Bettison tee Examining Committeesummit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/621/b13851494.pdf · 2021. 1. 14. · Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Jtopia, New York: Harcourt,, Brace and World,

THE CONTROVERSY SURROUND1 NS

THE DAVIS-MOORE EXPLANATION OF

STRATIFICATION

by

Cons tance Anne T a y l o r

B. Soc . Sc . ( M . P . P . ) , Birmingham

U n i v e r s i t y , 1966

A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n t h e Department

of

P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e , S o c i o l o g y and Anthropology

- c? CONSTANCE ANVE TAYLOR 1963

SIMON 7RASER UNIVERSITY

November, 1968.

EXAMINING COMMITTEE APPROVAL

David G. Bettison I Senior Supervisor

John McK. Whitworth - Examining Commi t tee

Karl Peter Examining Committee

PARTIAL COPYRIGIIT LICENSE

I h e r e b y g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o lend

my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e o f which i s shown below) t o u s e r s

of t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r s i n g l e

c o p i e s o n l y f o r s u c h u s e r s o r i n r e s p o n s e t o a r e q u e s t from t h e l i b r a r y '

of a n y o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i t s own

b e h a l f o r f o r one of i t s u s e r s . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t pe rmiss ion f o r

m u l t i p l e copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d

b y me o r t h e Dean of Graduate S t u d i e s . It is unders tood t h a t copying

o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l lowed

w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n pe rmiss ion .

T i t l e of ~ h e s i s / ~ i s s e r t a t i o n :

T h e c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d i n f i t h e bavis-Moore e x n l a n a t i o n o f -- ------ - ---..---,-- .--- -- --..---.-..--- - --- s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . P1.A. T h e s i s . Simon F r a s e r I l n i v e r s i t v . ---------

7urnabv. l3.C.. 1968. BY Constance Anne T a y l o r .

Author :

( s i g n a t u r e )

(nee Constance Anne T a y l o r )

(name )

( d a t e )

iii

ABSTRACT

We a t t e m p t t o a p p l y Mannheimls d i s c u s s i o n of t h e

s o c i o l o g y of knowledge t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d -

i n g t h e Davis-Moore a rg7~men t . Manqheim d i s t i n g u i s h e s

be tween 'he immanent and e x t r i n s i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a

body o f i n t e l l e c t u a l knowledge , t h a t i s , b e t w e e n , o n

t h e o n e hand, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t e r m s o f t h e p r e m i s e s

p r e s c r i b e d by a n i n ? e l l e c t u a l work , and on t h e o t h e r ,

w h i l e h o l d i n g t h e b a s i c p r e m i s e s i n a b e y a n c e , i n t e r m s

o f i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e w i d e r e x i s t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n .

E x t r i n s i c e x p l a n a t i o n s s e e k t o r e l a t e t h e t h i n k e r ' s

p o l i t i c a l " p e r s p e c t i v e " t o h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e w i d e r

s o c i a l s y s t e m , m a i n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e " c l a s s " o r

s g s i a l g r o u p , t o which h e b e l o n g s . Fo r ?xarnple,

Mannheim i n t e r p r e t s n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y German c o n s e r -

v a t i v e t h o u g h t a ; a r e s p o n s e , g e n e r a t e d by t h e needs

of t h e c l a s s t o which i t s c r e a t o r s b e l o n g e d , ( t h e

" d e c l i n i n g bolngeois c l a s s " ) t o t h e c h a l l e n g e t o i t s

p o s i t i o n by a n o t h e r c l a s s ( " t h e a s c e n d a n t g r o u p . " )

We c l a i m t h a t , t o a l a r g e d e g r e e , t h e c o n t r o v e r s y i s

e x p l i c a b l e i n t e r m s o f t h e c o n f l i c t of p o l i t i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e p rob l em of s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y , w i t h

t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t on,? a r e a o f t h e exchange i s

b a s i c a l l y a c o n f l i c t of m e t h o d o l o g i c a l axioms which

d o e s n o t m- l ,2 i fes t a n u n d e r l y i n g c l a s h of p o l i t i c a l

o p i n i o n s . P e r s p e c t i v e s a r e i d e n t i f i e d by t h e exag-

g e r a t i o n o f some f a c t s a b o u t human s o c i e t i e s , a s

g e n e r a l l y c o n - e i v e d , t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r s ; a n d ,

by t h e f a i l u r e o f p r o p o n e n t s and c r i t i c s a l i k e t o

c o n s i d e r r e l e v a n t e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e and t h e o r e t i c a l

a r g u m e n t s p r e s e n t e d by o t h e r t h i n k e r s . We r l a i m t h a t

p r o p o n e n t s a d o p t a c o n s e r v a t i v e , t h e i r c r i t i c s a

l i b e r a l v i ew of s t r a t i f i e d i n e q u a l i t i e s . F u r t h e r ,

when t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of d i f f e r e n t c o n t r i b u t o r s a r e

viewed a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of w i d e r t r e n d s of t h e

p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t o f American i n t e l l e c t u a l s t h r o u g h -

o u t t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a new d i m e n s i o n o f meaning

i s a f f o r d e d t h e c o n t r o v e r s y . T h u s , t h e i m p l i c i t l y

c o n s e r v a t i v e a rgument p r e s e n t e d by D a v i s and Moore i s

v iewed a s p a r t of t h e pos t -wa r c o n s e r v a t i v e r e a c t i o n

t o t h e r a d i c a l i s m o f American l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s

d u r i n g t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s and t o t h e i r commit tment a f t e r

1 9 3 6 , t o N3w Dea l m e a s u r e s t o r e d u c e t h e s c a l e of

p r e v a i l i n g s o c i a l and economic i n e q u a l i t i e s . C r i t i c i s m s

of t h e i r a rgumen t a r e viewed a s a l i b e r a l c o u n t e r - a t t a c k ,

prompted by t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a r t i c u l a t i o n o f c o n s e r v a t i v e

t h o u g h t i n t h e e a r l y f i f t i e s , and which r ~ f l e c t , i n t h e i r

e s s e n t i a l l y l i m i t e d and d e f e n s i v e a p p r o 3 c h , t h e c l i m a t e of

o p i n i o n of American l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e pr ,s t -war

p e r i o d . W h i l s t many o f Mannheim's s t a t e m e n t s a r e

s u p p o r t e d by o u r d i s c u s s i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e c o n c e r n i n g

t h e development, o f c o n s e r v a t i v e t h o u g h t a s a "cou q t e r -

i d e o l o g y , " t o meet t h e c h a l l e n g e o f a n o t h e r a l i e n and

h o s t i l e i d e o l o g y , h i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e p e r s p e s t i v e 3f

a n i n t e l l e c t u a l work i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e needs and

aspiratjons of the class or group to which its creator

belongs, must be modified on the basis of our examination

of major trends of intellectual thought in American

society; The major developments in American political

theory were not generated by the needs or aspirations

of well-defined social groups, but by such variables

as the changing conditions of the American economy,

for example, the Great Depression, the New Deal reforms

a ? ( ! the later recovery of the capitalist economy

both at home and abroad during the post-war period;

the prevailing mood of the Ainerican public as expressed in

post-war conservatism; and, America's relationship to

the rest of the world, particularly, the emergence

of a polar confrontation between America and Russia.

C h a p t e r

v i

CONTENTS

P a g e

I n t r o d u c t i o n 1

T h e F u n c t i o n a l P r e m i s e s o f t h e D a v i s - M o o r e Argumen t 1 4

Some M a j o r O b j e c t i o n s t o t h e D a v i s -Moore Argumen t 38

F u n c t i o n a n d C a u s e : A M e t h o d o l o g i c a l D i s c u s s i o n 68

The S o c i a l O r i g i n s o f t h e C o n t r o v e r s y 9 1

; o n c l u s i o n 1 2 5

B i b l i o g r a p h y 1 3 2

v i i

* Acknowledgements

I w i s h t o t h a n k D r . D . G . B e t t i s o n f o r h i s

encou ragemen t and i n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m s ,

and P r o f e s s o r T . B . Bo t t omore who gave v a l u a b l e

g u i d a n c e t o t h i s t h e s i s a t a n e a r l i e r s t a g e .

C h a p t e r I

INTRODUCTION

The f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h e p a p e r c o n s i s t s of a

d i s c u s s i o n of Mannheim's t h e o r e t i c a l f ramework i n o r d e r 4

t o a s s e s s what a s p e c t s o f h i s " s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge" a r e

t o b e r e t a i n e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y

s u r r o u n d i n g t h e Dav i s -M.oo r~ t h e o r y o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

Mannheim d i s t i n g u i s h e s be tween immanent i n t e r p r e t a t i o n L

of a n i d e a , and e x t r i n s i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The f o r m e r

i s a m a t t e r o f e x a m i n a t i o n " f rom w i t h i n . " The i n k e l l e c t u a l

phenomenon may b e d i s c u s s e d i n t e r m s o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s

p r e s c r i b e d by i t , i n t e r m s of a n o t h e r s y s t e m w i t h p r e m i s e s

d i f f e r e n t f rom i t s own. o r , t h e d i s c u s s i o n may s t a r t f rom

t h e g i v e n p r e m i s e s and a t t e m p t t o d r aw c o r r e c t c o n c l u s i o n s

f rom them. Immanent i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s may a l s o s e e k t o

e s t a b l i s h t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l o r i g i n o f a n i d e a o r i n t e r p r e t

i d e a s by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t o t a l i t i e s of wor ld v i e w s t h a t

c o r r e s p o n d t o them. What i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a l l t y p e s

o f e x p l a n a t i o n " f rom w i t h i n " i s t h e a t t e m p t t o g r a s p t h e

i n t e l l e c t u a l pkenomenon f rom t h e t f i d e o l o g i c a l " s p h e r e

i t s e l f .

E x p l a n a t i o n s " f rom w i t h o u t " h o l d t h e p r e s c r i b e d

a s s u m p t i o n s i n a b e y a n c e i n o r d e r t o r e l a t e t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l

phenomenon t o s o m e t h i n g o u t s i d e i t s e l f . Mannheim d i s t i n -

g u i s h e s two k i n d s o f e x t r i n s i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , namely,

e x p l a n a t i o r i by r e f e r e n c e t o un-meaniny e x i s t e n c e , and

e x p l a n a t i o n by r e f e r e n c e t o m e a n i n g f u l e x i s t e n c e .

1. K a r l Mannheim: "The I d e o l o g i c a l and t h e S o c i o l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ~ f I n t e l l e c t u a l Phencmena," (19261 .

The p o i n t o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s t o show t h a t i t i s

m i s t a k e n " t o l o c a t e s o c i o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n i n t h e s p h e r e

o f unmean ing c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n and t o a p p l y t o i t t h e

ax iom t h a t t h e g e n e s i s o f a n i n t e l l e c t u a l phenomenon

c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e a n y t h i n g c o n c e r n i n g i t s m e a n i n g a n d

v a l i d i t y . " F o r i t i s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l

f u n c t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a s y s t e m o f m e a n i n g s c o n t r i b u t e s

a n o v e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m e a n i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o e x i s -

t e n c e . More s i m p l y , t h e s o c i o l o g i s t c o n t r i b u t e s a new

m e a n i n g t o a n i d e a by r e l a t i n g i t t o a w i d e r s o c i a l

e x i s t e n c e . The i d e a i s r e l a t e d t o a s o c i a l r e a l i t y

c o n c e i v e d of a s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y s t e m o f m e a n i n g s .

Thus M a r x ' s e x p l a n a t i a n of i n d i v i d u a l i s m , w h i c h

c h a r a c t e r i z e s 1 8 t h c e n t u r y m e t h o d s o f i n q u i r y , b y

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f r e e c o m p e t i t i o n o f b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y

i s n o t a n e x p l a n a . k i o n o f t h e o r e t i c a l ax ioms i n t e r m s of

unmean ing e x i s t e n c e . R a t h e r i t i s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

t h e u l t i m a t e ax ioms c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a h i s t o r i c a l t y p e

by r e f e r e n c e t o a n u n d e r l y i n g s o c i a l o r d e r c o n c e i v e d o f

a s a s y s t e m o f m e a n i n a s . I t i s n o t t h e n a n o b j e c t i v e

c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c s e n s e .

I n summary, s o c i o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l phenomenon i n v o l v e s f i r s t , t h e s u s p e n s i o n

o f i n t r i n s i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g , s e c o n d , t h e a s s e r t i o n o f a

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a n i n t e l l e c t u a l phenomenon t o s o m e t h i n g

o u t s i d e i t , a s t h e f u n c t i o n o f w h i c h i t t h e n a p p e a r s .

The f u n c t i o n a l i z a t i o n of a n i d e a t h u s b e s t o w s new

m e a n i n g o n i t . T h e s e e x i s t e n t i a l m e a n i n g s a r e t h e

p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s of i t s v a l i d i t y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y a r e

n o t s e e n by t h e t h e o r y i t s e l f .

A g r e a t p a r t o f M a n n h e i m r s d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n s t h e

r e l e v a n c e of t h e f i n d i n g s o f s u c h a s o c i o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y ,

t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l phenomenon examined .

He u r g e s i n " I d e o l o g y and u t o p i a 1 $ t h a t t h e f i n d i n g s

c o n s t i t u t e a c r i t i a u e .

H a v i n g s t a t e d t h a t s o c i o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s

r e l e v a n t t o v a l i d i t y , h e p r o c e e d s t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t . He may

b e a c c u s e d o f d o i n g p r e c i s e l y w h a t h e c r i t i c i z e s t h e

e p i s t e m o l o g i s t f o r - namely , of d e c i d i n g b e f o r e h a n d wha t

t y p e s o f knowledge a r e p o s s i b l e and l e g i t i m a t e . I f t h e

s o c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n

o f v a l i d i t y o n e may a s k , why i s i t n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h

t h e c l a i m b e f o r e h a n d ? Mannheim a r g u e s t h a t p h i l o s o p h y

u l t i m a t e l y f o l l o w s t h e t y p e o f u n d e r s t a n d i - n g a t t a i n e d i n

t h o s e d i s c i p l i n e s i t p r o p o s e s t o e x a m i n e . T h u s , t h e

f o r m u l a t i o n s of Hume and Locke c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f

s c i e n t i - 7 ; ~ e x p l a n a t i o g h a v e b e e n u n d e r m i n e d by more modern

p h i l o s o p h e r s , who h a v e h a d t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a f a r

? more e x t e n s i v e r a n g e o f s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y and research:-

1. K a r l Mannheim, I d e o l o g y and J t o p i a , New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , , B r a c e and World , I n c . (1936) Chap. V.

