat
canappearcounterintuitive(asmanyfindingsinpsychologyare),andcertainly
outsideconsciouscontrol(itappears).Asweetodourcanenhancetheintensity
ofasweettaste(Frank&Byram,1988)andimaginingasweetodourcan
enhanceaperson’sabilitytodetectsucrose(Djordjevic,Zatorre&Jones‐Gotman,
2004).Someodourssmell‘sweet’(vanillin,amylacetate),andsomesuchas
hexanoicacidareperceivedas‘sour’,leadingsomeresearcherstodescribethis
asatruetaste‐smellsynaesthesiainwhichonesensorymodalityinvariably
evokesasensationinanother(Stevenson&Boakes,2004).Thereisevidence
thatinformationinonesensorymodalitycansignificantlyanddramatically
affectourperceptionofother,seeminglyunrelatedqualitiesoffoodandthisis
takenupinthenextsection.
Whatyouseeisnotwhatyouget:Theeffectofcolourandlabelingonfood
perception
Itisoftenremarkedthatweeatwithoureyes:inthewordsofApicius,“Thefirst
tasteisalwayswiththeeyes”.Visualstimulationincreasesappetiteandthis
increasecorrelatespositivelywithchangesinbrainactivationwhenpeoplelook
athighlydesirable,calorific(i.e.,fatty,sweet,carbohydrate‐laden)foods(Smeets,
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Weijzen,deGraaf,&Viergever,2010).Thegreatertheappetite,thestrongerthe
brain’sresponse.Visualcuesareimportantbecausethey(i)triggeraseriesof
associationswhich,inturn,triggersthehunger/increasedappetiteand(ii)they
confirmtheaccumulationandaccommodationofpreviousexperienceand
knowledge.Weexpectcertainfoodsanditemstobeaspecificcolourandany
deviationfromthatcolourleadstoconfusion(andrejection).Weexpect
chocolate‐flavoureddesserttobebrown,aBordeauxtobered,alemonmousse
tobeyellow(‐ish)andsoonandwedonotexpectorangejuicetobegreenor
freshmilktobepurple.Colourlessfoodaffectsit’sperception:itsodour,flavour
andacceptanceislowerthaniscolouredfood(DuBose,Cardello&Maller,1980;
Zellner,Bartoli,&Eckard,1991)andweratefoodsasbeingmorelikewhatthey
are(morechocolatey,lemony,red‐winey)whenourexpectationofwhattheyare
matchestheircolour.
Whatoccurswhenamismatcharisesisnoteworthy.DuBoseetal(1980)
examinedtheeffectofcolouringvariouscarbonatedfruit‐flavoureddrinks(and
colouringcakes)onpeople’sacceptanceofthefoodandtheirassessmentofit.
Whenthecolourwasmasked,people’sabilitytoidentifythefoodwasimpaired.
Whenthedrinkwasatypicallycoloured,responsesassociatedwiththeflavourof
thecolour(ratherthantheactualdrink)wereelicited.Drinkswereconsidered
moreacceptablewhenthecolourmatchedthefruit.Evenwhenindividualsare
askedtoignorethecolourofadrinkandareaskedtodiscriminatebetween
differentflavours,thecolourinterfereswiththisabilitytodiscriminate(Zampini,
Sanabria,Phillips&Spence,2007).Peoplewhobelievethatredandgreen
Smartiestastethesame(theydointheUK)judgethesesweetstotastesimilarly
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comparedtopeoplewhobelievetheyhavedifferentflavours.Whenpeople
believethatanorangeSmartiehasadifferentflavourtoaredandgreenone
(whichtheydointheUK,butnotGermany),thisbeliefwillleadthemtobelieve
thatagenericorange‐coloured(ratherthanflavoured)Smartietastesdifferent
toaredorgreenone(Levitan,Zampini,Li&Spence,2008).Increasingthe
yellowcolourinlemoncakeincreasestheperceivedintensityoflemonflavour
DuBoseetal,1980)andredcolouraddedtofoodenhancestheperceptionofthe
sweetnessinstrawberry,cherryandfruitpunchdrinks(Johnson,Dzendolet&
Clydesdale,1983;Johnson,Dzendolet,Damon,Sawyer&Clydesdale,1982).
WhenparticipantsweretoldthatanewlineofM&Mswerebeingmarket‐
researched,brownconfectionswereratedasmorechocolateythangreen‐
shelledones.Whenthesweetwaslabeled‘darkchocolate’(allsweetswerethe
samechocolate),theywerejudgedtobemorechocolatey(althoughnomore
likeable)thanthoselabeled‘milkchocolate’(Shankar,Levitan,Prescott&
Spence,2009).
