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Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research http://research.microsoft.com/ ~sdumais IEEE ADL’99 - May 21, 1998
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Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

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Page 1: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction

Susan DumaisMicrosoft Research

http://research.microsoft.com/~sdumais

IEEE ADL’99 - May 21, 1998

Page 2: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Research in IR at MS

Microsoft Research (http://research.microsoft.com) Adaptive Systems and Interaction - IR/UI Machine Learning and Applied Statistics Data Mining Natural Language Processing Collaboration and Education MSR Cambridge; MSR Beijing

Microsoft Product Groups … many IR-related

Page 3: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

IR Themes & Directions

Improvements in representation and content-matching Probabilistic/Bayesian models - p(Relevant|Document),

p(Concept|Words) NLP: Truffle, MindNet

Beyond content-matching User/Task modeling Domain/Object modeling Advances in presentation and manipulation

WWW8 PanelFinding Anything in the Billion-Page Web: Are Algorithms the Answer? Moderator: Prabhakar Raghavan, IBM Almaden

Page 4: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Traditional View of IR

Query Words

Ranked List

Page 5: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

What’s Missing?

Query Words

Ranked List

User Modeling

Domain Modeling

Information Use

Page 6: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Domain/Obj Modeling

Not all objects are equal … potentially big win A priori importance Information use (“readware”; collab filtering)

Inter-object relationships Link structure / hypertext Subject categories - e.g., text categorization.

text clusteringMetadata

E.g., reliability, recency, cost -> combining

Page 7: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

User/Task Modeling

Demographics Task -- What’s the user’s goal?

e.g., LumiereShort and long-term content interests

e.g., Implicit queries Interest model = f(content_similarity, time, interest)

e.g., Letiza, WebWatcher, Fab

Page 8: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Information Use

Beyond batch IR model (“query->results”) Consider larger task context Knowledge management

Human attention is critical resource Techniques for automatic information

summarization, organization, discover, filtering, mining, etc.

Advanced UIs and interaction techniques E.g, tight coupling of search, browsing to

support information management

Page 9: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

The Broader View of IR

Query Words

Ranked List

User Modeling

Domain Modeling

Information Use

Page 10: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Beyond Content Matching

Domain/Object modelingA priori importanceText classification and clustering

User/Task modeling Implicit queries and Lumiere

Advances in presentation and manipulation Combining structure and search (e.g., DM)

Page 11: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 12: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 13: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 14: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 15: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Estimating Priors

Access Count e.g., DirectHit Collaborative Filtering

Link Structure (citation analysis) Clever (Hubs/Authorities) - Kleinberg et

al. Google - Brin & Page Web Archeologist - Bharat, Henzinger

Page 16: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

New Relevance Ranking

Relevance ranking can include: content-matching … of couse page/site popularity <external link count; proxy stats>

page quality <site quality, dates, depth> spam or porn or other downweighting etc.

Combining these - relative weighting of these factors tricky and subjective

Page 17: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Text Classification

Text Classification: assign objects to one or more of a predefined set of categories using text features E.g., News feeds, Web data, OHSUMED, Email - spam/no-spam

Approaches: Human classification (e.g., LCSH, MeSH, Yahoo!, CyberPatrol) Hand-crafted knowledge engineered systems (e.g., CONSTRUE) Inductive learning methods

(Semi-) automatic classification

Page 18: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Inductive Learning Methods

Supervised learning from examples Examples are easy for domain experts to provide Models easy to learn, update, and customize

Example learning algorithms Relevance Feedback, Decision Trees, Naïve Bayes,

Bayes Nets, Support Vector Machines (SVMs)

Text representation Large vector of features (words, phrases, hand-

crafted)

Page 19: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Support Vector Machine

Optimization Problem Find hyperplane, h, separating positive and negative

examples Optimization for maximum margin: Classify new items using:

1,1,min2 bxwbxww

support vectors

w

)( xwf

Page 20: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Reuters Data Set (21578 - ModApte split)

9603 training articles; 3299 test articlesExample “interest” article

2-APR-1987 06:35:19.50 west-germany b f BC-BUNDESBANK-LEAVES-CRE 04-02 0052FRANKFURT, March 2 The Bundesbank left credit policies unchanged after today's

regular meeting of its council, a spokesman said in answer to enquiries. The West German discount rate remains at 3.0 pct, and the Lombard emergency financing rate at 5.0 pct.