2. S e e 5. T o u l m i n , P h i l o s o p h y o f S c i e n c e , New Y o r k , H a r p e r , ( 1 9 6 0 ) .

I n t h i s c a s e i t i s u n n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c l a i m f o r

t h e s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge o n a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b a s i s .

The a t t e m p t i s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t

s o c i o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a f f e c t s i n a n y r e a l s e n s e

a p p r a i s a l s made o n a n immanent b a s i s . 1

E l s e w h e r e Mannheim a s s e r t s t h a t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e t o

t h e v i e w t h a t s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge i s r e l e v a n t t o

v a l i d i t y , i s t h e v i e w o f immanent and e x t r i n s i c s o c i o l o -

g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e . Thus , o n e r q i s c u s s e s

a n i d e a a s v a l i d o r i n v a l i d s o l e l y i n t e r m s o f o t h e r i d e a s ,

o r o n e a c c e p t s o n l y f u n c t i o n a l m e a n i n g s a s v a l i d and - d i s c a r d s immanent d i s c u s s i o n a s ' i d e o l o g i c a l ' . I f t h e

two a p p r o a c h e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s h e t e r o g e n e o u s , i t i s

n e c e s s a r y t o c h o o s e b e t w e e n them. H e r e Mannheim a s s u m e s

t h a t t h e c r i t e r o n w h e r e b y a d i s c i p l i n e i s a c c e p t e d o r

r e j e c t e d , i s i t s u s e f u l n e s s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g v a l i d i t y ,

v a l i d i t y h e r e m e a n i n g ' t r u e ' , i n a n a b s o l u t e s e n s e .

Immanent i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a n s x a m i n a t i o n o f

t h e l o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y o f a x i o m s , o r , o n e a c c e p t s t h e

a x i o m s and r e v i e w s them i n t e r m s o f o t h e r s . E x t r i n s i c

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e c h o i c e o f ax ioms i . e . t h e

e v a l u a t i v e e l e m e n t , w h i c h i s t h e n e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f

t h e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e t h i n k e r . By w h a t e v e r c r i t e r i o n

o f t r u t h i s s e l e c t e d , t h e t r u t h o f a p r o p o s i t i o n mus t

b e a s s e s s e d i n d e p e n t d e n t l y of how i t h a p p e n e d t o b e a r r i v e d

1. I d e o l o g i c a l and S o c i o l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I n t e l l e c t u a l Phenomena, op . c i t . , p . 1 4 .

r e l e v a n t t o i t s v a l i d i t y , i s t o e x t e n d a s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n

of v a l i d i t y t o two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f k n o w l e d g e . I t

f o l l o w s f r o m t h i s t h a t Mannheim h a s c o n c e i v e d o f v a l i d i t y

a s a b s o l u t e , o r ' i n h e r e n t 1 i n t h i n g s , and a s t o t a l l y

i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r n a t u r e o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s

h e i s e x a m i n i n g t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i r v a l i d i t y .

I n summary, i t i s a g r e e d t h a t t o t u r n f rom a n immanent

t o a n e x t r i n s i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n v o l v e s a q u a l i t a t i v e

c h a n g e i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l phenomenon,

b u t t h e c l a i m t h a t s u c h a c h a n g e c o n s t i t u t e s a l c r i t i a u e l

( i . e . i s r e l e v a n t t o i t s v a l i d i t y ) i s r e j e c t e d . Mannhe imls

d i s c u s s i o n i s r e l e v a n t t o t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l

c o n t r o v e r s y t o b e e x a m i n e d . I t i s i n s t r u c t i v e t o a t t e m p t

t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y

i n t e r m s o f a w i d e r e x i s t e n t i a l p r o c e s s . I n t e l l e c t u a l

phenomena w h e r e t h e y come i n t o c o n f l i c t , d o n o t g e n e r a l l y

r e f u t e e a c h o t h e r i m m a n e n t l y . U n l i k e t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s ,

s u c h t h e o r i e s o r a r g u m e n t s d o n o t g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n t h e I

c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e y may b e r e f u t e d . I n t h e s e

c a s e s i t makes s e n s e t o a s k why t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d v a l i d

a t o n e t i m e and n o t a t o t h e r s w i t h i n a g i v e n i n t e l l e c t u a l

communi ty .

1. K a r l P o p p e r - L o g i c o f S c i e n t i f i c D i s c o v e r y , New Y o r k , B a s i c Books , ( 1 9 5 9 ) .

Mannheim a r g u e s ,

It i s t h e i n t e l ; . e c t ~ . l a l e x i s t e n t i a i s i t , u a t i o n w h i c h o v e r c c m e s ?rl(..-ll-er s u c h s i t u a t i o r ! and a t h e o r y r e p l a c e s a ~ o k h e r t h e o r y o n l y a s a p a r t o f t h i s e x i s t e n t < . a l s i t u a t i . o r 2 . l

I n "he c o n t r o v e r s y u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n t h e o r i g i n a l a r g u m e n t

w h i c h i s s u b s e q u e n - t l y c r i t i c i z e d , i s n o t r e p l a c e d by

a n o t h e r . I n f a c t t h e Davis-Moore t h e o r y o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

c o n t i n u e s t o b e r e v i e w e d a s a f e a s i b l e a r g u m e n t i n g e n e r a l

t e x t b o o k s on s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

However , i t i s i n s t r u c t i v e t o e x a m i n e ( a ) t h e r i s e of

c r i t i c i s m a s a n i n t e r e s t i n g e v e n t i n i t s e l f ( i . e . t o a s k

when, why and how i t a r o s e ) , and ( b ) t h e t y p e s o f c r i t i c i s m

p u t f o r w a r d ; f u r t h e r , ( c ) t o r e l a t e b o t h t o t h e w i d e r

i n t ~ l ' l . e c t u a 1 e x i s t e n t i a l s i - t u a t i o n .

K u r t ~ o l f f " c o n s i d e r s t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t u r n i n g f r o m

t h e immanent i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y t o a n

e x t r i n s i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . He s u g g e s t s t h a t some s o c i o -

c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s a r e c . ~ ? e r a t i v e i n t h e ' s c i e n t i f i c ' work

o f s o c i o l o g i s t s .

The f a c t t h a t v a l u a t i o n s e n t e r i n t o r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s

t h a t Amer ican s o c i o l o g y may be t r e a t e d a s a n o r i e n t a t i o n .

F o r e x a m p l e , " o b j e c - k i v i t y " i s a v a l u e i t s e l f , and e n t a i l s

t h e v a l u ~ o f t h e s p e c i f i c r o l e - t y p e s t o b e a d o p t e d . A g a i n ,

e x t r a - s c i e n t i f i c f a c t o r s e n t e r i n t o t h e s o c i o l o g i s t % work

when h e con'emp.?.ates w r i t i - n g w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f

?- 2. " N o I;es , owa;:ds a S o c i o - 5 ~ I t u r a l I n t e r p r ~ t a r i o n o f Amer ican S o c i o l o g y , " by K u r t W o l f f , Amer ican S o c i o l o g i c a l Rev iew, 7 . (~ctober. 1946). n . 545.

p u b l i c a t i o n , i . e . , t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e a r e a of i n q u i r y ,

and t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s t u d y a r e c o - d e t e r m i n e d by

t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p u b l i c a t i o n .

Wolff s u g 3 e s t s two t r a i t s w h e r e b y t h e o r i e n t a t i o n

o f A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y may b e a n a l y z e d - ( i ) t h e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e s t a t u s a u o ( i i) t h e p r o b l e m of t h e s e l e c t i o n o f l l i i r l ~ n

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

He f o r w a r d s t h r e e m a i n e x a m p l e s . Wi th r e f e r e n c e t o t h e

f i r s t t r a i t ( a ) h e d r a w s u p o n C . W r i g h t M i l l l s a n a l - v s i s 1

o f s o c i a l p a t h o l o g y , and a s s e r t s t h a t t h e c e n t r a l

ccncepJi, o f ' a d j u s t m e n t 1 i m p l i e s a m i d d l e - c l a s s

m o r a I . % t y and a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e g r a d u a l p r o g r e s s

of ' r e s p e c t a b l e 1 i n s t i t u t i o n s . ( b ) W . L loyd W a r n e r ' s

c a s t e t h e o r y of r a c e r e l a t i o n s i n t h e S o u t h e r n s t a t e s ,

i m p l i e s , by i t s u s e o f t h e c o n c e p t ' c a s t e 1 t h a t Negroes

a r e I n f a c t i n f e r i o r . R a c i a l p r e j u d i c e and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

a r e h e r e i t r u c t u r a l i z e d i n t o a mDre o r l e s s s t a t i c

feat:!re of t h e s t a t u s quo sys.l:erri. ( c ) I n - the s o c i o - 2

i o g i . c a ? r e s e a r c h o f R.E. P a r k s , W o l f f , ( c i t i q g Gc.'3nar M y r d a l )

- - - 7 + ~ i t h a t t h e r e i s a s y s t e m a t i c t e n d e n c y jr h i s

w o r k i n g t o i g n o r e a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f modir 'yjr lg - by

c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t - t h e s o c i a l e f f e c t s o f t h e n a t u r a l f o r c e s .

The u n i v e ~ ; a l and u n c r i t i c a l u s e of t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h e

e s o l n y i c a l s c h o o l i n d i c a t e a n u n f a v o u r a b l e a t t i t u d e t o

1. ;7. W r i g h t M i l l s , "The P r o f e s s i o n a l I d e o l o g y ~f th? S o c i a l . F a t h o l o g i s t , " i n Power , P o l i t i c s and P e o p l e . e d . , I.L. H o r o w i t z , New Y o r k , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , (1963).

2. Gunnar M y r d a l , An Amer ican Dilemma: The Negro P r o b l e m and Modern Democracy, ( 1 9 4 4 ; new e d i t i o n , New York, H a r p e r and Row, 1 9 6 2 . )

c h a n g e and a " l a i s s e z - f a i r e " a t t i t u d e .

Wolff a r g u e s t h a t A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y c a n a l s o b e

c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a n o r i e n t a t i o n i n t e r m s o f t h e a b s e n c e

of t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e t r a g i c a s p e c t o f man. I t

o v e r l o o k s one s i d e o f man i n o r d e r c o n s c i o u s l y o r by

g r o w t h , t o p r o v i d e " t h a t u n i f i e d and c o h e r e n t t h e o r y

w h i c h men h a v e a l w a y s c r a v e d . "

On :he b a s i s o f t h e s e e x a m p l e s , h e s u g g e s t s o n Che

o n e h a n d , t h e c o - d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c e r t a i n c o n c e p t s by

a s p e c t s of Amer ican c u l t u r e , o n t h e o t h e r , a s e l e c t : - v e

o b j e c t i v i t y w h i c h o m i t s o n e m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f man.

He p o i n t s o u t t h a t h i s own e x a m p l e s o f t h e o r i e q a r e

n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a n d t h a t h i s c o n c e p t o f America11

s o c i o l o g y i s v a g u e . ( ~ e s u g g 2 s t s t h e p r o b l e m may b e

t a c k l e d by c o n t e n t u a l a n a l y s e s o f c o u r s e s , b o o k s , and

s o c i o l o g i c a l j o u r n a l s . ) A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s no a t t e m p t t o

s e e t h e t h e o r i s t s r e v i e w e d a s - 7 - e s e n t a t i v e of d i f f e r e n t

t r e n d s i n t h e ' s o c i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y 1 , i t i s p o s s i b l e

t o i n f e r f r o m W o l f f l s own r e f e r e n c e s , t h a t t h e g e n e r a l l y

c o n s e r v a t i v e n a t u r e o f Amer ican s o c i o l o g y i s c h a l l e n g e d

by a g r o u p of c r i t i c a l t h i n k e r s a r o u n d t h e m i d - 4 0 ' s .

( ~ o l f f c i t e s C. W r i g h t M i l l s , Gunnar Myrday, Y a r t i n g ,

1 0. C o x , and g,j'T. Tumin ) .

The p r e w n ; s t u d y a i m s a t a more p r e c i - + a n a l y s i s

1. One p . rominen t f i g u r e i n t h e Da.vis-Moor0 c r . ' t r o v e r s y t o h e r e v i e w e d l a t e r , i s M . M . Tumin.

o f t h e c h a n g i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s o f A m e r i c a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s

and s o c i o l o g i s t s s p e c i f i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d

1 9 1 0 - 1 9 6 0 , i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n why t h e c o n t r o v e r s y

a r o s e when i t d i d , and t h e p a r t i c u l a r way i n w h i c h t h e

i n i t i a l s t i m u l u s t o d i s p u t a t i o n was g i v e n . The d o m i n a n t

p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s y w i l l

t h e n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e w i d e r i n k e l l e c t u a l s i t u a t i o n .

A t h e o r e t i c a l f r amework f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f 1

p e r s p e c t i v e s i s g i v e n by Mannheim, and i t w i l l b e

examined f o r i t s u s e f u l n e s s .

Mannheim s u g g e s t s p e r s p e c t i v e s b e i d e n t i f i e d i n

t e r m s o f ( a ) t h e a n a l v s i s o f m e a n i n a o f t h e c o n c e ~ t s u s e d .

T h i s r e q u i r e s a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e k e y c o n c e p t s i n a n y

body o f t h o u g h t . I t i s h e l d t h a t a p a r t i a l o r o n e - s i d e d

t r e a t m e n t o f a n y g i v e n c o n c e p t i n d i c a t e s t h e s o c i a l

p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r o p o n e n t . ( b ) t h e heno omen on of the

c o u n t e r - c o n c e p t . Where a c o n c e p t r e f l e c t s t h e o b s e r v e r ' s

i n t e r e s t , a c o u n - t e r - c o n c e p t may b e f o r m u l a t e d by a n o t h e r

t h i n k e r t o c o v e r a t l e a s t some a s p e c t s of t h e c o n c e p t s

w h i c h h a v e b e e n o m i t t e d . ( c ) t h e a l x e n c e of c e r t a i n

c o n c e p t s . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h e a b s e n c e o f a d e f i n i t e

d r i v e t o "come t o g r i p s w i t h c e r t a i n l i f e p r o b l e m s . "

( d ) t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c a t e s o r i c a l aAqpara tus . The

d i f f e r e n c e s i n z a t e g o r i c a l a p p a r a t u s ( e . g . m o r p h o l o g i c a l

and a n a l y t i c a l . ) may b e r e l a t e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n t b a s i c

1. K a r l Mannheim, I d e o l o g ~ l and U t o p i a , o p . c i t . , Chap. V p . 573.

i n t e n t i o n s of t h e t h i n k e r s . ( e ) d o m i n a n t m o d e l s o f - t h o u a h t .

