Beyond Shelter

beyond shelter

edited by Marie J. aquilino

Metropolis books

beyond shelterarchitecture and huMan dignity

part 4: enVironMental resilience172Green RecoveryAnitavanBredaandBrittanySmith184The Home as the World: Tamil Nadu

JenniferE.DuyneBarenstein196Design as Mitigation in the Himalayas

FrancescaGaleazzi210On Beauty, Architecture, and Crisis: The Salam Centre

for Cardiac Surgery in SudanRaulPantaleo

part 5: teaching as strategic action 222Cultivating Resilience: The BaSiC Initiative

SergioPalleroni234Studio 804 in Greensburg, Kansas

DanRockhillandJennyKivett246Sustainable Knowledge and Internet Technology

MehranGharaati,KimonOnuma,andGuyFimmers

part 6: is preVention possible?252More to Lose: The Paradox of Vulnerability

JohnNortonandGuillaumeChantry264Building Peace across African Frontiers

RobinCrossandNaomiHandaWilliams276Haiti 2010: Reports from the FieldMarieJ.Aquilino

afterword286Open Letter to Architects, Engineers, and Urbanists

PatrickCoulombel

296Acknowledgments298About the Contributors304Credits

preface006Beyond Shelter: Architecture and Human Dignity

MarieJ.Aquilino

introduction012The Architecture of RiskVictoriaL.Harris

part 1: architecture after disaster026Learning from AcehAndreaFitrianto040Beyond Shelter in the Solomon IslandsAndreaNield054News from the Teardrop IslandSandraD’Urzo064From Transitional to Permanent Shelter: Invaluable

Partnerships in Peru InternationalFederationofRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties

part 2: what should goVernMents do?070When People Are InvolvedThiruppugazhVenkatachalam082Citizen Architects in IndiaRupalandRajendraDesai094What about Our Cities? Rebuilding Muzaffarabad

MaggieStephenson,SheikhAhsanAhmed,andZahidAmin

part 3: urban risk and recoVery112Below the Sill Plate: New Orleans East Struggles

to RecoverDeborahGanswithJamesDart126Slumlifting: An Informal Toolbox for a New Architecture

AlfredoBrillembourgandHubertKlumpner140Sustainable Communities: Avoiding Disaster in the

Informal CityArleneLusterio152Camouflaging Disaster: 60 Linear Miles of Local

Transborder Urban ConflictTeddyCruz166Cultural Heritage and Disaster Mitigation:

A New AllianceRohitJigyasu

contents

Twohundredmillionpeople(that’stwo-thirdsofthepopulationoftheUnitedStates)havebeenaffectedbynaturaldisastersandhazardsinthelastdecade.Foreverypersonwhodies,some3,000areleftfacingterriblerisks.Ninety-eightpercentofthesevictimsareinthedevelopingworld,wherebillionsofdollarsinaidareabsorbedannuallybyclimaticandgeologiccrises.Nowwearelearningthatextremetemperatures,intenseheatwaves,increasedflooding,anddroughtsduetoclimatechangeareexpectedtoexposevastnumbersofpeopletothestatusofeco-refugee,aconditionthatposesarealthreattohumansecurityaspeopleareforcedtomigrate.TwentymillionpeoplearecurrentlyonthemoveinPakistan,wheretorrentsofmudandwaterhaveforcedthemfromtheirhomes.Expertsarealsofindingthatasthesenaturalhazardsincreaseannuallyinfrequencyandseverity,theabilitytopro-tectcommunitiesoncethoughtsafewilldiminish,leadingtoever-greaterlossoflife.

In2008over100,000peoplediedintheChineseprovinceofSichuanwhenbuildingscollapsedduringanearthquake.Amongthem,19,000schoolchildrenwereburiedinrubblewhenunsafeschoolbuildingsfailed.Suddenlyquestionswereraisedabouttheroleofarchitects.Lookingtoassignblame,officialsturnedonarchitectstoaccountforwhathadhap-pened,andinalmostthesamebreathturnedtoarchitectsandengineersfromaroundtheworldforsolutionsthatwouldcalmoutragedfamilies.AfewmonthslaterinMyanmarastormsurgeinthelow-lying,denselypopulatedIrrawaddyRiverdeltacalledNargisleftanestimated140,000peopledead.InHaitionJanuary12,2010,anearthquakeshookpoor-qualitymateri-alsandconstructionintotwentymillioncubicyardsofbouldersanddust,interringatleast220,570peopleandleavingamillionandahalfhomeless.Thenumberofchildrenwhoperishedhasnotbeenpublished,thoughhalfthepopulationofPort-au-Princewasunderage.Yetinanevenmorepowerfulearthquakein

Chilethatsameyearabout500peopledied.TheHaitiearth-quake,thoughsevere,wasnottheonlycauseofsohighatoll:theotherculpritwasunsafebuildings.

Urgentquestionsabouttheroleandresponsibilityofarchi-tectshavebeencirculatingsincetheIndianOceantsunamikilledmorethan200,000peoplein2004.Atthattimethereliefeffortexposedtroublinggapsbetweenhumanitarianaidthattargetstheshorttermandourabilitytorebuildhomes,infra-structure,andcommunitieswell.Whileaidagenciesarewilling,theydonothaveanarchitect’sknowledgeorinsights;consequently,thebuildingsthatreplacedestroyedcommuni-tiesarefrequentlyunsafe.

Unfortunately,thisisastruetodayasitwassevenyearsago.Howevercorruptorappallingthepolitics(andpolicies)behindthecatastrophesinSichuanandHaiti,professionalarchitects—whetherinthedevelopingordevelopedworld—arenotablyabsentfromeffortstoprotectpeoplefromdisaster.Yetarchitectshaverecentlybeenveryactiveinotherareasofpublicinterest—forexample,theyhaveinstigatedarangeofcreativestrategiestoimprovesocial,environmental,andeco-nomicequity,someofwhichhavebecomebooksabouthowtoalterthewaywethinkaboutthedesignprocess.Butinextremecircumstances,incrises,architectsoffernocoherentresponse.Theyplaynosustainedroleinshapingpolicyandhavehadlittleactivepresenceorvoiceinleadingbestpracticesindisasterprevention,mitigation,andrecovery.Thereisstillnocareerpaththatpreparesstudentstoworkasurgentistes—designprofessionalswhointerveneatacrucialmomentintherecoveryprocesstoproduceenduringsolutions.

Whichispreciselywhythisbookisaboutthearchitectswhoarehelpingsavelives.Innovative,fascinatingworkisbeingdonebysmallteamsofoutstandingprofessionalsinAsia,LatinAmerica,Africa,andtheUnitedStates,whoareprovingtobecritical,relevantpartnershelpingcommunitiesrecoverfrom

prefacebeyond shelter:architecture and huMan dignityMarie J. aquilinoÉcole spÉciale d’architecture, paris

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theneedforefficiency,whichmaystifletheopportunityforinvention.Yetarchitectsarenotonlyskilledtechnicians;theyarealsocreativeartists,andthosetalentsareneededinsuchcircumstances.Freshapproachesthatlessenthevulnerabilityoffragilepopulationsandstrengthentheirresilienceandpotentialwillonlycomefromthecombinedresourcesandexperienceofthesegroupsworkingcollaboratively.Simplyput,wemuststartspeakingwithothers.

Openandsustaineddebateisalsoneededtoholdevery-oneinvolvedaccountable—toproducecrediblesolutionsandcoherentstrategiesthataddressthemyriadproblems:spatialandenvironmentalplanning,theneedforvernacularandappropriatehousing,theoverwhelmingscaleoftoday’sdisas-ters,preservationofculturalintegrity,fundingstreams,andhowbesttofunctionontheground.Therehasbeenatendencyintheaidcommunitytoacceptmassivewasteasacorollaryofspeed;theyplaydowntheabandonedprojects,thesystematicdemolitionofundamagedhomes,poorlandchoices,andenvi-ronmentaldegradationthatroutinelyaccompanytherecoveryprocess.Homeshavefailedbeforeanyonehadachancetoliveinthem,andsomepost-disastersettlementshaveledtoseriousphysicalandmental-healthproblemsfortheirnewresi-dents.Theabsenceofexpertiseisatrespassthatleavescommunitiesmorevulnerablethanbefore.Thebestintentionsarerarelygoodenough,especiallyiftheyarenotscrutinizedinlightoftheiroutcomes.

Beyond Shelterisintendedtohelpthisdiversegroupofdecisionmakersunderstand,value,andengagearchitects—as partners—inshapingprinciplesthatrespondtothegrowingthreatofdisasterriskinurbanandruralsettingsaroundtheworld.Wecannotwait.Tohelpre-createadecentqualityoflifeatscaleisanenormouschallenge.Tomeetitwemustreinvestarchitecturewiththecapacitytobeapowerful,disruptiveforce,asourceofdiscoveryandchange.

havewide-rangingexperience.Inadditiontotheirabilitytoerectsecure,durablestructures,theyareexpertcontractmanagerscapableofcalculatingneeds,resources,andbudgetsthroughthearcofaprogram.Allofthishelpssavemoneyandimprovehumanitarianaction.

Representationisthesecondarea:architectsworkinginclosecollaborationwithcommunitiescanhelpthemactontheirownbehalf.Playingtherolesofdesigner,historian,nego-tiator,andadvocate,architectsdevelopsitealternativesthathelpsecurelandtenure,reblockovercrowdedslums,affordbetteraccesstowater,sanitation,air,andlight,introducepublicspaces,andimprovetherelationshipwiththelocalecol-ogy.Theycanthenrepresentcommunityconsensusonviableprojectstointransigentorindifferentgovernments,andthis,inturn,promoteslocalindependence.Itisterriblydifficultforcommunitiestosuccessfullyrepresenttheirownbestinterestsinthefaceofintractablepolitics.

Thethirdfunctionisvision.Recoveryextendswellbeyondtheneedforshelter.Inastateofemergencyitisdifficultfordesperateindividualstoimagineabetterfuture.Architecturalexpertisecanpromotepublichealth,encourageinvestinginnewskillsandenvironmentalawareness,andadvocateformiti-gatingrisk,whichtogetherhelpensureasustainableandsafewayoflife.

Butforthesequalitiestotakeholdaftercrises,architectsandplannersmustengageinabroaderconversation,amongtheexpertsinhumanitarianaid,anthropologists,conservationecologists,bankersandeconomists,structuralengineers,public-healthofficials,surveyors,andwithinthecontextofpolicymakersandcommunities.Thesegroupsalsoneedtoknowwhomtoturntoandwheretoputtheirconfidence.Andpractitioners—includingarchitects—mustguardagainstthetendencytofallintoroteresponsesandconvenientsolutions.Industry-wide,goodideasandknow-howsuccumbtohabitand

Myriadorganizationsworldwiderespondtocatastrophicevents,someprovidingemergencyandtransitionalshelters,othersbuildingpermanenthomesforhundredsofthousandsofdisplacedpeople.Inthelasttenyearsthemajorinterna-tionalNGOs(Oxfam,UN-Habitat,Care,RedCrossSocieties,Caritas,andothers)havetakenontheresponsibilityofprop-erlyhousingpeopleafterdisasters.Andtheireffortshaveledtosuccessstories.TheInternationalFederationoftheRedCrossnowoffersoversightandassistancetoless-experiencedagencies,althoughonlyonavoluntarybasis.Thereisstillnocoordinatedresponse.Nooneisultimatelyheldresponsible(beyondoperationswithinindividualagencies).

Asaresultthousandsofsmallergroupsplayacriticalroleinprotectingthehomeless,andthesevarywidelyinscope,competence,approach,andeffectiveness.Fewamongthemspecializeinbuildinghomesorinfrastructurebeforedisasterstrikes,andrarelyaretheyscreenedforexpertise.Worse,manyofthesegroupsdonothavethecapacitytojudgethequalityofexpertstheyemploy.Ironically,theplethoraofpub-lishedguidesandinternationallyacceptedstandardsforgoodpractice,intendedtohelpprofessionalizethesector,canjustaswellempowerindividualswhodonothavetheoperationalortechnicalskillstoworkonthegroundinreconstruction.Competingmandatesanddonorpriorities,weakcoordination,fragmentedknowledge,andablatantdisregardforenvironmen-talhealthoftencharacterizethefailedpracticesthatprevailafteradisaster,andthatleadtonewdangersaswellasintolerablewaste.Morethaneverthereisacrucialandimmediateneedforarchitects(alongwithotherbuilt-environmentprofession-als)tobringtheirtraining,competence,andingenuitytodisaster-riskprevention,mitigation,response,andrecovery.

Herearejustthreeofthemanywaysinwhicharchitecturalknow-howiscriticalinpost-crisissituations.Thefirsthastodowithcapacity.Well-trainedarchitectswhoareactivelybuilding

disasterandrebuild.Thehighlyskilledarchitectsandleadersinotherfieldswhohavesogenerouslycontributedtothisbookareprovidingresilientsolutionsthatensurethesafetyofnewhomesandbringcoherencetoland-useplanning.Theseteamsassessdamagebutalsoresearchinnovativebuildingtechnolo-gies.Theyareattheforefrontoftheuseoflow-cost,energy-saving,environmentallysoundmaterialsandnewmethodsofprefabrication.Theyhavediscoveredwaystobringaffordablehigh-techsolutionstovulnerablecommunities.Theseteamsareexpertsinhowbesttobridgethegapthatseparatesshort-termemergencyneedsfromlong-termsustainablerecovery.Andtheyareexperiencedinhelpingreducefuturerisk,pro-moteawareness,andprotectreliefinvestment.Admittedly,thislevelofexpertiseisrare,concentratedinthehandsoffartoofewprofessionalsworkingworldwide.

Beyond Shelterisacalltoaction. WhenIstartedwritingthisbookandsearchedforpracticingarchitectsskilledatworkingwithriskalmosteveryoneaskedmethesamequestion:whyarchitects?Asiftosay,whatisittous?AttheconferenceRisquesMajeurs2008(MajorRisks2008)sponsoredbytheEuropeanUnion,twoorthreearchitectswerepresent.Theoffi-cialsandministersIspokewithremindedmethatonaveragearchitectscontributetoonly3percentoftheworld’sbuiltenvi-ronment.Theirindifference—orworse,irrelevance—totheworld’smostvulnerablecommunitiesmadethemseemhardlyworthtalkingabout.Threepercentisaterriblenumber.

Butifnotarchitectsandplanners,whoisinchargeofrebuildingtownsandvillagesleveledbyearthquakesandcyclones?Theanswerisdisquieting:nooneisincharge.Typically,apatchworkofnongovernmentalcharities,govern-mentagencies,andresidentsthemselvescobbletogethersolutions.Inlarge-scaledisasters,evenwhenaidpoursin,theexpertiseandplanninginfrastructureneededtomakebestuseofthemoneyarelacking.

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Sothisisalsoabookforstudentsinthedesignfields—toinspireandstirapassionforreform.Theurgentneedtoaffordthenextgenerationofarchitectsnewrelevancehascompelledahandfulofprofessionalstochangethewaywethinkaboutarchitecturaleducation.AtColumbiaandMIT,atschoolsinPortland,SanDiego,NewOrleans,Montreal,Paris,Caracas,SãoPaolo,andSantiago,andatnewuniversitiesbeingestab-lishedinJapanandIndia,studentsareworkingonprojectsthatrevolutionizesocialhousing,tacklepoverty,segregation,andviolenceincitiesandrethinkourresponsetorisk.Theseinno-vativeprogramsareprovidingalternativestothetraditionaldesignstudiosthatpromoteself-interestandflightsoffantasy—thoughthesequalitiesarenotinthemselvesbad.Rather,whenaspiringarchitectsareconfrontedwiththerealworld,whentheytesttheirmettleagainstsocialinjustice,andespeciallywhentheyaregiventheopportunitytoworkdirectlywithcommunitiesinneed,theydrawuponhonesty,lifeexperience,andfear,whichunleashfreshinsightsandleadtohighlycreativesolutions.

Allofthisisinourbestinterests.Wewholiveinwealthynationsarenotimmunefromdisasters,andwe,too,strugglewithourowndisinvestedcommunities,inequalities,andpoverty.Wehavealottolearnfromourpoorerneighborsaboutdealingwithcrisisathome.Learningfromextremeconditionsinthe

developingworldisapowerfulsourceofcreativity.Evolvingriskrequiresnewwaysofthinking.Forinstance,theemerginguseofmicrofinanceandmicroinsurance,whichhelpsincreaseresilienceinpoorcommunities,isbringingnewbusinessmodelstoaffluentmarketsatatimewhenthebusinessclimateisother-wisenotfavorable.Citizen-ledreconstruction,anempoweringandcollaborativeprocessthatsupportssociallyequitabledevelopment,isteachingushowtovalueandforgecollabora-tionsandsynergisticpartnershipsrootedinlocalpriorities.Streamliningcostly,complexinnovationshasledtothedevel-opmentofsuchcleverdevicesasportableultrasoundreaders,LEDlights,andpoint-of-originwaterpurifiers,aswellasstrate-giesforalow-carbonfutureandgreaterbiodiversity.Thestridesbeingmadetoaddresspovertyandscarcityarealreadyimprovingouruseoftechnology.Similar trickle-upapproachesarebeingtestedineducation.Certainly,newwaysofsolvingtheingrainedproblemsthatputusatriskwillcomefromanarrayofcultures,economies,andgeographiesthatshareourdesireforgreatersecurity.

Whatdoesitmeantobesafe?Safety,Ihavelearned,isnotonlyanchoredinbettertechnologiesorbetterbuildings.Safetyliessomewherebeyondshelter,inthefreedomofbeingsecureenoughtorelax,play,aspire,anddreamforgenerations.

AschoolinPétionville,Haiti,aftertheearth-quakeof2010.Nearly5,000schoolsweredestroyedorseverelydamaged.

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Afteraconflictordisasteraretheriskspeoplefaceaddressedpoorlybythesprawlingcommunityofdisaster-reliefanddevel-opmentspecialists?Canthehumanitariansectorimprovethewayitresponds?Ibelievetheansweris yes,andthatbetterarchitectureandconstructionarecrucialtotemperingpeo-ple’svulnerabilityafterdisasters.BybetterImeanmoredurable,moresound,morefit-for-purpose:buildingsthatservetheiroccupantsincomfortandsafety.Ialsomeanbuiltbetter,inthesensethatabetterprocessofbuildingisfollowed.Thebuildingprocesscanbeimprovedtoincludetraininglocalbuilders,engaginglocalmarkets,andensuringthateverystructurefunctionswithinalargerdevelopmentscheme.Further,therearenotenoughgoodlong-termbuildingprojectsspearheadedbyNGOsanddonors,asituationthatperpetu-atesvulnerabilityindevelopingcommunitiesandleadstocatastrophewhennaturalcalamitiesstrike.Simplyput:thereisnotenougharchitecturalanddesignexpertisewithinmostorganizationsandagenciestoaddressandsolvethisproblem.

Thismeansthatarchitects(alongsideotherbuilt-environmentprofessionals)arevitaltocreatingsignificantchangeinhowdisasterreliefanddevelopmentarepracticed.InMarch2006HilaryBenn,thentheUKSecretaryofStateforInternationalDevelopment,declared,“Rarelydodisastersjusthappen—theyoftenresultfromfailuresofdevelopmentwhichincreasevul-nerability.”1Oneofthemostsignificantfailuresoftheaidanddevelopmentprocessis,quitefrankly,intheunintendedresultsofourinterventionsinthenameofrecovery.

the role of the architect

Thespecificskillsthatarchitectsbringtopost-disasterrecon-structionincludetheabilitytodomorewithless.ThebestNGOsperseveretomakethegreatestdifferenceforthepeoplethey

serve.DuringreconstructionNGOsoftenfindthemselvesresponsiblefordeployingsignificantfundingwithoutnecessarilyknowingmuchaboutconstruction:theyareneitherdesignersnorbuilders;theyhavenoexperiencemanagingcontracts;theyarenotsurewhattoexpectfromprofessionals;andtheymaynothavethecapacitytoevaluateexpertise.

Article25isacharitybasedintheUnitedKingdomthatoffersadesign-consultancyservicetonongovernmentalorga-nizations,orNGOs.Thestaffmembersarebuilt-environmentprofessionalsfromalldisciplines.ItisapartofourmissiontoprovideNGOswithdesignandconstructionexpertise.ManyNGOscometousbecauseconstructionprojectshavegonewrong—contractorshavewalkedoffthesite,structuresareinadequateorcrumbling,theyareoverbudgetorpasttheirdeadline,andcommunitiesaredividedovertheoutcome.Thearchitectistheprofessionalwhoseroleitistomanageallthepartiesonaproject.Architectsaredesignersandbuilders,cer-tainly,buttheyarealsoexpertcontractmanagers,abletoseethearcofaproject.Architectsarethepartyresponsiblefortakingthebudgetandresourcesavailabletoacredible,perti-nent,long-termbuiltsolution,alonganoptimalpath.

This,ofcourse,isnotthepopularviewofanarchitect.Atbestthepublicseesarchitectsasartists,atworstassuperfluous—profligatespenderschargedwithexecutingthewhimsandfanciesofaclient’svision.Andheavenknowsthepressandmediaoutletshavenothelpedchangethisperception.IftheonlinereadercommentsonanarticlepublishedinCNN OpinionafterthemassiveHaitiearthquakein2010areanyindication,manypeoplethinkthatarchitectsexistto“makethingslookpretty.”2Butnowmorethaneverarchitectswhomwerarelyhearaboutareusingtheirskillstosolveproblemsandimprovebuildingindevelopingcountries.Thisincludeserectingschoolsandsustainablehousingaswellasparticipat-inginpost-disasterreconstructionprojectsaroundtheworld.

introductionthe architecture of riskVictoria l. harrisarticle 25 deVelopMent and disaster relief, london

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Thislastiscrucial:reliefandreconstructionofferanopportunitytostimulateandsupportlocalbusinesses.Unfortunately,throughlackofexpertise,vision,orstaff,manyNGOstakethepathofleastresistanceanduseasinglecontractor,whichoftenmeansthattheeconomicbenefittothelocaleconomyleavestownwhenhedoes.NGOsshouldnotmisstheopportunitytobringinformalmarketsandlocallaborforcesintoaproject;thisleadstoreducedvulnerabilitybyincreasingfuturecapacity,providingamorecohesiveandcoherentproject,andaffordingthecommunityagreatersenseofownership.Goodcommunityconsultationandplanningcanbeapowerfulengineforchange.Architectsareadeptatsuchplanningmethods.

Theseinteractionsneednotbeelaborateorfraught.InourfirstprojectatArticle25wedesignedaschoolforstreetchil-dreninGoa,India.Duringthedesignprocessweconsultedthechildrenandteacherswhowouldbeusingthefacilityanddis-coveredthatwhattheymostwantedwasatheater.Wemadeasimple,cost-freechangetotheplan,shapingthedoublestepatthefrontofthebuildingtocurveoutwardtoformastage.TwoyearsafterthebuildingwascompletedIreceivedaflyeradvertisingaperformancebythechildrentoentertainthelocalcommunityandtouristsinthearea.

the experts

Beforethe2004tsunamiintheIndianOcean,architectshadhardlyfiguredinthetaskofpost-disasteraid.Butwhentheenormouswavesdestroyedhomes,property,andinfrastruc-tureovervastcoastalareasineightcountries,theneedforshelterbecameanemergencyonanunprecedentedscale.Suddenly,reconstructionenteredthedisaster-reliefagenda.Itquicklybecameclearthattheskillsofarchitectswerenotbeingemployedinthiseffort;worse,theywerebeingneither

Architectscanfindsolutionsthatmakestructuresmoreefficient,cheaper,moreresilient,andbettersuitedtotheirpurpose.Theystewardthehopes,needs,andfundingofaclientthroughtoprojectcompletion.So,ifarchitectsareactiveinmanyNGOandgovernment-sponsoredprojects,whatisgoingwrongindisasterrelief?

Theansweriscomplex.WestartedArticle25specificallytohelpbuildsaferbuildingsinthecontextofdevelopmentanddisasterrelief.Ifwearetotakepeople’svulnerabilityseriously,wemustdeploy—andinsiston—muchgreatertechnicalexper-tiseinarchitectureandconstruction.Architectscanprovidesomeofthisexpertise,buttheirskillsarenotbeingeffectivelytransmittedtotheworkerswhoexecuteprojectson-site—thatis,tothepermanentresidentsofthecommunitywhowillbuildthereinthefuture.GeorgeOforioftheUniversityofSingaporehasstudiedthefactorsaffectingresilienceincommunitiesafteradisaster;headvocatesdeveloping“theconstructionindustriesofthepoorernationsinordertoequipthemtomanagedisas-ters”andconcludes,“Itisimportanttoenhanceknowledgeonthelinkagebetweengoodplanning,designandconstruction,anddisasterpreventionandmanagement.Akeymissingele-mentisawarenessamongpractitioners.”3Thereissignificantawarenessofthisdeficiencyamongthebestorganizations,butithasnotyetledtoconsistentindustry-wideactionontheground.Wearefailingtotransmitexpertisetothelowestpracti-callevel.Thismaybebecausethereisagapbetweenwhatarchitectsareperceivedtodoandwhattheyactuallycando.

Ifarchitectsaremuchmorethandesignexperts,gooddesignismuchmorethanaesthetics.IntheNGOsectortheskilledarchitectcancoordinatetherolesofprojectpartici-pants,whichallowsmembersofthecommunity—theclientsorbeneficiaries—togetinvolvedinlinewiththeirabilities.Theprocessofconstructioncanincludetraining,skillsharing,andcreatingeconomicbenefitsforlocalsuppliersandmarkets.

pWhendisasterdoesnotmeetdevelopment:Gujaratafterthefloodof2008

ppMicrotilesbeingmoldedlocally,inNepal

sChildrenparticipateinadesignworkshopaspartoftheplanningprocessforaschoolbuiltbyArticle25inGoa,India.

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offerednorsought.Wewereallcaughtflat-footed.Sincethentheprofessionhasrecognizedthatithasskillsofcriticalvaluetolong-termrecovery.

Still,thenumberofcompetentarchitectsinvolvedinnon-profitworkremainssmall.Alltoofrequentlylipserviceispaidtotheneedforrealexpertiseinconstructionandarchitecturewhileatthesametime,ontheground,NGOsareputtingmostoftheireffortsintotrainingnovicestoexecuteonlybasicskills.ThereisaplethoraofbookletsproducedbyNGOs,targetedatthosewithnoexperienceorprofessionalexpertise.Thisservesonlytopromotetheuseofunskilled,barelytrained,well-intentionedvolunteers,whoarrivefromallcornersoftheglobeinthewakeofadisaster,attheexpenseofputtingtrulyskilledbestprac-ticesinplay.Thus,lackofexpertstaffsiscommoninNGOs.Meanwhile,afteradisasterlocalexpertsmayhavediedor,iftheyarepresent,maybepreoccupiedwithpersonalcrisesorinneedofretrainingtorespondtothestructuralproblemsraisedbytheevent.

Theuseofexpertiseshouldnotbeconfusedwithimposingtop-downsolutions.Onthecontrary:expertiseisakeytooltointegrateanNGOprojectwithacommunity.Itgenuinelybringscapacity,notprescription.Italsobringscredibilitythatisvitaltopersuadinglocalandnationalgovernmentstoact,aswellasinnovativeideasthatcommunitiesneedtobetterstewarddonorfunds.Yetatconferencesaroundtheworldwecontinuetotalkaboutplasticsheetsandlean-tostructures—temporaryfixes—whileNGOsplowaheadwithouttheprofessionalskillstheyneedtorebuildproperly.

the donors

Largedonorshavearoletoplayhere.Donorsrarelyfundtheplacementofinnovativeconstructionexpertiseinthefield.