Wineisafoodparticularlysusceptibletovisualbias.Whenthecolourofred
wineismaskedandwhitewineiscolouredred(withflavourlesscolouring)
peoplecontinuetodescribetherespectivewinesusingtermsnormally
associatedwiththecolourratherthantheactualwine(Morrot,Brochet&
Dubourdier,2001).Thus,‘red’wineisassociatedwithdarkobjects/termsand
‘white’winewithclear/yellowterms.Evenexpertscanbeconfusedbycolour,
describingthescentofadifferentlycolouredwinebyitscolour(Parr,White&
Heatherbell,2003).Similarly,coconut‐scenteddetergentisjudgedasless
effectivethanacitrus‐scentedoneand,conversely,acitrus‐scentedsuntanlotion
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isratedasbeinglesseffectivethanacoconut‐scentedone(Bone&Jantrania,
1992).Wehavelearnedtoassociatetheseproductswithparticularscentsandif
thisscentdeviatesfromexpectationsandisincongruentwiththem,this
influencesourjudgementoftheproduct.
Thesechoicesanddecisionsaredrivenbyassociationsandtheseassociations,
strengthenedbyexperience,aredifficulttodislodge(forgoodreason‐‐ifwehad
tounlearnalloftheseassociationsrepeatedly,thiswouldbeavastsquandering
ofcognitiveresourcesthatwouldbenecessaryfornewlearning).Someofthese
associationsareclearlyexpectedandpredictable:tomatosoupcolouredgreen,
oranorangefilletofbeefwouldraiseeyebrows(theintentionbehindHeston
Blumenthal’sbespectacledoneswhenheandhisbrigadecreatedthehistorical
foisgrastangerineathisrestaurant,Dinner).Otherassociationsaresubtler.For
example,wearewell‐acquaintedwithproductseulogizingtheirmeadow‐
freshnessorsun‐drynessandwe,perhaps,believeourselvesimmunetothe
linguisticfloridityofsomeofthesedescriptions.Theevidence,however,
suggeststhecontrary.Descriptivemenunameshavebeenfoundtoincrease
salesbyaround27%(Wansink,Painter&vanIttersum2001)andpeopleeat
moreofanitemlabeled‘creamyandsatisfying’than‘caloricandfilling’
(Wansink,VanIttersum,&Painter,2004).Inasix‐weekexperimentina
cafeteria,Wansink,vanIttersum&Painter(2005)foundthatpeopleexpressed
morepositiveattitudesaboutfoodlabeled“succulentItalianseafoodfillet”than
“seafoodfillet”,judgingit(thesameitem)tobemoreappealing,tastyand
calorific.
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Thelabelsweattachtofoodandtheimpressionsthatweformbasedonour
visual,auditoryandgustatoryprocessingcanleadustocommiterrors,butones
thatarelogicalandreasonable.Ourresponsetofoodisinfluencedbyphysiology
andphysiologicalstateandthemostobviousofthesestatesarehungerand
satiety.Whatismoreunusual,andlessself‐evident,isthatsatietycanbespecific
tocertaintastes,smellsandfoodsandthatthisspecificityextendstothefood’s
shapeandcolour,aswellasitstasteandsmell.
Sensoryspecificsatiety
Sensory‐specificsatiety(SSS)describesthephenomenonwherebythe
pleasantnessandconsumptionofspecificfooddecreasesafterbeingeatento
satiety.Thesatietyissensory‐specificbecauseindividualsmaybecomesated
eatingfoodswithspecifictastes,shapes,sizesandtexturesbutnotfoodsof
differenttaste,shape,sizeandtexture(Rolls,1986).Satietyisenhancedby
increasedoro‐sensorystimulation:thegreaterthestimulation,therefore,the
lesstheintakewhichiswhyfoodsarealwaysmoresatiatingthandrinks
(Weijzen,Smeets&deGraaf,2009).ThephenomenonofSSSexplainswhy,ifwe
eatamealcomposedofavarietyofspecificfoods,ourtotalconsumption
increasesbecausethereislesssensory‐specificexhaustionfromeatingavaried
mealofabowlofsoup,sausages,eggandbacon,andchocolatemousse,thana
bigplateofsausagesonly.