The i m p l i c i t o r e x p l i c i t m o d e l s o f how ' f r u i t f u l t h i n k -

i n g ' c a n b e c a r r i e d on a r e a g a i n r e l a t e d t o t h e s o c i a l

p o s i t i o n o f t h e o b s e r v e r . D i f f e r e n t g r o u p s h ~ v e

d i f f e r e n t ways o f i n . L e r p r e t a t i n g t h e w o r l d . ( f ) l e v e l

o f a b s t r a c t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e - l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n beyond w h i c h a g i v e n t h e o r y

d o e s n o t p r o g r e s s o r t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h i t r e s i s t s

t h e o r e t i c a l , s y s t e m a t i c f o r m u l a t i o n . ( g ) t h e b a s i c

o n t o l o q v w h i c h i s p r e s u p p o s e d .

Manqhe imTs d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f

t h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e n o t a l w a y s c o n v i n c i n g . i n opn

e x a m p l e h e a r y - I P . t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n c a t e n o r i c a l

. - a p p a r a t u s n a y he explained by t h e d i f f e r e n t s o c l a i . p o s i t i o n s

7 - o f t l ~ e w r i t c r r ? . lie arcpec: t h a t C o n s e r v a t i v e t h i l ? ! : e ~ s

" 7 o f 1.9th C ~ ~ t u r j r Gtlrrnany -kcncI t o u s e morph~_l.o,.?:i.c:;_:.

c a t e g o r i e s !.,hereas the a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h c h a r c 7 c t c ~ : i z e s

t h i n k e r s o f t h e l e f t . The d i f f e r e n c e i s explained a s

f o l l o w s : - Groups o r i e n t e d t o t h e l e f t i n t e n d t n create

a new worl-d, and t h u s d i v e r t t h e i r a t t e n t i o n 5rnm t , h ~

o n g o i n g r e a l i t y . They t e n d t o t h i n k i n a b s J c r a c t f ,e rms,

t o a t o m i z e t h e g t v e n s i t u a t i o n i n t o i t s component

e l e m e n t s i n o r d e r t o r e c o m b i n e them anew. C o n s e r v a - l i v e s

c o n c e p t u a l i z e i n s u c h a way a s t o s t a b i l i z e t h e e l e m e n t s

s t i l l i n f l u x , and a t t h e same t i m e i n v o k e s a n c t i o n

f o r w h a t e x i s t s .

However, i n t h e c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e D a v i s -

Moore a r g u m e n t , i t i s c l e a r f r o m a c o n c e p t u a l a n a l y s i s

t h a t D a v i s m a i n t a i n s a c o n s e r v a t i v e , Tumin, a l i b e r a l

p o s i t i o n . D a v i s ' a p p r o a c h -i s a T a l y t i c a 1 . He a r g u e q

a t a h i g h l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n ( f o r e x a m p l e , h e d e l i n r -

a t e s p o s i t i o n and i n c u m b e n t ) . M o r e o v e r , h e r e c o m b i n e s

t h e e l e m e n t s o f h i s c o n c e p t u a l a n a l y s i s by means o f a

f u n c t i o n 2 1 f a c t o r - ( t h e s o c i a l need t o p l a c e a n d

m o t i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ) . The

e s s e n t i a l l y ' c o n s e r v a t i v e 1 c o n c l u s i o n d rawn i s t h a t

o n e a s p e c t o f t h e s t a t u s quo, s t r a t i f i c a l L o n , i s

i n e v i t a b l e . Tumin, a l t h o u g h h e g e n e r a l l y a r q u P s

w i t h i n t h e f ramework p u t f o r w a r d b y i l a v i s , ernpl- - ? a

c o n c e p t o f c l a s s w h i c h i n c l u d e s b o t h p o s i 4 i o n a r d 'be

p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e i n c u m b e n t . I n t h i s way, h e ?-c a; le

t o d i s c u s s a w h o l e r e a l m of p r o b l e m s w h i c h o n t h e t 7 a s i s

o f D a v i s 1 c o n c e p t u a l schili-1 - wouM b e i r r e l e v a n t -- name1 y ,

c l a s s i n h e r i t a n c e and i t s c o ~ s ~ q u e n c e s f o r s o c i e t l - , s u c h

i n e q ~ l a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y . ( w h i c h r e s u l t s i n o b s t a c l e s

i o the maximum u t i l i z z t i c ? n o f a v a i l a b l e t a l e n t ) a n d t h e

r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l i n e q u a l i t y .

T u m i n 1 s a o r c l i n o r p h o l o g i c a l l a p p r o a c h , e n a b l e s him i o

c r i t i c t z ~ . 5 e s t a t u s quo a s u n j u s t , and on t h e h n s i s

o f t h i s ' t i c i s m I-6 a d v o c a t e s a s e a r c b f o ~ s I i t u t i o 1 ? a l

a l t e r n a t i v e s t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n - c l e a r l y a ~ j n e r a l s t a n d -

p o i n t .

1. K i n g s l e y D a v i s ; "4 r o n c e p t u a l A n a l y s i s of S t r a t i f i c a t i o n " Amer ican S o c i o l o g i c a l Rev iew 7 , ( 1 9 4 2 ) l i t> . 3.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s o c i a l p o s i t i o n and t h e

p e r s p e c t i v e , a s i d e n t , i f i e d by t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c a t e -

g o r i c a l a p p a r a t u s , i s more v a r i a b l e tha r : Mannheim 1

i m p l i e s . M o r e o v e r , s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s c o u l d b e b r o u g h t

f o r w a r d t o show t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e t h o u g h t - m o d e l

and l e v e l of a b s t r a c t i o n a s i n d i c a t o r s of s o c i a 3

p o s i t i o n .

t h e k e y - c o n c e p t s , t h e c o u n t e r . cc i -cep t n ~ d t h e ahi:en(-.e

o f c e r t a i n c o n c e p t s . The m a i n d i f ? k i ; l J i y t hev a i l

i n v o l v e hllwever i s w h a t t o s e l e c t a s havinly b r ~ n

j.n h i s a r t i c l e d i s c a s s e s t h e a b y e n c e i r~ Amer ican (-;a-

1-cgv, of' t h e ' t r a g i , a s p e c t 1 of man. Howe- e7', h e

cou i c e q u a l - v we- < h a v e s e l e ~ t e d ' c r e a t i v e p e [ - e n t i a1 ' of man, a s p e c ' " ' c c o n c e r n o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

E u r o p e a n s o c i o L o g y and h a r d l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f A m e r i c a n

S o c i o l o q y . Thus t h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e a w i d e a r e a of

c o n s l d e r a t i n n s whi -h a n y p a r t i c u l a r s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y

may n e g l e c t , and t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a - ' : i o n o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e

uncier ly j .nJ t h e g i v e n t h e o r y clea-1.y d e p e n d s o n t h e s e

a s p e c t s ' . i e i n v e s t ' c a t o r c h o o s e s t o s e l c r t . I n t h e

c o n t r o v , c,v t o O G o r a m i n e d h o w e v e r , t h i s m c t h o d o l o r l i c a l

1. Wi th r e f e r e n c e t o a n e a r l i e r p o i n t , t h e v a r i a i i ? . l i t y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p r a i s e s t h e ques-; : , ion, i n w h a t s e n s e c a n M a n n h e i m l s f ramework b e s a i d t ,o b e ( i s e f u l i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a more v a l i d , o b j e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t , when i t i s u n r e l i a b l e i n t h i s way.

C h a p t e r I1

THE FUNCTIONAL PREMISES C)F THE DAVIS-MOORE ARGUMENT

I n t h i s c h a p t e r we a im t o d i s c u s s some a s p e c . t s

o f t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t and some c r i t i c i s m s o f

i t s b a s i c f u n c t i o n a l p r e m i s e s , p o i n t i n g o u t , w h e r e v e r

p o s s i b l e , i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e " p e r s p e c t i v e s " ( i n

Mannhe imls s e n s e ) w h i c h u n d e r l i e c o n t r i b u t i o n s by

p r o p o n e n t s and c r < . t i c s t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s y .

I n t h e 1 9 4 5 a r t i c l e , D a v i s and Moore, s t a r t i - n g

f r o m t h e p r o p o s t i o n t h a t no s o c i e t y i s Itunst:i-a i..i-f i e d " , a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e " u n i v e r s a l n e c e s s i t y w h i c h c a l l s

f o r t h s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n a n y s o c i a l s y s t e m , " and to

s p e c i f y t h o s e f a c t o r s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e r a n k o f

v a r i o u s s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s . B r i e f l y , t h e i r argumen-c

Tuns a s f o l l o w s : - a n y s o c i e t y m u s t m o t i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s

t o f i l l v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e

p r n d l ~ i c t . i o n o f g o o d s and s e r v i c e s i n a s o c i e t y . F u r t h e r ,

a n y s o c i e t y m u s t m o t i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , o n c e h a v i n g

a t t a i i - i e d t h o s e p o s i t i o i > r , t o d i l i g e n t p e r f o r m a n c e

o f t h e d u t i e c i n - r o l v e d . Some p o s i t i o n s r e q u i r e

p a r t i c u l a r a j , i i i t i e s and t a l e n t s , and a r e "more

i - m p o r t a n t " t o s o c i e t y t h a n o t h e r s . S i n c e t a l e n t e d a n d

t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l a r e s c a r c e , t h e r e m u s t be a s y s t e m of

d i f f e r e q t i a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d r e w a r d s , i n o r d e r t o r n o + j . v a t ~

a p p r o p r i a t e i n d i v i d u a l s t o a s p i r e t o i m p o r t a n t pc!?,!.".?. ,ns,

t o a c q u i r e t h e n e c e s s a r y t r a i n i n g f o r them, a n d , o n c e

- 15 - 4

i n them t o p e r f o r m d u t i e s d i l i g e n t l y . Rewards a r e of

t h r e e t y p e s : - t h i n g s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o s u s t e n a n c e

and c o m f o r t ; t h i n g s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o humour and

d i v e r s i o n ; a n d , t h i n g s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o " s e l f r e s p e c t

and e g o e x p a n s i o n " . The two d e t e r m i n a n t s o f d i f f e r e n t i a l

r e w a r d a r e a ) t h e f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e o f ~ o s i t i o n s and

b ) t h e s c a r c i t y o f t a l e n t e d . t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l . The

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f u n e q u a l r e w a r d s b y p o s i t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d

by b o t h f a c t o r s .

" S o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y i s t h u s a n u n c o n s c i o u s l y e v o l v e d d e v i c e by w h i c h s o c i e t i e s e n s u r e t h a t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s a r e c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y f i l l e d by t h e mos-k q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s . "1

They p r o c e e d , f r o m t h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e universal

e x i s t e n c e o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , t o a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n

b o t h t h e r o u g h l y u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e w a r d s

b e t w e e n m a j o r t y p e s o f p o s i t i o n i n e v e r y s o c i e t y ,

and a l s o , t h e v a r i a t i o n s w h i c h o c c u r i n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

s y s t e m s f r o m o n e s o c i e t y t o a n o t h e r : U n i f o r m t r e n d s a r e

e x p l i c a b l e i n t e r m s o f f o u r " m a j o r s o c i e t a l f u n c t i o n s "

i . e . r e l i g i o n , g o v e r n m e n t , economic a c t i v i t y , and

t e c h n o l o g y . i l l s i t i o n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n

o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s a r e t h e mos t f u n c t i o n a l l y i m p o r t a n t

i n e v e r y s o c i e t y , a n d a r e u n i f o r m l y h i g h i y r e w a r d e d .

V a r i a t i o n s a r e e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f w h a t e v e r f a c t o r s ..

1. K . D a v i s a n d W.E. Moore, "Some P r i n c i p l e s o f S t r a t i f i - ,

c a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o q i c a l Review, 1) ( ~ p r i l , 1 9 4 5 ) ,

a f f e c t t h e two d e t e r m i n a n t s o f r e w a r d , f u n c t i o n a l

i m p o r t a n c e and s c a r c i t y o f p e r s o n n e l . T h e s e f a c t o r s

a r e subsumed u n d e r two h e a d i n g s , i . e . t h e d e g r e e s of

i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( t e c h n o l o g i c a l , economic and

c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s ) and t h e " e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s

f a c e d hy a s o c i e t y , " ( e . g . war o r p e a c e w i t h o t h e r

s o c i e t i e s . )

I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f i r s t " m a j o r s o c i e t a l

f u n c t i o n , "i. e . r e l i g i o n , D a v i s and Moore e x p l a i n a s

f o l l o w s t h e f a c t t h a t r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n a r i e s a r e

: ~ j q ; . l l v r e w a r d e d i n t e r m s o f w e a l t h , power and p r e s t i g e

i n gvp?-y known s o c i e t y :

"The re; lss;n why r e l i g i o n i s n e c e s s a y i ; a p p a r e n t l y t o b e f o u n d i n t h e f a c t t i i a l human s o c i e t y a c h i e v e s i t s u n i t y p r i m a r i l y t h r o u q h t h e p o s s e s s i o n h-i i t s members o f 1 c . e r t a i . n i l l t i m a t e v a l u e s and e n d s i n common.. . "

How h i g h l y r e l . i g i o u s f u n c t i o n a r i e s a r e r e w a r d e d Y

r e l a t ; ~ r e t o o t h e r p o s i t i o n s , d e p e n d s o n a number of

f a c t o r s . One f a c t o r i s t h e " n a t u r e " o f t h e u l t i m a t e

val : les and e n d s w h i c h a r e h e l d i n common. F o r e x a m p l e ,

whe7:e u l t i m a t e v a l u e s t e n d t o h e e x p r e s s e d i n

a n t h - o p o m o r p h i c r a t h e r t h a n i n t r a n s c e n d e n , a l t e r m s , aq

i n e c h l l o l - o q i c a l l y a d v a n c e d , i n c o n t r a s t t o m 2 d i a e v a l

s o c i e t i e s , '12 p o s i t i o n o f p r i e s t i s 1 e s s f i l n c t i o m ' ! y

i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h u s l e s s highly rewarde ,d . ~-e.l.aj:,ive +,o

o t h e r p o s i t i o n s . O t h e r ' i n t e r n a l ' f a c t o r s r a i ige f r o m

" t h e d e g r e e o f o c c u p a t , i o n a l s p e c i a l . i z a t i o n , " " t h e ex i - s -

,, t e n c e o f a n economic s u r p l u s , " and " t h e i l l i t e r a c y of

9 1. I b i d . p . 246.

t h e p o p u l a c e . I t

D a v i s and Moore a p p l y s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t s t o t h e

" s o c i e t a l f u n c t i o n s " o f g o v e r n m e n t , economic a c t i v i t y ,

and t e c h n o l o g y .