Theydosometimesprovidefundingforbasictraining,butthisisrarelyagoodidea.

Itdoesnothelpthatmostsheltergroupsdefinethemselvessolelyintermsofhumanitarianoremergencywork.Theyhavenotruckwiththelong-term,complexmatterofbuildingsustain-able,resilientsystems.Emergencyfundinganddisasterreliefaretheirdomain.Shelterprovisioninthesesilosofpracticeisbasic,temporary,inadequateforsecurity,anddoesnothingtohelprestorepeople’slivelihoods.Thissortofpractice,fueledbycompetitionamongagencies,impairsthehumanrightsofthosesufferingafteradisaster.Further,emergencyhumanitar-ianfundingstopsabruptlyatthetransitional-shelterstage,precludinglong-termsolutionsandeffectivelycondemningpeopleforyearstoinadequateshelter.

Donorshavebeencalledontoincreasefundingtime-scalesandlinkdisasterresponsetolong-termdevelopment.Thisiswisebutnoteasy.Forexample,oneexperiencedNGOiniti-atedapolicyin2006thatallowsfundingtobeusedoverthreeyears,whereonly30percentcanbespentinthefirstsixmonths.Unfortunately,inpractice,theunintendedresultisthattheemergency-shelterphasegetsdraggedout,whilereliefisstillnotlinkedtolong-termreconstruction.Indeed,inpractice,emergency-reliefsheltergroupsgooutoftheirwaytoexclude,evenignore,thegoalsoflonger-termdevelopmentandrecov-ery.Thethree-yearwindow,adoptedbymanyNGOs,hasbecomeameanstoextendtheirterritory,prolongingbasicemergency-shelterresponselongpasttheimmediatemomentofcrisisandcondemningcommunitiestoaprotractedstateofprovisionalshelter.

Forthelarger,well-knownagenciesemergencyfundingiseasytocomeby.Theoutpouringofsympathythatdevelopednationsmusterafternaturaldisastersisusuallyimmense;ithasevensometimesforcedinternationalaidagenciestoturndowndonationsbecausetheylackedthecapacitytodeploythe

hugesumsavailable.Theresponsibilitytoresolvethisquan-darylieswithdonornationsandgovernments,whomusttaketheleadindemandingthatorganizationsseekhigh-valuesolu-tions,andmatchingtheiroffersoffundstomuchlongertimeframes.Atpresent,unfortunately,theoppositeiscommonpractice:donorsofteninsistuponatermlimittoaredevelop-mentproject.Theywantaclearenddatetobeestablishedinadvanceandmayrequirethatmillionsofdollarsbespentinjustayearortwo.Asaresultmoneymaygounspentorbereturned;medicalsuppliesarethrownout,suppliesbottleneck,andresourcesarewasted.Thisisinexcusable.

Anobviouswaytousemoneywiselyafterdisastersistobuildbetter,saferbuildingsthatembracelong-terminfrastructuralandenvironmentalplanning.Itisanoldtruismthatearthquakesdon’tkillpeople;buildingsdo.Inadisasterthedeathtolliscom-poundedbythelossofinfrastructure.ThisisnowheremoreevidentthanintheheartbreakingrealityoftheearthquakeinHaiti,wherecriticalbuildingssuchashospitalswerelost.Donoragenciesmustpromotesafebuiltsolutions,andthisrequiresthattheyallowfundstobespentgradually,acrosstenaciousprogramsoverseenbyinternationalaswellaslocalNGOs.Disasterreliefandlong-termdevelopmentmustbeinextricablylinked,anddevelopmentopportunitiesassessedandinsisteduponineveryaspectofthereconstructionprocess.

article 25: what we do

Article25isagroupofarchitects,engineers,surveyors,devel-opmentprofessionals,planners,communicationexperts,andfinancialanalysts.Forustheprocessofdevelopmentandtheprocess ofbuildingareseamlesslyintertwined.Theopportu-nitytouseabuildingasacatalystforlastingchangeisnottobemissedinthedesignandconstructionphases.Projectdesign

isimbeddednotonlyinbuildingdesignbutinhowthewholeconstructionprocessiscoordinated.Thisiswherearchitectsbecomenotonlyrelevant,butvital.

InSierraLeonewearedevelopingschools.Thecountryisextremelypoor,withheavilydamagedinfrastructurefollowingacivilwar.Ourbriefwastodesignanewmodelschoolthatwoulddrasticallyimprovethequalityofthebuildingsand,therefore,education.Article25’sdesignsmatchorimproveonthecostsofthePlan,Care,andUNICEFmodelspersquarefoot.Andwegoconsiderablyfurther,improvingcoolingandventilationsystems,usingspacemoreintelligently,andaddressingchildsafety.Wealsoaccommodatestructuralvariables,suchasallowingfortheinterchangeableuseofeithersawntimberorbush-polescol-lectedlocallyduringconstruction.Asthesefeaturessuggest,ourdesignsenablecommunity-basedsolutionsratherthanrely-ingsolelyonaprescriptive,contractor-orientedapproach.

Expertsonthegroundcanleveragefundinganddesignparameters.InPakistananArticle25teammemberwaschargedwithensuringsafebuildingpracticeswhiletrainingthelocallaborforcetoconstructtheseismicallyresistanthomesthatwehaddesigned.Hehadlimitedfundingbuthispresencemadeallthedifference.Whilethedesignhadworkedwellonpaper,heintroducedchangesthatsavedthebudget:forexample,amore-than-adequate6mm-gaugerebarwasusedinsteadoftheproposed8mmrebar,reducingbothtransportandmaterialcosts.Inaprojectofthisnature,inremote,mountainousvillages,transportcanbetwo-thirdsofthecostofmaterials.Havingsavedmoneyontransportation,hewasabletoconstructretainingwallsonthemountainwherethehouseswerebeingbuilt.Beingflexibleandabletoadapttotheterrainsaveslivesatnoadditionalcost,andshowstheleveragearchitecturalexpertisebringstoaproject.

Evenone-offfundingofabuildinginpost-disasterdevelop-menthasgreatpotentialforthecommunity.Goodprocesses

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reverberatelongafterthecamerasaregone.ArecentstudyfortheWorldBankconcludesthat“schoolconstructionprogramsareirreplaceableopportunitiestoimprovetheskillsoftheinformalsector,iftheyaregiventheopportunitytocompeteforlocalsmallcontractsandreceiveadequate site supervision.”4

Maintenanceisacentralissuethatisoftenoverlookedbydevelopmentorganizationswithashort-termremit.Thesamestudyalsopointsoutthatthedurabilityofschoolbuildingsindevelopingcountries“notonlyresultsfromdesignandqualityconstruction,butalsoreliesheavilyonmaintenance.”Embed-dingskillsandasenseofownershipinthebeneficiarygroupcanguaranteethatmaintenancewillbemanagedbythelocalcommunity,whichthusisabletosafeguardtheinitialinvest-mentandmaximizethebuilding’slong-termutility.Alltoooftenwehearofbrand-newhomes,builtbywell-intentionedNGOs,whoseupkeepwastooexpensive,sothattheyareabandonedbytheirresidents,leavingcrumblingwhiteelephants.Theopportunitytoinvolvelocalsmallcontractorsandlabor—andsupervisethemwell—isanotherassetthatthearchitecturallyadeptNGObringstotheprojectcycle.

poVerty

Despitevigorousrecentargumentsthatdevelopmentopportu-nitiesshouldgohandinhandwithpost-disasterreconstruction,littlehaschangedinpractice.Weneedtoaskwhetherourtaskshouldbeundertakenwithoutaddressingtherootproblemsthatcontributetothescopeofacatastrophe.Rootcausesrevolvearoundpoverty,inmanycasesabjectpoverty,whichgrosslyincreasespeople’svulnerabilitytocatastrophicevents.PeopleslivingincountrieslowontheUnitedNationsHumanDevelopmentIndexarefarmorelikelytoliveinunsafe,poorlybuilt,poorlylocatedaccommodations,andarefarlesslikelytohavethe

resourcestocopewithorrecoverfromcatastrophicpressure.Povertyiseverybitasmuchadisasterasanearthquakeor

tsunami.Butitislong,slow,anddrawn-out,anemergencymiss-ingtheinitialprecipitatingevent.Antipovertydevelopmentshouldbehigherontheglobalagenda,butitmakesforpoormediacopycomparedtoasuddenandhorrifyingsingleeventsuchasanaturaldisaster.The“CNNEffect,”inwhichrelentlessnewscoverageofanimmediateandvivideventstimulatesmassinterestinit,affectstheperceptionofaneedforaction.Forexample,byFebruary2005,onemonthaftertheIndianOceantsunami,theinternationalcommunityhaddonated$500perpersonaffectedbythetsunami,comparedtothe$0.50receivedforeachpersonaffectedbyUganda'seighteen-yearwar.

Further,nottakinganthropicriskintoaccountleavespeopleinharm’sway.Countriesrecoveringfromhuman-createddisastersfallintoagameofRussianroulette,tousethephraseoftheeconomistPaulCollierofOxfordUniversity.Afteracivilwarends,heexplains,inthepoorestcountriesthereisaoneinsixchancethatanationwillreturntowarwithintenyears,becauseacriticaldemographic,youngmen,areleftoutofrecoveryplanning.5Effectivepost-conflictreconstructioncanaddressthisdirectly.Reconstructionisaprogrammatic,sys-temictask,notasurgicalintervention;itislabor-intensiveandassuchcangeneratelivelihoods.Buildingbuildscapacitybuildssecurity.Buildingfundamentallyreducesvulnerability.

paying the way

Collierisabletocommenteffectivelyonthisbecauseheiswell-equippedtoassessincentives,risk-and-rewardscenarios,andmarketforces.Wemeasurethedevelopmentofthepoor-estcountries—thebottombillion—withtheUN’sMillenniumDevelopmentGoals,eightrulesofthumbthatremindusof

fAnearthquake-safehousewithareinforcedtimberframeandcorrugatedgalvanizedironroofunderconstructioninJareed,Pakistan,2008

d/sAhouseinBagh,Pakistan,usingthesameconstructiontechniquesandshownatlaterstages.Thewallsareoftimber,mud,andstone.Aroof-trussridgeandwall-platecolumn,featuresdesignedtowithstandearth-quakes,wereaddedbythearchitecton-site.

iAcurrentschoolbuildinginSierraLeone

oAnewschoolhasbeendesignedbyArticle25tomaximizeitsenvironmentalperformanceandprovideflexibilityinhowclassesareconducted.

019

whatwewouldliketoachieveasaglobalsocietyby2015.6Everygoalimplicitlydependsonabuilding:schoolsarerequiredforeducationandhospitalsandclinicsforhealthcare.Alternativeproposals—forinstance,thosethatfavoropen-aireducationorstreet-cornerschooling—areavainandidealistichope.AUNESCOreportfoundthat“outdoorlearningmayhavebeenaviableemergencyexpedientinIndiawhenitwasanewlyemergingcountry[but]the‘nobuilding’solutionisunsatisfac-tory....schoolswithouttheirownbuilding...tendtohavelowattendanceandthosewhodoattendareinclinedtohaveapooracademicperformance.”7AWorldBankstudyinGhanashowedthatsimplyimprovingthephysicalqualityofschoolbuildings—mendingleakyroofs,forexample—improvedmathandliteracyscoresbyover2standarddeviations,ormorethan97percent.Thisimprovementisgreaterthanwhatwasachievedbyprovid-ingbasicteachingequipmentsuchasblackboards.Thereportargues,“Acost-benefitanalysis...showsthatrepairingclass-rooms(apolicyoptionignoredinmosteducationstudies)isacost-effectiveinvestmentinGhana,relativetoprovidingmoreinstructionalmaterialsandimprovingteacherquality.”8

Atpresentthewayemergenciesarehandledandfundedmilitatesagainstmitigationandsustainedrecovery.Itisintheinterestoftheglobaleconomytogetdisasterreliefanddevel-opment right,yetwedonotassesstheriskscorrectly;changesinthewaydonorsfundpost-disasterrecoveryandinthewayorganizationsallocatethefundsreceivedarecriticalifwewanttoincreasetheinvestmentinexpertiseovertime.Currently,risksassociatedwithshortemergencies—precipitatingevents—areusuallyprioritizedoverlongemergenciessuchasendemicpoverty.Consequently,wedoapoorjobofassessingriskinrelationtoongoingissuessuchaslivelihoods.Weprefertorespondtosuddenemergencies;weattendtothempsychologi-callyandsoaredrawntooverreacttoevent-drivendisasters,whileoverlookinglong-termcriseslikeHIV/AIDSandotherdis-eases,poverty,orongoingcivilunrest.Donorsfocustooexclusivelyonemergencyreliefpreciselybecausetheyareonlyhuman,butourindifferencetothelargerandlongeremer-genciesperpetuatesthem.Asamatterofprinciple,theprojectcycleofanydevelopmentorreliefeffortshouldincludecapac-itybuilding.

So,ifwearenotgoodatevaluatingrisk,shoulditbedoneimpartially,usingaformula?Financialmanagersuseasimpleoption-pricingequation,Risk=HazardxVulnerability,toana-lyzeventures.Thisequationhasbeenadoptedbyresearchersinotherdisciplines,butdevelopmentandshelterpractitionersusuallyseeitasananalogyandnotastrictmathematicalrela-tiontobeapplieddirectlytotheirwork.Theyaremistaken.R=HxVcanbeillustratedinthesimpleactofbuyingalotteryticket.TheHazard(inthiscaseagoodhazard)iswinningthelottery.TheVulnerabilityisthechanceofwinning—oneinfour-teenmillionintheUKNationalLottery,forinstance.ThismeansthatmultiplyingHazardbyVulnerabilityshowsusthatafairpur-chasepriceforaticket,ifthejackpotis£7million,wouldbe50pence(i.e.,£7millionx1/14).Onarolloverweek,ifthejackpot

iThecourtyardoftheNkoranzaChildren’sHomeandSchool,inNkoranza,Ghana

pTheChildren’sHomeandSchool,builtbyArticle25,replacedadilapidatedareaschool.

ppSchoolboysinNkoranzaworkingontheirowndesignfortheschool.Article25devel-opedthefinaldesignwithcommunityinput.

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is£14millionitwouldbefairtopricetheriskat£1perticketanditwouldbereasonabletorisk£1inthiscase.ThisexampleshowsthatriskassessmentcanbeafairlyprecisecalculationiftheHazardandVulnerabilitycanbewell-quantified.Developmentspecialistscanbenefitenormouslyfrombringinginskillsthatarenotpartoftheircoreset.Thesemaywellcomefromecono-mists,whocanoptimizethecostsandbenefitsofinterventions,aswellasfrombuilt-environmentprofessionals.

Article25wasfoundedonthepremisethatdevelopment,andconstructioninparticular,shouldbebroughttotheforeasanintegralpartofdisaster-riskreductionandemergencyreliefbecausedecreasedvulnerabilitytodisasterdependsonresil-ience—onhavingalong-termsolution.Oneofthekeystoresilienceisalastingphysicalfabric.Asnaturalandman-madedisastersincrease—andtheyareontherise—itisourresponsi-bilitytoprovidethemeansofmitigatingvulnerability.

Itseemssoobvious.ButIstillfindmyselfasking,willwebeluckyandsmart?Willwebeabletolookback,forexample,onourcurrentworkinHaitiandsay,forthefirsttime,yes,wehavetakentheethosofresiliencetrulytoheart?Atthetimeoftheearthquake,formerpresidentBillClintonwasappointedUNspecialenvoyfortheisland;onJanuary14,twodaysaftertheevent,hewroteinthe Washington Post,“Aswecleartherubble,wewillcreatebettertomorrowsbybuildingHaitibackbetter:withstrongerbuildings,betterschoolsandhealthcare.”9Thisisnotatrivialresponsibility;taking“better”toheartmeansthatNGOsmustrequirethattheexpertiseofbuilt-environmentprofessionalsbeattheforefrontofrebuildingefforts.Wemustchangeourapproachtobuildingtoconsiderhowaswellaswhatwebuild.Ifweintendtrulytobuildbackbetterandleavesafercommunitiesthereneedstobeaseachangeinthewayhumanitarianworkiscarriedout.Itwouldbeterribleifthebil-lionsofdollarsindisaster-relieffundingthataregoingtoHaitionlyleavepeopleatgreaterrisk.

Notes1 “ReducingtheRiskofDisasters—HelpingtoAchieveSustainablePovertyReductioninaVulnerableWorld:ADFIDPolicyPaper”(London:DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment),March2006,1.

2 “BuildingHousestoResistEarthquakes,”postedonlineonFebruary3,2010,atwww.cnn.com/2010/OPINION/02/03/cross.quake.resistant.housing/index.html?hpt=C2,accessedJuly12,2010.Thearticle,aninterviewwithRobinCrossofArticle25,describestheworkoftheorganizationinPakistananditsplanstoassistinrebuildingHaiti.

3 GeorgeOfori,“ConstructionIndustryDevelopmentforDisasterPreventionandResponse,”paperdeliveredatthe2ndInternationalConferenceonPost-DisasterReconstruction:PlanningforReconstruction,Coventry,UK,April22–23,2004,onlineatwww.grif.umontreal.ca/pages/i-rec%20papers/ofori.pdf,accessedJuly12,2010.

4 Emphasisadded;seeSergeTheunynck,“SchoolConstructionStrategiesforUniversalPrimaryEducationinAfrica:ShouldCommunitiesBeEmpoweredtoBuildTheirSchools?”(Washington,DC:InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBank,2009),32,125.

5 SeePaulCollieretal.,Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,2003);andPaulCollier,The Bottom Billion(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,2007)andfurtherbibliographycitedthere.

6 Seewww.undp.org/mdg/basics.shtml.

7 JohnBeynon,Physical Facilities for Education: What Planners Need to Know,FundamentalsofEducationPlanningseries57(Paris:UNESCO,1997),18.

8 PaulGlewweandHananJacoby,“StudentAchievementandSchoolingChoiceinLowIncomeCountries:EvidencefromGhana,”Journal of Human Resources29,no.3(1994):843–64.

9 BillClinton,“WhatWeCanDotoHelpHaiti,NowandBeyond,”Washington Post, January14,2010,onlineatwww.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/13/AR2010011304604.html,accessedJuly12,2010.

Communitybrick-makinginGujarat,India

023

architecture after disaster

part 1

“ we presented an alternative plan that under scored the wisdom of allowing residents to rebuild where they lived.” andrea fitrianto

uplink, Jakarta

learning froM aceh

1.1learning froM aceh

organizationuplink

proJect locale banda aceh, indonesia

(previousspread)BandaAceh,Indonesia,afterthetsunamiof2004

ffBandaAceh,beforeandafterthetsunami

iResidentsreturnedtoAsoenanggroevillage,nearBandaAceh,inFebruary2005.Littleremainedatthesitebutdebris.

fTheIndonesiangovernment’soriginal2005relocationpolicyforthedisplacedcoastalresidentsofBandaAcehrequiredthemtomoveinland.Yellow=high-densityurbanpopulationsRedsquare=existingcitycenterPinksquare=proposednewcitycenter

the background

OnSunday,December26,2004,at8:45inthemorning,apow-erfulearthquake,measuring9.2Mw,struckBandaAcehandothercoastalcitiesintheAcehprovinceofIndonesia.1ThemassivetectonicshiftatthebottomoftheIndianOceandis-placedabodyofwaterthattraveledatthespeedofajetairlinertothecoastsofThailand,Bangladesh,India,SriLanka,Somalia,andelsewhereineastAfrica.ThecityofBandaAceh,some6miles(9.7km)fromthequake’sepicenter,washitthehardest,weakenedfirstbytheearthquakeandthenwashedawaybyawallofwater65feet(20m)high.Therewasnothingleftoftheoriginalcoastlinefor3miles(5km)inland.Thetsu-namidevastatedonethirdofthecity,took128,000lives,anddisplacedahalfmillionpeople.

IarrivedinBandaAceh,justoutofarchitectureschool,threedaysafterthecatastrophe,asamemberofanemergency-responseteamsentbytheaidorganizationUplink.2Wejoinedthelargesthumanitarianeffortinhistory.Initially,ourteamdeliveredfoodandmedicinetorefugeecampsandorganized

stress-reliefactivitiesforadultsandchildren.Later,weworkedonhousingreconstructionandadvocacy.

ThescaleofdestructioninAcehshockedtheworld.Mediacoveragegalvanizedglobalsympathyandsupportfortheaffectedcommunities.Moneystartedpouringin.Thiswasbothgoodandbad.Inaveryshortperiodoftimetherewassomuchmoneythattheprocessofrecoveryquicklybecamecompli-cated,competitive,andsuspect.

Further,itledtheIndonesiangovernmenttobeginverylarge-scaleplanning.AsearlyasFebruary2005theNationalDevelopmentPlanningAgencybannedallconstructionwithinamileandahalf(2.4km)ofthecoastline.Initially,thegovern-mentintendedtorelocatethemassofaffectedpopulationstoanew,moderncitytobebuiltinland,southeastofBandaAceh.Theplanamountedtoastatutoryevictionthatwouldseizethecoastforfuturedevelopment.UplinkcampaignedintenselyinJakartaagainsttheforcedrelocation.Wepresentedanalterna-tiveplanthatunderscoredthewisdomofallowingresidentstorebuildwheretheylived.Thegovernment’splanwassounpop-ularthatitwasdismissedoutrightaftertwomonthsofdebate

andnonewcitywasbuilt. Areplacementpolicywasdeveloped,addressingthemainurbanpopulationbutnotthesmaller,difficult-to-reachvillagesinremoteareasontheurbanperiph-ery.AsaresultinApril2007Misereor,ourdonorpartnerinGermany,askedustostayonandgaveusagranttocarryoutacomprehensive,people-drivenreconstructionprograminthosevillages.

early Measures, back to the kaMpung

TheIndonesiangovernmentcalledonmilitarypersonneltoconstruct190temporarybarracksthroughoutAcehandNiastoreplacetheprovisional,short-livedtentsthathadbeensup-pliedinthefirstweeksoftheemergency.Thearmywasfastandefficientbutpaidlittleattentiontoindividualorcommunityneeds.Siteselection,forexample,wasbasedonfearofnewtsunamisorquakes,andonkeepingpeopleawayfromthecoast.Thebarracksweresoremotethatrefugeescouldnotreturntoworkorhelpreconstitutetheirvillages.Acehisrichin

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naturalresourcesbuthadbeenravagedbytwenty-fiveyearsofcivilwarthathadpittedthegovernment’sarmyagainstGAM,theFreeAcehMovement.3Therewasalonghistoryofcivilianabusesbythemilitary,sothelocalpeopledistrustedthearmyandhadlittlefaithinitsabilitytooverseeaidorrebuildfairly.

Moreover,humanitarianaidwasdeliveredliterallytothefrontdoorofvictims,anactofmisguidedkindnessthatexag-geratedthepeople’ssenseofdependencyandlackofself-confidence.InfactthemajorityoftsunamisurvivorsinAcehwereadultmaleswhowereworkingandthereforenotinthekampungs(villages)whenthetsunamistruck.4Veryfewaidinitiativesrecognizedtheirpotential.Inthefirstyearthesemenweresystematicallyexcludedfromthereconstructionprocess;theirknowledgeofcommunitylifeandtheirphysicalcapacitytorebuildtheirvillageswerelargelyignored.Thiswasterriblyunfortunate,asoneofthemostproductivewaystotemperpsy-chologicaltraumaistoengagepeopleinpositivecollectiveaction.What’smore,cash-for-workprogramswereadoptedbysomeofthelargeragencies,includingOxfam:villagerswerepaidincashforclearingthelandofdebrisandpreparingitforreconstruction.Buttherewasnoviablemonitoringsystem,sofraudandcorruptionwerewidespread.Assoonasvillagerslearnedtospeakthelanguageofmoneytherewasnoreasontoactuallydothework.Itwasasifasecondtsunamihadhitthecommunities.Thecarelessaiddeliveryandmisusedfundsunderminedthesurvivors’confidence,initiatives,andself-reli-ance—nonphysicalassetsthathadbeensparedbythewaves.

Uplink’sapproachtothereconstructioneffortwassignifi-cantlydifferentfromthatofthegovernmentorthelargerinternationalaidagencies.Weworkedwithdisadvantagedcommunitiesalongthecity’swesternperiphery,towardthehillsofUjungPancu.Initially,thezonecomprisedfourteencommunitiesinadjacentvillages.ThesitehadservedasthebasecampforGAMbeforethetsunami,andalthoughthe

insurgentsweregoneitbecameasortofgroundzeroforthoseleftoutoftheformalaidprogram.Thefirststepwastoreturnpeopletotheirkampungsandprotecttheirlandfromappropri-ation,whetherbythegovernmentorbyotherresidentsfromthearea.Weprovidedtentsandfoodandsetupacommunalkitchen.Themajorityofofficialsuppliesweredistributedonlytotheauthorizedcamps,sowedeliveredbasicnecessitieson-siteandencouragedsurvivorstofocusonrebuilding.

building back better

Plannersandpolicymakersliketotalkabout“buildingbackbetter,”butlongintotheprocessatAcehthisphraseremainedmoreasloganthanapractice.Delaysinplanning,especiallyatthegovernmentlevel,inhibitedthesortofspontaneousinitia-tivesthatcanemergefromrealneed.Plannersfollowingaconventionalapproachfailedtoconsiderthattsunamisurvi-vorswantedtoreconstitutetheirlivesastheyhadbeenbefore.Reconcilingthesetwoopposinglogics—buildingbackbetterandworkingquickly,withtherhythmofthepeople—isthemostimportantchallengearchitectsandplannersfaceinpost-disasterreconstruction.

ToovercomethiscontradictionwemovedtheUplinkplan-ningdeskintothefieldandjoinedthevillagers.(WecontinuedtomaintainanofficeinBandaAcehaswell.)Wewerelookingforasolutionon-site.Thefirstfacilitywebuiltthatspringwasinthemiddleofanemptylandscape,atemporarymeunasah,ortradi-tionalcommunitycenter.In2006wereplaceditwiththefirstmajornewpermanentbuilding.Theopeninsidespaceservedasaheadquartersforfurtherplanningbythecommunity.

Thecommunitycenterwasintendedfirstandforemosttohelpmanagetheintakeofaidfromdonorandgovernmentagenciesandforgeasenseofcommongroundamongthe

shelters.Theseprefabswereoftwotypes:one,madefromimportedlightsteelframesandwoodpanels,cost$4,500each.Theother,prefabricatedconcretemodules,weretoobrittletobeearthquake-safe.Andneithermodelincludedinstructionsforpost-emergencyuseordisposal.AsaresultabandonedtemporarysheltersalloverBandaAcehbecamecommon,sadremindersofhoweasyitistowastemoneyandresources.