Ifafoodiseatentosatiety,asecondcourseofthesamefoodwillresultina
reductioninintakeofaround50percent(seeRolls,1986fordetailsofthisand
otherstudies).InRolls’searlyexperiment,allfoods,withtheexceptionofroast
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beef,producedsensory‐specificsatiety.Inonestudy,participantsateeithera
four‐coursemealofsausages,breadandbutter,chocolatedessertandbananas
orateonlyoneofthesefoodstosatiety.Consumptionwas60percenthigher
whenfoodswerepresentedtogetherthanwhenpresentedseparately.Atapost‐
satietytastingsession,thosefoodspresentedalonewerealsoratedasless
pleasantthanthoseeatenaspartofafour‐coursemeal.Whenavarietyofpasta
shapeswaspresentedforconsumption,morewaseatenthanwhenonlyone
pastashapewaspresented;peoplealsoatemorefoodifitwasmadeupof
differentcoloursthanonecolour.Thepleasantnessofchickenandbanana
odours(butnotthoseofotherfoods)alsodeclinedsignificantlyafterthesefoods
wereeatentosatiety(RollsandRolls,1997).OneexplanationforSSSisthatit
allowsustoenjoyandconsumeagreatervarietyoffoodand,therefore,consume
avarietyofnutrients.
ThechangesinbehaviouralSSSappeartobematchedbycerebralchanges.Small
etal.(2001)foundthattheorbitofrontalcortex,atthetipofthefrontallobe,is
importanttosatiety.Activationheredecreasedwhenpeopleatechocolateor
tomatojuicetosatietyandthisdecreaseinactivationcorrelatedwithreduced
pleasantnessratings(Kringelbach,O’Doherty,Rolls&Andrews,2003).
ActivationintheOFCalsodecreaseswhenpeopleareexposedtotheodourof
bananaaftereatingbananatosatiety(O’Dohertyetal.,2000).Nosuchdecreaseis
observedwhenpeoplesniffedtheodourofvanilla.
Whenparticipantseatchocolatetosatietyandhavetheireatinginterruptedfora
gameinwhichtheycouldwinmorechocolateorcrisps,theyshowadeclinein
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theirpleasantnessratingofthesmellandtasteofchocolateandshowlessdesire
towantmorechocolate(Havermans,Janssen,Giesen,Roefs&Jansen,2008).
Recentresearchsuggeststhatinterruptingtheconstancyofthesinglefoodby
introducingnewfoodtoratecaninterruptSSS.Crackereatersinterruptedwith
arequirementtoeatandratechocolateincreasedtheirintakeofcrackers.
However,chocolateeatersinterruptedwithachocolateratingtaskratedthe
pleasantnessofchocolatelesspositively(Hetherington,Foster,Newman,
Anderson&Norton,2006).
Ofcourse,crackersandchocolatehaveuniquesomatosensory‐‐aswellas
olfactoryandgustatory‐‐features.Butwhatisofparticularpsychological
interestisthattheseuniquepropertiescaninteractwithothersensoryandnon‐
sensoryfeaturestoaffectourresponsetofood.Aquestion,therefore,beforeyou
venturetothenextsection:whichice‐creamwouldyourateascreamier?One
named‘Frish’oronenamed‘Frosh’?
Collisions,andinteractions,withothersenses:taste,smellandsound
Potatopureewiththeconsistencyofporridge,custardwithbouldersandcrisps
aslimpasdishcloths‐nonewouldbelikelytoreceivepositivehedonicratings.
Theinteractionbetweenthechemicalsensesandtheothers‐‐particularlythe
auditoryandsomatosensorysenses‐‐helpstocreatetheappropriate,desired
flavourpercept.Intermsofsoundandtouch,themostcommonlyusedtermin
foodperceptionis‘crisp’.However,aswithcolour,therearesomesubtlesignals
sentbysound‐beyondthephysicalsoundofmasticatedfood‐whichinfluences
foodperception.Recently,Ngo,Misra&Spence(2011)notedsomemarketing
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researchinwhichicecreamwasjudgedascreamierwhencalled‘Frosch’than
‘Frisch’(Yorkston&Menon,2004).Ketchupwasconsideredthickerwhencalled
‘Nodax’than‘Nidax’(Klink,2000).Thisphenomenonhasabasisinresearch
demonstratingthatsomewordsareassociatedwithangularshapesandothers
withroundedshapes,basedonthewords’shapeandthelabialpositionthey
requireforpronunciation‐‐thatis,whetherthewordscontainbackorfront
vowels(e.g.,‘tiki’isperceivedasangularand‘maluma’asrounded(O’Boyle&
Tarte,1980)).Gallace,Boschin&Spence(2011)foundthatwhenindividuals
wereaskedtoassociatewordswithfoods,saltandvinegarcrispswere
associatedmorewiththewords‘kiki’and‘talete’thanwerecheddarcheese,
yoghurtandblueberryjam.Ngoetal(2011)foundasimilareffectwhen
individualswereaskedtoeateither30%or70%cocoachocolate.Themilkier
chocolatewasmoreconsistentlyassociatedwiththesoftword‘maluma’andthe
darkerchocolatewiththesharper‘takete’.Similarly,Spence&Gallace(2011)
askedindividualstoassociateshapesandwordstostillandsparklingwater,
Brie,cranberryjuiceandtwotypesofchocolate.Thejuice,sparklingwaterand
Malteserswereassociatedwithangularshapesandwordssuchaskikiand
talete.Thestillwater,Brieandcaramelnibbleswereassociatedwithrounded
shapesandwords.