REUTER

Average article 200 words long

Page 21: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Example: Reuters news

118 categories (article can be in more than one category)

Most common categories (#train, #test)

Overall Results Linear SVM most accurate: 87% precision at

87% recall

• Trade (369,119)• Interest (347, 131)• Ship (197, 89)• Wheat (212, 71)• Corn (182, 56)

• Earn (2877, 1087) • Acquisitions (1650, 179)• Money-fx (538, 179)• Grain (433, 149)• Crude (389, 189)

Page 22: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Reuters ROC - Category Grain

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Precision

Recall

LSVMDecision Tree Naïve BayesFind Similar

Recall: % labeled in category among those stories that are really in categoryPrecision: % really in category among those stories labeled in category

Page 23: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Text Categ Summary

Accurate classifiers can be learned automatically from training examples

Linear SVMs are efficient and provide very good classification accuracy

Widely applicable, flexible, and adaptable representations Email spam/no-spam, Web, Medical abstracts,

TREC

Page 24: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Text Clustering

Discovering structure Vector-based document representation EM algorithm to identify clusters

Interactive user interface

Page 25: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Text Clustering

Page 26: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Beyond Content Matching

Domain/Object modeling Text classification and clustering

User/Task modelingImplicit queries and Lumiere

Advances in presentation and manipulationCombining structure and search (e.g.,

DM)

Page 27: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Lumiere Inferring beliefs about user’s goals and ideal

actions under uncertainty

*• User query

• User activity

• User profile• Data structures

Pr(Goals, Needs)Pr(Goals, Needs)

E. Horvitz, et al.

Page 28: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Bayesian Models for Information Access

Current GeneralInterests

User’s actions

Explicit User Query

User’sAcute

Interests / Needs

Applications,Docs, Data Structures

AcuteGoals/Tasks

PreviouslyDemonstrated

Interests

Context

Page 29: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Lumiere

Page 30: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Lumiere Office Assistant

Page 31: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Implicit Queries (IQ)

Explicit queries: Search is a separate, discrete task User types query, Gets results, Tries again …

Implicit queries: Search as part of normal information flow Ongoing query formulation based on user

activities Non-intrusive results display

Page 32: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 33: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Figure 2: Data Mountain with 100 web pages.

Page 34: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Data Mountain with Implicit Query results shown (highlighted pages to left of selected page).

Page 35: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

IQ Study: Experimental Details

Store 100 Web pages 50 popular Web pages; 50 random pages With or without Implicit Query

IQ1: Co-occurrence based IQIQ2: Content-based IQ

Retrieve 100 Web pages Title given as retrieval cue -- e.g., “CNN Home

Page”

No implicit query highlighting at retrieval

Page 36: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Figure 2: Data Mountain with 100 web pages.Find: “CNN Home Page”

Page 37: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Results: Information Storage

Filing strategies

Filing Strategy IQ Condition Semantic Alphabetic No OrgIQ0: No IQ 11 3 1IQ1: Co-occur based 8 1 0IQ2: Content-based 10 1 0

Page 38: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Results: Information Storage

Number of categories (for semantic

organizers)IQ Condition Average Number of Categories (std error) IQ0: No IQ 12.0 (3.6)IQ1: Co-occur based 15.8 (5.8)IQ2: Content-based 13.6 (5.9)

7 Categ 23 Categ

Page 39: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Results: Retrieval Time

Web Page Retrieval Time

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Im plicit Query Condition

Av

era

ge

RT

(s

ec

on

ds

)

IQ 0

IQ 1

IQ 2

Page 40: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Implicit Query Highlights

IQ built by tracking user’s reading behavior No explicit search required Good matches returned

IQ user model: Combines present context + previous

interestsNew interfaces for tightly coupling search

results with structure -- user study

Page 41: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Summary

Improving content-matching And, beyond ...

Domain/Object Models User/Task Models Information Presentation and Use

Also … non-text, multi-lingual, distributed

http://research.microsoft.com/~sdumais

Page 42: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

The View from Wired, May 1996

“information retrieval seemed like the easiest place to make progress … information retrieval is really only a problem for people in library science -- if some computer scientists were to put their heads together, they’d probably have it solved before lunchtime” [GS]

Page 43: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 44: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

DLI-1

UC Berkeley - Environmental planning and GIS

UC Santa Barbara - The Alexandria project spatially referenced map information

CMU - Informedia digital video library

UIllinois - Federating repositories of scientific literature

UMichigan - Intelligent agents for information location

Stanford - Interoperation mechanisms among heterogeneous services

Page 45: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

DLI-2

OHSU/OGI: Tracking footprints through an information space: Leveraging the document selections of expert problem solvers

Stanford: Image filtering for secure distribution of medical information

UWashington: Automatic reference librarians for the WWW

UKentucky: The digital atheneum: New techniques for restoring, searching and editing humanities collection

USCarolina: A software and data library for experiments, simulation and archiving

Johns Hopkins: Digital workflow management: The Lester S. Levy collection of Music

UArizona: High-performance digital library classification systems: From information retrieval to knowledge management

Page 46: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Popularity rankings - e.g., DirectHitLink-based rankings - e.g., Google,

CleverQuestion answering - e.g., AskJeevesPaid advertising - e.g. ,GoToSteve Kirsch’s talk at SIGIR

Page 47: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 48: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 49: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 50: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 51: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Example Web Searches