CommunitylaborprovidedbytheJUBcollectedtsunamidebristimberandrecoveredandstraightenednails,whichUplinkrecycledfornewconstruction.Recyclingencouragesefficiency.Wealsodistributedcorrugatedmetalsheetingandadditionalnails.Infivemonthswebuilt450temporarysheltersintwenty-threekampungswithalmostnoexternalhelp.Ourgoalwastoprovidetemporarysheltersthataddressedarangeofurgentneeds—environmental,economic,psychological,andsocial.

coMMunity surVey and Mapping

Thefirststepinthereconstructionprocessisacommunitysurvey.Communitysurveysandmapsformthebasisofareli-abledatabase.Basemapsarenotonlycrucialforplanning;theyalsohelpavoidfuturelanddisputes,unjustlanddistribu-tion,and,intheworsecases,inadvertentexclusionofthemostvulnerablesurvivors.Accountable,equitablesurveys,basedoncommunityparticipationandcreatedwithtransparency,serveasthebasisforreconstruction.Atypicalcommunitysurveyidentifiesanddescribesallresidentsofthearea.AttheUplinksitelistingthestatusofeachindividualwasslowbecausesomefamilieshadbeenscatteredintobarracks,awayfromtheirhomes.Butoncethelistwascompleteandsignedbyakampung representativeitbecamethereferenceforthenextstep:theneedsassessment.

variouscommunitiesinthearea.Usingthecenterasourbase,onMarch7,2005,weassistedintheformationofanorganiza-tioncalledJaringanUdeepBeusaree,orJUB,a“networkforlivingtogether.”TheJUB,whichlatergrewtoincludetwenty-sixaffectedcommunities,playedanindispensablerole.Notonlydidmembersanimateandcoordinatethereconstructionpro-cess,buttheyactedasacounterparttoourpresenceasanexternal(albeitIndonesian),aidorganization.JUBadministra-torswereelectedlocally,andweeklymeetingsservedasaforumwhereproblemsandsolutionsweresharedandcollec-tivedecisionstaken.Theentireexperiencewasnewtotheparticipants,whohadbarelyknownoneanotherpriortothetsunami.TheJUBalsohelpedrestorethesocialinfrastructurebyestablishingothercommunityorganizations.WequicklylearnedfromtheJUBthat“buildingbackbetter”meansmuchmorethanbuildingbetterfacilities;itisfundamentallyaboutbuildingbetterrelationships.Foralocalcommunitytotakesuchastrongleadershiproleisstillrareindisasterrecovery.

teMporary shelter

Togetherwiththeprovisionalcommunitycenter,Uplinkinstalledtemporaryshelters,madeoutofrecycledmaterials,toreplacethetents.Theseservedasreliableprotectionandhelpedsurvi-vorsmovequicklyfromemergencyaidtorecovery.Theirformandplacementwerechosenwithcommunityparticipation.

Manyofthelargerinternationalorganizations,suchastheInternationalOrganizationforMigration,providedprefabricatedshelterunitsmadeoutsidethecountry.Thesewerenotonlyexpensive,butpreventedaidfrombeingrootedinlocalinvest-ment.Theprefabricateddesignswereadhoc,andtheunitsweretime-consumingtoassemble.IttooktheInternationalRedCrossandRedCrescentsocietiessixmonthstostartdistributing

reconciling these two opposing logics—building back better and working quickly, with the rhythm of the people—is the most important challenge architects and planners face in post-disaster reconstruction.

031031

attentiontoagriculturallands.Houseswereplacedaccordingtothereconstructedpre-tsunamivillageplanbutowners,whilerequiredtorespecttherulesforeasementsandoffsets,werefreetodecidetheiractualposition.

house design

Westarteddesigninghouseswithindividualownersfourmonthsafterthetsunami.Thesessionswereparticularlywellattendedbywomen,whowereveryenthusiasticaboutpartici-patinginthedesignsandworkedcloselywithUplink’sarchitects.Thisdidnothappenbyaccident.Fromtheoutsetwehadbeenespeciallyconcernedtorepresentwomen’sneedsandpriorities.Butinthebeginningonlymenhadattendedcommunitymeetings;womenwereexcluded,andlookedonfromoutsidethemeunasah.Uplinktheninsistedthatwomenbepresentatallcommunitygatherings.Themenresistedbutsoonacceptedtheidea.

SinceIndonesiaispronetotremors,earthquakesafetywasthemainfocusofhousedesign.WithMisereorwebroughtinarchitectsandengineersfromHunnarshaala,atechnical-assis-tanceNGObasedinBhuj,Gujarat,India.TheIndianteamhadhelpedwiththerecoverythereafterabigearthquakein2001,leadingowner-drivenreconstruction.Thesizeofeachhousewasfixedat388squarefeet(36sq.m),thestandardsetbytheAcehreconstructionauthority.Inthefirststagetwolandedhouses(thatis,notraisedonstilts)withdifferentoptionsfortheorientationoftheroofwereapproved.Atthispointresi-dentswereadamantlyopposedtotraditionalstilthouses.Asithappens,thetraditionalwooden-stiltAcehnesehouse,withitsthatchedroof,iswell-adaptedtolocalconditions:itisnotonlyclimaticallyefficient,butearthquake-safe.Thelightconstruc-tionandtheflexiblefootingallowthehousetoswayfreely,

Makingmapsisalsoakeyearlytask.Kampungmapsformedabridgefromthecommunity’spasttoitspost-tsunamifuture.Collectivememoryofthekampungsastheyhadbeenbeforethedisasterbecomespartofthedocument.Individualkampungmembersusedtheirmaptoasserttheirassetsinthevillage.Usingthekampungmapswemadeascaledmapandthenadigitaltopographicsurveyofeachkampungthatrecorded,amongotherdetails,thetracesoffloorsandfounda-tionsofbuildingslargelyerasedbythetsunami.Survivorsthenmarkedoutplotboundaries,usingthesetracesasguides.Thelandsurveyalsoidentifiedplotsthathadbeendeformedorlosttotheseaorthathadbecomepartofanewcoastline.Peoplewhohadlostplotsweregivenlandfromthecommonholdingsofthecommunity.

kaMpung planning and Mitigation

Post-tsunamispatialplanningwasdevelopedwiththeJUB.Ourspatialplansinvolvedprovidingbetteraccesstoroadsandescaperoutesaswellasclearvistastowardtheseaandhill-side.Wewantedtobringthebeautyofthenaturalsettingbackintokampungdailylife.Theconceptforakampungmasterplanwasbasedonthetraditionalprincipleofgampong loen sayang,or“mybelovedkampung,”aphilosophythatempha-sizestheneedtobalanceenvironmental,cultural,andspirituallifebyminimizingtheimpactofhumanpresence.Theprogramthereforeincorporatedtreeplanting,eco-farming,greenarchi-tecture,greenenergy,andasoundsanitationsystem.Amitigationplanwasputinplacetoraiseawarenessoftheriskofnaturalhazards,whichrequiredthatwesometimesmodifythedispositionofthe kampungslightly.Forexample,culs-de-sac wereremovedbuttheroadnetworks,whichhelpmaintainastrongsenseofplace,werepreserved.Wepaidparticular

gThetemporarycommunitycenterinCotLamKuevillagewasanopen-walledshelterwithanelevatedfloor.Weheldourearlyplan-ningsessionshere.

fThenewcommunitycenterwasbuiltinanAcehnesestyleonraisedpylonsandwithasteeplypitchedroof.

iiPrefabtemporaryhousesprovidedin2005bytheInternationalOrganizationforMigrationcontinuetolittertheAcehlandscape.

iMapsandmodelsreconstructingdestroyedvillagesgaveresidentsthechancetoestablishwheretheirhouseshadbeen.

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Still,stilthouseswereahardsell.WeconstructedpilothomesinseveralkampungsandpromotedthemwithprintedT-shirts.Weinvitedcommunitymemberstovisitthemodelhomesandtalkedabouttheiradvantages.Ownersquicklyrealizedthatalthough344squarefeet(32sq.m)wasslightlysmallerthanthepromisedlandedhouse(acost-savingmeasure),theraiseddesignmeantthateachfamilywouldeffectivelygetdoublethefloorspace.

building Materials

Themostdifficultproblemwefacedwashowtoacquirebuild-ingmaterials.Intheaftermathofthedisastertherewasahighdemandforbrick,cement,steel,andwood.ThemarketforwoodriskedputtingterriblepressureontheforestsinAceh,potentiallycausingasecondaryenvironmentaldisaster.Clay,sand,gravel,andstonewereharvestedatratesthatwilltaketwogenerationstoreplace.Uplinkpurchasedwoodfromacer-tifiedworkshopinKalimantan,inIndonesianBorneo.Wealso

absorbingshocks.However,mostpeoplenolongerbuildtradi-tionalhomes.Themodernhouse,withitsmasonrywalls,concretecolumnsandbeams,ceramic-tilefloor,andearthen-tileroof,isacreatureofurbandesign,unfortunatelyoftenfatalduringanearthquakeortsunami.

WorkingwithcommunitymembersUplink’sarchitectsdevelopedfivemodelsofearthquake-safemodernhomes(withdifferentfloorplans)thatwouldsuitpeople’sdailyneeds.Despiteresistancewefeltstronglythatraisedhousesonstiltswerethebestbasicform.Inadditiontotheircapacitytowith-standearthquakes,stilthousesrespondwelltothelocalclimate:airseepsupfromunderthefloor,loweringtheindoortemperature.Raisedhousesareaswell-suitedtofishermanastofarmers—thetwoprincipleprofessionsoftheregion.Thegroundlevelcanbeusedforstorage,asaworkarea,orasaplaygroundforchildren.Itprovidesasemiprivatespacewheremembersofthekampungcangatherandreinforcetheirsenseofneighborhood.Weraisedourhouses61/2feet(2m)offthegroundtokeepthefloordryduringmonsoonsandprotectcoastalhomesfromhighseasonaltides.

iAlanded(ground-level)houseunderconstruction

fAtraditionalAcehnesehouse,raisedonstiltsandwithasteeppeakedroofofthatch

pThefivehousedesignsincludedreinforce-menttoresistearthquakes,suchaswindbracesandconcretefootings.Theywerepub-licizedwithplans,drawings,models,anddescriptionspostedatthecommunitycenter.

ppVillagersmakingstabilizedsoil-cementblocks

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boughteverythingwethoughtwemightneedinbulkearlyintheprocess.Thiswascritical.Theconstructionboomdoubledtheunitcostofhomesinoneyear(from$3,000in2005to$6,000in2006).Asaresultmanyprojectswereforcedtoradi-callydecreasethenumberofhousestheyhadpromised.

Wewerelargelyabletoavoidthepricehikesandkeepthecostofeachhouseundercontrol.Weavoidedcontractors,whooftenusesubcontractors,whichaddsexpensetothepro-cess.Insteadweaskedownerstofindthebestdealsforbuild-ingmaterialsandaccessories.TheJUBprovidedstorageandsetupadistributionsystemwithineachcommunity,makingkampungmembersresponsibleforkeepingmaterialssecureandingoodcondition. Conventionalredbrickstakealotoftimetoprepareandmustbebaked,whichusesconsiderableenergy.AsanalternativeHunnarshaalataughtourcommuni-tiestoproduceastabilizedsoil-cementblockusingasimplepress.Pressurizedblockstakefourteendaystomake,useasmallamountofcement,andareenvironmentallysound.Tooperateapressrequiresfivepeople(oftenwomen),whichassuredtemporaryemploymentwithinthekampungs.Uplinkalsoestablishedcommunity-basedworkshopswhereownersreceivedtraininginsteelrebarconstructionandrehabilitatedsalvagedsteelforreuse.

construction ManageMent

Homeownerswereresponsibleformanagingtheconstructionoftheirhouses.Eachkampungformedacommitteeforhousingconstructionandinfrastructure.ThegrantfromMisereorwasallocatedtofamiliesandpaidintwoparts.Laborcostsweregrantedat10millionrupiahs(about$1,100)andmaterialsratedat26millionrupiahs(about$2,900).Laborcostswerereim-bursedattheendofeachoffourstagesofbuilding:substructure,

wall,roof,andfinishing.Buildingmaterialsweredistributedusingavouchersystem.Asetofcardswasgiventoeachhomeowner;eachcardrepresentedaparticularbuildingmaterialanddefinedthequalityandquantityneeded,asdeterminedbyUplinkexperts.Homeownersgavethecardtotheselectedmaterialsupplieratthetimeofdelivery.Localsupplierswereused,apracticethatincreasedaccountabilityandreinvestedaidinthecommunity.

Inthefirstroundweconstructedonehouseineachvillage.Weusedthepilothouseasasortofclassroomforvillagers.Inthesecondroundthekampungseachtookonconstructionoftwentytofortyhouses,dependingonlocalcapabilitiesandmanagerialskills.Wefoundthatalthoughparticipatoryreconstruction,tiedtocommunitydevelopment,isslowinthebeginning,itpicksupspeedwithexperience,becomesefficientthroughtraining,andissustainablepreciselybecausetimeisinvestedindevelopingexperienceandskillswithinthecommunity.5

Technicalassistancewasessential.Toensurethatthenewhouseswouldmeethighersafetyandqualitystandards,Uplink’syoungengineerslivedinthecommunity.Eachengi-neerwasresponsiblefortwoorthreevillages.Wealsosentarchitectstosuperviseconstruction.Wetrainedhomeownerstoassessthequantityandqualityofbuildingmaterialsandactasmonitorsandbuildinginspectors.Tofurtherensureagoodminimumstandardofskillandknowledge,weofferedtrainingsessionsforbuilders.

what we learned

UplinkturnedtheprojectovertotheindividualcommunitiesinFebruary2007.Wefinished3,500houses,twelvecommunitycenters,andonemosqueintwoyears.Becausewehadinvolvedthecommunityfromthebeginningtherewasnoneedforan

fUplink’sowner-constructedhousesontheAcehcoast

sNewstilthousesinthevillageofLamIsek

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Notes1 ForfurtherreadingseeBrunoDerconandMarcoKusumawijaya,Two Years of Settlement Recovery in Aceh and Nias: What Should the Planners Have Learned?FirstAsia-PacificHousingForum:SocialPractitionersMeettheMarketonHabitatMatters,Singapore,September24–26,2007;andAbdulJaliletal.,The World Bank–Financed Reconstruction of the Aceh Land Administration System (RALAS),InternationalNGOForumonIndonesianDevelopment,2008. TheIndo-AustralianPlatecollideswiththeEurasianPlateattheSundaTrench,tothesouth,offtheshoreofSumatra.Theaccumulatedenergyoccasionallyeruptsasanearthquake.

2 Foundedin2002UrbanPoorLinkage,orUplink,isanetworkofnongovern-mentalandcommunity-basedadvocacyanddevelopmentorganizationsinthirteenIndonesiancities,dedicatedtoimprovingconditionsfortheurbanpoorthroughpublicpolicyandgrassrootsprograms.Ourstrategyisbasedonadvo-cacy,organization,andnetworking.InAcehwedeployedsocial-servicesandtechnicalteamstoassistinimmediatereliefeffortsaswellaslonger-termrecon-struction.Wecommittedourselvestoasmallterritorywithintheareaaffectedbythedisasterandinsistedonaholistic,integratedapproach,fromprovidingfoodandsheltertorehabilitatinglivelihoods.Wehavefoundthatourapproachsavesprecioustimeandresourcestypicallyallocatedforintersectorandinterorganiza-tionalcoordination.Andweclosethegapseparatingtheaidorganizationfromthecommunityitassists.UplinkisaffiliatedwiththeAsianCoalitionforHousingRights,ACHR,andamemberoftheHabitatInternationalCoalition, HIC,aninde-pendent,internationalnonprofitallianceoforganizationsworkingonshelterandhousingissues.In2008ourprojectinAcehwontheDubaiInternationalAwardforbestpracticestoimprovethelivingenvironment.

3 OneofthefewblessingsofthetsunamiwasthepeaceagreementreachedbetweentheIndonesiangovernmentandGAM.Theaccord,whichwassignedinHelsinkionAugust15,2005,significantlyhelpedfacilitateaiddeliveryandotherfieldactivities.

4 TheregionwhereUplinkwasworkingsuffereda23percentmortalityrate,thehighestinthecountry:twowomendiedforeverymankilled;childrenundernineandpeopleoverseventyweredisproportionatelyvictims.

5 AsurveybyUN-HabitatandSyahKualaUniversityinBandaAcehfoundthatUplink’shousesperformedbestinqualityandownersatisfaction.Seewww.unhabitat-indonesia.org/newsletter/07/index.html,accessedAugust21,2010.

6 Savingsgroups,commoninmuchofthedevelopingworld,actasinformalbanksandmaybeempoweredtoofferloans.Typically,thecommunity’smoneyismanagedbydesignatedtrustedmembers.

demonstratesthattrustinthepeople’sresilienceandwisdom—eveninextremecrisis—iscrucialtoanysuccessfulintervention.

local wisdoM

Wearetheseapeoplebornatthesea,weliveatthesea,sowewillstayhereasourancestorsdid.Theywerebornandburiedhere.—Mr.Baharuddin,age45,residentofLamTeungohvillage,Aceh,2005

AtsunamihadstruckAcehoncebefore,in1907,inundatingthesmallislandofSimeulue,offSumatra.Soin2004thepeopleofSimeulueknewthattheyshouldrunintothehillswhentheysawtheseawithdrawsuddenlyandflocksofbirdsfleetowardland.Unfortunately,thepeopleofthetownofLhokSeumaweh,onAceh’snortheastcoast,hurriedtothebeachestocollectthefishstrandedbytherecedingwaters,unawareofthedanger,andweredrowned.Theoraltraditionsofanisolatedandancientpeoplearelosttourbancommuni-tieslikeLhokSeumaweh.IndigenousAcehneseknewthewarningsignsofatsunami,ascertainaspeopleinruralVietnamrecognizeacomingtyphooninthemotionsofthebambootree.

Asweenteranewanduncertainworld,inwhichnatureislesspredictableandclimatechangethreatensmorefrequentandseverenaturalcrises,weshouldaffordtheseancientwaysofunderstandingnaturemorerespectintheprocessesandprac-ticeofdisastermitigation.Forlocalwisdomisindispensable.

exitstrategy.Forexample,managementofbrickandrebarfac-torieswastransferredtotheJUB.

HousinginIndonesiahadtraditionallybeentheresponsibilityofthecommunityuntil,afterthetsunami,thegovernmentandprivatesectortookovertheroleofbuildinghomes.Unlikesomanyoftheinternationalaidagenciesthatsweptinafterthedisaster,weaskedthetsunamisurvivorstohelpdesignandbuildtheirhomeswithourassistance,shiftingtheprocessofpost-disasterreconstructionbacktothepeople.

Thisdecisionmayseemtrivialbutitwascrucialtobeingacceptedandrespectedbythecommunity.OurofficesinBandaAcehwereopentovillagerstwenty-fourhoursaday,sevendaysaweek.Theyweremodeststructures,withoutair-conditioning,thatdoubledasourhome.WeneverdroveSUVsintothekampungs.Ourpersonnelusedroadmotorcy-clesandbicycles.Communitygroupsoftenviewaidagencieswithagooddealofsuspicion.Toovercomethis,successfulreconstructioninvolvesthesurvivorsfromtheoutsetandawell-coordinatedstrategyincludeslocalinstitutions.InspiteofcivilwarAcehhasmaintaineditstraditionalinstitutionsandhasnumerousassociations(religiousandsecular)—suchasfishermen’sgroupsandsavingsgroups—withwhomweformedproductiverelationships.6

Inrealitymasterplansarecumbersome;typically,theyaretooslowandrarelykeeppacewiththeworkaccomplishedontheground.Wefindthatitismoreproductivetodisseminateaveryshortlistofprinciplesthantodesignamasterplan.Weusedcommunitymeetings,popularmedia,T-shirts,posters,andleafletstocommunicateandreiterateUplink’sprinciplesofadvocacy,organization,andnetworking.Intheend,togetherwere-createdinfrastructure,revivedthelocaleconomy,reinforcedsocialrelationsandculturalcohesion,enactedpolicychange,andhelpedregeneratetheenvironmentbyreplantingmangrovesandtrainingvillagersineco-farming.OurexperienceinAceh

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“ our common efforts must serve to assure that…the world’s most vulnerable people can access tools and techniques, ideas and innovations, strate-gies and solutions to build better futures.” —Judith rodin

andrea nield eMergency architects australia, sydney

beyond shelter in the soloMon islands

(previousspread)/iThe2007earthquakeandtsunamileveledtraditionalhomesaswellasconcretestructures.

1.2beyond shelter in the soloMon islands

organizationeMergency architects australia

proJect locale soloMon islandsOnApril1,2007,apowerfulearthquakehittheWestern

ProvinceoftheSolomonIslands;atsunamifollowed.Thirty-sixthousandpeopleweredisplaced,6,000homesdestroyed(8,000damaged),and165schoolswereeitherleveledorleftinneedofextensiverebuilding.Fortunately,mostpeoplewereoutside,sawthetsunamicoming,andtooktohigherground.Onlysixty-fivepeoplewerekilled,anumberfartoolowtoattractinternationalmediaattentionormuchinthewayofout-sideaid.Thecombinedforceofthefloodandthequakealsocausedsevereenvironmentaldamage.Closesttothequake,whichmeasured8.1Mw,RanonggaIslandwasliftedupbysome13feet(4m).Thereefssufferedmajortrauma;therewerelandslidesandflooding;andsubsistencefarmsandfishstocksweredestroyed.Aftershockswerefeltformonths.WhenEmergencyArchitectsAustralia(EAA)arrivedinAprilanxiousresidentswerelivingintentsandsettlements.Incon-trasttothetremendousresponsetothedevastatingIndianOceantsunamitwoyearsearlier,whichhadgalvanizedtheworld,itseemedthatnoonewasgoingtohelptheseremotecommunitiesrecover.

Inastateofemergencyitisnearlyimpossiblefordesperateindividualsandcommunitiestoimagineabetterfutureortocarryoutthedetailedplanningrequiredtorestoreasenseofnormalitytolife.Architectscanbeinstrumentalinhelpingthemmakethetransitionfromtheemergencyphasetolong-termredevelopment.Theycanpromotecomprehensiveplanning,saferbuildingandhabitationpractices,andbetteraccesstocleanwaterandsanitation,whichinturncanleadtoeconomicandecologicalimprovements.

TheaimofEmergencyArchitectsistobringtechnicalaidtovictimsofnaturalandhumandisasters,initiallybuildingforsafetyandsecuringthepopulationbutalsoassistingitinpost-disasterreconstructionprogramsthatfocusonlong-termrecovery.1Ourcoreprinciplesareafundamentalrespectfor

thevaluesandneedsofthecommunitiesweassist;account-ability;andprofessional,well-researchedadvice.Wealsosupport,train,andguidevolunteerprofessionalarchitects,whoworkwithuson-site.Inourviewitisimperativeforarchitectstoincludepost-constructionconditionsintheirareaofresponsi-bility:topromotegoodhealth,recycling,andlocalskills;andtoensuremanageableandcost-effectivemaintenance,materialsupply,andriskmitigation,whichtogetherensureresiliency.Workinginsituationsbroughtonbycatastrophicevents,archi-tectsmustbemorethantechnicians.Wehavethecapacityandtrainingtoprovideacoordinatedvisionifwearewillingtodevelopprojectscollaborativelywiththoseweintendtohelp.

IntheSolomonIslands,EmergencyArchitectsAustraliadevelopedanincrementalresponse,workingwiththegovern-mentandpartnerNGOs.Stepsincludedmapmakingandsurveys,damageassessment,andworkshopdemonstrations,allofwhichleduptodesigningbuildingandconstructingpro-totypes.Wealsoseizedtheopportunitytoinitiateaschoolinfrastructureprogram.Wewantedtoshowvillagersandgov-ernmentministersalikethatwell-conceivedremedieswouldmakecommunitiesstronger—anapproachthatdeepensandbroadensastheprocessdevelopsovertime.Ourarchitectsandtheirtechnicalassistantsremainedinthebackground,givingtheislanderstheknow-howtorebuildforthemselves.Ourlowprofileallowedthemtothinkbeyondtheworld’sneglectandtakepleasureinacquiringself-sufficiency.

preparation

Basedonarapidassessment(completedinthefirstdays),theEAAteamproducedabasicreport,includingsatelliteimagesandnewsfeedsfromvarioussources,outliningthelocationandextentofthedamage.Wethenrecruitedaidprofessionals

whomweknewinthedisasterzoneandAustralianarchitectsandengineerswhohadworkedintheSolomonIslands.SinceatypicalnewhousecostaboutAU$2,000andanislander’saver-ageannualincomeisaroundAU$200,fund-raiserswereheldtogetusunderway.ProjectfundingalsocamefromWorldVision,Caritas,andtheFrenchRedCross.Planninganddesignworkweredonated.2

ForthefirstsixmonthsGizoIsland,theprovincialcapital,wasourbasecampandresearchcenter.Fromhereweevalu-atedthelevelofdestructioninneighboringvillagesandislands,reportedonpopulationsecurity,andidentifiedtheactionstobetakenbythefollow-upteam.Duringtheassessmentperiodwealsotaughtworkshopsonwhyearthquakeshappen,demon-stratedhowtosetoutandsquareupasalvagedbuildingcorrectly,andhowtopullandjackshakenstructuresthatwerehabitablebutleaningseverely.Homeshadfailedbecauseofpoorfoundations;therewasnocross-bracingbetweenthepostsandthebearerswerepoorlytied.Wewroteamanualwithsimplediagramsshowingresidentshowtorestoreabuilding’sbracingandfixitsfootingproblemsbypullingitbackontoitspiles—aparticularlyeffectivemethodforrestoringbuildingsinearthquakezones.Residentsalsolearnedhowtoremoveandsafelyburydamagedasbestossheeting.

Threelocalcarpentersactedascommunityteachersfortheworkshops.TheyweregivenEAAbackupteachingmateri-alsandassistedbythreeEAAarchitects,whofieldedquestions.Constructiontools,donatedbypartneragencies,weretakentoeachsite.Insomecases,wherefeasible,webroughtlumber(takenfromsustainableforestryprojects)toislandswhosetimbertreeshadbeendecimated.Toreachsmallvillagesscatteredovermanyislandsisalogisticalchal-lenge;nevertheless,inthefirsttwomonthswewereabletoreachsomeseventyvillageclustersontwenty-twoislandswithoneormoreoftheseservices.

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beyond surViVal

ForthenewhousesanEAAarchitect,DavidKaunitz,workedcloselywithcommunitiestodesignatypethatcombinesspe-cificculturalrequirements,suchasroof-ridgedetails,withsustainablematerials.Thesehomeshadtobeaffordablenotonlytobuildbuttomaintain.Hedrewupsimplifiedconstruc-tiondrawingswithattachedcuttinglists.Thelistsallowedhomeownerseithertogointothebush,buytrees,andcutthemtosizewithachainsawortoorderthelotfromthelocallumberyard.Womenwerealsogiventraininginbasicconstruc-tiontechniquesandhowtoreaddrawings.Duringconstructionwomencarriedmostofthetoolsandmaterials,includingtimber.Therefore,timbersizeshadtobeadjustedtotheirstrength.Wealsopaidwomentomakelunchatthesite,whichencouragedtheirhusbandstoassistwiththeconstructionandgavefamiliesalittleextraincome.

Togetherwithlocalcarpenterswebuiltdemonstrationhomesonthetwoislandsthathadsufferedtheworstdamage.Thedesignwasasimpleelevated,extendablehousewithanoutsidebushkitchenthatlocalpeoplecouldbuildunderanysiteconditions. Prototypesareimportant,astheyallowustoconfirmwhetherpeoplehaveadequatecuttingandbuildingskillsandiftheycaneasilyobtainandtransportbasicsuppliessuchasnailsandscrews.Prototypesalsohelpusassessthelevelofthecommunity’sdeterminationtorebuild.Forexample,inKeigold,onGizoIsland,thecommunitybuiltafinehousethattheynowuseasacommunityclinic;asimilarstructureonnearbyTapparihadstillnotbeencompletedthreeyearslater.Commitmentandgoodorganizationalstructureinacommu-nityareimportanttoasuccessfulreconstructionprocess.