One m a j o r c o n c e r n o f c r i t i c s of t h e Davis-Moore

a r g u m e n t i s t o e x a m i n e t h e c o n c e p t o f " f u n c t i o n a l

i m p o r t a n c e " :- Tumin i n t e r p r e t s t h e " f u n c t i o n a l

i m p o r t a n c e " o f a p o s i t i o n t o r e f e r t o t h e d e g r e e of

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o " s o c i a l s u r v i v a l , " a n d q u e s t i o n s t h e

s t a t u s o f p r o p o s t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g t h e l a t t e r t e r m , a s

c o n t i n g e n t p r o p o s t i o n s . Tumin a r g u e s t h a t " s u r v i v a l v a l u e "

i s u n c l e a r , u n m e n s u r a b l e and p o s s i b l y t a u t o l o g i c a l .

( B ~ t a u t o l o g i c a l h e i n t e n d s t h a t i f t h e " s t a t u s quo"

means e v e r y t h i n g p r e s e n t i n i t , a l l p a r t s mus t b e con-

s i d e r e d p o s i t i v e l y f u n c t i o n a l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y 1 2

a r e p a r t o f t h e " s t a t u s q u o t t ) S impson s t a t e s t h a t i t

i s i m p o s s i b l e t o v a l i d a t e e m p i r i c a l l y l i s t s o f n e c e s s a r y

c o n d i t i o n s f o r s o c i a l s u r v i v a l , a n d p o i n t s o u t t h a t Tumin 3

and D a v i s b o t h s u g g e s t l i s t s w h i c h d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y

f r o m e a c h o t h e r .

1. M e l v i n M. 'Tumin, "Some P r i n c i p l e s o f S t r a t i f i c a t i - o n : A C r i t i q u e , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g . i c a 1 Rev iew, 18 ( ~ u ~ u s t , 1 9 5 3 1 , p . 88.

2 . R i c h a r d S i m p s o n , " A M o d i f i c a t i o n of c h e FuncJc-ioilal ,, .- T h e o r y o f S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " S o c i a l F o r c e s , ,> ( ~ e c e m b e r , 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 132.

3. K i n g s l e y D a v i s , Human S o c i e t y , ( ~ e w Y c r k : The M a c m l l l a n - . Company, 1 9 4 8 ) , p . 30; J o h n B e n n e t t and M e l v i n M . l u r n i ~ ~ , S o c i a l L i f e : S t r u c t u r e and F u n c t i o n , ( ~ e w Y o r k : A l f r e d A . Dnopf , 1 9 4 8 ) p . 2 .

" T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h e b a s i c w e a k n e s s o f s u c h l i s t s . Any i n v e s t i g a t o r i s f r e e t o i n v e n t h i s own l i s t , and no o n e c a n g a i n s a y h i m , f o r no o n e h a s f o u n d a way t o t e s t t h e v a l i d i t y o f s u c h a l i s t . . . 11 1

To t h e o b j e c t i o n t h a t n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r

s o c i a l s u r v i v a l a r e i m p o s s i b l e t o v a l i d a t e by e x p e r i -

m e n t a t i o n , D a v i s r e p l i e s t h a t t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f

e m p i r i c a l t e s t s d o e s n o t o f i t s e l f , make a c o n c e p t

w o r t h l e s s . However , S impson r a i s e s t h e more p e r t i n e n t

i s s u e t h a t l i s t s o f f u n c t i o n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e s a r e p e r h a p s

- 8 " d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s o c i o l o g i ~ t ! c Sr-' I v e e v a i u a : i o n o f

t h o s e p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a r e m o s t e s s e n t i a l : -

"The r e a s o n i n g 1 ~ i " i r e g a r d t o t h e s e u n i v e r s a l s o c i a l n e e d s i s o f t e n c i r c u l a r . P o s i t i o n s a r e s a i d t o b e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e y m e e t o n e o f t h e n e e d s , b u t o n e s u s p e c t s t h a t some o f t h e n e e d s h a v e b e e n i n v e n t e d -Lo a c c o u n t f o r t h e p o s i t i o n s , i t h a v i n g b e e n assumed i n a d v a n c e t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n s mus t b e f u n c t i o n a l o r t h e y would n o t e x i s t . " 3

The s u g g e s t i o n t h a t D a v i s and M o o r e ' s s t a t e n t,

c o n c e p t i o n of s o c i e t y , i s d e v e l o p e d b y Huaco, who a s s e r t s

t h a t t h e s e u;li-,rerSa!.ly n e c e s s a r y f u n c t . i o n s a r e i n f a c t

t h e " v a r j :7us a r i a ly l i ca ! . p a r t s of t h e i r i m p l i c i t mode l

o f s o c i c t y . 'I" To s u p p o r t t h j - c o n t e n c i o n , Huaco

2 . K i n g s l e y Dzvls, "The Mvth of F u n c t i o n a l 4 n a I v q . s a s a S p e c i a l Methcd i n S o c t o l o g - j a11 ; A n t h r o p L ) l o q f , " 2 4 , [ ~ e c e m b ~ r , 1959), p . 768.

3. R. S impson , o p . c i t . , p . 133

4 . G e o r g e Huaco, " A L o g i c a l A n a l y s i s o f t h e Davis-Moore T h e o r y , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Rev iew, 28, [ ~ c t o b e r , 1 9 6 3 ) p . 802.

d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e f o u r " m a j o r s o c i e t a l f u n c t i o n s "

c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e f o u r a n a l y t i c a l l e v e l s o f t h e

M a r x i a n mode l o f s o c i e t y : -

DAVIS M.4RX

R e l i g i o n U p p e r l a y e r of s u p e r s t r u c t u r e Government Lower l a y e r o f s u p e r s t r u c t u r e Economic A c t i v i t y R e l a t i o n s o f P r o d u c t i o n T e c h n o l o g y F o r c e s o f F r o d u c t i o n

D a v i s 1 o n l y r e p l y t o t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s , i s t h a t t h e

c o n c e p t o f f u n c t i o n a l i m ~ o r t a n c e : : : : m e n s u r a b l e a r d

e v a l u a t i v e . B u t ,

"Rough m e a s u r e s o f f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e a r e i n f a c t a p p l i e d i n p r a c t i c e . I n w a r t i m e , f o r e x a m p l e , d e c i s i o n s a r e made a s t o w h i c h i n d u s t r i e s and o c c u p a t i o n s w i l l h a v e p r i o r i t , \ / i n c a p i t a l e q u i p - m e n t , l a b o r r e c r u i t m e n t , r a w m a t e r i a l s , e t c . I n t o t a l i t a r i a n c o u n t r i e s t h e same i s d o n e i n p e a c e - t i m e , a s a l s o i n u n d e r d e v e l o p e d a r e a s a t t e m p t i n g t o m a x i m i s e t h e i r s o c i a l and economic m o d e r n i z a t i o n . I n d i v i d u a l f i r m s m u s t c o n s t a n t l y d e c i d e w h a t p o s t i o n s a r e e s s e n - t i a l a n d w h i c h a r e n o t . " l

Huaco o b j e c t s t h a t D a v i s 1 e x a m p l e s a r e d rawn f r o m

e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s o f p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h a r e e i t h e r p a r t l y

o r t o t a l l y p l a n n e d , and a s s u c h a r e " u s e l e s s f o r 2

d r a w i n g i n f e r e n c e s a p p l i c a b l e t o u n p l a n n e d s y s t e m s . "

Most s o c i e t i e s t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , h e a s s e r t s , h a v e h e e n

" u n p l a n n e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y H u a c o l s commenk d e n i e s t h e

f a c t s t h a t human c o n d u c t i s p u r p o s i v e i . e . g o a l - o r i e n t e d ,

and t h a t , d u e t o g o v e r n m e n t l e g i s l a t i o n many a r e a s o f

s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n a r e r e g u l a t e d . However , t h e p o i n t

1. K i n s l e y D a v i s , " R e p l y , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Rev iew, 18 7 1 9 5 3 ) No. 4 , p . 3 9 5 .

2 . G. H u a c o : A L o g i c a l A n a l y s i s o f t h e Davis-Moore T h e o r y , o p . c i t . , p . 803.

may be made that an over-all committment to some goals

and a systematic implementation of them is not as

typical of human societies generally con'zeived, as

is the case in business enterprises and industrial

organizations.

Davist reply does not clarify his earlier dis-

cussion of functional importance. In his examples above,

the criterion of a position's importance is the sub-

jective evaluation of it, according to certain ends,

by political or economic groyps within s3ciety. In

the 1945 article the proponents clearly intended a

position's importance to be determined "objectively"

by the sociologist. To this end, they suggested that

the uniformly most important positions in every

society are those which perform "major societal

functions, whilst shifts in the relativz importance

of these positions are attributable to an array of

internal and external social factors. According to

this statement, political leaders may be disapproved

by groups within society, but the latterst subjective

evaluations are strictly irrelevant to a sociological

statement of the functional importance of major

governmental positions.

Some sociologists have criticised the concept of

"functional importance" in closer detail:- Simpson con-

siders two clues for the determination of relative

functional importance that were given by Davis and

Moore i n a f o o t - n o t e t o t h e o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e : 1

( a ) t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h a p o s i t i o n i s u n i q u e , t h e r e b e i n g no o t h e r p o s i t i o n t h a t c a n p e r f o r m t h e f u n c t i o n i n q u e s t i o n

a nd ( b ) t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h o t h e r p o s i t i o n s a r e d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e o n e i n q u e s t i o n .

He o b j e c t s t h a t t h e s u g g e s t e d " c l u e s " d o n o t

s u f f i c e t o a s s e s s t h e r e l a t i v e f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e

o f t h e p o s t i t o n s o f " g a r b a g e c o l l e c t o r " an i3" jan i to r . "

" T h e s e p o s t i o n s a r e p r e s u m a b l y a b o u t e q u a l i n f u n c t i o n a l u n i q u e n e s s and t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h o t h e r p o s i t i o n s d e p e n d o n them. Y e t we m i g h t f e e l t h a t t h e g a r b a g e c o l l e c t o r i s more i n p o r t a n t s i . l c e u n c o l l e c t e d r e f u s e p r e s e n t s a,more s e r i o u s p r o b l e m t h a n u n s v d e p t f l o o r s . " < -

The " c l u e s " w e r e i n t e n d e d t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e D a v i s -

Moore a r g u m e n t , b u t S i m p s o n ' s o b j e c t i o n m i s s e s i t s

c e n t r a l c o n c e r n t o show t h a t t h e m o s t i m o 3 r t a n t

p o s i t i o n s i n e v e r y s o c i e t y m u s t c a r r y r e w a r d s g r e a t

enough t o p r e v e n t s c a r c e , q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l f r o m

b e i n g a t t r a c t e d i n t o l e s s f u n c t i o n a l l y i m p o r t a n t

p o s i t i o n s . I t would h a v e b e e n more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

t h i s c e n t r a l c o n q e r n t o a s k why s u c h s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n s

a s j a n i t o r and g a r b a g e c o l l e c t o r e t c . c a r r y u q i f o r m l y

l o w r e w a r d i n e v e r y s o c i e t y , t h a n t o demand a s t a t e -

ment of t h e r e l a t i v e r a n k o f a l l o c c u p a t i o n a l

p o s i t i o n s i n a g i v e n s o c i e t y .

1. K . D a v i s and W.E. Moore , I1Some P r i n c i p l e s of S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " o p . c i t . , F o o t n o t e 3, p . 244.

2. R . S i m p s o n : A M o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e F u n c t i o n a l T h e o r y o f S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , o p . c i t . , p . 133.

E l s e w h e r e , S impson a r g u e s ,

" A l t h o u g h i t may b e a d m i t t e d t h a t a p o s i t i o n w h i c h i s u n i q u e l y c a p a b l e o f p e r f o r m i n g a n e s s e n t i a l f u n c t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t , t h i s s t a t e - ment s t i l l b e g s t h e q e s t i o n o f how e s s e n t i a l a g i v e n f u n c t i o n I s . " Y

A g a i n , h e h a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t h e e n t i r e a r g u m e n t . The

p r o p o n e n t s n o t o n l y d e s i g n a t e d " m a j o r s o c i e t a l

f u n c t i o n s , " b u t a l s o v e n t u r e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t some

function^^^ ( i . e . t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f common e n d s ) may

b e "more e s s e n t i a l " t h a n a n o t h e r , ( i . e . t h e d i s c o v e r y

of t h e t e c h n i c a l means t o t h e g i v e n e n d s . ) : -

" . . . t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t e c h n i c a l knowledge f r o m a s o c i e t a l p o i n - t o f vier^ i s n e v e r a s g r e a t a s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f g o a l s w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e o n t h e r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c l e v e l s . " *

One g e n e r a l f e a t u r e o f t h e a b o v e c r j - t i c i s m s and

o f D a v i s ' r e p l y , i s t h e t e n d e n c y t o o v e r l o o k D a v i s and

M o o r e ' s a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m o s t i r n p 3 r t a n t

p o s i t i o n s by r e f e r e n c e t o " m a j o r s o c i e t a l f u n c t i o n s . I'

The c o n c e p t o f " s o c i e t a l f u n c t i o n " c o n t a i n s two

l o g i c a l l y s e p a r a t e p r o p o s i t i o n s . One c o n c e r n s t h e

e x i s t e n c e of f u n c t i o n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e s , t h e o t h e r t h e

s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e i r

f u l f i l l m e n t . The c o n f u s i o n o f two d i s t i n c t p r o p o s i -

t i o n s i s e v i d e n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t : -

1. I b i d .

2 . K . D a v i s and W.E. Moore; 5 o m e P r i n c i p l e s o f S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " o p . c i t . , p . 247.