161858 lion lions 163041 lion facts 163919 picher of lions164040 lion picher 165002 lion pictures165100 pictures of lions165211 pictures of big cats165311 lion photos 170013 video in lion 172131 pictureof a lioness172207 picture of a lioness172241 lion pictures 172334 lion pictures cat 172443 lions172450 lions

150052 lion152004 lions152036 lions lion 152219 lion facts153747 roaring153848 lions roaring160232 africa lion160642 lions, tigers, leopards and cheetahs161042 lions, tigers, leopards and cheetahs cats 161144 wild cats of africa 161414 africa cat161602 africa lions161308 africa wild cats161823 mane161840 lion

user = A1D6F19DB06BD694 date = 970916 excite log

Page 52: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 53: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 54: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Earlier IR Accomplishments in DTAS

Bayesian IR Answer Wizard: words --> p(Concepti | Words)

User Modeling Lumiere, Office Assistant: user words, user

profile, user behavior (events), active data structures --> p(User needs, Goals | Evidence)

Collaborative Filtering

Page 55: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Current DTAS IR Projects

Domain/Object ModelingText Classification (Sue, David, Eric, John,

Mehran) Combining content and collaborative matches

(Carl)

User/Task Modeling Implicit query (Sue, Eric, Krishna) Prefetching information (Eric) Cost-benefit analysis of a search result (Jack)

Page 56: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

User Modeling for IQ/IR

IQ: Model of user interests based on actions Explicit search activity (query or profile) Patterns of scroll / dwell on text Copying and pasting actions Interaction with multiple applications

Explicit Queries or Profile Copy and PasteScroll/Dwell on Text

User’sShort- and Long-Term

Interests / Needs

“Implicit Query (IQ)”

Other Applications

Page 57: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Improvements: Using Probabilistic Model

MSR-Cambridge (Steve Robertson)Probabilistic Retrieval (e.g., Okapi)

Theory-driven derivation of matching function

Estimate: PQ(ri=Rel or NotRel | d=document)Using Bayes Rule and assuming conditional

independence given Rel/NotRel

) ( / ) | ( ) ( ) | (d d dP r P r P r Pi i i Q

) ( / ) | ( ) ( ) | (1d dP r x P r P r Pt

ii i i i Q

Page 58: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Improvements: Using Probabilistic Model

Good performance for uniform length document surrogates (e.g., abstracts)

Enhanced to take into account term frequency and document “BM25” one of the best ranking function at TREC

Easy to incorporate relevance feedback

Now looking at adaptive filtering/routing

Page 59: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Improvements: Using NLP

Current search techniques use word forms

Improvements in content-matching will come from:-> Identifying relations between words-> Identifying word meanings

Advanced NLP can provide thesehttp:/research.microspft.com/nlp

Page 60: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Dictionary

MindNet

Morphology

Sketch

Logical Form

Portrait

NL Text

DiscourseGeneration

NL Text

NLP System Architecture

MachineTranslation

Projects Technology

Search and Retrieval

Meaning Representation

Grammar & Style

Checking

DocumentUnderstandingIntelligent

Summarizing

Smart Selection

Word Breaking

Indexing

Page 61: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Result:Result:

2-3 times as many2-3 times as manyrelevant documentsrelevant documentsin the top 10 within the top 10 withMicrosoft NLPMicrosoft NLP

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

21.5%21.5%

33.1%33.1%

63.7%63.7%

Engine XEngine X X+X+ NLPNLP

Rel

evan

t h

its

Rel

evan

t h

its

“Truffle”: Word Relations % Relevant In Top Ten Docs

Page 62: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

“MindNet”: Word Meanings

A huge knowledge base

Automatically created from dictionaries

Words (nodes) linked by relationships

7 million links and growing

Page 63: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

MindNetMindNet

Page 64: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 65: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 66: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 67: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 68: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 69: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.
Page 70: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

P1 Panel (WWW8) - Finding Anything in the Billion-Page Web: Are Algorithms the Answer?

Moderator: Prabhakar Raghavan, IBM Almaden Research Center,USA

Panelists:- Andrei Z. Broder, Compaq SRC - Monika R. Henzinger, Compaq SRC - Udi Manber, Yahoo! Inc. - Brian Pinkerton, Excite Inc.

Page 71: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Web queries average length 2.2 words 10% use syntax (often incorrectly) 1% use advanced search noun phrase only

Precision more important than recall?

Page 72: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

Computer Search Today: large central indices

Human Search Today: ask friends - 6dos human, decentralized

Page 73: Beyond Content-Based Retrieval: Modeling Domains, Users and Interaction Susan Dumais Microsoft Research sdumais IEEE ADL’99.

History-Enriched Digital Objs

Hill, W., Hollan, J., Wroblewski, D., McCandless, T.

Edit Wear and Read Wear: Their Theory and Generalization.

ACM CHI'92 Human Factors in Computing Systems Proceedings. ACM Press (1992), 3-9.


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