Therewasanenvironmentaladvantageinreusingallthebuildings,orsalvagedmaterialsfrombuildings,thatwecouldsafelysave,andthiswasapriority.TheSolomonsaretimber

countryandprotectingtheirtreesisessential,soit’sbettertosalvagewoodthantousenewstock.Unfortunately,theplanta-tiontimbergrownintheIslandsismainlyforexport;moreover,thesearenonindigenous,fast-growingsoftwoods.Themajorityoffootingandpilingtimbersforhomeshadtobetermite-resis-tanthardwood,buthardwoodshavebecomescarce.Aftertheearthquakethesituationwasworse.Inadditiontolackofwood,severalcommunitiesdidnothaveenoughroofingleaf(sagopalmfrondsareusedforthatching)ornoneatall.Leafthatchismoresustainable,easiertomaintain,andmuchcoolerthantheinferiorimportedcorrugated-ironroofs.IntheSolomonIslandseverytreeisownedbyamemberofthecom-munity,whosellsitforgeneraluse.Itisthenintheseller’sinteresttoreplacethattree,sowemadeeveryefforttoencour-agethereplantingofindigenoushardwoodandleaftrees.

rebuilding schools

Thisinitialhousingdemonstrationprogramwasasuccess.Oncewehadprovidedtrainingandarchitecturaladvice,otherNGOswithafocusonconstructiondistributedmaterialsforabout6,000homes.AsaresultcommunitiesaskedtheMinistryofEducationandHumanResourcesDevelopment(MEHRD)toallowustoestablishaprocessthatwouldhelpthemreplace165schoolsthathadbeendamagedordestroyed.TheministryestablishedtheReconstructionandRehabilitationProgramtodeterminetheextentofdamageandcostofadditionalsupplies.Theprogrampermittedanycommunitywhoseschoolhadbeendestroyedtoaskfordrawingsforasimilarorappropriatebuildingtype;rebuildingwastobecarriedoutcommunally.Onehundredandtenschoolswereidentifiedforreplacementorrenovation.

WithapprovalfromtheministryweselectedNgari,onGizoIsland,asasiteforprototypeschoolbuildings.Theresidents

sHousedesignsweredevelopedwiththecommunity,combiningspe-cificculturalrequirementswithsustainablematerials.

ssMembersofacommunitycollaborateonrebuilding.

p/aTraditionalhousesintheSolomonsareraisedonpilesandhavesteepthatchedroofsandcurvedeaves.Theyareconstructedoftiedpostsandlocallygrownthatch.Sagopalmorbambooisusedfortheroofandwalls.

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shatteredduringtheearthquake,cuttingthechildren’sfeetastheyescaped.Soinsteadofglass,thenewclassroomwindowswerewovenofpalmleafusingtraditionalpatternsandtechniquesnormallyfoundinmats. Theweaveisstrongandflexibleinhighwindsandprovidesamellowlightandgoodcross-ventilation.Forschooldormitoriesweemployedwoodenshuttersinsteadofwovenwindowstomaketheroomssomewhatmoresecure.Roomwallsindormswerewoventoallowbothairflowandpri-vacy.Familiesinthevillageshavenowadoptedshuttersaspartoftheirlocalvernacularstyle.

InTatiana,onGizoIsland,brightlycoloredhouseswerebuiltforteachers,andthese,too,usedwooden-slatshutters,woven-matwindows,andsteepwoven-leaformetalroofs,andwereraisedonstilts.Thevillagehadcompletelydisappearedinthetsunami,soresidentswerereluctanttoreturnuntiltheyunder-stoodthattheirnewhomeswouldbebuiltonhigherground.

Planningfortheschoolprogramwascompletedinearly2010.TheMinistryofEducationisnowpreparedtorollout800newschoolsthroughoutthearchipelago.Thisisaremarkableexampleofhowdisasterresponsecangeneratearesilientpro-gramforanentirecountry.Undernormalcircumstancestherewouldnothavebeentheimpetusortheinternationalfundingtogoforwardwithsuchalargeproject.

latrines

Movingvillagerstohighergroundmeanttheycouldnolongerusethebeachasapubliclavatory.Safeandsanitarytoiletshadtobebuiltandacceptedinthenewvillages.Forinstance,onRanonggaIsland theearthquakehadsentthevillageofMondointotheocean,sothereplacementvillageofKeigoldwassitedinthecenteroftheisland,whereresidentsnolongerhadaccesstotheseaforwashing.InJune2009EAAbegan

therewereplanningtotransformtheirprimaryschoolintoacommunityhighschool,soitwasagoodmomenttobuildanewstructure.Theschoolhadanexcellentheadmistress,awellorga-nizedParentsandCitizensAssociation,anactivelyinvolvedcommunity,andanexcellentsiteforexpansion.

Tobeginwith,ademonstrationschoolwasbuiltbyfourEAAarchitectswiththelocalcommunity.Theyfinisheditintwelveweeks,inDecember2008.In2009twomoreEAAarchitectswereaddedtotheteamanddormitories,adininghall,andteachers’houseswerebuiltoverthecourseofsixmonths.Localcarpenters,trainedbytheteam,becameprojectmanag-ersforsubsequentconstruction.

Subsequently,classroomshavebeenbuiltinover100schoolsandmorethanfiftydormitoriesareinprogressorslatedforconstruction;newschoolscontinuetobeerected.

Wewerewellawarethatthesecommunitiesmightagainfaceextremeeventsontheirown,sotheprototypesweredesignedtowithstandearthquakesandothernaturaldisasters.Thedesignsaccommodatedtraditionalbuildingtechniques,localculture,andavailablematerials.Aspartofthedesignprocess,weheldworkshopswithstakeholders,includinglocalengineersinHoniara(thenationalcapital)andintheWesternProvinceregionaloffice.AvolunteerdesignteaminBrisbanesketcheduptherecommendationsmadeinthesemeetingsandaddedmaster-planningbestpractices.Thesketchdesignswerethenreassessedinworkshopswiththedirectorsoftheschools.

TheSolomonscomprise922islands(one-thirduninhab-ited)scatteredover460,000squaremiles(nearly750,000sq.km)ofocean,andwithacombinedlandareaof11,200squaremiles(29,000sq.km).Thearchipelagois1,200miles(nearly2,000km)fromthecoastofAustralia.Inshort60percentofthecostofmaterialsisintransportation.Ourdesignshadtouseasfewimportedmaterialsaspossible.Theimportedlouveredglasswindowsthathadpreviouslybeenutilizedinschoolshad

gAteamofcommunitymemberspullsanewthatchedroofintoplaceonaboys’dormitoryinNgari.

i/ffWeavingtheroofforadormitorytakesmanyhands.

f/dDormitoriesfeaturereinforcedbracingforstabilityinanearthquake,andlouveredwindowswithwoodenslats.

sInTatianaroofleafhadbeendestroyed,socorrugatedmetalwasusedforateachers’house.

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done?Arethereimprovementsthatthecommunitynowfeelsshouldbeincorporatedintothedesigns?

Aprogramisnotconsideredreadytohandofftothelocalcommunityuntilthesequestionshavebeenansweredsatis-factorily.Ifsomecomponentscallforimprovement,theprocessforaddressingthemishandledbyEAAstaffwithalocalmanager.Forexample,thecommunitiespreferredthatschoolsnothavelargeverandas,sothatpupilswouldnotloiterthereafterclasses.

EAAworksinmanypost-disastersitesworldwide.Ourproj-ectintheSolomonsoffersaparticularlyclearexampleofhowacollaborationwithlocalpeoplecantakeholdandevolve.Melanesiansstillendureasubsistenceeconomy,withfewamenitiesandnoelectricity.Butdespitethedepredationsofstormsandlogging,treesarestillabundantthere.Thepeople,whohavetheskillsanddesiretobeself-sufficient,werewilling,engagedpartnersineveryaspectofthereconstructionprocess.Theycame,withfirmopinions,fromallsectorsofcommunitylife.InNgari,forinstance,mothersthoughttheirchildrenshouldtakeprideintheirnewschool,sotheydesignedandsewednewuniforms.AsweworkedwesawtheParentsandCitizensAssociationbecomingstrongerandmoreactiveasaresultofthecollaborativeprocess.

grassroots participation

Aidisonlyaseffectiveastheextentofgrassrootsparticipation.Noreconstructionprocessshouldbeundertakenwithoutcon-sultingandworkinglocallywithcommunities—notonlyattheoutsetbutthroughoutaproject.Workingthiswaywelearnedatremendousamountaboutlocalbuildingpracticesandtradi-tions,andabouttherichassociationandsenseofownershipSolomonIslandershavewiththeirenvironment.Wealso

avillagelatrine-buildingprogramattherequestofKeigold’sparticularlyproactivecommunity.Theconstruction,whichwefundedwithanAustralianengineeringnonprofitcalledPartnershipHousing,tookthreeweeksandinvolvedfifteenstudentsfromtheUniversityofQueenslandandtwofromLae,PapuaNewGuinea.Thestudentshelpedbuildfourteenback-ventedlatrines.RanonggaIslandcommunitieshavesincetakenovertheprogram;todatefifty-fourlatrineshavebeenbuiltandthedesignshavebeenmadeavailable.Theimpor-tanceofthehygieneprogramshouldnotbeunderestimated:somethingassimpleashandwashingradicallyimproveslocalhealth.Apaidprojectmanager,thelocalalderman,wasgivenane-mailaccounttokeepusupdatedontheproject’ssuccessandanyproblems.Wehavefoundthataccesstomodernmeansofcommunication(theInternet,mobilephones)isessentialforindependentlocalaction.

Monitoring and eValuation

ItisEAAfieldpracticetokeepateamworkingcontinuouslyinacommunityduringaprogramtoensurethatbestbuildingprac-ticesarelearnedandmaintained.Wealsowanttobesurethatthecommunityhasareferencepointforquestionsandcanmakechangestotheprototypeswehavedesignedthatarepertinenttotheirlifestyles,whilestillbeingsafe.Thispracticealsomaintainsmomentum.Eachteamevaluatesitscompletedprojectbeforeleaving.Aformalevaluationanswersasetofquestions:arethebuildingssuitablefortheiruse?Havetheysurvivedweather,insectattack,andseismicevents?Aretheywellbuilt?Aretheycost-effective?Isthecommunitymotivatedtocontinuethereconstructionprocess?Areallthematerialsusedsustainable?Canwemakethetimbersizessmallerorreducetheamountoftimberneeded?Ismaintenancebeing

p/ppOneofthelatrinesbuiltforthenewvil-lageofKeigold.Thesearesimplestructures,placedatashortdistancefromhousing.

sStudentscelebratetheirnewschoolwithnewuniforms,hand-sewnbytheirmothers.

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schoolstoteachgoodengineeringandconstructionpracticescompoundedtheproblem.Asmanyas300,000peoplediedandmuchofthebuiltenvironmentinandaroundthecityofPort-au-Princewasdestroyed.Notably,manyofthetimberbuildingssurvived.

constructiVe aid

OurworkintheSolomonIslandshastaughtusthatevolving,collaborativeeffortstorebuildcommunitiesafterdisastercanleadtosustainedchange.Forthistohappenwemustrememberthatcommunitiesarelivingsystemsthatmayshiftdirection.Oneoftheadvantagesofarchitectsworkingasvolunteersandadvocatesinthecontextofemergencies—ratherthanasacommercialenterprise—isthatwecanactindependentlyandtransparently,withoutourownorin-countrygovernmentscoercingusintopoliticallyexpedientresults.Ourroleasarchi-tectsistoadvocateforpeople,todevelopalternativesthatpromotesafetyandhealth,andtopushforcollectivepoliticalaction.Aslongasinternationalassistanceremainsepisodic,withexternalteamsrollinginwhenthereisacrisis,therewillbelittlemoneyandevenlesspoliticalwilltoinvestinmitigatingpotentialhazardsbeforetheyhappen.Greateremphasismustbeplacedonself-management,independence,andlocalability.

OurexperienceintheSolomonshasforcedustoleavebehindearliermodelsandprinciplesthatwehadthoughtwouldalwaysguideourwork.AsaresultEAAhasanewrelationshipwithourneighbors.We,too,haveevolvedwiththosecommunitieswithwhomwehavehadtheopportunityandpleasuretowork.

risk.Soweworktowardthesegoals.ButEmergencyArchitectsisitselfdependentonthewillingnessofastateornationalgov-ernmenttoaskforexternalprofessionalassistance.CountriessuchasIndiaandChinaareinternallyself-sufficientandgener-allyabletomanagedisasterswithoutoutsideassistance.Butsmaller,poorernationsrequirehelp,especiallyinzoneswherecatastrophicweatherisfrequentbutinsurancevirtuallyunheardof.Ourexperiencehastaughtusthattheonlywaytohelppro-motesafetyistoreinforcethecapacityofthesecommunitiestorebuildindependently.

Making preVention work

Themostnotablechallengewefaceinourworkis,surpris-ingly,notaquestionofmaterialsortechniques,butthefundamentallackofcollectivememory.Themagnitudeanddevastationofevenalarge-scalenaturaldisasterisforgottenwithinagenerationortwo.Tocounteractthisforgetfulness,buildingskillsandconstructionmethodscanberitualizedtokeepmemoryalive.InhighlyseismicJapan,theShikinenSengu(Reconstruction)Festival,inwhichtheIseShrineisrebuiltcompletely,isheldeverytwentyyears.Theshrineisthusrebuilt,usingthesamemethodsemployedsincethesev-enthcentury,ineverygeneration.Repeatedlyrebuildinganearthquake-resistantstructure,inthiscaseanimportantreli-giousartifact,ensuresthattheseessentialskillsremaininthecommunity.InHaiti,wherefewsevereearthquakeshaveoccurredinthepast200years,mostpeoplehadforgottenthetolltheycantake.Earthquake-resistantbuildingtechniques,particularlyintimber,werereplacedwithreinforcedconcrete.InJanuary2010thepowerfulearthquakethatstrucktheislandwasrenderedfarmorelethalbypoorconstructionandcorruptpracticesthatignoredearthquakeloads;alackof

buildingtoorisky.Obviously,subsistencecommunitiescannotpaypremiums,letaloneconformtobuildingstandards,manyofwhichareincompatiblewiththeirbuildingmethodsanduseofmaterials.What’smore,qualitymaterialsareofteneitherunavailableorfartoocostly.Ingeneral,standardsarewrittenforamodernsupplychainandstandardizedenvironments.

ThecommunitiesoftheSolomonIslandsusetried-and-testedhistoricalmethods;sometimesthesearereliableandwelladaptedtotheenvironment,butsometimestheyarecorruptedbyinappropriatecolonialistmaterialsandpracticesorleadtoenvironmentaldegradation,suchasrampantdeforestation.Introducedmaterialssuchasasbestoshavebeenusedwidely,withnorecognitionofthehealthriskstheypose.Thewidespreaduseofconcreteisalsoproblematic.Concreteisadifficultmaterialthatrequiresadequatecuringandcorrectlyplacedreinforcement.Itisveryeasy,tooeasy,touseinwaysthatmakeitweak,unreliable,anddangerous,yetithastheappear-anceofgreatdurability.Inthisregionitispopularbecauseitischeapandassociatedwithwesternstandardsofliving,butmostbuilderslacktheeducationandtrainingtobuildsafelywithit,letalonetoanearthquake-resistantstandard.

ThisproblemisnotconfinedtotheSolomonIslands,ofcourse.Agreatpercentageoftheworld’spopulation,particularlyinremotelocations,buildswithoutguidanceoraccesstospecial-izedexpertiseandthenfendsforitselfinanemergency.Inalarge-scalecatastrophenationalandeveninternationalsup-portisoftenshort-livedandthesolutionsofferedshort-term.Inrespondingtodisastersweconstantlyfaceadifficultquestion:whenisitcriticaltoassistaffectedpeoplesandwhencanthecommunityrecoveronitsown?Theissueofdependencyisvexing:outsideaidmayitselfretardthegrowthofself-sufficiencyandbeanunderlyingcauseoffailuretodevelop.Inmyviewriskpreventionandmitigationarethesolemeanstoenablecommunitiestoovercomecyclesoffierceweatheranddisaster

uncoveredwidespreaduseofdangerousbuildingmaterialssuchasasbestos,leftbehindbycolonialpowersandgrosslypromotedbyreligiousorganizations,aidagencies,andcom-mercialcompanies.Beforethecolonialperiodtherehadbeengoodbuildingtraditionsthatinvolvedbracingandtyinghomeswithbushropetoresistearthquakes,butthetraditionhadbeenlost.Tosuccessfullycompleteareconstructionproject,onemustteaseoutallofthisinformation,andtakeitintoaccountinbuildingdesignandexecution.Thehistoryofbuild-ingintheSolomonIslandsexplainswhyrecentstructuresfailsoofteninanareapronetonaturaldisasters.

Astrongcivilsocietyisalsocriticaltoasuccessfulprogram.Moreandmore,empoweredcommunitiesintheAsia-Pacificaredemandingtherighttotakeresponsibilityforandpartici-pateinthereconstructionprocess,withsupportfromtheirgovernment.EmergencyArchitectsAustraliahasanimportantroletoplayinthismovementtoself-sufficiency,beyondsimplyhelpingworkupdesignsorassistinginrebuilding.Wemustalsobeadvocates,expertsassistingthesecommunitiestofindviable,safe,pertinentsolutionsthatimprovetheirqualityoflife—justaswewouldforpayingclients.

rebuilding

Foragencieslikeours,whichworktoreconstructthebuiltenvironmentindisasterzonesaswellastoencouragelong-termrecoveryanddevelopment,theworldissplitintwo:therearecountrieswithdisasterinsuranceandthosewithoutit.Historically,insuranceisonlyavailable,evenpossible,incountrieswithplanninglaws,legalizedland-ownershipsystems,andminimumbuildingstandards,whicharenotonlywell-establishedbutimplementedandenforcedwithinspections.Withouttheseprerequisitesmostinsurancecompaniesconsiderinsuringany

a great percentage of the world’s population, particularly in remote locations, builds without guidance or access to specialized expertise and then fends for itself in an emergency.

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NotesThequotationonp.41isfromJudithRodin,President’sLetter,inSmart Globalization: Benefiting More People, More Fully, in More Places(NewYork:TheRockefellerFoundation,2008),andonlineatwww.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/03a6dd2d-2292-466e-9a21-8e92af518d58.pdf,accessedDecember28,2010.

1 Foundedin2005EmergencyArchitectsAustraliaisanaccreditednonprofitagencyandasignatorytotheAustralianCouncilforInternationalDevelopment(ACFID)CodeofConduct,withtax-deductiblestatusasaninternationalorganiza-tion.WerespondtodisastersintheAsia-PacificregionandarepartofalargernetworkofEmergencyArchitects,togetherwithArchitectesdel’Urgence,France,andEmergencyArchitectsCanada.Weprovidehumanitarianassistanceintimesofdisaster,armedconflict,populationdisplacement,andprotractedcrisisaccordingtointernationallyagreed-uponstandardsandprinciplesforethicalpractice.

2 IwouldliketothankmycolleaguesontheEAAarchitecturalteamintheSolomonIslands:forrapidassessment,PatrickCoulombel(Architectesdel’Urgence)andNielsenWarren;forearlyschooldesign(MEHRD–EUStabex),PeterBraunandAntoinetteWickham(programdirectors)andGuyLuscombe(EAA);DavidKaunitz,in-countryprojectdirectorandworkshoparchitect;work-shoparchitectsJonCrothersandTriciaHelyar;workshoppartneragenciesWorldVision,theFrenchRedCross,andCaritas;andfortheschooldrawingteams,JamesDavidson(Brisbane)andDavidRapaport,NicolasEwald,SimpsonAssociates(Sydney).

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“ getting the affected families involved in creative work had a positive effect on their mental health after the loss and grief they had experienced.”

sandra d’urzoarchitect and post-disaster shelter adVisor, paris

news froM the teardrop island

1.3news froM the teardrop island

organizationsoxfaM great britain and gtz tsunaMi housing support proJect

proJect locale sri lanka

(previousspread)AmanlooksoutofhisdestroyedhouseonthesouthcoastofSriLanka,soonafterthetsunamiofDecember2004.

iAwomanplacesasolarpanelontheroofofhertransitionalshelterontheruraleastcoastofSriLanka,nearTagalle.Allfamiliesreceivedsolar-poweredlanternstoimprovelighting.

AfterthetsunamiofDecember2004Ispentnearlythreeyears,fromFebruary2005throughDecember2007,ontheso-calledTeardropIsland,SriLanka,offthesoutherntipofIndia.Myeyeshaverandomlyrecordedmomentsandchangesthatoccurredduringthisdramaticperiodofdestructionandrebuilding.Now,in2010,themud-coloroceanoftheearlydayshasturnedagainintoaturquoisesea,tonsofbricksandmortarhavebecomenewschoolsandhomes,governmentshavechanged,andmostoftheaidagencieshavelefttown.

MymissionstartedinTangalle,asmallvillagenestledintothesouthcoastoftheisland,wherethetsunamihadstruckhard.AsashelteradvisorforOxfamGreatBritain,alargeNGOwithalong-termpresenceinthecountry,Iwasaskedtodevelopashelterstrategyintheimmediateaftermathofthetsunami’svastdestruction,whichaffectedsome900,000SriLankans.Atthatpointfamilieswerelivingunderplasticsheetsorintents;ourtaskwastoofferthemmorecomfortableandlastingalternatives—notonlyinTangallebutthroughoutthesoutherncoastalregion.Weknewthatwefacedanunprece-dentedcollectiveeffort.Toprovidelonger-termhousingweneededtoidentifysuitableavailablelandonwhichtobuild,buttherewerecomplexproperty-ownershipissues,thescaleofdestructionwasterrible,andthegovernmenthadimposedano-buildbufferzoneextendingasmuchas650feet(200m)inlandfromthesea.Itwasnecessary,therefore,toestablishatransitionalshelterphasethatwouldbridgethegapbetweentheemergencyreliefprovidedinthefirstdaysandweeksandpermanenthousingandsettlementreconstruction,whichwecouldexpectwouldtakeyearstocomplete.

Thestrategywastoworkalongsidecommunities,prioritizetheirneedsandaspirations,andidentifythemostvulnerablegroupstoassistinthefirstphase.Thismeantworkinghandinhandwithprovidersofothertechnicalaspectsofrelief,suchaswater,sanitation,andhealthcare.Respondingtosocial

furniture.Animagesurfacesinmymemory:Sumangali,ayoungSinhalawoman,atfirstquiteshyduringthesehands-onconstructionsessions,tellingmeexcitedly,“Before,Ididn’tknowhowtoholdasaw;nowIcanbuildmyownhouse!”Isoonrealizedthatgettingtheaffectedfamiliesinvolvedincreativeworklikethishadapositiveeffectontheirmentalhealthafterthelossandgrieftheyhadexperienced.

Duringtheconstructionofthepilotshelters,weproducedavideoinpartnershipwithalocalSriLankantrainingagency.Initordinarypeopletelltheirstorieswhiletheylaythefoundationoftheirnewlives.Oncefamilieswereinstalledintheirsheltersweshowedthedocumentarysothattheycouldseewhattheyhadgonethrough,whattheyhadachieved,howtheywerecol-lectivelyhealing.Iwasworriedthatourfilmwoulddisappointthem,butitwasarealsuccess.

Inasecondphase,fromMarchthroughJuly2005,Oxfambuiltalmost2,000transitionalshelterunitsinvariouslocationsalongtheeastandsouthcoastsoftheisland.Akeytotheproj-ectwastoavoidaone-size-fits-allapproach;wedevelopedtailoreddesignsforfamiliesofdifferentsizesthatrespondedtovaryingclimatesandtourbanandruralenvironments;designsalsoadaptedtotheparticularskills,expertise,andmaterialsavailableineachcommunity.Itmadesense,forinstance,tousethatchedroofswherepeopleknewhowtoworkwithcadjon(coconutleaves).Insomeplacescementbrickswereveryexpensive,whilefired-claybrickswerelocallyproducedandcheaper.Changingtheconstructiontypologieshadlittleimpactonthedeliveryscheduleaslongaseveryone—Oxfam,thelocalauthorities,andthebeneficiarycommunities—agreedtothesechoicesinadvance.Overall,wewereabletodiversifytheapproach,beflexible,andreducecosts.

Buttherealkeywastolistentothedisplacedfamiliesandempowerthemtomakethechoicestheypreferred.Wewere

concerns,respectingculturalvalues,andstrengtheningindig-enousandlocalskillswerenolessimportanttotheprocess.

TheOxfamteamonsiteincludedarchitectsandengineers.WestartedapilotprojectinTangalleinwinter2005,construct-ingseventeentransitionalsheltersforfamiliesconsideredthepoorestofthepoor—peoplewithnofriendsorrelativestostaywithimmediatelyafterthedisaster.Thepilothomeswerebuiltinthemainpublicparkofthevillage,whichenabledthecommu-nitytomaintaintieswiththeneighborhoodandaccessservicesandsupport.Thesitewasprominentlyvisible,theperfectshow-caseforareplicablemodel.Overthecourseofthefirsttwomonthscommunitymeetingswithresidentsandlocalauthoritiesgaverisetothefinaldesignandtheinitialgroupofhouses.Weoptedforamixoftimber,corrugated-metalsheetroofing,cementblocks,andothermaterials,keepinginmindthatallele-mentsweremeanttobedismantledandreusedinthefutureforpermanenthousing.Timberjointswereboltedandfloortilescouldbeeasilyremoved.Thegovernment’sshelterpolicyhadalsoestablishedthatnosolidfoundationcouldbeexcavated,andthatthecostsofmaterialsandlaborshouldnotexceed$600perunit.Inadditiontotheshelters,familiesweregivensolar-poweredlanternsandsmokelessstoves(designedtoreducefueluseandthehealthhazardsofcookingsmoke).

Althoughprofessionalengineersandsitesupervisorsensuredqualitycontrol,alargepartoftheconstructionworkwascarriedoutbythefamiliesthemselves.Additionalskilledlaborcamefrommembersofthecommunity.Weofferedon-the-jobtraining,especiallytowomen,sothattheycoulddevelopnewskills.Trainingnotonlyhelpsprovidefutureincomebutgivespeopleasenseofprideandcontrol,whichisdesperatelyneededafteradisaster.Wealsoestablishedincentivesthatencouragedfamiliestotransformthesheltersintohomes.Forexample,weprovidedatoolboxandtrainingsessionstoassistresidentstoproducetheirownrough

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theretoprovidetechnicalguidanceandspecificadvice.Villagedevelopmentcommitteesplayedanimportantroleinmobilizingcommunitiesandbringingtheirvisionforward.Communityinvolvementinsiteplanningreducedtheriskthatnewvillageswouldbeabandonedasunusable,whilecarewastakenthatsiteorientationwouldrespectthecrucialrulesofVastuShastra(traditionalHinduprinciplesofdesignandarchi-tecturalalignment).Althoughonlytemporarysolutions,thesesheltershoused peopleforalmosttwoyears.Thus,someofthechoiceswemadeintheearlydayshadanimpactonthelong-termqualityoftheirlives.

Despiteencouragingresults,questionswereraisedcon-cerningtheoverallprogram:ifOxfam’sapproachwascorrect,whydidwebuildonly2,000transitionalhomesoutofthetotal50,000neededinthecountry?Couldwehavebuiltfaster?Weretherenopreexistingmodelsoftimberhousesthatwecouldhaveadaptedtogainprecioustimeduringtheemergency,ratherthandevotingextensivetimetodesignandplanning?Inshort,whydowereinventthewheelateachdisaster,whenshelterneedsaresopredictable?