"Owing t o t h e u n i v e r s a l n e c e s s i t y o f c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s i n s o c i e t y w h i c h r e a u i r e s o c i a l o r q a n i s a t i o n f o r t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e r e i s a n u n d e r l y i n g s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e k i n d o f p o s i t i o n p u t a t t h e t o p , t h e k i n d p u t a t t h e m i d d l e and t h e k i n d p u t a t t h e bo-Horn o f t h e s c a l e . 11 1

( m y e m p h a s i s )

The q u e s t i o n o f w h i c h a c t i v i t i e s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o

t h e " s u r v i v a l " of a s o c i e t y i s l o g i c a l l y p r i o r t o a n

a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e

i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s .

S i n c e h o w e v e r , n e i t h e r p r o p o n e n t s n o r c r i t i c s h a v e

d i s c u s s e d t h e f o r m e r c o n c e p t o f f u n c t i o n a l p r e r e q u i -

s i t e , we s h a l l e x a m i n e t h e d i s c u s s i o n p r o v i d e d b y A b e r l e

2 e t a l . T h e i r mode l o f s o c i e t y i s more q u a l i f i e d

b u t b a s i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o D a v i s and M o o r e ' s c o n c e p t i o n

of s o c i e t y a s a " s y s t e m o f a c t i o n . "

A b e r l e e t a 1 b e g i n t h e i r e s s a y by d e f i n i n g

" s o c i e t y 1 ' a s d i s t i c t f r o m o r g a n i z a t i o n , communi ty , and

c u l t u r e , a s ,

" a g r o u p o f human b e i n g s s h a r i n g a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t s y s t e m o f a c t i o n w h i c h i s c a p - a b l e o f e x i s t i n g l o n g e r t h a n t h e l i f e - s p a n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l . t l 3

They t h e n s t i p u l a t e f o u r c o n d i t i o n s a n y o n e o f

w h i c h i s s u f f i c i e n t t o b r i n g o u t t h e t e r m i n a t i o n of a

1. K . D a v i s : Human S o c i e t y , o p . c i t . , p . 371 .

2. D.F. A b e r l e , A.K. Cohen, A . K . D a v i s , M . J . Levy J r . , and F.X. S u t t o n , "The F u n c t i o n a l P r e r e q u i s i t e s of a S o c i e t y , " E t h i c s , 6 0 ( ~ a n u a r ~ , 1 9 5 0 ) p p . 100-111 .

3. I b i d . p . 1 0 1 .

s o c i e t y . These a r e a s f o l l o w s , " t h e b i o l o g i c a l

e x t i n c t i o n o r d i s p e r s i o n of t h e members , " " a p a t h y of

t h e members, ' ' " t h e war of e a c h a g a i n s t a l l , " and t h e

" a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e s o c i e t y i n t o a n o t h e r s o c i e t y . "

With t h e s e n e g a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s i n mind t h e a r t i c l e

p r o c e d e s t o a l i s t of p r e r e q u i s i t e s i . e . c o n d i t i o n s

which mus t b e met t o e n s u r e s o c i a l s u r v i v a l .

The e s s a y c o n t a i n s a number o f d i f f i c u l t i e s .

Fo r i n s t a n c e , t h e p r o c e s s of j u s t i f y i n g t h e i n c l u s i o n

o f e a c h f u n c t i o n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e i n t h e i r l i s t i s

d e t e r m i n e d i n p a r t by t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f s o c i e t y a s

a " s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t s y s t e m of a c t i o n . " The a s s e r t i o n

t h a t " t h e c o n t r o l of d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v i o u r " i s a

f u n c t i o n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e f o l l o w s d i r e c t l y f rom t h e

c o n c e p t i o n o f s o c i e t y a s a n " i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m . "

A t h e o r i s t , s u c h a s Riesman, who c o n c e i v e s c o n f l i c t a s

endemic t o s o c i e t y , f a i l s t o s e e why a s o c i e t y c a n n o t

" s u r v i v e " u n l e s s d i s r u p t i v s b e h a v i o u r i s e f f e c t i v e l y

c o n t r o l l e d . T h i s i s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f R ie sman ' s

" . . . s o c i e t i e s c an t o l e r a t e even w i t h o u t d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , much more t l i s o r g a n i s a t i o n and e v e n r u i n t h a n many p e o p l e r e c o g n i z e . 11 1

A s econd m a j o r d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t n o t a l l t h e f o u r

" n e g a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s " a r e , a s t h e y c l a i m , c o n t i n g e n t

1. David Riesman, Nathan G l a z e r , and Reue l Denney, The L o n e l y Crowd: A S t u d y i n Changing American C h a r a c t e r , New York : Doubleday Anchor Books, ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 45 .

s t a t e m e n t s . A c c o r d i n g t o i h e i r d i s c u s s i o n , t h e con-

d i t i o n o f t h e "war of e a c h a g a i r s t a l l , " i s a c o n d i t i o n

i n w h i c h , n o r m a t i v e r e g u l a t i o n i s a b s e n t and human

c o n d u c t i s b a s e d o n " f o r c e and f r a u d . " I t f o l l o w s

f r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f " s o c i e t y " a s a " s y s t e m o f a c t i o n "

t h a t t h e m e a n i n g s a t t r i b u t e d t o s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g

o t h e r human b e i n g s c a n n o t b e p u r e l y p r i v a t e ; t h a t i s ,

i n o r d e r f o r a " s y s t e m o f a c t i o n " t o e x i s t , t h e r e mus t

b e some common p a t t e r n s i n t h e way human b e i n g s d e f i n e

s u c h s i t u a t i o n s . Now, i f i t i s t r u e by A b e r l e e t a l ' s

d e f i n i t i o n o f s 6 c i e t y t h a t human b e h a v i o u r mus t b e

n o r m a t i v e l y r e g u l a t e d , t h e i r s t a t e m e n t , " t h e r e a l i s a -

t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t bLe war o f e a c h a g a i n s t a l l "

( i . e . i n w h i c h no norms e x i s t ) l e a d s t o t h e d e m i s e o f

a s o c i e t y , " a l s o f o l l o w s f r o m t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n o f

s o c i e t y .

A b e r l e e t a 1 c l a i m t o d e t e r m i n e f u n c t i o n a l p r e -

r e q u i s i t e s by r e f e r e n c e t o c e n t i n g e n t c o n d i t i o n s

b u t i n t h o s e i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e y r e f e r t o t h e "war

o f e a c h a g a i n s t a l l " t h i s i s c l e a r l y n o t t h e c a s e .

F o r t h i s c o n d i t i o n , w h i l s t i t may b e more o r l e s s

a p p r o x i m a t e d i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s , c a n n o t b e f u l l v

r e a l i s e d i n a g i v e n s o c i e t y . I t i s n o t a n e m p i r i c a l

r e a l i t y b u t t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l a n t i t h e s i s of " s o c i e t y "

a s d e f i n e d by A b e r l e e t a l , i . e . a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e

f l u x a s ppposed t o a " s y s t e m o f a c t i o n " . By c o n t r a s t ,

c o n d i t i o n s s u c h a s t h e " b i o l o g i c a l e x t i n c t i o n of t h e

members , " and " t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e s o c i e t y i n t o

a n o t h e r s o c i e t y , " may b e r e g a r d e d a s c o n d i t i o n s

w h i c h c a n b e f u l l y r e a l i s e d i n a n e m p i r i c a l i n s t a n c e ,

f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e c a s e s o f t h e T a s m a n i a n a b o r i g i n e s

and o f some t r i b e o f Amer ican I n d i a n s i n t h e U.S

s o c i e t y , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

I n summary, t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f A b e r l e e t a 1

a t t e m p t t o j u s t i f y a l i s t o f f u n c t i o n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e s ,

d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e p o i n t s u g g e s t e d by Tumin, Huaco and

S i m p s o n , t h a t a s t a t e m e n t o f f u n c t i o n a l n e e d s d e p e n d s

u l t i m a t e l y o n t h e s e l e c t e d mode l o f s o c i e t y o r t h e .

p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p t i o n o f human b e h a v i o u r a d o p t e d .

D a v i s and M o o r e ' s " s o c i e t a l f u n c t i o n s " a r e

g e n e r a l l y assumed b y c r i t i c s t o b e f u n c t i o n a l

p r e r e q u i s i t e s , b u t some c l e a r l y e n t a i l a r e l a t i v i z e d

n o t i o n of f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t w h i c h r e f e r s t o t h e

" p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g , " of a s o c i e t y , and n o t i t s

" b a r e s t s u r v i v a l " . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e ' l f u n c t i o n s o f

t e c h n o l o g y , " a s presen-Led b y D a v i s and Moore, a r e

r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e e f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t i o n o f g o o d s

and s e r v i c e s i n c o m p l e x , i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s . They

s t r e s s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l t a l e n t and t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d

b y h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d p o s i t i o n s i n t h e s e s o c i e t i e s . 1

"The e x p l a n a t i o n o f why p o s i t i o n s r e q u i r i n g g r e a t technical s k i l l r e c e i v e f a i r l y h i g h r e w a r d s . . . i s t h e s i m p l e s t c a s e o f t h e r e w a r d s b e i n g s o d i s t r i b u t d t o d r a w f I

t a l e n t and m o t i v a t e t r a i n i n g . "

1. K. D a v i s and W.E. Moore, "Some P r i n c i p l e s of S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " o p . c i t . , p . 247 .

As A b e r l e e t a 1 p o i n t o u t s u c h e m p h a s i s i s i n -

c o r r e c t f o r s o c i e t i e s , " s o s i m p l e t h a t an7? t e c h n i q u e

c a n b e l e a r n e d by a n y i n d i v i d u a l who i s n o t f e e b l e -

1. A b e r l e e t a l . , o p . c i t . , p . 1 0 5

2. R i c h a r d S c h w a r t z , " F u n c t i o n a l A l t e r n a t i v e s t o I n e q u a l i t y , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 20 ( ~ u ~ u s t , 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . 424-30 .

1 minded . " s c h w a r t z ' s t u d y 2 a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h e i n a p p r o -

p r i a t e n e s s o f D a v i s and M o o r e ' s s t r e s s o n d i f f e r e n t i a l

t a l e n t and t r a i n i n g f o r some s o c i e t i e s . I n h i s s t u d y of

a n I s r e a l i c o l l e c t i v e f a r m i n g communi ty , h e n o t e s t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s u r p l u s o f p e r s o n n e l q u a l i f i e d t o

p e r f o r m i m p o r t a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n s . T h e s e

i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e r o u t i n e , u n s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , who h a d

a c q u i r e d o v e r a g e n e r a t i o n , t h e knowledge and s k i l l s

r e q u i r e d by a d m i n i s t r a t i v e j o b s . . D a v i s and Moore h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e " f u n c t i o n s of

t e c h n o l o g y " s o l e l y i n t h e c o n t e x t of complex , i n d u s t r i a l

s o c i e t i e s , and t h u s i m p l i c i t l y i n c o r p o r a t e t h e c o n c e p t

o f a f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t r e l a t i v e t o t h e " p r o p e r

f u n c t i o n i n g " o f t h i s t y p e o f s o c i e t y . However,

t h e y d o n o t u s e t h i s r e l a t i v i z e d c o n c e p t i n a n

e m p i r i c a l l y m e a n i n g f u l way, f o r t h e y f a i l t o s p e c i f y

f o r a g i v e n s\,rstem t h e r a n g e o f p o s s i b l e s t a t e s

w i t h i n w h i c h t h e s y s t e m may b e s a i d t o b e " p r o p e r l y

f u n c t i o n i n g . " They r e c o g n i z e , i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e need

f o r s u c h p r e c i s e e m p i r i c a l d e l i n e a t i o n , w h e r e t h e y s a y

t h a t t h e l ' f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e " o f p o s i t i o n s i s d e t e r -

mined b y a w i d e r a n g e o f v a r i a b l e s w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e I

l e v e l o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , p o l i t i c a l a n d

economic i 8 7 s t i t u t i o n s e t c . But t h e y make no u s e o f

t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i n t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n , s i n c e t h e

l i s t e d v a r i a b l e s a r e n o t d e a l t w i t h s y s t e m a t i c a l l y

i n t h e i r i n t e r - c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e -

q u i r e m e n t s o f a g i v e n s y s t e m .

T u r n i n g now i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n of " m a j o r s o c i e t a l

f u n c t i o n s , " t o t h e l o g i c a l l y s e c o n d a r y p r o p o s i t i o n

t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t i s i n d i s p e n -

s a b l e t o t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f a d e s i g n a t e d f u n c t i o n a l 1

r e q u i r e m e n t , M e r t o n p o i n t s o u t t h a t a t l e a s t o n e

a s s e r t i o n by D a v i s a n d Moore i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s

u n w a r r a n t e d by t h e e m p i r i c a l f a c t s o f modern s o c i e t i e s : -

They a s s e r t t h a t " r e l i g i o n " i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o m e e t i n g

t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f t h e " i n t e g r a t i o n o f

common v a l u e s , ' ' b u t t h i s s t a t e m e n t i s h a r d l y

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e t e n d e n c y f o r c o n f l i c t i n g e v a l u a t i o n s

o f p r o b l e m s of w i d e s p r e a d c o n c e r n ( e . g . b i r t h c o n t r o l )

t o b e f o s t e r e d by d i v e r s e r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s w i t h i n

modern i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e i s no

e v i d e n c e t h a t n o n - r e l i g i o u s p e o p l e s u b s c r i b e l e s s

r e a d i l y t o common v a l u e s t h a n t h o s e d e v o t e d t o

r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e s , b u t t h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s i m p l i c i t

i n t h e i r p r o p o s i t i o n . -

1. R.K. M e r t o n : S o c i a l T h e o r y and S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , G l e n c o e , I l l . , The F r e e P r e s s , ( 1 9 4 9 ) C h a p t e r I .

D a v i s and Moore a r e e x t r e m e l y s e l e c t i v e i n t h e i r

A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e l i n e o f o b j e c t i o n i s t h a t

e a c h of t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e q ~ i r e m e n t s d e s i g n a t e d by

D a v i s and Moore may b e met i n a number o f ways

" u n i v e r s a l " s t a t e m e n t s o f i n d i s p e n s a b l e s t r u c t u r a l

a r r a n g e m e n - t s . I f we a s k what p a r t i c u l a r e m p i r i c a l

f a c t s a r e subsumed u n d e r t h e g e n e r i c -term " r e l i g i o n , "

i t becomes c l e a r f rom conqtan-k r e f e r e n c e s t o "the 1

p r i e s t h o o d , " and "Lh& r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s " i n a

d i s c u s s i o n which r a n g e s f rom m e d i a e v a l t o modern

t y p e s o f s o c i e t y , t h a t t h e y have i n mind t h e e x i s - ,

t e n c e o f a s i n g l e , u n i f i e d r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n .