Interactionwithothersandtheimportanceoftouch:tipsforwaitersand
patrons
Thenumberofpeoplethatindividualseatwith,aswellastheirsex,influences
foodconsumption,caloricintakeandthespeedofingestion.Accordingto
Herman,Roth&Polivy(2003),“socialinfluencesareprofound,arguablygreater
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thananyotherinfluenceoneating.”Weknowthatthepresenceofanother
increasestheamountoffoodindividualsconsume(by212kcal)butthatthis
increaseisdependentonourrelationshipwithourfellowdiner.Weeatmore
withfriendsandfamilythanwithstrangersandmealsattheweekendarelarger
(byaround12%)andcontainmoremacronurientsandalcohol(deCastro,1990;
1991;Redd&deCastro,1992).Menandwomeneatlessinthecompanyofa
desirableperson(Mori,Chaiken&Pliner,1987)andwomenwhoweretoldthat
theirresponseonaquestionnairewasconsidered‘masculine’restrictedtheir
intakewheneatingincompany(Pliner&Chaiken,1990).Women’s(butnot
men’s)caloricintakealsoappearstobelowerwhentheyeatwithamale
companion;thelargerthenumberofmen,thelesstheintake(Young,Mizzau,
Mai,Sirisegaram&Wilson,2009).Womenwhoeatminimallyarealsoviewed
morepositivelybyothers(Bock&Kanarek,1995)whichdemonstrateshow
muchmencangetawaywith(orshowstheirindifference)intermsof
impressionmanagement.
Weeatmorewhentheotherpersoneatsmore,andlesswhentheyeatless
(Conger,Conger,Constanzo,Wright&Matter,1980).Onereasonforthisisthatit
maybeanattemptatingratiation‐‐weimitateotherswewouldliketolikeus
(Sunnafrank,Ramirez&Metts,2004).Imagine,forexample,refusingabiscuit
fromapotentialclient,friendorboss:onlythosewithadamantineconfidencein
theirownbehaviourwoulddoso.Breakingbreadbreakssocialboundaries.We
eatmorewiththosepeoplewhoseemtoshareourinterests‐‐astudywhich
askedmenandwomentodiscussactivitiestheylikedtodowithfriendsand
romanticpartnersfoundthatthecoupleswithsimilarinterestsatemorebiscuits
20
together(Salvy,Jarrin,Paluch,Irfan&Pliner,2007).Individualseatlessdessert
–butnolessofanentrée‐withstrangersthanwithfriends(Clenenden,Herman
&Policy,1994).Wespendlesstimeinarestaurantorcafeteriawhenalone(36.5
minutes)thanwhenwithagroup(50.3minutes).Wealsoeatmorewhenthe
food’scontainerislarge.Inanaturalisticstudyofpopcornconsumptionby
cinema‐goersduringtheviewingofafilm(Payback),thosewhoratedthe
popcornunfavourablyate61%moreofitwhenitwasinalargecontainerthana
smallerone(Wansink&Park,2001).Ofthosewhoratedthefoodfavourably,
49%atemorefromalargercontainerandatemorewithapersonofthe
oppositesex,suggestingthatasnacksharedinasocialenvironmentmaybe
consumeddifferentlybythesexesthanwouldamoreformalmeal.