InSeptember2007,hopingtofindsomeconcreteanswers,IreturnedwithateamfromOxfamtoTangalleandotherlocationswherewe—andmanyotherorganizations—hadbuilttransitionalshelters.1Wewereaskedtodoasurveyofhousingschemesthatwouldgiveabroadoverviewofthebuildingtechnologiesusedbythevarioussuppliersofhousingandanalyzethemfromenvironmental,financial,social,andculturalperspectives.

ThevillageparkhadbeenclearedofthetemporaryhomesandIwasheartenedtoknowthattheresidentshadmovedontomorepermanenthouses.Theentirecoastlineinthesouthhadchangedshape.Notonlyinthedesignatedzones,buteverywhere,smallandlargerelocationsiteshadsprunguphaphazardly,withendlessrowsofhouses—someintendedtobetemporary,othersmorepermanent.Thesewereforpeople

whohadlivedinsidethebufferzonebeforethetsunamiandwerenotpermittedtoreturn.Thosewholivedfartherfromtheseahadrebuilttheirownhomes,incorporatingtheshapesandcolorsthatdistinguishthearchitectureofthisisland.

Unfortunately,manyoftheresettlementhousesintheapprovedareaslookedemptyandabandonedinonemanneroranother.Familiesforcedtomovebeyondthebufferzonehadignoredthebanandreturnedtotheirshacksalongthecoast,wheretheycouldkeepaneyeontheirboatsandnets,insteadoflivingfarfromthesea.Thenicelybuilthousesthatwehadstruggledtoputinplacewerekeptasadowryfordaughtersortreatedasanassetthatcouldberentedout,buttheywerenotforlivingin.

Lifeintheregionwasbackagain.Thepapayavendorsdis-playedtheirfruit,therestlesstuc tucdriversstrolledupanddowntheGalleRoadthathugsthecoast,thepungentscentsofgingercurriesanddriedfishdriftedintheair,andyoungcouplesmettowalkalongtheshore.Itsurprisedmetoseegroupsofboyspeelingofftheirschooluniformstoheadforaswimintheocean—somethingtheywouldnothavedaredtodotheyearbefore.

MyreturncoincidedwiththeworkthatGTZ,aGermanaidanddevelopmentorganization,wasdoingtosupporttheSriLankannationalandlocalauthorities.2Itsobjectivewastoassistrelevantagenciesandofficialstobecomemoreeffec-tivemanagersofthereconstructionprocess,raisetheleveloftheirexpertise,andensurethattheywouldbebetterpreparedforfuturedisasters.FromtheoutsetlocalgovernmentagentshadbeenoverwhelmedbythehundredsofNGOsthathadpouredintothecountryfromallovertheworldwithlittlecoor-dinationoroversight.Thesehadenthusiasticallybegunbuildingallalongthecoast,eachaccordingtoitsownstan-dardsornostandardatall.Thelocalauthoritieshadnoideawhatwasgoingon;nordidthevariousaidgroupscoordinate.

Manyresettlementhouseswereabandonedbecausetheyweretoofarfromthecoastline.

why do we reinvent the wheel at each disaster, when shelter needs are so predictable?

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Settlementsnamedafterdonorssprangupeverywhere:theIrishVillageandtheTurkishVillagebecamebrandnamesratherthannewneighborhoods.

Notonlytheprincipalinternationalaidagencies,butalsowell-meaningbankersfromEuropeandtheUS,SriLankanmanufacturers,religiousfoundations,andothergroupswithnoexpertiseorexperienceindevelopmentworkwerepouringmoneyintothecountrybywayoftheflourishingreconstructionindustry.Ofcourse,theyprovidedtsunamisurvivorswithnewhomes,butitbecamecrucialtoestablishcommonstandardsthatwouldalsoensureequityamongthehavesandhave-nots.Toassureanequitableresponsewithinanexistingpopulationinadisaster-affectedregionistheconstantdilemmaofpost-disasterwork.Inordertoavoidconflictwithinacommunity,itisessentialtobalancetheassistancegiventhosedirectlyaffectedbythecrisiswithassistancefortheirneighbors,whoareperhapsaffectedonlyindirectlybutinmostinstancessuffer,nonetheless,frompoorlivingconditions.Oursurveywasintendedtoassessthequalityofthewiderangeofhousingstocknowinplace.TheteamincludedaSriLankanarchitect,aGermanengineer,andSriLankanarchitecturestudents.Wereviewedtwenty-fiveexamplesindepthandproducedacata-loguethatmappedhousesbuiltwithconventionalconstructiontechniques,othersthathadintroducedearth-basedmaterials,thosewithmetal-framestructures,andthosethatcombinedprefabricatedelementswithwhatevermaterialswereavail-able.ThesurveywasintendedtoassistSriLanka’snationalauthoritiestojudgewhatwasworkingwellandwhatwasnot,advocateappropriatebuildingtechnologiesforspecificregions,andencouragetheirusebeyondtheimmediatepost-tsunamirebuildingefforts.

Ouranalysiswasinformedbyvisualchecks,desktopreviewsoftechnicaldrawings,anddirectinterviewswithengi-neers,sitesupervisors,contractors,andprogrammanagers.

Thisallowedustocross-checkinformationandgarnerthesup-portoftheresponsibleagencies,whowerekeentosharetheirapproachesandwillingtoacknowledgeweaknesses.Forexam-ple,housesbuiltbyafamousAsianarchitect,whichcombinedatimberframestructurewithgood-qualitystabilizedsoil-cementblockasinfill,weretechnicallyfantasticbutculturallyalien;theywererejectedbytheirresidentsandimmediatelysoldorrented.Whensomerecipientsofsuchaidareabletoturntheirdonatedhomesintofinancialassets,thiscancreateunforeseentensionsandconflictswithinacommunity.Thedesignhadanopen,flexibleplan—aclosedcoreforkitchenandsanitationwithroomsdividedbyseveralslidingpanels,whichimprovednaturalventilation.ButthefamiliesthehouseswerebuiltforcomefromaMuslimfishingcommunity,andthesehouseswerewhollyinappropriate—“Tooopen,madam!”ahomeownerfranklyadmittedtome.Thebeautyandbenefitsofthesolutionweredoomedquicklytodisappearbehindtheconfinedmasonrywallsthateachfamilywouldalmostcertainlyaddtomakethedesignsuitabletotheirlifestyle.

Anotheragencyhadchosentousereinforcedprefabricatedpolystyrenepanelsassembledonsite,aCanadiantechnologythatisrapidtobuild,well-insulated,andcost-effectivewhencomparedwithmorelabor-intensivetechniques.Here,theproblemsstartedwhensandandcementmortarwereappliedtothepanels—anormalstepintheconstructionprocess.Itwouldhavebeeneasiesttospraythepanelsusingaspecialmachine,butthepebblesandchipsthatconstitutedthelocallyavailablemixtureweretoobigfortheimportedmachinerytohandle.Thetechnologywasnewandnoonecouldyetguaran-teeitsperformance,sorepair,care,andmaintenancewererealconcerns.Intheendpeoplewhowishedtoaddaroomorcutanewwindowhadtodoitbyusingatraditionalinfillsystem.Thecapacityofthedesigntoconvertfromtransitionaltoperma-nenthousingwasthereforeverylimited.

f“Microwaveovens”:transitionalsheltersinBatticaloa,builtwithclimaticallyinappropriatematerialsandonflood-proneland

sStudyingtheplansofasaferpermanenthomeunderconstructioninSriLanka

in order to avoid conflict within a community, it is essential to balance the assistance given those directly affected by the crisis with assistance for their neighbors, who are perhaps affected only indirectly but in most instances suffer, nonetheless, from poor living conditions.

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Aswesurveyedtheareaitwasclearthatalothadbeenaccomplishedintwoyears:thecommitmentstointernationalsolidaritybyaplethoraofagenciesandNGOshadproducedconcrete,visibleresults.Atthesametimeacloselookattwenty-fivedifferentprojectsrevealedthatthereconstructionprocessbroughtunequalassistancetobeneficiaries,providedfailedstructuresthatcollapsedbeforebeinghandedover,andraisedmyriadserioussocialandtechnicalconcerns.

InJuly,twomonthsbeforemyreturn,GTZhadbeenaskedtohelpimprovebuildingpractices.Thechallengewastoensurethesamestandardsofqualityforall,inlinewithexistingrulesandguidelinesforcoastalreconstructionestablishedbytheNationalHousingDevelopmentAuthorityandUrbanDevelopmentAuthority,therelevantagenciesoftheSriLankangovernment.Thesestandardshadbeenfixedsoonafterthetsunami,butinthechaosandurgencyoffirstresponseagreatdealofconstruc-tionhadgoneforwardwithoutattemptingtomeetthem,andthevolumeofworkwassuchthattheycouldnotpolicealltheactivity.

Ourcataloguedidnotrelyonsubjectivecriteriaforthequal-ityofhouses,butprovidedadefinitionofquality asacommondenominatorthatexpressedandmetminimumrequirements.Someagencieshavetheirownmethodsforqualitycontrolbutothers,withlesstechnicalexpertise,faceproblemswithcon-tractorsandunskilledlaborersthatmayjeopardizethequalityofprojects.Asetofstandardsandmeasurableindicatorswasestablishedthroughaholisticapproachthatassessedmuchmorethanmereconstruction.

Forinstance,properlyexecutedfoundations,structures,androofswereconsideredessentialtothedurabilityofahouse.Butnowsustainablewatersources,sewagesystems,andsolid-wastedisposalwerenolessrelevant.Cost-effectivehousingschemes,socialwell-being,andenvironmentalchoicesalsocontributedtothefinalqualityrating.Inasecondsurveyweassessedamuchlargernumberofhousesandsettlements.Theteamagreedon

ascoringmethodforeachcomponentandsubcomponent.DatamanagementwaseasedbyapartnershipwiththeITdepartmentoftheUniversityofRuhuna,whichsetupadatabasetoelaboratescoresandprovidefeedbackwithvisualtoolsanddiagrams.Oncethecriteriaandmeasuredscoreswereenteredforahouseorsettlement,asustainabilitygraphwasgeneratedbythedata-baseprogramthatdepictedeachprojectinclearvisualterms.Thelargerandmorecentricthegraphic,themoresustainablethehousingproject.

Thedatabaseanditsassociatedsoftware,calledtheQualityAssessmentTool,hadadualoutcome:ontheonehand,itenabledtechnicaloffices,fieldmanagers,andbeneficiariestoidentifypoorlydesignedsettlementsandunderperformingbuildings;ontheotherhand,ithighlightedgoodpracticesinhousingtechnology,energyefficiency,andsustainabledevel-opment.Thus,inadditiontoidentifyinggoodandbadstructures,itwasusefulinbuildingconstructioncapacity.

AtestingphasewaslaunchedintheMataraDistrict,wherethesurveyassessedsome3,000houses.ThesamesurveywasconductedinGalleandthen,inlate2007,thesoftwarewasadoptednationwide.Reconstructionwasstillfarfromover,especiallyinthenorthandeast,whichmadeitallthemoreimperativetopushthroughthenewlyestablishedqualitycon-trolsandbuildcapacity.There,regionssuchasBatticaloaandAmparaalsobenefitedfromtheapproach,althoughpoliticalunrest,deterioratingsecurity,andregularhartals(strikescalledbytheinsurgentLiberationTigersofTamilEelam)sloweddowntheconstructionprocessintheeast.Manytsunami-affectedfam-iliessurvivedthemonsoonsanddryseasonsofthefirsttwoyearsinpoorlybuilttransitionalshelters,someoftheserightlyrenamed“chickenboxes”and“microwaveovens”becausetheyweremadeentirelyoutofcorrugated-metalsheets.Housingschemeswereprogressingbutattherhythmofawarzone,inwhichnothingwaspredictable.

AsIwasgettingreadytowrapupthesurveyandleavethecountryinlate2007,Iwasaskedtosetupemergencysheltersincampsupnorth,whereinternallydisplacedpersonswereagainonthemove,caughtinthecrossfirebetweentheSriLankanarmyandtheTamilTigerrebels.Theprocessfeltlikesomesortofterriblegameinwhichyoustartbuildingduringanemergency,advancetotemporarysheltersthataffordsomesemblanceofnormalcy,andgainthewinningpointsifandwhenyoufinallygettoconstructpermanenthousingbefore—andforreasonsbeyondyourcontrol—beingsentbacktosteponeagain.Ifounditsadandironicthatmycolleagueswererepairingnewlycompletedhousesnowscarredwithbulletholesanddamagedbygrenades.AsanarchitectandsocialworkerIcouldonlyask,whysuchwaste?Solidarityisquicklyerodedbyegoismandrevenge.Andthesocialjusticethatmanyhopedandfoughtforafterthetsunamiwasquicklysquandered.Peaceeventuallycamein2009,butataterriblyhighhumancost.

IleftthecountryonaPoyaDay, thedayofthefullmoon,dressedinwhitelikemostSriLankans.Ipreparedmybag,keepingsomespaceforahomemadedalcurryandacoupleoftempleflowers.Theysaythatyouneedtoleaveanislandtoseeanisland,thatwhenyou’retoocloseyoumissthemultifac-etedshapeofthings.Fromdisastertodisaster,unlesswearepreparedtoassess,analyze,andcorrectourerrors,wewillrepeatedlyreinventthewheel,whilethepeoplewhoseneedsweaimtomeetcontinuetosuffer.

Notes1 Transitionalhomesarethoseintendedtolastatleasttwoorthreeyears.However,“transitional”maybeamisnomer,sincemanypeopleneverleavethesehomes,norarethehomesupgraded.ThiswasnotthecasewiththehousingbuiltbyOxfam,butwasquitecommoninhousingconstructedbyless-experiencedNGOs,particularlyinthebufferzone.

2 GTZ(GesellschaftfürTechnischeZusammenarbeit)isanorganizationoftheGermangovernmentthatsupportsprojectsininternationaldevelopment.Itsfocusisoncooperationandcapacitybuildingforsustainablepolitical,economic,ecological,andsocialdevelopmentworldwide.ItsTsunamiHousingSupportProject(2006–7)aimedtobuildthecapacityofgovernmentagenciesinSriLankaduringthereconstructionprocess.

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froM transitional to perManent shelter: inValuable partnerships in peru

ThedepartmentsofCanete,Chincha,Pisco,andIcawerehithardestinthepunishingearthquakethatstruckthePeruviancoastonAugust15,2007.Seventy-fivethousandhouseswereleveledintheurbancenterofPisco;buttheruralareas,where90percentofthehouseswereinvariousstatesofcollapse,sufferedtheworstlosses.Inall,593peoplediedand131,393familieswereaffected.

InresponseseveralNationalSocietiesoftheRedCross,togetherwiththeInternationalFederationofRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties(IFRC),providedimmediatereliefthatenabledresidentstoreturntoworkquicklywhileinstigatingaprogramtorestorepermanenthomes.Theuniquepartnership,whichalsoincludedthePontificiaUniversidadCatólicadelPerú,Architectesdel’Urgence,andPREDES(anationalNGO),movedresidentsswiftlyfromtemporaryshelterstopermanenthousesandledthewayintestingandimplementingnewbuild-ingtechnologiesandconstructiontechniques,whicharenowbeingstudied.RecoveryeffortsfocusedinitiallyonBernales,anagriculturalvillageoffthecoastandtothenorthofPisco.There,thecoreofthevillageisdenselypopulated,butthemostvulnerablepeopleliveinthecountrysideinhouseswhosebricks,madeofsandfromthenearbydesert,arelooselypiledtogetherintowalls.Theirprecariouslivesweremadealltheworsebythefactthatmostfamilieslackedlegallandtitle.InPerulandtenureisanalarmingchallenge.Illegalsettlementsincludeillegaloccupationoflandinhigh-riskareas,whereself-settledmigrantsfromtheruralareasbuildmakeshifthomesonterrainthatispronetofloodsandmudslides.

teMporary shelter as dignified liVing space

Temporaryshelterswereintroducedtoreplacetentsandbetterprotectpeopleagainsttheradicaltemperatureshiftscommonalongthecoast.Theframesweremadeofeucalyptustimberandexteriorwallpanelswerethatchedfromlocalplantfronds;thepanelswerelinedwithsturdyplasticsheets,whichhelpedkeepoutthesandduringwindstorms.Thepolesandthepanelswerepurchasedfromthelocalmarket,whichkeptthefundswithinthecommunity’seconomy.Plasticsheetingandhardwareelements(nails,hinges,etc.)werepurchasedinbulkelsewhere.Buildingwiththesematerialscost25percentlessthantheamountsotherlocalorganizationsspentonprovi-sionalsheltersmadeoftimberorlow-gradegalvanizedsheets.Duringthefirstphaseofrecoveryfamilymembersbuilt500sheltersinBernales.Morethan6,000shelterswerebuiltacrosstheregion.

ThereisalongtraditioninPeruofstartingoutwithsemiper-manentmaterials,whichallowsfamiliestoconstructmoreformalhomesovertime.Here,the20-by-10-foot(6-by-3-meter)modulesweredesignedtobedismantledandreassembled,enablingfamiliestomoveorreusethem.Portabilitywasalsoameansofpermittingindividualswithoutlandtenuretopartici-pateintheprogram.Withintwoyearsthesheltershadbecomeareliablesourceofincomeformanyfamilies,whoconvertedthemintorentalproperties,turnedthemintosmallshops,orheldontothemasstoragespaces.

international federation of red cross and red crescent societies, geneVa

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coMMunity life

Communitieswerealsotaughttomanagethelandregulationprocessandtousejobtraininginreconstructionasanoppor-tunitytoaddresslocalpriorities,suchastheneedforbetterpublichygiene.Memberscleanedupplots,builtfoundations,transportedgravel,andmanagedamaterialswarehouse.Theearthquakehadlefttheregionlitteredwithmillionsofcubicmetersofdebris,andthelocalauthoritieswerehardpressedtocopewiththescaleofthissolidwaste.Citizensconsolidatedtheinconsistentsandyslopesbyreinforcingroadswiththeearthquakedebrisandcreatingnewpedestrianpaths.Knowledgesharingandproblemsolvingamongcommunitymemberscreatedadominoeffect.Today,vibrantpublicspacesandvegetablegardensareenjoyedbyeveryone.

AlsointheaffectedregiontheRedCrossandRedCrescentSocietiesintroducedsmall-scalebusinessmanagement,assist-ingwomen’sgroupsandindividualstoestablishbusinessesbasedonlocalcraftsandservices;helpedbuildnewschoolsandcommunitycenters;andequippedhealthfacilities.ThePeaceCorps,alsoaprojectpartner,trainedcommunitiesinlocalecologyandsolidwastemanagement.Strongsocialcommitment,teamwork,andmutualsupportacrossarangeofactivities—whenbuiltintothereconstructionprocess—haveencouragedcommunitiestothinkholisticallyandleadtheirowndevelopment,whichinturnensuresgreaterresilienceinthefuture.

a MoVe toward perManence

AsearlyasFebruary2008IFRCpartnershadinitiatedaseriesofsocialandenvironmentalstudiesintheaffectedareasthatwouldleadtorebuildingsecure,earthquake-resistantperma-nenthomes.Eachfamilydesignatedtwomemberstoworkinanintensivetrainingprogram.Communitiesledthebuildingprocess,providingstonesandsandforfoundations,clearingtheland,unloadingmaterials,andmakingstrawmats.TheIFRCprovidedthelogistic,financial,andtechnicalsupport.Thedesignswerebasedonintelligentuseoflocalmaterialsandindigenousknowledgethatimprovedconstructiontechniquesandrespectedlocalculturewhilekeepingcostsundercontrolandaneyeonusinglessenergyandminimizingwaste.

Civilengineers,constructionworkers,localgovernmentpersonnel,andarchitectscontributedtotheprocess.MaterialsanddesignsweretestedatthePontificiaUniversidadCatólicadelPerúlaboratoriestoguaranteetheirseismicresistance.Inallcasesthebasicbuildingcomponentwassoil.Improvedadobe(adobethatisstabilizedwithageo-grid)wasusedbytheBritishRedCrossinthedistrictofIndependencia,inPisco,andbythePeruvianandSpanishbranchesoftheRedCrossinthedistrictsofElCarmenandChinchaBaja,inChincha.Improvedquincha(inwhichagridofwovenbamboopanelsiscoveredwithamudplaster),lighterthanadobeandmoreconsis-tentsinceitismadewithsandysoil,wasutilizedinIndependenciaandHumay,inPisco,andinSanJosédelosMolinos,inIca.Blocksmadefromastable,durablecompoundofearthandcementwereusedinthedistrictofSanClemente,inPisco.Allofthehousesareequippedwithwater,electricity,toilets,andanenergyefficientkitchen,andtheirthick,earthenwallsinsu-latethehomesagainsttheextremetemperatures.

Aftertheearthquakein2007RedCrossandRedCrescentSocietiesactedquicklytomoveresidentsfirstintosturdytemporarysheltersandthenintosoundpermanenthomesthatmetthestructuralneedsofeachregion:

i/oTemporaryshelter

p/pp/s/aImprovedadobeconstruction

aaAgardenplantedinfrontofanewhome

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what shouldgoVernMentsdo?

part 2

“ a house is probably the largest asset owned by most families, whether in developing or developed countries.”

when people are inVolVedthiruppugazh VenkatachalaMresearch school of pacific asia studies, australian national uniVersity–canberra

(previousspread)/iAsingle-familyandamultifamilydwellinginGujaratbuiltwithowner-drivenreconstruction,usingapprovedearthquake-resistantmethods.Thestylesofowner-drivenreconstructioninGujaratvariedwithintheearthquake-resistantmodels.

2.1when people are inVolVed

institutionresearch school of pacific asia studies, australian national uniVersity–canberra

proJect locale guJarat, india

Thereisatendencytoprivilegeapracticeknownamongpro-fessionalsasODR,owner-drivenreconstruction,apost-disastermethodofrecoverythatinvolvespeopleinrebuildingtheirownhomes.Themethodisperhapstheonlywaytoworkatscale,makingitpossible,forexample,torebuild630,000homesinrecordtimeinruralKashmirafterthePakistanearthquakein2005.TheWorldBanksupportsthisapproach,encouraginggovernmentsandNGOsworldwidetosetpoliciesthatfavorODRintheaftermathofacrisis.

Despitealltheattentionandsupport,doesowner-drivenreconstructionleadtobuildingbackbetter,safercommunities?WhataretheissuesandchallengesforgovernmentsthatchooseODRfollowingacatastrophicdisaster?Whydoesitseemsopromising?Housingreconstructionisoneofthemostchalleng-ingaspectsofrecovery,particularlywhenpeopleareinahurrytoreturntotheirlives.InGujarat,India,IwasthejointchiefexecutiveofficeroftheGujaratStateDisasterManagementAuthority(GSDMA)followingadevastatingearthquaketherein2001,andIreturnedin2008toreviewthesuccessesandfailuresoftheprojectinthefield.Lessonstakenfromthisexperiencecanguidefutureactions.

Ahouseisprobablythelargestassetownedbymostfamilies,whetherindevelopingordevelopedcountries.Ownershipcon-fersself-esteemandprivacy,buildswealth,reducesmigrancy,andenhancesthescopeofactiveinvolvementofindividualsinasociety.Afteradisaster,policydecisions—onthelocationofhousingresettlements,thenatureandextentofassistance,andcriteriaforeligiblebeneficiaries—aswellastheprocessesthatmakefundsavailableandthequicknesswithwhichdeci-sionscanbetakendeterminetheoutcomeofthehousingprograms,regardlessoftherecoverymodel.Howwellwerespondtotheseinterrelatedquestionsdeterminesthespeed,quality,andsustainabilityofhousingprograms.Atthesametimeacriticalquestionisalways:whowillbuildthehouses?

Followingtheearthquakein2001,GujaratundertookoneofthelargestrecoveryprogramsinIndia’smodernhistory.TheKutchdistrictbecameahugelaboratorywhereseveralagen-ciesexperimentedwithdiversehousingtypes,technologies,materials,andapproaches,creatingnumerouspermutationsandcombinationsofhousing-recoveryinitiatives.ThisprovidedanidealframeworktoevaluatetherelativemeritsofODRcomparedwithotherrecoverystrategies.Theanalysisisparticularlypertinentnow,asweattempttounderstandandmanagethedamagecausedbylarge-scaleearthquakesinHaitiandChileandfloodsinPakistanin2010.1BasedonwhatIlearnedinGujarat,IbelievethesuccessofODR—or,perhapsbetter,people-centeredreconstruction(asnoteveryoneownsahome)—dependsnotonlyonempoweringresidentstorebuildtheirhousesbutalsoonenablingthemtoundertakereconstructionthroughatrulyparticipatoryapproach.

housing recoVery: policy, packages, and perforMance

OnJanuary26,2001,asIndiawasabouttocelebrateits52ndRepublicDay,oneofthemostdestructiveearthquakesevermeasuredintheregionstrucktheKutchdistrictofGujaratstateinwesternIndiaat8:46am.Itmeasured7.7Mwandaffectedmorethan7,600villagesand14towns.About1.2millionhousesweredamaged,ofwhicharound220,000fullycollapsedandabout917,000werepartiallydamaged.Attheepicentermorethan70percentofthebuiltenvironmentwasdestroyed.

ThegovernmentofGujaratlaunchedacomprehensivereconstructionprogramwithloansfromtheWorldBankandtheAsianDevelopmentBankandassistancefromthegovernmentofIndia.Theprogramwasdividedintotwophases.Thefirstphasefocusedonrepair,reconstruction,andrehabilitationto

bringpeople’slivesbacktonormal.Thesecondphaseaimedtocreateadditionalinfrastructurethatlaidthefoundationsforlong-termdisastermanagementandmitigation.Today,allthemajorprojectshavebeencompleted.

Housingrecoveryposedamajorchallenge.Theenormousareaaffectedhaddifferenttypesofhouseswithvaryingdegreesofdamage.Inadditionasinglestandardhousemodelcouldnotbeused,asseismicriskisdifferentwithinvariouszonesoftheaffectedareaandhousingrequirementsweredif-ferentinruralandurbanareas.Inordertocatertorealneedsthegovernmentannouncedsixhousing-reconstructionpack-ages,extendingarangeofoptionsfromcompleterelocationtoinsitureconstruction.2Aprivate/publicpartnershipprogramwassetupthroughwhichNGOscouldbeinvolvedincon-structinghousesandvillages,sharingcostsequallywiththegovernmentbyadoptingavillagefor50percentofthetotalprojectcost.NGOscouldalsoconstructhousesandone-roomkitchenfacilitieswithoutgovernmentfunds,allowingconstruc-tiontobecompletedbyindividualbeneficiarieswithgovernmentassistance.Thedegreeoffinancialassistancetoownersandresidentsdependedontheseismiczone,typeofhouse,andlocalcostofconstruction.3

ThoughthegovernmentwaswillingtoinvolvetheprivatesectorandNGOsinhousingreconstruction,itpreferredODR.Thispreferencewasclearlyspelledoutinapolicydocumentthatstipulatedarangeofoptionsandenabledcommunitiestochoosetheplaceandmodeofreconstructionthroughapartici-patorydecision-makingprocess.Ineachvillagearesolutionbythevillagecouncilwasmandated;theentirevotingpopulationofthevillagevotedonwhethertorelocateorsupportinsitureconstruction.Iftheyrelocated,communitiescouldchoosethesitethatbestsuitedtheirspecificneedsfromavailableland,asproposedbythegovernmentinrelocationzones.Thechoiceofowner-drivenorNGO-drivenreconstructionwasalso

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putinsidethehouse,whichisconsideredunhygienicandunacceptable.InKutch,wherefirewoodisusedasfuel,kitch-ensaretraditionallyconstructedoutsidethemainlivingareatokeepsmokeawayandpreventblackeningofthewalls.ButtheNGOsputthekitchenindoors,soresidentssimplyusedthespaceforstorageandbuiltanotherkitchenoutside.Theindoortoiletsremainunused.Thesesortsofculturalmisunderstand-ingsarenotbenign,asunusedkitchenscancauseexpensivemaintenanceproblems(leaks,corrosionofpipesandfixtures)downtheroad.