W h i l s t t h i s a s s u m p t i o n may b e c o r r e c t f o r some

p r i m i t i v e s t ~ c i e t i e s , i t i s c l e a r l y i n c o r r e c t f o r 2

modern i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s .

o t h e r t h a n by t h e s t r u c t u r a l a r rangement , t h e y s e l e c t .

Thus one migh t s u g g e s t t h a t " t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f common

e n d s " may be a s w e l l e f f e c t e d by p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y

and o r g a n i z e d mass m e e t i n g s a s by r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f

and r i t u a l . 3

1 . F o r example , " . . . L t i s e a s i l y p o s s i b l e f o r i n t e l - l e c t u a l s t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e d e g r e e t o which the p r i e s t h o o d i n a p r e s u m a b l y s e c u l a r m i l i e u h a s l o s t p r e s t i g e , " i n "Some P r i n c i p l e s of S t r a t i f i c a t i o n " bv K . D a v i s and W.E.Moore, o p . c i t . , p . 245.

2 . S e e R.K. Mer ton : S o c i a l Theory and S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , o p . c i t . , p . 1 9 .

3. R . D . S c h w a r t z a p p l i e s t h i s k i n d o f r e a s o n i n g t o t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n d i s p e n s a b i l i t y of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n made by t h e p r o p o n 3 n t s .

So f a r we have b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n c e p t u a l 1

p r o b l e m s . S t i n c h c o m b e , however , i s l e s s c o n c e r n e d

w i t h t h e s e t h a n w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of v a l i d a t i n g

e m p i r i c a l l y s t a t e m e n t s which i n c l u d e t h e t e r m

" f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e . " The l e g i t i m a c y of t h e

Davis-Moore a rgument r e s t s upon t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f I

d e r i v i n g v e r i f i c a b l e e m p i r i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s f rom i t : -

He s u g g e s t s t h a t h a v i n g i d e n t i f i e d chang?s l i k e l y t o

o c c u r i n t h e r e l a t i v e f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e of

p o s i t i o n s , d u e t o c h a n g e s i n i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l

c o n d i t i o n s of t h e s o c i e t y i n q u e s t i o n , one c o u l d

s t a t e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n e m p i r i c a l

t e r m s . Fo r example , o n e c o u l d p r e d i c t t h a t i n t i m e s

of w a r , t h e p o s i t i o n o f g e n e r a l i s more i m p o r t a n t

r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r p o s i t i o n s , t h a n i n p e a c e - t i m e .

Thus one would t h e o r e t i c a l l y e x p e c t g e n e r a l s t o b e

more h i g h l y r ewarded t h a n g r o u p s "which have n o t h i n g

t o d o w i t h v i c t o r y , " ( h i s example s a r e t h o s e c h a r g e d

w i t h t h e c a r e of i n c u r a b l e s , t h e aged e t c . )

S t i nchcombe s t a t e s t h a t i f t h e " d e r i v e d "

e m p i r i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s d o n o t i n f a c t o c c u r , t h e n

i t may b e a ) b e c a u s e t h e t h e o r y i s u n t r u e b ) b e c a u s e

t h e p o s i t i o n o f g e n e r a l i s n o t i n f a c t more i m p o r t a n t

r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r p o s i t C a n s i n t i m e o f wa r ,

1. A . L . S t i n c h c o m b e , "Some E m p i r i c a l Consequences of t h e Davis-Moore T h e o r y , " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 28, ( ~ c t o b e r , 1 9 6 3 ) p . 805.

o r , c ) b e c a u s e s o c i o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t s o f r e w a r d may

b e i n a d e q u a t e .

A c l o s e r s c r u t i n y o f t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t r e v e a l s

o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r e m p i r i c a l v a l i d a t i o n . ' J a r i a t i o n s

i n p o s i t i o n a l r a n k i n g a r e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d n o t o n l y i n ,

t e r m s o f w h a t e v e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e

o f p o s i t i o n s , b u t a l s o t h o s e w h i c h a f f e c t t h e s c a r c i t y o f

q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l . S t i n c h c o m b e i g n o r e s t h e l a t t e r

d e t e r m i n a n t a n d t h u s f a i l s t o s e e t h a t t h e Davis-Moore

a rgun len t e m b r a c e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h i s " d e r i v e d 1 '

c o n s e q u e n c e s w i l l n o t o c c u r . One c o u l d e x p l a i n t h e

a b s e n c e o f i n c r e a s e d r e w a r d s f o r g e n e r a l s i n t e r n s o f t h e i r

t h e o r y ; f o r e x a m p l e , s . l n c e t h e common d e s i r e o f members

f o r n a t i o n a l v i c t o r y m o t i v a t e s a r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r

number o f s c a r c e , q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l t o a s p i r e t o h e

g e n e r a l s , e x t r a i n d u c e m e n t s i n t h e f o r m o f r e w a r d s a r e

u n n e c e s s a r y . The e x a m p l e i s s p e c u l a t i v e , b u t i t s e r v e s

t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a n y d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n c o n s e q u e n c e s

" d e r i v e d l ' f r o m t h e : . e x p l a n a t i o n , a n d a c t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s

c a n i n t h e o r y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a w i d e a r r a y o f " o t h e r

f a c t o r s " i n t h e s i t u a t i o n . T h i s , i n e f f e c t , makes t h e i r

a n a l y s i s immune t o e m p i r i c a l d i s p r o o f :

5 j a m e . c r i t i c s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e l o g i c o f t h e D a v i s -

Moore a r g u m e n t i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i c s

t h e o r y . R i e s s m a n comments,

' " I n d e e d , Adam S m i t h r e a c h e d a l m o s t t h e same c o n c l u s i o n and f o r a l m o s t t h e same r e a s o n s when h e d i s c u s s e d why c e r t a i n o c c u p a t i o n s

s h o u l d command a h i g h e r r e m u n e r a t i o n t h a n o t h e r s . "l r .

s impso; r e s t a t e s t h e a r g u m e n t i n t e r m s o f s u p p l y -

demand a n a l y s i s . The c o n c e p t o f f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e

i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e " e f f e c t i v e demand" of r h e cAnsuming

p u b l i c . S i m i l a r l y , s c a r c i t y o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l i s

v i e w e d a s o n e f a c t o r w h i c h a f f e c t s t h e s u p p l y o f p o s i t i o n

h o l d e r s .

F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e demand f o r p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e

s e r v i c e s t h e y p r o v i d e , a r e : - a ) " c u l t u r a l v a 1 u e s " : w h e r e

mos t members o f a g i v e n s o c i e t y e v a l u a t e h i g h l y r e l i g i o u s

a c t i v i t i e s , t h e p o s i t i o n o f p r i e s t w i l l b e demanded and

h i g h l y r e w a r d e d w i t h p r e s t i g ? , w e a l t h and power e t c . I n

c o n t r a s t , a s o c i e t y w h e r e s e c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s a r e e v a l u a t e d

h i g h l y s u c h p o s i t i o n s a s e n t e r t a i n e r , S x s i n e s s m a n , e t c . ,

w i l l c a r r y t h e h i g h e s t r e w a r d s . b ) t e c h n o l o g y : w h e r e a s i n

a t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y a d v a n c e d s o c i e t y , e n g i n e e r s a r e i n

g r e a t demand, i n a s i m p l e , n o n - l i t e r a t e s o c i e t y o c c u p a t i o n s

a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t e r m s o f s k i l l .

c ) t h e power o f g r o u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e w a r d , i . e . some

p o s i t i o n s more t h a n o t h e r s endow t h e i r i n c u m b e n t s w i t h

t h e r e s o u r c e s w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e t h e h i r i n g and r e w a r d i n g P ? f

s e r v a n t s .

F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e s u p p l y o f p o s i t i o n - h o l d e r s and

1. IL. R i e s s m a n , C l a s s i n A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y , G l e n c o e : The F r e e P r e s s , (1959) . 2 . i? .Simpson, o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 2 .

a n c f t h e i r s e r v i c e s a r e : a ) t a l e n t and t r a i n i n g n e c e s s a r y

t o t h e c o n s c i e n t i o u s p e r f o r m 3 n c e o f p o s i t i o n a l t a s k s .

b ) power t o r e s t r i c t t h e s u p p l y of p e r s o n n e l ; f o r e x a m p l e

p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s r e s t r i c t e n t r y i n t o t h e i r

p r o f e s s i o n s , l a b o u r u n i o n s m o n o p o l i z e t h e s u p p l y of

l a b o u r a v a i l a b l e t o e m p l o y e r s . c ) p r o d u c t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n :

t h r o u g h mass media a d v ? r t i s i n g , t h e consuming p u b l i c i s

p e r s u a d e d o f t h e u n i q u e n e s s of a p a r t i c u l a r p r o d u c t , i n

t h a t no o t h e r i t e m c a n p r o v i d e t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n i t a f f o r d s .

d ) t h e p r o c e s s i f c a r e e r c h o i c e : v a l u e s , g o a l s , f a m i l y

and s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d , l e a d d i f f e r e n t p e a p l e t o c h o o s e

d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s . e ) l a b o u r m o b i l i t y : t h e d e g r e e

o f e a s e wibh w h i c h w o r k e r s c a n s h i f t f r o m o n e o c c u p a t i o n

t o a n o t h e r a f f e c t s t h e s p e e d w i t h w h i c h i m b a l a n c e s ( i n

w h i c h r e w a r d s o f o n e o c c u p a t i o n f a l l , w h i l e t h o s e o f

a n o t h e r r i s e ) c a n b e ' r e c t i f i e d .

The s u p p l y and demand o f s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d by d i f f e r e n t

p o s i t i o n s , t o g e t h e r d e t e r m i n e p o s i t i o n a l r a n k i n g .

"Assuming a g i v e n s u p p l y of t h e s e s e r v i c e s t h e g r e a t e r t h e demand f o r t h e m , t h e h i g h e r w i l l b e t h e i r r e w a r d s . Assuming a g i v e n demand f o r t h e s e s e r v i c e s , t h e more l i m i t e d t h e s u p p l y o f t h o s e who c a n f u r n i s h t h e m , t h e h i g h e r w i l l b e t h e r e w a r d s . r t 1

Simpson m o d i f i e s t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t t o i n c l u d e

a s d e t e r m i n a n t s o f p o s i t i o n a l r a n k i n g a w i d e r r a n g e of

f a c t o r s , t h a n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p o s i t i o n s , and t h e -- -

1. R . S impson , o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 4 .

I ' s c a r c i t y o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s - o n n e l ; f o r e x a m p l e , t h e " p o w e r t t

o f g r o u p s w i t h i n s o c i e t y t o i n f l u e n c e t h e g e n e r a l d i s -

t r i b u t i o n o f r e w a r d s . The u n e q u a l r e w a r d s o f p r e s t i g e and

w e a l t h " a t t a c h e d t o " t h e p o s i t i o n s a f f o r d t h e i r i n c u m b e n t s

g r e . a t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o h i r e and r e w a r d s e r v a n t s and

a s s i s t a n t s o r t o r e s t r i c t e n t r y in-ko t h e i r p r i v e l e g e d

g r o u p s . However , i n making t h i s p o i n t , S impson

a b a n d o n s D a v i s and M o o r e ' s c e n t r a l c o n c e r n w i t h how - p o s i t i o n s a r e a t t a i n e d . The "power o f g r o u p s w i t h i n

s o c i e t y t o i n f l u e n c e t h e g e n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

p o s i t i o n a l r e w a r d s , " c o n c e r n s t h e b e h a v i o u r o f incum-

b e n t s o n c e p o s i t i o n s h a v e b e e n a t t a i n e d , and t h i s i s

e x p l i c i t l y beyond t h e s c o p e o f D a v i s and M o o r e ' s 1

a n a l y s i s .

F u r t h e r , S impson a b a n d o n s t h e p r o p o n e n t s 1 m a j o r

f u r n c t i o n a l p r e m i s e s . H e t r a n s l a t e s , " f u n c t i o n a l

i m p o r t a n c e , " a s t h e e f f e c t i v e demand f o r t h e s e r v i c e s

a p o s i t i o n p r o v i d e s by t h e consuming p u b l i c . T h u s ,

t h e s o c i o l o g i s t l s " o b j e c t i v e t t j u d g e m e n t , i s e x p l i c i t l y

r e p l a c e d by t h e s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e members

o f a s o c i e t y , o f t h e " i m p o r t a n c e " o f a p o s i t i o n . He

r e p l a c e s D a v i s and M o o r e ' s a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e

u b i q u i t y o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t e r m s o f i t s p o s i t i v e

f u n c t i o n a l i t y f o r t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m , by a n a r r o w e r

a im t o show

d e t e r m i n i n g

w h i c h f a c t o r s a r e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t i n

t h e r e l a t i v e r a n k o f a l l o c c u p a t i o n s i n a

1. K . D a v i s and W.E. Moore, o p . c i t . , p . 242.

g i v e n s o c i e t y .

I n some r e s p e c t s , t h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s i m p r o v e t h e

a r g u m e n t . The p r o p o n e n t s c o n c l u d e t h a t c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s ,

d u e t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l i r ? ; i s p e n s a b i l i t y mus t c a r r y

h i g h r e w a r d s i n e v e r y s o c i e t y b u t S impson a r g u e s

t h a t t h e s h a p e o f a g i v e s y s t e m o f d i f f e r e n t i a l

p o s i t i o n a l r e w a r d s d e p e n d s upon t h e combined o p e r a t i o n

o f a w i d e r a n g e o f f a c t o r s . E . g . He r e c o g n i z e s t h a t

t h e l e v e l o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n f l u e n c e s t h e

demand f o r c e r t a i n t y p e s o f p o s i t i o n s and s e r v i c e s :

H i s schema a l l o w s f o r c h a n g e s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f .

r e w a r d s w h i c h a r e d e n i e d by D a v i s and M o o r e ' s

s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f h i g h r e w a r d s f o r some

t y p e s o f p o s i t i o n .

S impson a l s o q u a l i f i e s D a v i s and M o o r e ' s b e h a v i o u r a l

a s s u m p t i o n t h a t q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n 2 l w i l l n o t t r a i n o r

p e r f o r m d i l i g e n t l y i n c o m p l e x , e x a c t i n g p o s i t i o n s , u n l e s s

i n d u c e d t o d o s o by t h e o f f e r o f d i f f e r e n t i a l r e w a r d s .