Thechangeinbehaviourprovokedbydistalproximityofanotheriscoupledwith
someverysubtlechangesinbehaviourcausedbypropinquity.Touchappearsto
resultinsomesignificantanddemonstrablechangesinbehaviourrelatedto
eating.Individualsinteractingwithotherswhileholdingahotdrink,for
example,ratetheirconfederateaswarmerandmorelikeablethanwhenthe
drinkiscold(Williams&Bargh,2008).Wealsoknowthatalighttouchona
person’sarminclinesthemtosparesmallchangetosomeonerequestingit:51%
willdosocomparedwiththe29%nottouched(Kleinke,1977).Touching
anotherpersonsignificantlyenhancestheirwillingnesstocompletesurveys,sign
petitionsorlookafteralargedogfor10minutes‐‐morepeoplearewillingtodo
sowhentouched(Guegen,2002;Hornick,1987;Gueguen&Fischer‐Lokou,
2002;Willis&Hamm,1980).Touchingalsoenhancespersonperception‐‐
librarianswhotouchedstudentslightlywereratedmorefavourablyandtutors
21
doingthesametotheirstudentswereregardedasmorepatientand
understanding(Steward&Lupfer,1987;Fisher,Rytting&Heslin,1976).
‘Touchers’,ingeneral,tendtobeevaluatedmorepositivelythannon‐touchers
(Fisheretal,1976).
Inthecontextoffood,waitersandwaitressesarejudgedmorefavourablyifthey
lightlytouchtheirpatrons(Hornick,1992).They,andbarstaff,arealsomore
likelytoreceivehighertips(Crusco&Wetzel,1984;Guegen&Jacob,2005).As,
intheUS,tippingaccountsfor$27bofstaffincome(Azar,2007),thisfinding
mightprecipitateanoutbreakofwidespreadcustomerfondling.Butthe
somatosensorypromptleadstomorethananincreaseintipping.Studieshave
shownthatpeoplearemorelikelytotrynewfoodinasupermarket,andtaste
andbuymore,whentouchedbystaff(Smith,Gier&Willis,1982;Hornick,1992).
OnestudyofUSpatronsfoundthatwhentouchedbyawaitresswhenorderinga
drink,theirconsumptionincreased(Kaufman&Mahoney,1999).Similarly,
Gueguen,Jacob&Boulbry(2007)foundthatpatronsinamedium‐sizedFrench
restaurantwhowererecommendedadish,weremorelikelytoorderthedish
whentheyweretouched.Ifthewaitercomplimentedthepatrononhis/her
choiceofmeal,thiswasassociatedwithmoregeneroustip‐giving(Seiter,2007).
Othercircumstances,beyondourcontrol
Inadditiontocompaniontypeandnumber,andtouch,exposuretoambient
odourandambientnoise(whicharenotwithinourcontrol)cansignificantly
affectconsumptionand/ortheperceptionofourexperiencewithfood.People
spendlongerinarestaurantwhentheambientmusicisslow‐tempo,andtake
22
longertogetserved.Slowtempomusicleadstoanunderestimationofthelength
oftimespenteatingwhiletheoppositeresultisfoundwithquick‐tempomusic
(Caldwell&Hibbett,2002).Thespeedofthemusicaffectsalsotheamount
consumed:fastmusicisassociatedwith4.4bitesperminuteandslowmusic
with3.83bitesaminute(Roballey,McGreevy&Rongo,1985).Exposuretono
musicresultsin3.23bites.
Milliman(1982)reportedthatwhenasupermarketplayedslowmusic,
customerswalkedaroundthestoremoreslowlythanwhenitplayedfastmusic.
Similarly,AreniandKim(1993)foundthatwhenanAmericanwinestoreplayed
eithercountrymusicorclassicalmusic,peopleboughtmoreexpensivewine
whenclassicalmusicwasplayed.Amorespecificapplicationofexposureto
musiconconsumerdecisionmakingwasdescribedbyNorth,Hargreaves&
McKendrick(1997).TheresearcherssetupanexperimentinwhichfourFrench
andfourGermanwinesweredisplayedonasupermarket’swineshelveswhile
eitherFrenchaccordionmusicorGermanBierkellermusicwasplayed.National
flagsalsoaccompaniedthedisplaysandconsumerswereaskedtocomplete
questionnairesdistributedbytheexperimentersposingascustomers.Forty‐four
individualsagreedtocompletethequestionnaire(54%ofthoseapproached).
TheresearchersfoundthatmoreFrenchthanGermanwinewasboughtwhen
FrenchmusicwasplayedwhereasmoreGermanwinewasboughtwhenGerman
musicwasplayed;noneofthecustomersexpressedanabsolutepreferencefor
eithernationality’swinesopersonalpreferenceforGermanorFrenchwine
couldnothavebeenresponsiblefortheresults.Northandcolleaguessuggest
thatthemusictriggeredthoughtsofcountry‐relevantmaterialsothattheFrench
23
musicpromptedthoughtsofFrancewhichinturnattractedindividuals’
attentiontotheFrenchwine.