Thepeople-centeredapproachhasthefurtheradvantageofincorporatingresidentsintotheprocessofreconstruction.Womeninparticulargetinvolvedineveryaspectofdecisionmaking,materialandsiteselection,design,qualitycontrol,andconstruction,fromthefoundationtothechoiceofcolor.InKutchmenrarelydecidequestionsrelatedtohouseconstruc-tionwithoutconsultingthewomen.Insharpcontrasttothistradition,peoplewerelargelyleftoutoftheprocesswhenthehousewasbuiltbyanNGO,whichsometimespromiseddesignsthatdidnotmatchthefinishedresult.NGOsoftenhandeddesignsovertocontractors,whocamefromalloverIndiaandwhotooklittleinterestininvolvingthefutureresi-dentsinthereconstructionprocess.Inlargepartproblemsarosebecausetheresidentsdidnotknowwhichhousetheywouldlivein;eventhosewhomayhavewantedtoparticipatesawlittlereasontobuildsomeoneelse’shome.

Finally,ODRenablespeopletogetbacktoworkearly,whichinturnputstheeconomybackontrack.Gujaratisthefirstearthquakedisasterrecordedinpost-independenceIndiainwhichasignificantamountofoutsideaidcontributedtothelocaleconomy.Ofcourse,moneyalsowenttoairlines,hotels,consultants,andinvitedcompanies,butonthewhole,whenpeoplebuildtheirownhomes,usinglocalmaterialandlocallabor,thelocaleconomybenefits.Itisalsoworthpointingout

leftuptothefamiliesandcommunities.Overall,peoplepre-ferredtoreconstructthehousesthemselvesratherthansecureahousebuiltbyanexternalagency.

Sincetheearthquakesome200,000houseshavebeenrebuiltandover900,000repaired.Ofthetotalnumberofrebuilthouses,nearly160,000wereconstructedbyownerswhoreceivedfinancialassistancefromthegovernment.(Thepolicytohelprenterswaslesscomprehensive.)Theremaining42,000werebuiltbyNGOsanddonors.Thereareimportantreasonswhytheowner-drivenapproachtopost-disasterhous-ingworkedinGujarat.

First,owner-drivenhousesprovidegreatersatisfaction.Ownersspeakoffeelingsaferinthemandexpressconfidencethattheyareofbetterqualityandwillprotectagainstfutureearthquakes—presumablybecausetheyhavethemselvesover-seentheconstruction.(Peoplehavenowaytojudgethequalityorsafetyofcontractor-builthomes.4)Whetherinsituoratrelo-catedsites,ownersreportthatthehousestheybuiltarebettersuitedtotheirlifestylesandmoresatisfying.Theowner-drivenapproachalsohelpsbuildlocalskills,aspeopleshareknowl-edgeandtechnology.Italsooffersaperfectopportunitytocommunicatethereasonsbehindearthquake-resistantcon-structionmethods.Thislastpointisparticularlyrevealing.Asurveyoftheworst-affectedarea,BhachauTaluka,foundthatwhile45percentoftheextensionsoradditionsintheowner-drivenhouseshadearthquake-resistantfeatures,only8percentofthepeoplewhosehouseswereconstructedbyNGOsincorporatedsafetymeasureswhentheylaterbuilttheirownadditionstotheirhomes.

Wehavealsofoundthatwhenownersrebuildtheirhomesthedesignsaremoreculturallyappropriate.MostoftheNGOshiredarchitectsfromoutsidetheaffectedregion,whoadopteduniformhousingdesignstiedtoagridironvillagepattern.Ostensibly,thesemetminimumsafetystandards.Toiletswere

iWomenataplanningsessioninMandviSurat

p/sCulturallyappropriateowner-drivenreconstructionincludestraditionalmaterialsandstyles.ThecircularhouseisatraditionaltypecalledabungathatdevelopedinKutchafteran1819earthquakebutwasgraduallyabandonedaspeopleturnedtomodernconstruction.SomearchitectsandNGOshaverecentlyrevivedtheformbecauseofitsearthquake-resistantfeatures.

aTheunfortunateresultofcontractor-builthomesinGujarat

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studentcompetitions,radiojingles,andevenjokestoconvincepeopleinsome3,000villagestouseearthquake-resistantreconstruction.Wealsoconducted1,800literacycampstoeducatepeopleabouttheirentitlementsandlegalremedies.

Tobesure,thesesortsofcampaignscannotaloneguaranteesafeconstruction.Itisnecessarytosettechnicalandsafetystan-dardsandtoprovideguidanceinfollowingthem,particularlyintheruralareas,wherehousingconstructionisundertakenbyresidentsratherthanprofessionalbuilders.TheGSDMApre-paredanddisseminatedtechnicalguidelinesforusinglocalmaterialsinhazard-resistantconstruction,includingnormsforseismicsafetyinlow-costreconstructionandretrofitting,cyclone-resistantbuildingpractices,wallsofstabilizedsoil-cementblock,andnewtechnologies,aswellasguidelinesforhowtorepair,reconstruct,andretrofitmasonrybuildings.Shake-tabledemonstrations,cassettes,videos,andbookletshelpedcarrythemessage.Tobehonest,withoutsupervisionandmonitoring,suchinformationcampaignsandtechnicalguidelineswouldbeoflittleuse.Anindependentthird-partyauditwasputinplacetocheckqualityandsafety.Fifteenhundredearthquakeengineerswereappointedtoguidevillagersthroughearthquake-resistantconstruction.Mobilematerial-testingvansweredeployedtotestthequalityofthebuildingmaterialsused.Tomanageallthisstaffandactivity,aspecialengineeringdivisionwascre-atedwithinthegovernmentanddeputyengineerswererequiredtocertifyeachbuildingbeforesecondandthirdpay-mentswerereleased.Thoughsuchanelaboratearrangementcreatedtimelags,theprocessprovedinvaluableinhelpingtoreducepeople’sfuturevulnerability.

Thesuccessoftheowner-drivenprocessalsodependsonwhetherproperbuildingmaterialsareavailableandtheircostscontrolled.Costsescalatedramaticallyafteradisaster.Entirevillagesareconstructedintheaftermathofamajorevent,soasinfrastructureandbuildingmaterialsbecomescarcetheircost

rupees,whichisalotofmoneyformanyfamilieshere—theywouldhavespentitonsomethingelseandwastedit.Theywouldnothavebuilthouses.”5However,thesystemwasnotperfect.SixteenthousandhousesinGujarat(lessthan2percentofthedamagedhousingstock)remainincompletebecausetheben-eficiaryeitherdidnotstartrebuildingafterhavingreceivedtheinitialinstallmentorstoppedconstructionattheplinthlevel,thatis,afterreceivingthesecondcheck.Thelessonhereistodisbursethemoneyininstallments afterthenecessaryprecon-ditionsforeachphasehavebeenmet.

Itisalsoimportanttorealizethatcitizenshavetheirpre-disastercityorvillageinmindandmaynotwishtowaitforabettercitytobedesignedandconstructed.Inordertodiscouragehastyandhaphazardrebuilding,along-term,process-orientedreconstruc-tionrequiresgoodtemporaryshelters.Thesestructuresshouldbefittolastatleastthreeyearsandprovidebasicinfrastructure—drinkingwater,sanitation,electricity,etc.Temporaryresettle-mentsitesmustbeplacedthoughtfully,sothatresidentscancarryonwithwork,school,andfamilywithoutbeingforcedintolongcommutes.

inforMation, Monitoring, cost control

OneofthebiggestchallengesinadoptingODRisineducatingpeopleabouttheimportanceofdisaster-resistantconstruction,particularlywhenbuildingcodesareneitherregulatednorenforced.Affectedcommunitiesareinahurrytoreturntonormal-ity.Unlesspeopleareinformedandeducatedbeforeadisaster,theywillrebuildusingthesameoldvulnerablemethods,thusmissingtheopportunitytomitigatefuturerisk.TheGSDMAcar-riedoutamassivepublic-informationcampaignusingpamphlets,films,folkdances,buses,streetplays,posters,exhibitions,

thatwhenpeoplebuildtheirownhomes,theystayinthem,inpartoutofprideandasenseofcommunity,butalsobecausetheparticularhome—itssize,numberofrooms,amenities—meetstheowner’srealneeds.

owner-driVen reconstruction: practicalities

Thoughanowner-orpeople-centeredapproachtopost-disasterreconstructionisbetterthanotheroptions,itisnoteasytocarryout.Therearesignificantchallengesthatarerarelyacknowl-edgedordiscussed.Theowner-drivenapproachisnotsimplyamatterofgivingcashtoaffectedindividuals.AnditiswrongtolabelODRaself-buildsolution,asitiscloselymonitoredandsupervised.Itrequiresmanystakeholderscoordinatedinacomprehensiveprocesstobuildbackbetter.Themodeofdis-tributingcashassistanceisthekey.Aone-timepaymenttoresidentsafteradisasterisnothingmorethananextensionoffirst-responserelief.Thereisagoodchancethatthemoneywillbedivertedtootherneeds,urgentorotherwise.InGujaratassistancewasdisbursedinthreeinstallments.Thefirstpay-mentwasmadebeforeworkcommencedbutthesecondandthirdweredisbursedaftertwobuiltstageshadbeeninspected.Thisensuredthateveryonecollectingpaymentswasadheringtotheprescribedsafetystandards—including,inthecaseofsomerestoredhouses,retrofitting.Inordertomakethepay-ments,thegovernmentopened660,000bankaccountsinfourmonths,sothatindividualscouldbepaidbycheckwithoutmid-dlemen(acommonpracticeinIndia,wheremanypeoplewithlowincomesdonotmanagetheirmoneythroughabank).Villagersenthusiasticallyagreedthatthegovernmentshouldmakethepaymentsininstallments;asoneresidentcommented,“Ifallthemoneyhadbeengivenatonego—thatis90,000

riseswellbeyondthemeansoftheaffectedpoor.InGujaratweadoptedatwo-prongedstrategytokeepbuildingmaterialsavail-able.Cementwasdistributedatasubsidizedpricethrough1,082materialbanksestablishedinruralareasandtaxexemptionswereprovidedtomanufacturersworkinginKutch.State-subsidizedmaterialbankshelpstabilizethepricesofrawsuppliesduringperiodsofhighdemand.Thepolicyemployedlargenumbersofpeopleinindustry,raisedhouseholdincomes,increasedthenumberofwomenintheworkforce,andemployedruralhandi-craftandtradeworkers.Asaresult,sincetheearthquakeKutchhasexperiencedafivefoldincreaseinbankdeposits.Thelossoftaxrevenueswasbornebythestateandfederalgovernments.

training and capacity building

Toovercometheshortageofskilledmasonsandengineersneededforthismassiveundertaking,thegovernmenttrainedsome29,000masons,includingwomen,and6,500practicingengineers.Themasonsunderwentacrashcourseinearthquake-resistantconstructionandwereprovidedwithtoolkits.Theengineers,allnewrecruits,trainedtomeetthenewstandards.Bothengineersandmasonswereaskedtothinkintermsoflong-termdisastermanagementandtheneedtoconstructseismic-resistantbuildingsasanormalpractice.Thisquicklycreatedoversightintheworkforceandenabledtheconstruc-tionofsomanyODRhousestoproceedspeedily.

TheGujaratgovernmentquicklyrealizedtheadvantageofinstitutionalizingthesetrainingprogramstobetterensurefuturesafetyandbegancertifyingmasonsthroughthird-partytesting.Testingandcertificateswerealsosetforengineersbyanauton-omouscouncil.Unfortunately,thisinitiativehadonlylimitedsuccess.StakeholderssuchaslocalofficialsandNGOsshowedlittleinterestinthecertificateprogramsanddidnotadoptor

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earntheirbreaddaytodaydidnothavethetimeandresourcesforODR.ThesegapshadtobefilledbythestateorNGOs.Owner-drivenreconstructioncannotbepromotedwithoutofferingthealternativeofready-builthousestothosewhocannotundertakeconstructionontheirown,whichincludespeoplewithspecialrequirementsor,inIndia,withoutmeninthehome—theagedandhandicapped,widows,singlewomen,andhouseholdsheadedbyawoman.

Third,ODRneedsahugeestablishmentandexpandstheroleofthestate.Wecannotpretendotherwise.InGujaratgov-ernmentofficialshadtovisiteachhouseonaveragetentimesduringconstructioninconnectionwithdamageassessment,certification,andreleaseofpayments.7Delaysandregulatoryoverloadduetothisnecessaryoversightcannotbeavoided.ThereforetheprocesstakeslongerthanNGO-drivenconstruc-tion—althoughnotnecessarilybyagreatmargin,dependingonlocalconditions.

Fourth,thewillingnessandcapacityofpeopleincrisistotaketheresponsibilityofreconstructionontheirshouldersmayvary.Manyvillagesafterthe1993earthquakeinMaharashtrapre-ferredNGO-drivenreconstruction,thoughgovernmentpolicyrequiredODRinvillagesconstructedinsitu.Similarly,villagersinTamilNadupreferredNGO-drivenreconstructionaftertheIndianOceantsunamidecimatedthecoastlinein2004.Manyreasonsshapethisdecisionbeyondbeingincapableortoobusy.Forexample,frequentlywomenexpressedtheviewthatifcashhadbeengiveninsteadofaready-builthouse,menwouldhavespentthemoneyonalcoholinsteadofconstruction.

Last,theissueofpoliticalwill—upanddownthehierarchyfromlocaltonational—isimportant.Politicalcultureandpoliticaldeterminationplayamajorroleinmakingpolicychoices.TheselectionofNGOandstate-sponsored,contractor-builtrecon-structionadoptedbyTamilNaduafterthetsunamiandbyKarnatakaafterfloodsin2009wasmainlydrivenbypolitical

maintainthem.CertifyingmasonsneverachievedtheexpectedresultsdespiteinitialsuccessandthepassageofalawinGujaratrequiringregistrationofprofessionalengineers,whichexistsonpaper.Failuretoinstitutionalizetrainingandstandardsunderscoresaharshreality:unlessallstakeholdersareseriousaboutdisastermitigationandseethemselvesashavingavestedinterestinit,politicalwillalonedoesnotsuffice.

Themeritsandsuccessofowner-drivenreconstructionmakeitagoodoptioninpost-disasterreconstruction,butitslimitationsneedtobediscussedopenly.Peoplecan(withaidandadvice)rebuildtheirownhomes,butonlyintherightcontext.Themuch-toutedsuccessoftheprogramislimitedtoruralareasandsmalltowns.Therearenosuccessstoriesinthemegacities,wheremultistorydwellingsandapartmentsweredestroyed.Incitiestheobstaclesaregreat:peoplehavelittleexperienceinbuildinghouses;thelandonwhichabuildingsitsmaybeownedbyanotherpartyorownershipmaybeindispute;repairstoonebuildingmaydependonwhatbuildingisnextdoorandwholivesthere;theresultisthat,often,contractorsendupdoingtheconstruction.AllofthismakesODRnearlyimpossibleincities.Forexample,inthecapitalofGujarat,Ahmadabad,acityof3.5million,46,000housesweredamagedand1,650totallycollapsed.There,practicallyallresidentspreferredtobuyready-builtflatsfrombuilders,orelsemoveinwithrelatives,insteadofconstructingtheirownapartments.

Thesecondproblemisthatnotallfamilieshavethesamecapacitytorebuildtheirownhomes.Noteveryfamilyhasthemanpower,resources,time,orknowledgetoparticipate.InGujaratlarge-scalefarmers,bigfamilies,membersofForwardCastes,andpeopleabovethepovertylinepreferredODR,whilesmallfarmers,thelandless,smallfamilies,andmembersofBackwardCastes,ScheduledCastes,andScheduledTribes—aboveandbelowthepovertyline—preferredNGO-builthouses.6Putsimply,landlesslaborersandagriculturalworkerswho

TheGSDMApublic-awarenesscampaignincludedbusesdisplayingposters,tablesladenwithleaflets,andstudentcompetitions. 079079

Notes1 ForfurtherreadingseeJohnCosgrave,ALNAP(ActiveLearningNetworkforAccountabilityandPerformanceinHumanitarianAction),andProVentionConsortium,Responding to Earthquakes 2008: Learning from Earthquake Relief and Recovery Operations,policypaper(London:ALNAP,2008),andonlineatwww.alnap.org/pool/files/ALNAPLessonsEarthquakes.pdf,accessedMarch6,2010;AsianDevelopmentBank,India: Gujarat Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Report; Completion Report(Manila:AsianDevelopmentBank,2008),andonlineatwww.adb.org/Documents/PCRs/IND/35068-IND-PCR.pdf,accessedJuly10,2010;JenniferDuyneBarenstein,From Gujarat to Tamilnadu: Owner-Driven vs. Contractor-Driven Housing Reconstruction in India,paperpre-sentedatthe4thInternationali-RecConference:BuildingResilience;andAchievingEffectivePost-DisasterReconstruction,Christchurch,NewZealand,April30–May2,2008,andonlineatwww.resorgs.org.nz/irec2008/Papers/Duyne.pdf,accessedMay7,2009.

2 Fulltextofthesepackagesisavailableatwww.gsdma.org.

3 Inruralareasamaximumof90,000rupees(about$2,000)andinurbantownsamaximumof125,000rupees(about$2,700)wasprovided;inthemega-cityofAhmadabadthemaximumwas175,000rupees(about$3,700).InthecaseofNGO-drivenreconstructiongovernmentshared50percentofthecon-structioncostsubjecttoamaximumof45,000rupees($970).InthethirdcategoryNGOsconstructedoneroomandakitchenatacostof45,000rupees,whilethegovernmentprovided45,000rupeesdirectlytothebeneficiariestocompleteconstructionoftherestofthehouse.

4 ToobtainthesestatisticsIconductedahouseholdsurveyof500housesinMay2008.Thesurveyhadamixofowner-drivenandNGO-drivenhousesfromBhachautownandthe71villagesofBhachauTaluka.

5 AuthorinterviewwithRasikhbhaiChavda,Manfara,Kutch,May19,2008.

6 “BackwardCastes,”“ScheduledCastes,”and“ScheduledTribes”areofficialdemographictermsoftheIndiangovernment,referringtocommunitiesthatsufferfromextremesocialandeconomicunderdevelopment(typicallyincludingsocialostracism,primitiveagriculturalpractices,lackofinfrastructuralfacilities,andgeographicalisolation).Suchgroupsreceivecertainbenefitsandprotec-tionsundertheIndianConstitution.

7 Theseincludedvisitstotheaffectedhouseforinitialandfinaldamageassess-ment;toopentheresident’sbankaccount;tocheckconstructionqualityafterplinth,lintel,andcompletionstages;uponreleaseoffirst,second,andthirdinstallments;andfortechnicalguidanceandqualityaudits.

directlytoresidents.TofacilitateODRinplacesasbroadlydev-astatedasHaiti,whereagravelackofinfrastructureprecededthedisaster,itisalsoessentialtobuildhumanresourcesandsystemsbeforetakingonanewurbanplanorbuildingperma-nenthomes,difficultthoughthismaybeinthepressofcrisis.Otherwise,peoplewillbeleftoutoftheprocessandtheriskofrecurrenceincreasesgreatly.

Astrongcommitmenttopeople-centeredreconstructionimplicatestime,money,andvisibilityinparticularways.Whenoneisstartingfromscratchafteralarge-scalecatastropheliketheoneinHaiti,reconstructionshouldnotbedoneinahurry;hencetheneedforgoodsolutionsregardingtemporaryhousing.Thisrequiresthatmoreresourcesandmoneybecommittedtolong-termplanningtoensurefuturepermanenthousing—whichmayseemcounterintuitiveintheheatofthemomentofcrisis.ODRdoesnotservethevisualsuccessthatdonorsandNGOsprofitfrom—thoserowsofidenticalhouseswhosenumberandscalecansoeasilybecountedandmeasured.Intheowner-drivenmodel,peopletypicallyreconstructinsitu,wheretheirhousesusedtobe,addingcomponentsovertime,andtheresultsarenotuniformorpicture-perfect.

Soyes:ODRispossibleintheabsenceofthestate,butitisafarmorechallengingchoiceforNGOsanddonors;itmeansspendingmoretimeandmoremoneyandbeingwillingtosacri-ficegoodpublicityandvisibility.Nevertheless,itisaworthwhilechoice,forpeople-centeredhomesandcommunitiesarerebuiltwithrespect—notonlytofulfillrealneedsbuttorestorewaysoflifethathavebeendevastated.

thisvoid.ButtheseexternalorganizationsrarelyfavorODRbecausetheyseehousesasaproductratherthanaprocess.

Ifexternalorganizationsaretoservewellintheroleofanabsentgovernment,theymustrevisetheirpractices.Thefirstthingthatneedstochangeisthetimingofreconstruction.Externalorganizationstypicallyracetodeliveraidandthendis-appear.Second,theymustensurethattheirconstructionfundsenterthelocaleconomyandstaythere;nolongershouldtheytaketheopportunityofdisastertoawardcontractsformasshousingtocompaniesintheirowncountries—andtheyshouldabsolutelystopprovidingready-builthouses.Third,one-timecashpaymentstovictimsshouldend.Cashisalwaysmoreeffectivewhenitispaidininstallmentsthataretiedtospecificgoalsortodesignatedpurchasessuchasbuildingmaterials.

Tohelppeoplebuildtheirownhomes,firstandforemostexternalNGOsmusthaverealexpertiseinreconstructionandbewillingtostayonhandforanextendedperiodoftime.Partoftheirbriefistobuildthecapacityoftheaffectedpeopleandtoreinforcecivilsociety.Large-scaletrainingofengineersandmasons,educatingresidentsaboutsafeconstruction,formulatingpropertechnicalguidelinesforseismic-resistantconstruction,andinstitutingbuildingcodesalltaketime.Itisequallyimpor-tant—andthisisespeciallytrueinHaiti—tobuildcapacitieswithinthestate,withoutwhichlong-termriskmitigationwillfail.Thiscanbedonebyworkingwithwhateverstateinfrastructurehassurvivedtocarryoutsomeofthetasksitnormallywouldperformitself.Theseincludecirculatingmanualsonmultihazard-resistantconstruction;identifyingandtrainingtechnicalexperts(masonsandengineers);settingupmaterialbankstostabilizethepricesofbuildingmaterials;erectingdemonstrationhousesthatarelow-costandhazard-resistant;conductingtech-nicalauditstoensurequalitycontrol(andestablishingthecultureofrequiringaudits);launchingamassivepublic-aware-nesscampaign;andprovidingcashassistanceininstallments

considerations.Thepoliticalwilltoexpandtheroleofthestate,forthestatetoassumeresponsibility,mustexistbutthepoliti-calculturemustalsoembraceandpromotetheideaofmakingpeoplepartnersratherthanpassiverecipientsofaid.InGujaratwefacilitatedthechoiceofODRbymakingfulluseofourpoliti-calclout.Weingovernmentdevelopedandimplementedneed-basedapproachesandtookcaretoputinplaceappro-priatesafeguardstoensurethatstatesponsorshipofODRwouldnotfailtoinvolvetheaffectedpopulationsasmuchaspossible.Makenomistake:itisthemanifestationofpoliticalwill,reflectedinpolicies,thatdeterminesthereachandeffec-tivenessofactionsatthelocallevel.

TheGujaratcaseunderscorestheneedtoredefinetheroleofthestateinhousingrecovery.Yes,wecansaythatODRdeliversbetterresultsandthatstatesandNGOsshouldfacili-tatetheprocessbymakinguseofanarrayofappropriatefinancialmechanisms,materialsupport,technicalhelp,andhumanresources.Thisisbetterthanprovidingready-builthousesthroughcontractors.Butaswehaveseen,andcontrarytogeneralbelief,theresponsibilityofthestateincreaseswhenweadoptapostureofODR.Thestatehastoensureanddeliverawell-designedpolicythatintegratesverifiableindicatorsofprogressandqualityandensuresavailabilityofmaterialsandtrainedmanpower;itcannotleavethemarkettodictatetheterms.Educationandregulationplayanimportantroleinensuringquality,safety,andlong-termsustainability.Andweneedsolutionsforcitiesofallsizes,whichismuchmorediffi-culttoachievewithowner-driveninitiatives.

Butwhatifthestateisweakorlargelyabsent?CanODRworkwithoutstronggovernmentalpresence,asinHaiti,wherecivilsocietyisnotstrongandmuchofthegovernmentinfra-structurewasitselfdestroyedbytherecentearthquake?InternationalNGOS,externalagencies,theUnitedNationsreliefandrecoverysystem,anddonorcountriesrushtofill

Make no mistake: it is the manifestation of political will, reflected in policies, that determines the reach and effectiveness of actions at the local level.

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citizen architectsrupal and raJendra desainational centre for peoples’ action in disaster, ahMedabad, india

“ we introduced shake tables in 1995. these subject half-scale models to sideways shocks and crudely imitate earthquake forces.”

2.2citizen architects in india

organizationnational centre for peoples' action in disaster

proJect locale latur, india

(previousspread)Ashaketablewitha1.5-tonpendulum:whenthetableswaysonitsrollersthewell-builthouseontheleftremainsstand-ingbutthehouseontheright,whichlacksseismic-resistantfeatures,collapses.

iMassivestonewallsofatypicaltraditionalLaturhouse

“Wewanthousesonsprings.”AmanwasspeakingfromthecrowdthathadgatheredontheoutskirtsofavillageintheruralLaturregionofcentralIndia.ItwasOctober1993,threedaysafteradevastatingearthquake,thefirstofthismagnitudein500years.Localpeoplehadhadnosenseofurgency,noactiveawarenessthattheywerelivinginanareavulnerabletocatastrophicseismicactivity.Formonthsafterwardnoonewouldspeakofstoneortimber,letaloneconsiderusingthesematerialstorebuildtheirhomes.Stoneandtimberhadsnatchedawaytheirlovedones.Thespeakerhadheardaboutthelatesttechnologies,likethoseusedinJapan.HewasaskingSharadPawar,thevisitingchiefministerofMaharashtraState,tousethemintheupcominggovernmentreconstructionprogramforthevillage.

Infact,atthattimetheIndiangovernmentwasusingtech-nology—realandimaginary—asasymboltoreassurepeoplethattheirnewhomeswouldbesaferandmoresecurethanthosetheyhadlost.Throughadvertisingcampaigns,appear-ancesbyofficialrepresentatives,andwordofmouth,theslogan“safetyatanycost”madeitswayintothepublicimagi-nation,associatedwithmodernbuildingtechnologies.Stonewasout,brickwasin;mudmortarwasout,cementmortarwasin;mudroofswereout,reinforced-concreteroofswerein;ruralhouseplanswereout,andplansresemblingthoseforcitydwellingswerein.