T h e i r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a r a t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n o f s e l f -

i n t e r e s t i s t h e m a j o r f a c t o r i n t h e c a r e e r c h o i c e s o f

mos t i n d i v i d u a l s , i s q u a l i f i e d by t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e

f a c t o r s w h i c h a f f e c t t h e s u p p l y o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l ,

t o i n c l u d e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s g o a l s , v a l u e s and s o c i a l

b a c k g r o u n d . A l t h o u g h S impson makes e x p l i c i t t h e

supply-demand mode l o f c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i c s w h i c h

u n d e r l i e s t h e Davis-luloore a r g u m e n t , h e m & i f i e s t h e

b a s i c b e h a v i o u r a l a s s u m p t i o n o f economic t h e o r y .

C l e a r l y , S i m p s o n - h a s n o t " r e d u c e d " t h e i r a r g u m e n t

t o economic d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y , s i n c e r e w a r d s o t h e r

t h a n m o n e t a r y o n e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d and s i n c e f a c t o r s

o t h e r t h a n t h e p r i c e movements a r e s e e n t o o f f s e t t h e 1

s u p p l y o f p o s i t i o n - h o l d e r s and t h e i r s e r v i c e s .

I n c o n c l u s i o n , f o l l o w i n g Mannhe imls s u g g e s t i o n t h a t

t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f a n i n t e l l e c t u a l body o f knowledge

i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e p a r t i a l i t y o f i t s k e y - c o n c e p t s , we

a r g u e t h a t D a v i s and M o o r e ' s s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g ,

" m a j o r s o c i e t a l f u n c t i o n s , " a r e d e r i v e d f r o m a p a r t i -

c u l a r c o n c e p t i o n o f s o c i e t y . The a u t h o r s assume a

h i g h l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n w h i c h r e q u i r e s

d i f f e r e n t i a l a b i l i t y and t a l e n t f o r some p o s i t i o n s , and

a l s o h i g h l y u n i f i e d r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s . F a c t s

p e c u l i a r t o complex i n d u s t r i a l and s i m p l e n o n - l i t e r a t e

s o c i e t i e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e p r e s e n t e d a s " ~ n i v e r s a l . ~ ~

M o r e o v e r , i t i s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e " u n i v e r s a l " f a c t s

t h a t h i g h r e w a r d s f o r r e l i g i o u s and t e c h n i c a l p o s i t i o n s

a r e e x p l a i n e d a s " f u n c t i o n a l l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e " f o r a l l

s o c i e t i e s . Thus t h e proponen" ' c o n s e r v a t i v e b i a s i s

i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n s t r a t i f i e d

i n e q u a l i t i e s a s u n i v e r s a l l y n e c e s s a r y , w i t h o u t p r o p e r

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e r e s p e c t s i n w h i c h s o c i e t i e s d i f f e r .

1. R i c h a r d L . S i m p s o n , o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 4 .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r e m p h a s i s o n t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f

h i g h r e w a r d s f o r c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s , m a n i f e s t a s t a t i c

b i a s i n t h a t t h e y d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f u t u r e c h a n g e s

i n t h e p a t t e r n o f r e w a r d - d i s t r i b u t i o n d u e t o c u l t u r a l a n d

t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s .

A l t h o u g h mos t c r i t i c s c h a l l e n g e t h e p r o p o n e n t s t

c l a i m t h a t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s i n e v i t a b l e , t h e i r f a i l u r e

t o e x a m i n e t h e l a t t e r s 1 b a s i c f u n c t i o n a l p r e m i s e s o r t o

e x p l a i n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n f r o m a f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t

p e r s p e c t i v e r e n d e r s m o s t c r i t i c i s m s i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l .

T h i s i n d i c a t e s a d e f e n s i v e n e s s of t h e p a r t of t h e

c r i t i c s , a t r a i t w h i c h we w i l l show l a t e r t o b e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t 5 e c l i m a t e o f A m e r i c a n i n t e l l e c t u a l

l i b e r a l t h o u g h t i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s .

C h a p t e r I11

SOME MAJOR OBJECTIONS TO THE DAVIS-MOORE ARGUMENT

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o e x a m i n e c r i t i c i s m s

and r e p l i e s w h i c h a r e d i r e c t e d t o two m a i n i s s u e s : -

F i r s t , t h a t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n d o e s n o t o p e r a t e t o m e e t

e f f e c t i v e l y t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t d e s i g n a t e d by

D a v i s and Moore, and i s i n t h i s s e n s e , d y s f u n c t i o n a l .

S e c o n d , t h a t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s i n d i s p e n -

s a b l e t o t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e d e s i g n a t e d f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e -

ment i s q u e s t i o n a b l e o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t e v i d e n c e d rawn

f rom s t u d i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l c o m m u n i t i e s s u g g e s t s t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s ; f u r t h e r ,

b e c a u s e t h e p r o p o s i t i o n r e s t s on h i g h l y q u e s t i o n a b l e

a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t human m o t i v a t i o n .

We a t t e m p t t o i n d i c a t e t h e " p e r s p e c t i v e s " u n d e r l y i n g

t h e a r g u m e n t s p r e s e n t e d by p r o p o n e n t s and c r i t i c s a l i k e ,

and t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h i s a r e a o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y i s

b a s i c a l l y a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n " c o n s e r v a t i v e " and

" l i b e r a l " i n t e l l e c t u a l s , c o n c e r n i n g t h e " j u s t i c e " o f

s t r a t i f i e d i n e q u a l i t i e s .

Most o b j e c t i o n s t h a t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s d y s f u n c t i o n a l

a r e a d d r e s s e d t o D a v i s and M o o r e ' s c l a i m t h a t , " s o c i a l

i n e q u a l i t y ... e n s u r e s t h a t t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s 1

a r e c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y f i l l e d by t h e mos t q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s . "

1. K i n g s l e y D a v i s and W.E. Moore:"Some P r i n c i p l e s of S t r a t i - f i c a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v i e w , l O , ( ~ p r i l , 1 9 4 5 ) , p . 243.

C r i t i c s o b j e c t t h a t t h e p r o p o n e n t s ove r - emphas i ze t h e

e f f i c i e n c y w i t h which s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t e s i n t h i s

way a s a s e l e c t i v e mechanism s i n c e i n e v e r y s t r a t i f i e d

s o c i e t y , many " p o t e n t i a l l y c a p a b l e " i n d i v i d u a l s a r e not

t r a i n e d o r r e c r u i t e d t o i m p o r t a n t and e x a c t i n g p o s i t i o n s

a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s : - U n d e r - p r i v i l e g e d

c h i l d r e n e x p e r i e n c e o b s t a c l e s i n t h e deve lopment o f

a p p r o p r i a t e m o t i v a t i o n f o r t r a i n i n g and upward m o b i l i t y .

O t h e r o b s t a c l e s r e s u l t f rom t h e t e n d e n c y f o r i ncumben t s

of h i g h l y - r e w a r d e d pos i t i ons t o g i v e t h e i r own c h i l d r e n

a b s o l u t e l y o r r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o a t t a i n

t h e same p o s i t i o n s i n t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n , and f rom t h e

t e n d e n c y f o r e l i t e s ( p o l i t i c a l , economic , p r o f e s s i o n a l e t c . )

t o r e s t r i c t a c c e s s t o t h e i r p r i v e l e g e d p o s i t i o n s . Thus,

one c r i t i c a s s e r t s ,

"Whether o r n o t d i f f e r e n t i a l r e w a r d s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e f u n c t i o n a l i n any one g e n e r a t i o n , i t i s c l e a r t h a t i f t h o s e d i f f e r e n t i a l s a r e a l l u d e d t o b e s o c i a l l y i n h e r i t e d i n t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n , t h e n t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m i s s p e c i f i c a l l y d y s f u n c t i o n a l f o r t h e d i c o v e r y of t a l e n t s i n t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n . " f

Buckley c l a i m s , t h a t , o n l y i f t h e f a c t s o f c l a s s

i n h e r i t a n c e a r e i m p l i c i t l y t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t by

d e f i n i n g " q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s " a s t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h 2

" s o c i a l l y n u t u r e d and ma tu red s k i l l s , " a r e D a v i s and

1. Melv in M. Tumin, "Some P r i n c i p l e s of S t r a t i f i c a t i o n : A C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s , " American S o l i o l o g i c a l Review, 1 8 , ( ~ u ~ u s t , 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 389.

2. W a l t e r Buck ley , "On E q u i t a b l e I n e q u a l i t y , " American S o c i ~ l o g i e a ~ Review, 2 8 , ( 0 c t o b e r , 1963) p. 799 .

Moore c o r r e c t i n s t a t i n g t h a t i n e v e r y s o c i e t y , s t r a t i -

f i c a t i o n e n s u r e s t h a t t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s a r e

f i l l e d by t h e mos t q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s .

" I n a w o r d , t h e Davis-Moore t h e o r y c a n o p e r a t e o n l y w i t h i n o r o n t h e b a s e o f t h e more f u n d a m e n t a l f a c t s o f ~ t r a t i - f i c a t i o n i n a c t u a l s o c i e t i e s . "

By t l s o c i a l l y n u r t u r e d t ' s k i l l s B u c k l e y p r e s u m a b l y

r e f e r s t o t h e t e n d e n c y f o r members o f h e r e d i t a r y u p p e r

c l a s s e s t o t e a c h t h e i r c h i l d r e n c e r t a i n s k i l l s , f o r e x a m p l e ,

t h o s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and l e a d e r s h i p i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r

t h e i r l a t e r a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s e p o s i t i o n s . H i s p o i n t i s ,

t h a t i f " q u a l i f i e d " means " p o t e n t i a l l y c a p a b l e "

i n d i v i d u a l s , e q u a l a c c e s s t o t r a i n i n g and r e c r u i t m e n t t o

h i g h l y - r e w a r d e d p o s i t i o n s m u s t e x i s t f o r a l l members o f

a s o c i e t y i n o r d e r f o r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n t o o p e r a t e a s

D a v i s and Moore d e s c r i b e i t . The p r o p o n e n t s ' i m p l i c a -

t i o n t h a t t h e s y s t e m o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a c c u r a t e l y r e -

f l e c t s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l t a l e n t s and a b i l i t i e s o f

members o f t h e s o c i e t y , w h e r e t h e y c l a i m , " s o c i a l

i n e q u a l i t y . . . e n s u r e s . . . r m s t i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s a r e

c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y f i l l e d by t h e m o s t q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s , "

e n t a i l s a n a s s u m p t i o n o f e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y . Bu t

t h i s u n d e r - s t a t e s t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e A m e r i c a n

i d e a l of e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y and a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . C r i t i c s

a r g u e t h a t D a v i s and M o o r e ' s e x p l a n a t i o n , " r e p r o d u c e s

w i t h r e m a r k a b l e f a i t h f u l n e s s , a c u l t u r a l l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d

1. I b i d .

1 i d e o l o g y , " o f f e r e d by t h e p r i v i l e g e d t o t h e l e s s

f o r t u n a t e , t h a t " c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s t t r e f l e c t

t t i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y . I t

D a v i s r e p l i e s t o t h e s e c h a r g e s of i d e o l o g i c a l

b i a s by p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t c r i t i c s f o b j e c t i o n s a r e n o t

b a s e d on c a r e f u l s c r u t i n y o f t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t ,

b u t on a n a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n t o a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e

n e c e s s i t y o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n which t h e y s t r o n g l y

d i s a p p r o v e . Of Tumin, D a v i s s a y s ,

"He a r g u e s t h r o u g h o u t h i s c r i t i q u e t h a t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n d o e s n o t h a v e t o b e i n s t e a d of t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d why i t i s . :I 2

However, i n r e p l y t o c r i t i c s ' o b j e c t i o n s t h a t

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s d y s f u n c t i o n a l , D a v i s acknowledges

a d e g r e e o f o v e r - s t a t e m e n t i n t h e 1945 a r t i c l e : Me:

d raws a t t e n t i o n t o h i s a c c o u n t i n "Human S o c i e t y , " 3

of t h e ways i n which s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s l i m i t e d i n i t s

s e l e c t i v e e • ’kc t , by t h e o p e r a t i o n o f o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s .

By making a c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n n o t g e n e r a l l y made

by s o c i o l o g i s t s o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , be tween t h e s y s t e m o f

u n e q u a l r e w a r d s " a t t a c h e d t o t t p o s i t i o n s , and t h e ways

i n which i n d i v i d u a l s a r e r e c r u i t e d t o them, D a v i s i s

a b l e t o accomnodate t h e f a c t s o f t h e mos t r i g i d l y

1. W. Buck l ey , " S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n and t h e F u n c t i o n a l Theo ry o f S o c i a l D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , " The American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 2 3 , ( ~ u ~ u s t , 1 9 5 8 ) , p . 369.

2 . K i n g s l e y D a v i s , " R e p l y , " Amer ican S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 18, ( l 9 5 3 ) , p . 394 .

3 . K i n g s l e y D a v i s Human S o c i e t y : New York: The Macmi l l an Company, ( 1 9 4 8 ) , pp . 366-378.

s t r a t i f i e d s o c i e t i e s i n t o h i s a r g u m e n t . I n a c a s t e

s o c i e t y w h e r e p o s i t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y a s c r i b e d a t

b i r t h , t h e s e l e c t i v e e f f e c t of t h e s y s t e m o f s t r a t i -

f i c a t i o n i s s a i d t o b e " l i m i t e d " by t h e o p e r a t i o n o f

a n o t h e r f u n c t i o n a l l y n e c e s s a r y i n s t i t u t i o n , t h e

k i n s h i p s y s t e m .

The i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y g i v e s t o t h e

c h i l d r e n o f t h e i n c u m b e n t s o f some p o s i t i o n s i n o n e

g e n e r a t i o n , r e l a t i v e l y o r a b s o l u t e l y g r e a t e r o p p o r -

t u n i t i e s t o a t t a i n t h e same p o s i t i o n s i n t h e n e x t

g e n e r a t i o n . Bu t t h e f a m i l y ' s l i m i t i n g r o l e i s n e v e r

c o m p l e t e d u e t o s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s c a s t e f e r t i l i t y

and m o r t a l i t y d i f f e r e n t i a l s , c h a n g e s i n t h e p h y s i c a l

e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s , w h i c h g i v e

r i s e t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f new r o l e s and t h e d e s t r u c t i o n

o f o l d o n e s . T h u s , t h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e some d e g r e e of

v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y w h i c h a l l o w s t h e s y s t e m o f s t r a t i f i -

c a t i o n t o i n d u c e q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s i n t o i m p o r t a n t p o s i -

t i o n s .