NorthandHargreaves(1996)foundthatmusicofmoderatecomplexitymade
morepeopleattendastallsetuptoplayvarioustypesofmusicaspartofan
experimentinauniversitycafeteria.Individualsinthisconditionwerealsomore
willingtocompletequestionnairesandratethecafeteriamorepositively.The
influenceofirrelevantsensorystimulationondecisionsaboutfoodextendsto
odour.Theambientscentofgeraniumincreasesthepositiveevaluationof
brands,especiallyunfamiliarones,afindingwhichechoesthatofLaird(1932)
whofoundthatnarcissus‐scentedsockswerepreferredbymorepeoplethan
wereunscentedsocks(50%vs8%).Gueguen&Petr(2006)reportedthat
patronsofapizzeriainBrittanyspentlongerintherestaurantandboughtmore
foodwhenlavender(butnotlemon)waspercolatedviaadiffuser.Theolfactory
workinthefieldofeatingandcateringisthetipofwhatisnowalargeiceberg,
oneintimatedearlierwhendiscussingtheeffectofambientodouronbehaviour.
PetitsFours
WilliamJames,thegodfatherandmidwifeofmodernexperimentalpsychology,
oncedismissivelyremarkedinoneofhisintroductorytexts,thatnothingcould
bewrittenabouttaste,smellandhungeraslittleofpsychologicalinterestwas
knownconcerningthem.Thisremarkwasmadein1899.Over100yearslater,
weknowmuchmore‐thesenseofsmellhasevenbestowedNobelPrizesontwo
researchersin1992‐‐butourunderstandingisfarfromcomplete.Flavour,for
example,isoneofthemostcomplextopicstostudyinpsychologyinvolvingasits
24
doesallofthesenses,andadegreeofsubjectivitythatisconsiderable,andthis
complexityarisesevenatthemicrolevel.Whentherearejournalarticles
dedicatedtovariousfrequenciesofsoundandthenatureofcolour,themacro
levelbecomesallthemoreobviousandchallenging.Itcanoftenseemwithsmell
andtaste,asifwearestudyingreadingbymovingourfingersalongletters.But
asresearchcontinues,andasmoresophisticateddesignsareemployedin
experiments,weshouldeventuallyendupinthepositionthatneuroimaging
currentlyfindsitself.Thefirstneuroimagingstudyoflanguagewaspublishedin
1988andwasabasicstudyofreadingandspeaking.Now,studiesarepublished
inwhichactualdiscourseismeasuredusingfMRI.Brainscienceiscurrently
considered,rightly,asmoreattractiveandimportantthanthestudyofflavour,
althoughthelatercontributesmoredirectlytoourlives‐‐fromeatingto
spendingtohealth.Brainsciencealsobenefitsfromaparsimonyofdirection
andmethodology(and,still,fromsomenovelty).Unpackingflavourand
measuringeachunpackingandhoweachunpackingisrelatedtoapreviousor
forthcomingunpackingisachallenge.Atthemicrolevel,wearebeginningto
establishsomefacts‐‐understandinghowsmellsandtastesinteract,for
example.Atthemacrolevel,theworldisflavour’soyster(andthereisafood
withachallenging,complexflavourprofile).Theenvironmentwefindourselves
in,thenoisewehear,thepeoplewearewith,thesizeandcolourofthefoodwe
ingestandthephysicalcontactofthepersonwewouldliketoorderfromareall
seeminglyirrelevant,epiphenomenalfactorsinourdecisiontoeatandour
perceptionoffood.Buttheyarenot.Theinvestigationofthesefactorsandthese
interactionswillkeeppsychologists,chemistsandfoodresearchersinworkfor
decades.
25
Acknowledgements
IwouldverymuchliketothankDavidWadeforhiscommentsand
encouragementduringthewritingofthismonographandforkindlyofferingme
theopportunitytodoso.IamindebtedtotheInstituteforCulturalResearchfor
extendingmethehonourofcontributingalecturetoits‘Themeaningoffood’
symposiuminNovember2010onthemysteryofsmell,tasteandflavour,which
ledtothisdistillation.Thanks,too,toRickSteinforstartingthisalloff.Please
[email protected]@ThatNeilMartin
26
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