Thenewhomes,intheend,weremoreexpensive,smaller,mimickedthelookandfunctionsofhousessuitedtomoreurbancontexts,andofferedlittleadditionalprotectionagainstearthquakes,aswediscoveredwhenwerantestsinthefield.Thegovernmentandthepublicassociatedmodern,urban-style“housesonsprings”withsafety.Welearnedthattheywerenotnecessarilysafer,andindeedraisedahostofotherproblems.BothpartiesassociatedtraditionalLaturhousecon-structionwithdanger.Wefoundthatneitherthetraditional

layoutnortraditionalbuildingmaterialsmadeahomevulnera-ble.Itssquareplaninfactaffordsthemaximumsafetyinanearthquake;itwasthestructuralassemblies—specifically,theabsenceofcertainfeatures—ratherthanthematerials,thatputpeopleatrisk.

WorkingasanindependentdesignteamoncontracttotheIndiangovernment,in1993welaunchedaprojecttodesignandbuildappropriatenewhomesinLatur.Wewantedtoincor-porateaspectsofvernacularconstructionimportanttolocalcultureandtheenvironmentwithinnovationsinstructuraldesignthatprovidedseismicreinforcement.Oursix-yearexperienceledusdeepintothepoliticsofdisasterrecovery,inasituationinfluencedbyunprecedentedamountsofaidfromlocalandforeignsources.Hereishowweturnedourdesigntheoriesintopractice.

house plans

WhenourteamofarchitectsandengineersfirstvisitedLatur,ourbrieffromthegovernmentwastocarryoutpost-earthquakedamageassessment.Wehadbeenchosenbecausewealreadyhadadecadeofexperienceinassistingruralartisansinthebuildingtrades—masons,brickmakers,roofers,andthelike—togainexpertiseandtraininginsafeandcost-efficientconstructiontechniques.Thedamageassessmentwasthefirstphaseofamultiyearhousing-reconstructionprogramintendedtoprovidelong-termhousingtotheaffectedregion.Some220,000homes,spreadoveralargearea,neededtoberepairedandretrofittedandabout50,000houseshadtoberebuilt,mostoftheseatsitesdesignatedbythegovernment.Governmentengineerswerebroughtintoadvisethehomeowners.

Thisfirstvisitpiquedourbroaderinterestintheproblemofpost-disasterreconstructioninruralareas,andweeventually

workedwithlocalindividuals,NGOs,andgovernmentagenciestocarryoutreconstructionprojectsinvariousregionsthrough-outIndia.1However,whatwerememberaboutourfirstvisittoLaturwasthatthetraditionalhousestookusbysurprise.

Thesehousesarelargeandfortresslike,withanintrovertedquality.Massiverubblewallsandornamentaltimberdoorwaysaretrademarkfeatures.Thewallsandmudroofsinsulatethemextremelywell;interiortemperaturesaremoreorlessuniformyearround.Theinward-lookingsquareplanopensontoacentralcourtyard;roomsfollowthecontourandasemicoveredveran-dahatcenterextendstheroomsintothecourtyard.Theverandahisthemostversatilespaceinthehouseandservesavarietyofculturalfunctions.Largegrainstoragebinsareplacedinonepart;otherareasaredividedandusedforsleeping,resting,cooking,socializing,andstudying.Woodenpegsarefittedintothewallstohangutensilsandclothing;nichesfunctionasstoragespaces.Oncoolwinternightstheentirefamilysleepsontheseverandahs.Onhotsummerafternoonstheyarenaturallycool.Newlywedssleephereaspartofanuptialritual.Thecentralcourtyardisaprotected,privatespacebutisopentothesky;itservesasaplaygroundforchildren,autilityspaceforwashingclothesandcookingvessels,andaplacetodryfoodstuffs.

Thefirstofficial,state-recommendedplansforearthquake-safehousesweredrawnbycityarchitectsandengineers.Theyweredesignedforprefabricatedconcrete-panelconstructionandhadadiscretelivingroom,bedrooms,andkitchenonanurbanmodel.Thesewereadoptedfromvillagetovillageacrosstheregion:uniform,duplicatedhomeswerebuiltbythegov-ernmentwithlittleownerinput.Theywereinitiallyattractivetoapublicreelingfromtherecentdisasterandsuspiciousoftradi-tionalconstruction.Moreover,youngerfamiliessoughtmodernhomes.Butastheplanswerefollowed,theallurequicklyfadedandproblemsarose.Buildingmaterialshadtobeboughtandtransportedtothesite,increasingexpenseandtimefor

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newwing.Thestonewallsoftheextensionwerebuiltinexactlythesamemannerashadbeenusedbefore,withallthestruc-turalweaknessesthathadbroughtdownthewallsthefirsttime.Whenwepointedthisout,thefarmertoldusthathewouldusetheextensionasastorageareaandnotforsleeping—ignoringthefactthatanearthquakemaystrikeduringtheworkday.

Experienceslikethisledustobelievethatinsteadofinvest-ingourarchitecturalexpertiseinrepairingsinglehomesweshouldattempttoeducatecommunitiesaboutsaferebuilding.Wewantedtodemonstratetolocalpopulationsfromdifferentvillagesthatbyfollowingbasicstructural-designrulesforstone-rubbleconstructiontheycouldbuildstrongerhouses—possiblyevenstrongerthanthosemarketedbythegovernment.WeeventuallyworkedwithcommunitiesandNGOsinvillagesacrossIndiatodevelopeducationalprograms,practicallessons,anddemonstrationprojects.

our role in rehabilitation

Oftenvernaculararchitectureandlocalmaterialsarebestsuitedtoaparticularclimateandlifestyle,butinregionsofseismicactivitylocalconstructionmethodsmustbeadaptedtoachieveaheightenedlevelofsecurity.InLatur(andtheotherregionswhereweworked)therewas,infact,noneedtoavoidbuildingwithstoneandmud.However,therearestructurallysoundwaystobuildmasonrywallsandapplyclayroofsthathelpthemover-comeinherentweaknessesandrenderthemsaferandmoreearthquake-resistant.Withstonetheseincludeintegratinghori-zontalreinforced-concretebandsintothewallsatvariouslevelstohelpthemasonryresisttensionthatcouldcausecracking.Theroofcanalsoactasadiaphragm,distributingtheforceoftheearthquakeoverthewalls,thusreducingitsimpact.Diagonalbraceshelpincreasetheroof’sstiffnessandthereforeitsefficacy

construction.Standardizedroomfunctionsdidnotcorrelatetothenecessitiesofrurallife.Thefeelingofpersonalsecurityandprivacycreatedbytheintrovertedstyleofthetraditionalhousewaslost.Womenfeltmoreexposedandatriskinalocalculturethatdemandsdiscretion.Duringthemonsoonsthereinforced-concreteroofsleakedandwerenoteasilyrepaired.Thiscomparedpoorlywithatraditionalmudroof:inamonsoonallitsownerhadtodowastoclimbup,pullouttheweeds,andspreadsomenewclaysoiloverthehole.Thedoorsinthenewhousesweretoosmalltoallowlargegrainstoragebinsthrough.Newmetalcontainersreplacedtheoldbins—atadditionalexpense—butnowinsecticideshadtobeusedtokeepbugsaway.Thehouseswerecoldinthewinterandsohotinthesummerthatresidentsworriedthattheirstoredseedswouldnotsurvivetheseason.Unliketraditionalhousestheyneededelectricfans,whichincreasedenergydemand.Thewhite-washedwalls,unlikethemudplasterofvernaculardwellings,turnedblackfromthesmokeoftraditionalwood-burningstoves.Paintershadtobecalledin,increasingmaintenanceexpenses.Evenhangingpictures—asignificantgesturetopersonalizeanotherwisegenerichome—wasmoredifficult.Theconcretewallsrequiredspecialelectricdrillsandthepowertodrivethem.Stonewallshadnotneededspecialpowertools:onesimplypushedahookintoacrevice.

By1994thefearhadsubsidedandtheinfatuationwithmodernconstructionhadgivenwaytoreality.Usingsteelandconcretewasexpensiveandinconvenient,especiallyifyouhadtopayforsuppliesoutofpocket.Consequently,peoplesimplyreturnedtocheaper,readilyavailable,traditionalmaterialsandbuildingmethods.InYelwat,oneofthefirstvillagestoberebuilt,afarmerhadastoneadditionputonhishousejustmonthsafterhemovedin.Hewentbacktothesitewherehisprevioushomehadcollapsed,gatheredupthestonesleftlyingaround,loadedhisbullockcart,andaskedalocalmasontobuildthe

ii/iPrefabricatedhousesmade,accordingtostate-recommendeddesign,ofprecastcon-cretehollow-corepanels

oInthisearthquake-resistanthousevernacularstone-wallconstructionisstrengthenedwithbandsofreinforcedconcrete.Theroofismadeofprecastconcretepanelsoverlaidwithmud.

pAtraditionalvernacularhousewithstonewallsandstone-tileroof

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itwassafertotradethecomfortoflivingunderacoolmud-slabroofforunbearablesummerheatunderatinroof,andthatinsertedbitsofcuttimbercouldstandinforarealstructuralsolution.Manyreplacedtheirstonewallscompletelywithbrick,thinkingerroneouslythatbrickislighterthanstone,andthere-forelesslikelytokillsomeoneifitfalls.Clearly,suchadhocmodificationsoftendidnotincreasesafetyatall.Conversely,knowinghowtobuildsafelyandeconomicallywithlocalmate-rialsdidnotassuagepeople’sfears.

Laturwasthefirstpost–naturaldisastersituationwefaced.Asarchitectswehadlittleexperiencewithhowsurvivorswouldreacttothereconstructionprocess.Whatweknewaboutbuildingtechnologyandconstructiontechniqueswaswhollyinadequatetothesituation.Wehadtofirstunderstandandtakeseriouslythefactthatlocalpeoplewerepsychologicallystuck.Theywerefixatedonwhatmaterialstheythoughttheycouldandcouldnotusetorebuildtheirhomesandprotecttheirfamiliesandheavilyreliantoncustomandrumorforthatinformation.Wewantedtodemonstratethatsaferwallsandroofscouldbebuiltatleastinpartusingtraditionalmaterials.Atfirst,noonebelievedus.

WedecidedtobuildtwodemonstrationhousesinthevillageofBudhoda,aneasydistancefromLatur.Thefirstchallengewastoselecttheindividualswhowouldbenefitfromthehomes.Weidentifiedtwowidowsandbuilthousesforthemwithintrovertedplansfollowingthevernacularpatternandproportions.Onehousehadrandom-rubblewalls(wallsmadeofundressedangularstonesofvaryingsizethatarefittedintoeachother)inmudmortarwithmudroofingplacedonadeckmadeofprecastelements.Thesecondhousehadpartadobe,partrandom-rubblewallswithmudroofingplacedonatimberdeck.

Aid-agencyworkers,governmentofficials,anddonor-agencyrepresentativesvisitedthefinishedhousesandwerehappywiththeresults.Naively,whatwedidn’tcountonwasasimple

duringthetremor.Thisallowstheinherentstrengthofthewallstoimprovetheoverallseismicresistanceofthestructure.Westruggledtoconveytheseideastoresidentsandlocalbuilders.

Ourcommunicationchallengesstemmedinpartfromourownzealtoofferanalternativedesignpractice.Forexample,weknewthatdeforestationhadtakenanenormoustollontheregionalenvironment,andmostofthetreesweregoneasaresultofcenturiesofindiscriminatelogging.Weproposedusinganalternativetotraditionaltimberroofsthatconsistedofdoublycurvedprecast-concretepanelssupportedonpartiallyprecastreinforced-concretejoists.Wepreservedthetradi-tionalmodularnatureoftheroofinthenewdesign,becauseitboredirectlyontheproportionsofindividualrooms.Weeven-tuallyrealizedthatbypromotingthenewtechnologyweweretellingpeoplethattheirtimber-and-mudroofwasnogood,whereasinrealityitofferedsomeenvironmentallysustainabletechniques,particularlythepossibilityofadaptingclayfromthesiteasabuildingmaterial.Originally,wehadoverlookedthataspectofthetradition.Weneededtoworkmuchhardertoresolvethebalancebetweenintelligentandsafebuildingmethodsandenvironmentalsustainability.

Someofourchallengeswerebasedincommunities’linger-inganxietiesandaningraineddistrustofoutsideexperts.Someresidentsrefusedtosleepinthehousesthatwerestillstanding.Otherscameupwiththeirownideasabouthowbesttoaddresspersonalsecurity.Theyremovedtheheavymud-and-timberroofsandreplacedthemwithlighttinroofssupportedonsimpleframeworksofwoodenposts.Theydismantledtheupperpartoftheheavystonewalls,reducingtheirheighttonomorethan4feet(1.25m),andreasonedthatstonefallingfromthatheightwouldnotkillaperson.Theysalvagedheavytimberbeamsfromtheruinsoftheirhomes,cutthemintoplanks,andusedthepiecestofillinthegapsbetweenroofandwall.Throughwordofmouthandimprovisationpeopleconvincedoneanotherthat

fThishousesurvivedtheearthquake,andwiththeaimofreducingriskitsownermodifieditbyreplacingtheupperpartofthestonewallswithtimberandaddinganew,corrugated-tinroof.

sInstallingaroofmadeofdoublycurvedprecast-concretepanelsonstonewalls.Thesepanelshavestiffenededgesthatrespondwelltotor-sionandstress.

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includingMarathi(theLaturidialect),andcirculatedthemthroughoutaffectedareasofthecountry.

Foryearswehaveencounteredpeoplemoreorlesswillingtorelyfortheirinformationonmythandfear,hearsayandpeerpressure.Locally,technicalexpertisecontinuestobelimitedandwhenitcomesfromtheoutsideitisnotalwaystrusted.Aftersometwentyyearsoffieldworkweareconvincedthattheonlywaytobreakthecycleofignoranceandfearistodemonstrateappropriatebuildingtechnologiescapableofwithstandingtheforcesofnaturalhazards.

Today,wetrainconstructionartisans,villagearchitects,andlocalengineersinthesetechnologies.Topromoteconfidenceamonglocalpeople,trainingprogramsshouldbeacollabora-tiveaffair;forexample,wedevelophousedesignstogetherwithmasons.Thetrainingprogramforprofessionalsalwaysparallelsworkwiththecommunity:villagersareaskedtoobservetheirmasonsatworkandresidentsareinvitedtovisitthesite.Itiscriticalthatwhatweteachbefeasibleinremotevillages,whereskilledworkersmaybefewandaccesstomaterialslimited.Wealsomakeaspecialefforttoengagewomeninthecommunity.Asweareahusband-and-wifeteam,weareabletoconductmeetingsandtrainingsessionsforwomenandgirlsonly.Thisallowswomentointeractfreely.

Becauseweworkmainlyinresponsetodisasters,afterthetrainingprogramswerarelyseeanyofourtraineesagain.Asaresultitishardtojudgehowmanynewideastheyadopt,useconsistentlyandwithauthority,andretainovertime.(Fundsforfollow-upassessmentsarerarelyavailable.)Ourtrainingpro-graminKashmirin2006wasanexception.There,masonsbuilthundredsofhousesoverseveralyears,usingourtechniques,andtrainedthreetimesasmanymasonsaswewereabletotrainpersonally.Seeingwhatthesemastersaccomplished,weareconfidentthatthishazard-resistantmethodofcombiningmaterialswilltakerootintheregion.

theNGOwewereworkingwithwastalkingaboutreinforcedconcrete.OnceweconvincedthedonorandtheNGOthattradi-tionalmaterialswouldperformwell,wehadtoconvincethelocalmasonsandtheresidentsfromneighboringvillages.Thetwohouseswedesignedforthewidowswerebuiltbytwentymasons,whohadtobefollowedandinstructedateverystage.Threeweekslater,standinginfrontofthefinishedhomes,themasonsunanimouslyclaimedthattheirhouseswouldholdagainstafutureearthquake,butwewerestillnotsurethattheycouldtalkaboutourmethodswithconviction.Wewerenotevensureiftheywerefullypersuadedthatbuildingwithstonecouldbecheaperandsafer.Weweremissingthecommunicationtoolsthatwouldhelppeoplerelatetheirownsafetytovarioustechni-calmeasureswithconfidenceandunderstanding.

Workingwithcommunitygroups,wefinallyhitupontheideathatobjectsfromdailylifecouldhelpexplainimportantconceptsinearthquakeengineering.Weusedastitch-throughcottonmattresstoconvincepeopleoftheneedforthrough-stonesthatholdthewythes(theexteriorwallfaces)togetherinarandom-rubblewall.(Intheabsenceofthrough-stonesthewythescanseparate,becomeunstable,andcollapse.)Aplas-ticbucketwithbentrimdemonstratedhowaconcretebandateavelevelworkstostrengthenthewalls.Thestiffnessofacan-isterwithitslidtightlyshutshowedtheimportanceofsecurelyconnectingtherooftothewalls.Wekeptaddingtothelist.Evenabstractconceptslikeinertiaforcescouldbeexplainedtopeoplebyholdingaflexibletwigwithalumpofclayattachedtoitstipandshakingitgently.Wealsointroducedshaketablesin1995.Thesesubjecthalf-scalemodelstoside-waysshocksandcrudelyimitateearthquakeforces.Evenlaypersonswenthomeconvincedthattheycouldimprovetheirsafetybyaddingconcretebands,through-stones,andverticalreinforcementembeddedwithinthemasonrytotheirhomes.Wemadevideosoftheresultsinseverallanguages,

yetoverlookedculturalreality:ourbeneficiarieswerepoorwidows,sopeopleidentifiedourconstructiontechniqueswithpoorpeople.Andwhowantstogoandseeapoorperson’shouse,muchlessliveinonejustlikeit?Unfortunately,thesewomenwouldneverbelookedonbytheircommunityasspokespersonsfornewbuildingtechnologies.Forourideastobecomeacceptableandwidespread,thestrategyhadtobepromotedbytherightpeople.Itmayseemanobviouspoint,butourprojectcalledforaspokespersonwhompeoplecouldidentifywith,someonetheycouldtrustandlookupto.

Wefoundouradvocateintheex-sarpanch (villagehead)ofAlmalavillage,some6miles(10km)away.Wemetwithhimtotalkaboutseismicretrofittinganddiscussedwaysforindividu-alstoreducethevulnerabilityoftheirexistingvernacularhomesratherthandemolishingthemandstartingover,whichwaswhatthegovernment’sengineerswerepromoting.Attheendofthemeetingtheex-sarpanchofferedhishouse,alongwithhisdisaster-reliefpaymentfromthegovernment,forourremodelingdemonstration.Hefollowedtheprocessthrougheverystep.Histwowivesandfourchildrenalsoworkedonthesitetohelpspeedthingsalong.Whileweretrofittedhishousehelearnedthebasicsofthedesignandconvincedtwoofhisfriendstoretrofittheirhouses,too.Oncethreehousesweredone,therewasnoturningback:inlessthanayearthirty-fourhomeswereretrofittedonourmodel.

what we haVe learned about long-terM safety

OurapproachinLaturhadlimitedsuccess.Itwastime-consumingandlabor-intensive.Large-scalereconstructionwasundertheswayofagovernmentthatpromoted“housesonsprings,”andwhileweweretalkingabouttheuseofload-bearingmasonry,

Atwigwithalumpofclayonthetipdemonstratesinertiaforce:whenthetwigisshakenandthenheldstill,theclayballcontinuestosway,puttingstressonthetwig.

it is critical that what we teach be feasible in remote villages, where skilled workers may be few and access to materials limited. we also make a special effort to engage women in the community.

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Note1 InGujaratStatein1987–88weprovidedhands-ontrainingtomasonsintribalareasforadobeconstructionandin1991–92traininginGujaratincost-efficientbuildingtechnologies,includingterra-cottatile-cladadobeandterra-cottatubevaultedroofing.Weconductedtrainingforskillsupgradeinearthquake-resistantconstructionandretrofittingofexistingvernacularbuildingsforearthquakevul-nerabilityreductionin1994–99inLatur,in2000inUttarakhand,in2001–5inGujaratState,andin2006–7inKashmirState.Since2006wehavecontinuedtoconductregular,ongoingtraininginGujaratStatetoupgradetheseskills.Trainingismainlyhands-onataconstructionsite,accompaniedbylecturesthatusespeciallymadeworkingmodelsandvideos.Allimportantpointsarebasedontheprevailingbuildingcodes.

Vernacular architecture and poor coMMunities

WestayedinLaturforsixlongyears,andhavesinceworkedinpost-disastercontextsthroughoutIndia.IntheaftermathoftheKutchearthquakeinGujaratin2001weworkedonanunusuallyambitiousprojectforthestateofGujarat.Ourprogramofferedtechnologydemonstrations,training,andconfidence-buildingexercisesforastategovernmentthatencompassednearly500villageswithoveramillioninhabitantsinfivedistrictsthatspansome116squaremiles(300sq.km).Heretheshake-tabledemonstrationsweremajorpublicevents.Weinvitedartisans,villagers,NGOpersonnel,governmentengineers,andstateofficerstoobservethem.Atoneevent600peopleshowedup.

Ourbiggestchallengeistomakesurelocalbuildersunder-standcertainfundamentalconcepts,suchasductilityofmaterialsandtheneedtouseconcretebandsandsinglereinforcingbarswithinmasonrywalls(whichhelpthemasonryresisttensionwhenthewallbendsvertically).Theyneedtobeabletounderstandtheconceptandpracticesufficientlytoteachothermasonsandtodefendtheirworkinthefaceofmarketforcesandmisguidedengineers.Today,videosofshake-tabletesting,pilothomesthatdemonstratesimpleworkingmodels,andbrochuresmakeourtaskagreatdealeasierthanitwasintheearly1990s.

Vernaculararchitectureisthebackboneoftraditionalhousing,especiallyforthemostvulnerablemembersofsociety.Thepost-disasterreconstructionphaseisanunprecedentedoppor-tunitytousherinchangesthathaveasignificantimpactonthelong-termsafetyofpeoplewhoareotherwisenotinaposition,financially,toreducethevulnerabilityoftheirhomes.Unlesstherightoptionsareselectedandtherightstrategyadopted,peoplewillremainvulnerableinspiteofunprecedentedaid.

iiAbucketwithafoldedrim,atightlyshutcanister,andastitchedcottonmattresshelpvillagersunderstandbasicprinciplesofsafeconstruction.

iAtraditionalvillagelandscapewithstoneroofs

pAchangedlandscape:houseswithearthquake-resistantreinforced-concreteroofs

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“ living in a precipitous valley at the confluence of two rivers, residents had suffered floods and landslides before, but few people realized that their city is sandwiched between two major fault lines that run directly through the capital.”

what about our cities? rebuilding Muzaffarabad Maggie stephenson and sheikh ahsan ahMed un-habitat pakistan, islaMabad

zahid aMindeVelopMent authority of Muzaffarabad, pakistan adMinistered kashMir

(previousspread)Atentcommunityforinter-nallydisplacedpersonsinMuzaffarabad,closetotheNeelumRiver

iNorthofMuzaffarabad,amountaincollapsedalongafaultline,destroyingthissuburb.

2.3what about our cities?

organizationun-habitat and deVelopMent authority of Muzaffarabad

proJect locale Muzaffarabad, pakistan adMinistered kashMir

Pakistanhassuffereditsshareofrecentcrises.In2005,aftertheKashmirearthquake,3.5millionpeoplewerelefthomeless;anadditional1millionlosttheirhomesafterfloodsin2007;100,000neededshelteraftertheBaluchistanearthquakein2008;in20091.5millionresidentsweredisplacedbyarmedconflict.In2010floodingdisplacedoraffected20millionpeople(with12millionneedinghumanitarianassistance)anddestroyedordamaged2millionhomes.Apartfromsustainingcatastrophicevents,Pakistan,withover160millionpeople,isoneofthefastest-growingcountriesintheworld;itscitiesareexpandingastronomically.Thus,energy,water,housing,andskillsshortagesconstituteincreasingchallengesthatcom-poundtheimpactofeachdisaster.

Fiveyearsagotheworld’ssympathyfocusedonKashmir.Theearthquake’sepicenterwasonlykilometersawayfromMuzaffarabad,theregion’scapitalcity,whichsufferedmassivedamage.1TheUnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgramme,knownasUN-Habitat,istheUnitedNationsagencyforhumansettlementsandwasactiveintherecoveryeffortsfromthestart.WeweremembersofaUN-HabitatteamthathascontinuedtotracktheprogressofMuzaffarabad’srecoveryfromthosefirstchaoticdays.Wesawfirsthandwhathappenedtoacitystillstrugglingtogetbackonitsfeet.Thisisanopportunitytocontrib-utetothedebateonhowbesttorespondtodisasterwhenitstrikesanurbanareaandtoraiseurgentquestionsabouttherel-evance,capacities,andagendasoftechnicalprofessionalssuchasarchitectsandplannersinurbanpost-disasterreconstruction.

InresponsetothescaleoftheKashmirearthquakethegov-ernmentofPakistanestablishedtheEarthquakeReconstructionandRehabilitationAuthority(ERRA)tomanagerecoveryinallsectors.UN-HabitatworkedcloselywithERRAtoplananddeliverprograms,includingthesuccessfulowner-drivenrecon-structionofover630,000ruralhouses.ButMuzaffarabadisadifferentstory.

Muzaffarabad

MuzaffarabadisthepoliticalandadministrativecapitalofPakistanAdministeredKashmir(PaK),theinternationallyrec-ognizednameforanareaspreadovernearly8,100squaremiles(13,000sq.km).BeforePakistan’sindependenceandpartitionfromIndiain1947,MuzaffarabadCitywasatransportstopbetweenRawalpindiandSrinagar,wherein1985thepop-ulationwasstillonly37,000.By2005thepopulationhadgrowntonearlyfivetimesthatfigure.Today,thecityistheadministrativeandservicehubforsome4millionpeople.Winterisseverewithheavysnowandbelow-zerotempera-tures.Duringthesummer,forseveralmonthstemperaturesreachover100°F(38°C)andarepunctuatedbymonsoonrains.Themajorityofpeopleareforcedtobuildtheirhomesonsteepslopes.

Livinginaprecipitousvalleyattheconfluenceoftworivers,residentshadsufferedfloodsandlandslidesbefore,butfewpeoplerealizedthattheircityissandwichedbetweentwomajorfaultlinesthatrundirectlythroughthecapital.Theinten-sityoftheearthquakeinMuzaffarabadaveraged6.9Mw;insomeareastheshakingwasworse.Morethan10,000peoplewerekilleddowntown;34,284peopleinthedistrictdied.Anadditional13,143wereseverelyinjuredinthecityproper.Whilethisnumberisdwarfedbythefiguresfromthe2010earthquakeinHaiti,itrepresentsasizablepercentageofthepopulation.Over8,500homesweredestroyedand6,600seri-ouslydamaged.Theonlytwohospitalsweredevastated.Eightypercentofgovernmentoffices,universities,andschoolswereleveled.Theheaviestdamagewasintheoldcenterandareasnorth,wherethecollapseofamountainsidealongthefaultlineresultedinthedisappearanceofwholevillages.Acloudoflimestonedusthungoverthecityformonths.

urgent calls, experts, and relocation

Intheimmediateaftermathoftheearthquakeexpertsinengi-neeringandearthquakemitigationarrivedtohelpbutmadelittleimpressiononthelocalauthorities,whowerebusydeal-ingwiththeirownfamiliesandrespondingtourgentissues;theywereinundatedbypoliticiansandmediavisitsandswampedbyphonecalls.Whiletheauthoritiesweregratefulfortheconcernandexpertise,itwasnearlyimpossibleintheearlydaysforthemtorespondtocomplexandlong-termissueslikevulnerabilityassessments,developmentofnewcon-structioncodes,andreconstructionplanning.Theywereoverwhelmedbycompetingdemands,limitedcapacity,man-dates,preconceptions,inexperience,andtheoutrightcomplexityofrecoveringfromsuchadisaster.Still,thefirstconcernwassimple,expressedagainandagainbycitizens:“Willthecityberebuiltinthesameplaceorwillweallhavetomove?Andwhatwillthatmean?”Neithertheynorthegovern-mentknewthatmanyothercities,locatedinequallyhazardouszones,areabletomanagetherisk,norhadtheybeentoldthatattemptstoresettlecommunitiesaftersimilardisasterselse-wherehadmetwithrepeatedfailure.Therewasmuchtalkofsatellitedevelopments,thoughexperiencedtechnicalexpertsweresurethatMuzaffarabadwouldberebuiltinsitu,whetherbydesignordefault.Formorethantwoyearsthecitysubsistedinastateofseemingindecision,shakenbyrumorsandfearsofrelocation,whileanestimated40,000peoplewiththemeanstoleave—businessmen,governmentofficials,andprofession-als—uprootedtheirfamiliesanddepartedformorecertainemploymentinothercities.Thedrainofeducated,active,qual-ifiedpersonsfurtherdevastatedthecapital.

Asearlyas2006thegovernmentofJapanprovidedtechni-calsupportintheformofanurgentdevelopmentstudy,intendedtohelprehabilitateandreconstructMuzaffarabad.

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priVate Vs. public space

Wherethecity’smasterplanwasimplemented,there,too,problemsarose.Theplanhadbeenconceivedbyastrongbutshort-termexternaltechnicalteamcollaboratingwithcityoffi-cials,whowereweak.Federalinterestsdidnotwantstrongmunicipalitiestocountercentralizeddecisionmaking.Asaresultitwasimplementedinpatchesandwithinsufficientfore-thought.Scatteredgovernmentofficeswereconsolidatedintoasinglecomplex,themainhospitalwasrebuilt,andasmallnumberofotherone-offsetpieceswereconstructed.Anewbridgeforthroughtraffictobypassthecityisunderconstruc-tion.Theoldcity,itsbazaar,andresidentialareasweredevastatedinthequake.Infrastructurewaslimitedandcon-gested.Thusthedecisionwasmade,drivenbytechnicaladvicebasedonengineeringstandards,toreconstructthecitywithwiderroadsthatwouldimproveaccess.

Butwideningtheroadschangedtheancientcenterirrevo-cably.Abazaarislargelyapedestrianareathatencouragescloserelationshipsamongtradersandwithpassers-by;itisthelifeandsoulofacitycommunityandtypicallyalsoservesawideruralarea.Themasterplanproposedtoreplacethephysi-calandeconomicstructureofthebazaarwithaseriesofmultistoryshoppingplazasatselectedlocations.Thefunda-mentaldifferencesbetweenthepublicspaceofabazaarandtheprivatespaceofaplaza,whichisenclosedanddependsonelectricity,werenotwellunderstood.Theshopkeepersandtheircustomersdidnotchallengethepremise,believingthatthecitywasgoingtoberebuilt“likeTokyo,”thatis,earthquake-resistant.Butnosustainedtechnicalsupportwasavailabletorecalibratetheplansaccordingtorealneedsandlocalwaysoflife;stilllessweretherefunds.

Thereportsaidthattheprocesswouldtaketenyearsandtar-geted2016forcompletion.Thismasterplanaddressedthephysicalaspectsofthecity’sreconstructionaswellassocialandinstitutionalrecovery.Itemphasizedtheneedforacommonvisionandofferedfeasibleandsuccinctrecommendationsfordevelopmentandmitigation.Sensitivetofundingpriorities,thereportincludedproposalsforanewbridgeandbypassforthroughtraffic,water-supplyandsewerageworks,widerroads,commercialplazas,andrecreationalspaces.Italsorecognizedfivedistinctgeographicalareaswithcharacteristictopo-graphic,social,andeconomicconditions.Themasterplanhadenormouspotentialtoengageandmobilizecommunities,setlocalpriorities,andharnesslocalpotential—hadtherebeenthewill,capacity,andresourcestoimplementit.

Theconsequencesofignoringtheserecommendationsarenowheremoreevidentthaninhazardmapping,wheretheinformationaboutriskwasgood,butmanagementinfrastruc-turetoimplementzoningcontrolswasabsent.Themasterplanrecommendedtwocategoriesoflanduse:promotionzones,consideredsafetodevelop,andpreservationzones,restrictedlandswhereitwasunsafetobuild.Butcommunicatingthisinformation,eveninitssimplestform,provedlargelyineffective.Theresultisdisturbing:thefastest-growingareasinthecityaresquarelyinthedesignatedpreservationzones.Oncethevisitingexpertshadgone,theplan’spreciseandrigoroushazardmap-pingwaslargelywasted.Wefailedtograspanessentialreality:weaklocalauthorities,lefttoexplain,defend,andadvocateforcriticaltechnicalpriorities,wereunabletoeffectdecisionsontheground.Turnoveramongkeyofficialsweakenedtheirgraspofgooddisastermanagement,donorinterestwaned,andfed-eralprioritiesshiftedtootherpressingconcerns.

fThe2006masterplanpreparedbyJapaneseexpertsforMuzaffarabadprovidedthoughtfulanddetailedanalysisbutwasnotimplemented.

iiMedinaMarket,inoldMuzaffarabad,aftertheearthquake

iShopkeepersandcustomersinMedinaMarketbeforetheearthquake

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tofocusattentiononissuesofsocialinfrastructure,suchasregeneratingkeymarkets,invigoratingcivilsociety,andcreat-ingjobs.What’smore,thedisasteritselfdidnotbringaboutpoliticalsolidarity.Infact,insteadofhelpingpeopleforgecommongroundandconsolidatetheirefforts,itescalatedpre-existingpowerstruggles.2

liVing in liMbo

Morethan40,000peoplelosttheirhousesinMuzaffarabad.Another30,000wereunableorunwillingtoreturnhome.Initially,peopleeithermovedawayorontoopenspacesandintotentsandtemporaryshelters.Individualon-sitesheltersareanalternativetolargecamps,butinurbanareaswherelandtenureisaproblemandthereislessmaterialtorecycle,theyareadifficultoption.Themajorityoffamilieslivedinoneortheotherofthesetemporaryconditionsforatleastayear.Peoplerepairedorretrofittedtheirhousesthebesttheycould.Somefamiliesmovedintorentalsthatwerestillintact,usuallysharingexorbitantrents,andthereforelivingincrowdedspaces.Wherethemasterplanindicatedhigh-riskredzones,appropriateonlyforcertaininfrastructure,propertyownerswerepromisedtheywouldberelocatedtosatellitetowns.ButinJuly2010thesetownsstillexistedonlyonpaper.Thelandhadnotbeendevelopedandthedesignatedfamilieshadnotbeenrelocated.Instead,thegovernmentofPakistanrequestedthatdonorsprovideprefabricatedshelterstobeplacedwhereverspaceexisted,includingintheredzones,atanaveragecostof$5,000perunit.Individualfamiliespaidforwaterandsewageconnections,aswellasthecostofboundarywallsforprivacy.

Beforethegovernment’sshelterprogramgotunderway,UN-Habitatexpressedconcernsaboutlargenumbersof

in the public interest

InMuzaffarabadneithertheMunicipalCorporationnortheDevelopmentAuthoritywasstrongbeforetheearthquake.Afterthequaketheseagencieshadfewerstaffmembers,wreckedfacilities,andmissingrecords,allofwhichcom-poundedtheirconfusion.Atnopointsincetheearthquakehasasinglestructuralengineerbeenemployedbycityauthorities.Onlytwopeopleserveasbuilding-controlofficers(surveyorsandinspectors);thisinthethroesofrepairingacitythatisnowhometoover150,000residents.Governmentofficialscouldnotcooperatelongenoughtoconsolidatesharedconcernsandcitypriorities.Andbothfederalandlocalauthoritiescon-sideredpublicworksmoreimportantthanhousesandcommercialdevelopment.

Citiesarepublicspacebutprimarilyprivateproperty—residentialandcommercial.Butgovernmentstendtoreadthecityasaseriesofpublicprojects.Inpost-disastercontextsgovernmentsfocusonpublicworksratherthanfacilitatingandguidingprivate-sectorrecovery,whichwould,inturn,privilegereconstructionandbolstertheeconomy.Worse,urbanpriori-tiesareoftensetbynationalpolitics,leavinglocalintereststoflounder.Thus,thecityhospital,governmentadministrationbuildings,andotherflagshipprojectswerecompletedbydonorsandcontractorspromptlyandofferedasturnkeyexam-plesofeffectiverecovery.Thesenew(highlytechnical)publicbuildingsareasourceofpride,butareprovingexpensivetooperateandmaintain.Meanwhile,thecityatlargebecameinvisibleandfellsilent.InMuzaffarabadtherearetwentyoffi-cialwards;thesecoincidewithcommunitygroupsandphysicallimitsthatcouldhaveservedasabasisforrepresenting,con-sulting,andmobilizinglocalinterestsinreconstruction.Yetnocitygovernmentelectionsbasedonwardboundarieshavetakenplacesince1991.Therewasnochannelthroughwhich

Tariqabad,afast-growingdistrictofthecity,ishometoseveralthousandpeopleandhasnoplanningcontrols.Itliesinanareaidenti-fiedbythe2006masterplanasamongthemostvulnerabletomultiplerisks,includinglandslides,erosion,andseismicdamage.

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peoplelivingforextensiveperiodsinprefabunits.Whenshel-tersaresitedonvaluableland,theseunitspreemptordelaypermanentconstructionandlong-termrecovery.Providingsheltersalsorunstheriskofencouragingincrementalcon-structionthatdoesnotmeetevenminimumseismicstandards.Adhocserviceprovisionandenvironmentaldeterioration,lowdensity,andlimitedoptionsforfamiliesalsofollowfromdeci-sionstousetemporaryshelterstiedtoarigidpackageofshort-termassistance.Unfortunately,theseconcernswentunheeded.AsofJanuary2010,3,074sheltershadbeencon-structed.Someareownedbytheoriginalresidents,somearerentedout,andothershavebeensold.

Thesesheltersnowoccupythecity.Installedonclearedandpartiallyclearedsites,theyelbowinonneighboringplots,driftontoroads,andinterruptrightsofway.Theprefabricatedshellsareutterlyinflexiblesingle-storyboxeswith8-foot(2.4-m)unreinforcedmasonrywallsthatprovideonlyamodicumofpri-vacyinaculturewhereprivacyisasocialimperative.Forthemajorityoffamiliesthisistheonlylandtheywilleverown;butwiththeshelteronthesite,theyhavenowheretorebuildaper-manenthome.Moreover,plotsthatonceaccommodatedalarge,extendedfamilyintwoorthreestoriescanonlyprovideahomeforfourtosixfamilymembers;theothershavenochoicebuttogoelsewhere.Laborandmaterialcostshaveskyrock-etedandthepriceoflandhasescalatedfourfoldsincetheearthquake.Fiveyearsafterthequake,over35,000peoplearestilllivinginsheltersorrentedaccommodations.Savingsandassistanceareexhaustedandrentsaresoexpensivethatpeopleareunabletosave.Thisinturncripplestheeconomyandsuppressesfinancialstimulus.Itwilltakeanothertenyearsbeforetheseresidentsareresettledinpermanenthomesandrebuildingislikelytobepiecemeallongafterthat.

rural housing reconstruction: what went right?

Over90percentofthepopulationinKashmirisrural.Thequakeleftmorethan3.5millionpeoplehomelessand630,000housesweredestroyedorseriouslydamaged.Thenationalgovernmentwantedtoensurethatthesedistantcommunitieswouldnotbeleftbehind.Amassiveairandroadoperationaidedtheheavilypopu-lated,steep,mountainoushinterlands,wherepeoplewerefacingasevereHimalayanwinter.ForERRAruralhousingwasthelarg-estsector,comprisingover40percentoftheirtotalbudget.Asinmostcountriesthereareneithercodesnorregulatingauthoritiesforruralconstruction.TheruralhousingreconstructionpolicyestablishedbyERRAthusensuredthathousingsolutionsweresocially,culturally,economically,andenvironmentallyacceptableandappropriate.Recoverywasowner-drivenandmaximizedtheuseoflocalandsalvagedmaterials.Technicalsupportgatheredandpromotedbestpractices,includingvernacularbuildingmeth-ods,endorsedsolutions,andreplacedbadhabitswithsoundhybridtechniques.3Over90percentofthe463,000newhousesand170,000repairedhouseswerefinishedby2009.

ThegovernmentofPakistanprovidedthesamefinancialpack-age(approximately$3,000)toruralandurbanfamilieswholosttheirhomes.Inruralareasthiswasdisbursedintranchescorre-latedtoprogressandsoundconstruction.Butapaymentthatwasadequateforaruralfamilywasinsufficientinthecity.Further,urbanresidentsreceivedasinglecashpaymentin2008becausethefederalgovernmentassumedthattheauthoritieswerealreadyinplacetoprovidetechnicalguidanceandenforcement—adubi-ousassumptioneveninnormaltimes.Certainlypeoplewelcomedthemoney,butthebulkofitwasnotputintoreconstruction.Urbanhousingisfarmorecomplexandexpensivethanitsruralcounter-partandwouldhaverequiredasystemofloanstohelpensurethathomeswererebuilt.

gIntheoldcitysingle-storyprefabshelterstooktheplaceofthree-storyhouses,leavingnolandclearforrebuilding.

iArubble-cloggedstreetintheoldcity

fNewconstructionintheoldcityhasrepeatedbadhabits;here,moneywasspentonanunsafeparapetandsurfacefinishes.

dAdemonstrationmodelofconfinedmasonrybyUN-HabitatandtheCityDevelopmentAuthority:correctlyspaced,reinforcedrebarthatturnsthecorners,stabilizingthem.Toomuchrebarcanmakeahouserigid;notenoughleavesitweakandvulnerable.

sUN-Habitatsteelfixersatareconstructionsitedemonstratehowtoconstructandplacethemetalframethatreinforcestheconcrete.

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sitting on our hands in Muzaffarabad

WhileERRAstrovetoavoidthetrapofleavingruralcommunitiesbehind,itfailedtonoticethaturbancommunitieswerestruggling.Ruralcommunitiesaremorecoherent,homogenous,andstablethanthoseincities.Theygenerallyfinditeasiertoorga-nizethemselvesafteradisasterorconflict.Urbanlandismorevaluableandthereismoreconflictaboutit.Inruralareasprivatelandisgenerallyprivatelyheld,whereasinurbanareastherearecompetinginterestsandpriorities(e.g.,owners,renters,andsubletters)thatsetprivaterightsagainstthepublicgood,itselfahighlymalleableterm.

Urbanlivelihoodsarealsolikelytobedisproportionatelyaffectedbydisaster.Jobsincitiesaretiedtobuildings,stock,andmachinery,allofwhichcanbewipedoutandmayproveprohibitivelyexpensivetoreplace.InMuzaffarabadtradersnotonlylosttheirshopsbuttheirstock,aswellasthelandtakenfromthemtowidenroads.Rubbleblockedthestreetsforsixmonthsaftertheearthquake,paralyzingthecity.Basicservicesandsupplylinescollapsed.Thosewhodidnotlosetheirshopsoutrightcouldnotreopenandshutteredtheirbusinessesindefinitely.

ManyoftheUN-HabitatstaffwhoparticipatedintheERRARuralHousingProgramwerefromMuzaffarabad,sothey,too,hadlivedintentsandshelters,movedduringtheearlymigration,orweretrappedinrentalandplanninglimbo.Despitethisper-sonalexperience,earthquake-engineereddesignandconstructionandeffortsatcapacitybuildingandgettinggoodinformationout,successfulinruralareas,wereabsentinMuzaffarabad,wheredamagedbuildingswerebeingcosmeti-callyrehabilitatedandnewconstructionwasindifferenttoearthquakesafety.UN-HabitatofferedtechnicalsupporttocityauthoritiesandcommunitiesbutwewereturneddownbyERRA,eventhoughfundingwasavailable.Public-sector

Illegal,uncontrolledconstructiononawater-way,wherethereisahighriskoffloodsandmudslides

infrastructurewasthepriority;therewassimplynointerestinhelpingindividualsbuildbacktheirhomesandbusinesses.

Theurgencyandsenseofabandonmentfeltwithinthecitywereneverreflectedatthestateorfederallevel,wherealldeci-sionsweremade.Soresidentsrebuiltanywheretheycould,inanywaypossible.Threeyearsaftertheearthquaketheinitialmomentumthathadledeveryoneinthecitytopulltogetherhaddrainedaway.Unitygarneredduringtheemergencyhadbeenerodedbyyearsofinactionandpoliticaldivisionsandreplacedbyanatmosphereofblame,frustratedexpectations,disenfran-chisement,andinertia.Professionals,teachers,andjournalistsneverfoundtheirvoice.So,in2008,afterwewereagainrejectedbyERRA,UN-Habitatteamsstartedaprocessofinformalsupport.

too little, too late?

OurSaferCities,SaferResidentsprogramfocusedonhousingandranonaminusculebudgetthatweshiftedfromtheruralprogram.Ourteam—architects,engineers,andcommunity-developmentprofessionals—steppedbeyondinstitutionalconstraintstoworkinpartnershipwithlocal,neighborhood,andcityauthorities.Wegottoknowthecity.Wedevotedeve-ningsandweekendstotrainingsessionsformunicipalauthoritiesandpublic-awarenessactivities.Wefacilitatedroundtablediscussionsforgovernmentstakeholdersandcivicleaders,constructeddemonstrationandmodelbuildings,advisedonmaterialsselectionandqualitycontrol,gaveon-sitetrainingonbuildingvulnerabilityandrisk,andprovideddesignadvicethroughclinics.Webroughtsupportandinformationtothestreets.WehadastaffofthirtyfromUN-Habitatandbroughtinmorethanfiftyadditionalpeoplefromgovernmentanduniversities.Teamswentwardtoward,documentingcon-structionpractices,collectingquestions,andidentifying

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Takereadingmaps,forexample.Mapsarealanguagethatrequiresfluency.Indevelopedcountrieswearefamiliarwithreadingallmannerofmaps,aswellasthevisuallanguagesfacilitatedbycomputerliteracy.Therewas,however,nocom-monlyusedorfamiliarmapofMuzaffarabadbeforetheearthquake.Evenwiththeadvancesandaccessibilityofsatel-liteimages,mapsandvisualinformationarenotself-evidentformuchoftheworld’spopulation.Mostpeoplecannotpickoutnorthandsouth,letalonerecognizemajorlandmarks,under-standtheCartesianrelationshipsbetweenpoints,oridentifyabstractpatterns.Plannersassumethatjustbecausepeopleknowtheircitytheycantranslatetheiron-the-groundknowl-edgeintospatialexperience.Sowhenmapsbecomethekey

AttheveryleastweowethecitizensofMuzaffarabadanapology.Butdoweexpecttodobetternexttime?Whatwillbedifferent?Wecanstartbyrecognizingthatthepurelytechnicalexercisesofhazardmappingandrevisingcodes,whileuseful,willnotalonebringaboutresultsontheground.Thegreaterchallenge,particularlyinourcities,isinimplementingchange.Technicalprofessionalsneedtogetbeyondworryingaboutfeesandbecomeproactive:interfere,askquestions,advise,advocate,andbeinterestedandavailableontheground,on-site,inthecommunity.Weneedtoassumeaprofessionalmoralresponsibilityandtirelesslypromotesafeconstructionasalife-or-deathissue,firstamongcolleaguesandstudentsandthenwithincommunitiesandtodecisionmakers.Weneedtolinkprofessionalsacrossdisciplinesandphysicalborders,enablingthemtoshareresourcesandexpertisethatsupportintelligent,sustainableinterventions.Weneedtotietheprivateandinstitutionalsectorstogetherundercorporatesocialresponsibility.Couldnotoneoftheworld’smanyengineeringfirmshavesponsoredastructuralengineerforMuzaffarabad?

how Might architects contribute?

Atthecitylevelmostpeoplearenotequippedtoenvisionafuturedifferentfromthepastortranslatepropositionsintocon-creteproposals.Unfortunately,thecommonresponseisreactive.Themoreconfidentcitizensaskquestions,buttheyareoftenperceivedascriticsandmalcontents.Thisiswherethearchitectcomesin.Architectsanddesignersareparticu-larlyskilledathelpingturnaspirationsandideasintoviableproposalsthatcanbediscussed,considered,andpriced.Afteradisasteritisinvaluabletohelppromotediverseopinions,enableactiveparticipation,andharnesstheingenuityandentrepreneurshiplatentincitycommunities.

communitypartners.Radioshowshelpedusreachacitywideaudience.Wewantedtodemonstratethatthefuturesafetyofthecitywasineveryone’shands.Welaunchedaninitiativetoinvolveschoolchildren,students,andteachersanddidevery-thingfromprovidingfactsheetstoholdingessayandpaintingcompetitionsanddebatesfortheseniorstudents.Onehun-dredandtwentyschoolstookpart.Everyonewecouldrallywithvaluableinformation,knowledge,orskillscontributed.Facultyfromtheuniversity’sgeologydepartmentexplainedfaultsandlandsliderisks.Wefollowedupwithwalkingtoursandtalkedaboutbuildingmaterialsandrealdangersinplaceswhereresidentscouldseeandtouchthefragilegeologyoftheircity.Ifnothingelsetheinformalinitiativeallowedfamiliestorepairandpartiallyrebuildtheirexistinghomesandapart-ments.Italsohelpedcreatecommunityawarenessofsafebuildingpractice.Crucially,welearnedthattechnicalexpertshaveaprofessionalandmoralresponsibilitytobeproactive,toleadchange.

Still,todayinMuzaffarabadaworryingamountofdevelop-mentistakingplaceinhigh-riskzones.Assessments,whilehelpful,havelittleimpactonpractices.Onone-tothree-storyhouses,dangerousadditionsthatrisetofiveorsixstoriesarecommon,andveryunsafe;somearetoppling.Appallingwork-manshipanddetailingcharacterizenewbuildings,particularlythoseinreinforcedconcrete,whichisacomplextechnologythatleavesawidemarginforerror.Moneyiswastedonincom-petentrepairsthatmakepeoplemorevulnerable.Intheeventofanotherearthquakehere,wewillallhavetoaskourselveswhyweabandonedatraumatizedcommunitywhoseinstitu-tionsweresobadlyweakened.Professionalarchitectsandengineersneedtoreflectonwhytheymissedsomanyoppor-tunitiestohelp.Donorsneedtoaskthemselvesifthebalanceoffinancialandtechnicalassistanceaddressedtherightpriori-ties.Suchfailuresshouldnotbetolerated.

fPrecariousstoriesaddedtoahouse,withoutrecognitionoftherisk

iExpensivenewconstructiongoesforwardwithoutanyunderstandingofseismictechnologyorearthquake-safedesign.

could not one of the world’s many engineering firms have sponsored a structural engineer for Muzaffarabad?

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Notes1 OnOctober8,2005,at8:50amlocaltime,a7.6MwearthquakestrucknorthernPakistan;theepicenterwas7.4miles(12km)northeastofthecityand16miles(26km)belowgroundlevel.

2 MuzaffarabadhadahighlypoliticizedrelationshipwithIslamabad(thecapitalofPakistan)beforetheearthquakeandwithvariouspoliticallobbieswithinPaK.Between2005and2009thegovernmentofPaKhadfourdifferentprimeminis-tersandcabinets,constantlyreshufflingthepoliticalandtechnocraticlandscape.

3 ERRA,supportedbyUN-Habitat,recognizedarangeofsolutionsaddressedtovarioussubcultures.TrainingwasbasedonacascadesystemthatintensivelypreparedacorpsofengineersandarchitectsasmastertrainerstotrainalargernumberofsubengineersandNGOstaff,whointurntrainedlargernumbersofmastermasonsasmobileteamsthatcouldreachthevastnumbersofartisansandhouseholdsinneedofinformationandpracticaladvice.Thesameteamscar-riedoutbuildinginspections.Ofthehomesbuiltinthisway95percentcomplywithERRAguidelines.Wegainedunprecedentedexperienceinaddressingscale,speed,andurgencythroughtheruralprogram.

staying on

InSeptember2009theShelterInterAgencyStandingCommittee,aforumofUNandindependenthumanitarianorganizations,identifiedurbanrecoveryasakeyglobalpriorityinhumanitarianresponse.Andyetafterthe7.6MwearthquakeinWestSumatraamonthlater,theheavilydamagedcityofPadang,withapopu-lationofover750,000,receivednoshelterassistanceforthefirstsixmonths,whileruralareasweregivenpriority.ThreemonthslaterthestaggeringscaleofdamageinthecitiesinHaitihasfinallybroughturbanconcernsandurbanreconstructiontotheforefrontofdisasterpreventionandplanning.

Aswewrite,theKashmirigovernmenthasatlasttakennoticeofMuzaffarabad.Thelong-termnegativeimpactofthetempo-rarysheltersisnowrecognized.Thegovernmenthasresolvedtostrengthenitssupportforreforms,lestthecitycontinuetodevelopatevergreaterrisk.Officialsandactivistshavefinallybeenheard.Butitisessentialthattechnicalsupportremainavailable.Attentionandinterestonthepartoflocalauthoritiesandinternationalagenciesarefleeting,andtheyarerarelypatientorcommittedenoughtoinsistonactionorwaitarounduntilthetimeisrighttohelp.UN-HabitatplanstostayoninMuzaffarabad,developinggoodpracticesandinitiativesthatcanbereplicatedinothercities.

toolindecisionmaking,manypeopleareexcluded.Itisunfor-tunatethatalthoughMuzaffarabadhadalargeuniversity,therewerenodepartmentsofengineering,architecture,orplanning.Theirpresencemighthaveprovidedanimportantandindepen-denttechnicalresourcefortherecoveryandreconstructionprocess,aswellasapartnertohelpdifferentgroupscollabo-rateincertainprojectsofliteracyandadvocacy.

This,however,wouldrequirerethinkingarchitecturaledu-cationandpracticeinPakistan,whichfocuseslargelyonaestheticsandfavorselaborateformsthatdisregardconcernsforstructuralintegrityorenvironmentalperformance.Educatedtoservetheprivilegedclasses,Pakistaniarchitectshaveneveractedcollectively,norhavetheysaidmuchofrelevanceaboutmanagingdisasters.Isitanywonderthepublicdoesnotseethemasaresource?Thedisastershouldhavebeenawake-upcall.ButfiveyearsaftertheKashmirearthquakeshockedtheworld,architectstherestilldonotstudyearthquake-resistantdesign.Thereisstilllittlesignthatthisoranyotherchallenge—environmentalsustainability,rapidgrowth—havehadanimpactontechnicaleducationorpractice.

Meanwhile,asisoftenthecase,thespotlightmovedonquickly.Today,thereislittleinterestinMuzaffarabadonthepartofinternationaldonorsorprograms.Ineffectalltheoppor-tunitiestolearnfromtheprocessorconsiderwhatwemightdobetternexttimeweresquandered.Architectsdonotusuallyconsiderthemselvescomplicitinthefailuresofpublicofficialsorresponsibleforpromotingfuturesafety.Sowearelefttoask:howdoacityandcommunitygainaccesstoexpertiseandadvice?Howcantheyalerttechnicalprofessionalstowhatisneeded?Howcanprofessionals—bothlocalandexternal—supporttheauthorities’requestsfortechnicalcapacityinthefaceofpoliticalintransigence?

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