I n t h e s e a r g u m e n t s , D a v i s , a s t h e c r i t i c s , a s s u m e s

t h a t a d e g r e e o f i n d i v i d u a l m o b i l i t y i s a n e c e s s a r y

c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e e f f i c i e n t o p e r a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ,

a s D a v i s and Moore a c c o u n t f o r i t i n t h e 1 9 4 5 a r t i c l e .

H e c o n c u r s w i t h t h e c r i t i c s t h a t r e s t r i c t e d m o b i l i t y

and a c c e s s t o t r a i n i n g and r e c r u i t m e n t t o i m p o r t a n t 1

p o s i t i o n s , p r e v e n t t h e I ' o p t i m a l u t i l i s a t i o n o f t a l e n t "

1. M . M . Tumin, o p . c i t . , 389.

i n a s o c i e t y . -However , h e c l a i m s t h a t s u c h r e s t r i c -

t i o n s r e s u l t f r o m t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e k i n s h i p s y s t e m

and t h e r o l e o f i n h e r i t a n c e , not f r o m s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ,

d e f i n e d a s d i f f e r e n t i a l p o s i t i o n a l r e w a r d s . H e p o i n t s

o u t t h a t c r i t i c s a t t r i b u t e r e s t r i c t i o n s t o e q u a l o p p o r -

t u n i t y , t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e y d e f i n e s t r a t i f i -

c a t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y , i . e . t o i n c l u d e t h e i n h e r i t a n c e

o f c l a s s s t a t u s . B u t ,

"One c a n n o t e x p e c t a t h e o r y d e s i g n e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e u n i v e r s a l e x i s t e n c e o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d i n e q u a l i t y a s b e t w e e n p o s i t i o n s , t o b e a t t h e same t i m e , a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f c l a s s s t a t u s . I 1 1

S i n c e p r o p o n e n t s and c r i t i c s a g r e e t h a t i n e q u a l i t i e s

o f o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t r a i n i n g and r e c r u i t m e n t t o h i g h l y -

r e w a r d e d p o s i t i o n s r e s u l t f r o m t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f

d i s p r i v i l e g e , a n d a r e d y s f u n c t i o n a l f o r t h e e f f i c i e n t

p r o d u c t i o n o f goods and s e r v i c e s i n a s o c i e t y , o n e

m i g h t s u p p o s e t h a t t h e c o n t r o v e r s y would end t h e r e .

However , c r i t i c s p r o c e e d t o o b j e c t t o D a v i s and M o o r e ' s

d e f i n i t i o n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . 3 u c k l e y c o n t e n d s t h a t

t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n i s " b a s i c c o n c e p t u a l f l a w " i n t h e i r

e x p l a n a t i o n . He c l a i m s t h e p r o p o n e n t s c o n f u s e " s o c i a l

d i f f e r e t i a t i o n , " t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s p e c i a l i s e d r o l e s ,

w i t h " s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " i ~ h i c h h e d e f i n e s a s ,

" t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s t r a t a , g e n e r a l l $ r a g r e e d t o r e f e r t o s p e c i f i a b l e c o l l e c t i v i t i e s o r s u b - g r o u p s t h a t c o n t i n g e t h r o u g h s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s t o o c c u p y t h e same

1. K i n g s l e y D a v i s , " R e p l y , " o p . c i t . , p . 396.

r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s and t o r e c e i v e t h e same r e l a t i v e amounts o f m a t e r i a l e n d s , p r e s t i g e and p o w e r . . . "l

B u c k l e y ' s i n s i s t e n c e o n t h e " c u s t o m a r y " d e f i n i t i o n

o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m % h e w r i t i n g s o f many

E u r o p e a n and A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g i s t s , t o r e f e r t o " c l a s s

i n h e r i t a n c e " c a u s e s h im t o m i s s t h e p o i n t o f D a v i s

and M o o r e ' s c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . The p r o p o n e n t s

r e c o g n i z e t h a t amongs t s o c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r o l e s ,

some a r e more i m ~ o r t a n t t o t h e " p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g "

o r " s u r v i v a l " o f s o c i e t y , t h a n o t h e r s . If t h e p r o d u c t i o n

o f g o o d s and s e r v i c e s i n a s o c i e t y i s t o b e e f f i c i e n t ,

t h e s e r o l e s m u s t b e c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y f i l l e d b y c o m p e t e n t

p e r s o n s . I t i s i n t e r m s of t h i s f u n c t , i o n a l n e c e s s i t y

t h a t t h e y e x p l a i n t h e u b i q u i t y o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

The t e n d e n c y f o r i n d i v i d u a l s , h a v i n g a t t a i n e d i m p o r t a n t

and h i g h l y - r e w a r d e d p o s i t i o n s t o p a s s them o n , o r , t o

p a s s o n t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a t t a i n i n g them t o t h e i r

c h i l d r e n , c o n s t i t u t e s a l o g i c a l l y d i s t i n c t p r o b l e m w h i c h I

D a v i s and Moore d o n o t t r y t o e x p l a i n , b u t w h i c h i s t h e

m a i n f o c u s o f B u c k l e y ' s d e f i n i t i o n .

I n r e p l y t o B u c k l e y , D a v i s s t a t e s t h a t w h a t i s o r

i s n o t t o b e c a l l e d s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s a p u r e l y t e r m i n o -

l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n , p r o v i d i n g o n e d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n

t h e s y s t e m o f d i f f e r e n t i a l p o s i t i o n a l r e w a r d s and t h e

1. W a l t e r B u c k l e y , " S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n and t h e F u n c t i o n a l T h e o r y of S o c i a l D i f f e r e n - t i a t i o n , I '

o p . c i t . , p . 372.

ways i n w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l s a r e r e c r u i t e d 1

t o them. But D a v i s ' r e p l y b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n . I n

o r d e r f o r B u c k l e y t o s e e t h e p o i n t o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

t h e s e i n t e r - r e l a t e d a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ,

h e would h a v e t o r e c o g n i s e t h e u n i v e r s a l e x i s t e n c e o f

d i f f e r e n t i a l p o s i t i o n a l r e w a r d s a s a p r o b l e m i n i t s

own r i g h t .

We s u g g e s t t h a t t h e way s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s d e f i n e d

may n o t b e a p u r e l y t e r m i n o l o g i c a l m a t t e r , b u t may be

r e l a t e d t o t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s d e s i r e t o p r e s e n t s o c i a l

i n e q u a l i t y i n a f a v o u r a b l e , o r l e s s f a v o u r a b l e l i g h t .

The f a c t t h e p r o p o n e n t s d e f i n e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n s u c h a

way t h a t t h e " d y s f u n c t i o n s " of c l a s s i n h e r i t a n c e c a n n o t ,

l o g i c a l l y , b e a t t r i b u t e d t o i t , may i n d i c a t e a p r o -

c l i v i t y o n t h e i r p a r t , t o make c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s

w h i c h s u p p o r t w h a t i s b a s i c a l l y a p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n o f

t ,he d e s i r a b i l i t y o f s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y . On t h e o t h e r

h a n d , c r i t i c s ' r e f u s a l t o s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r a n a r g u -

ment w h i c h p u r p o r t t o show t h a t , in some l i m i t e d r e s ~ e c t s ,

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ( a s t h e y d e f i n e i t ) may b e p o s i t i v e l y

f u n c t i o n a l , i n d i c a t e s t h e i r p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e

i n j u s t i c e o f s t r a t i f i e d i n e q u a l i t i e s , and t h e i r d e s i r e

t o r e d u c e them.

C e r t a i n l y , t h e r e a r e c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t p o l i t i c a l

o p i n i o n s u n d e r l y many o f t h e o b j e c t i o n s and r e p l i e s

c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e . F o r e x a m p l e , D a v i s ' c o n s e r v a t i v e

1 . K . D a v i s , "The Abominab le H e r e s y : A R e p l y t o D r . B u c k l e y , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Rev iew, 24, ( F e b r u a r y , l 9 5 9 ) , p . 8 2 .

a t t i t u d e s a r e i n d i c a t e d by h i s a s sumpt ion t h a t " f u l l t t

e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y would 3 e d y s f u n c t i o n a l f o r

t h e e n t i r e s o c i a l sys tem i n t h a t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r f a m i l y

s o l i d a r i t y s e t l i m i t s t o t h e d e g r e e of s o c i a l m o b i l i t y a 1

s o c i e t y "can t o l e r a t e . I t I n t e r e s t i r q a s such s p e c u l a t i o n

i s , v e r y l i t t l e e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s been d i r e c t e d t o

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between r a t e s of m o b i l i t y and t h e s t a - 2

b i l i t y of t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e of g i v e n s o c i e t i e s .

However, a v a i l a b l e s t u d i e s undermina Dav i s ' u n q u a l i f i e d

a s sumpt ion t h a t s t a b l e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e

w i t h much m o b i l i t y . For example, i n h i s s t u d i e s of

Newburyport, W. Lloyd Warner d e l i b e r a t e l y s e l e c t e d a

community which he t h o u g h t e x e m p l i f i e d t h e s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y 3

of "Yankee c u l t u r e " Oscar H a n d l i n , however, p o i n t e d

o u t t h a t t h i s c i t y had an e x t r e m e l y h i g h r a t e of 4

in -and-out m i g r a t i o n .

D a v i s 1 c o n s e r v a t i v e o p i n i o n i s i n d i c a t e d by an

argument p r e s e n t e d i n Human S o c i e t v , which we have no t

y e t c o n s i d e r e d . He c l a i m s t h a t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t e s

1. K i n g s l e y D a v i s , Human S o c i e t y , o p . c i t . , p . 370.

2 . S.M. L i p s e t and R . 3 e n d i x , S o c i a l M o b i l i t y i n I n d u s t r i a l S o c i e t y , B e r k e l e y and Los Ange les ; U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i - f o r n i a P r e s s , ( l 9 5 9 ) , p .264.

3. W. Lloyd Warner and Par21 S . Lun t , The S o c i a l L i f e of a Modern Community, New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ( 1 9 4 1 ) , pp. 38-39.

4 . Osca r H a n d l i n , "The S o c i a l L i f e of a Modern Community," New England Q u a r t e r l y , Vol 1 5 ( 1 9 4 2 ) , p . 556.

a t t i m e s t o i n d u c e t h e most q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s

i n t o t h e most i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s : One cannot e x p l a i n ,

" t h e low e s t a t e of t h e sweeper c a s t e s i n I n d i a ,

a s compared w i t h t h e p r i e s t l y c a s t e s . . . by s a y i n g

t h a t sons of sweepers become sweeper s , and t h e sons of

Brahmins become Brahmins. "' S i n c e t h e r e i s a t endency

f o r some p o s i t i o n s such a s sweepers t o be low and o t h e r s ,

such a s p r i e s t s , t o be h i g h i n t h e s c a l e of d i f f e r e n t i a l

p o s i t i o n a l r ewards , Davis c o n c l u d e s , " t h e f u n c t i o n a l

n e c e s s i t y behind s t r a t i f i c a t i o n seems t o be o p e r a t i v e

a l l t i m e s , d e s p i t e t h e c o n c u r r e n t of o t h e r f u n c t i o n s , " 2

such a s t h a t of t h e k i n s h i p sys tem.

I f one d i s t i n g u i s h e s between t h e o p e r a t i o n o f

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n " a t any g i v e n t i m e , " and " o v e r - t i m e , "

Dav i s ' c o n c l u s i o n i s s e e n t o be b o t h c o n s e r v a t i v e and

a - h i s t o r i c a l : He does not a d e q u a t e l y accoun t f o r t h e

contemporary f u n c t i o n i n g of c a s t e s o c i e t y f o r h i s

c l a i m t h a t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t e s a t any g i v e n t i m e

i n t h i s t y p e of s t r a t i f i e d sys t em, a s a s e l e c t i v e

mechanism, u n d e r - s t a t e s t h e e x t e n t t o which o c c u p a t i o n s

may be a lmos t e x c l u s i v e l y a s c r i b e d a t b i r t h . The

h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n of d i f f e r e n t i a l p o s i t i o n a l r ewards

cou ld be p a r t l y e x p l a i n e d i n t e rms of t h e i r argument

i f one assumed t h a t i t was once n e c e s s a r y t o a t t r a c t

1. K i n g s l e y Dav i s , Human S o c i e t y , o p . c i t . , p .370.

2. I b i d .

men into the priesthood. But again, one would have to

assume that this selection of competent individuals

took place before the development of hereditary strata

and the tendency for positions to be ascribed at birth.

Dennis Wrong points out that the argument lacks a 1

"truly histimica1 perspective, It because it fails to

recognise that,

m A n l ~ theory of class structure, in dealing with a given historical period, must include prior class structures among its data; ... and . . . any general theory of classes and class formation must explain the fact that classes coexisting at any givatime bear the marks of different centuries on their brow.. . '13

Wrong prefers Schumpeter's historical account

of changes "over time" in the position of families and

firms within stable social structures and ultimately,

of changes in the structures themselves. By viewing

a given class structure in terms of such long-run

changes as the gradual climbing, over several genera-

tions, of the representatives of a given family line

to the point where an apparently secure hereditary

class position is achieved, Schumpeter avoids Davis

and Moore's error of interpreting a system of strati-

fication as a "reflection of the available talent and

ability," of the individual members of that society.

1. Dennis H. Wrong, "The Functionalist Theory of Strati- fication: Some Neglected Considerations," American Sociological Review, 24, (~ecember, 1959) p. 778.

2. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Imperialism and Social Classes, New York: Meridian Books, (1955) p. 111.

S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , D a v i s and M o o r e ' s r e i t e r a t e d

d e c i s i o n not t o d i s c u s s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t e r m s o f how

i n d i v i d u a l s a r e r e c r u i t e d t o p o s t i o n s , p r e c l u d e s con-

s i d e r a t i o n o f p a t t e r n s o f upward m o b i l i t y and c l a s s

i n h e r i t a n c e . But t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a r e r e l e v a n t

t o D a v i s ' d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e k i n s h i p s y s t e m , w h i c h , h e

s .gys , l i m i t s t h e s e l e c t i v e e f f e c t o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ,

b y t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f s t r a t i f i e d i n e q u a l i t i e s f r o m

o n e g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e n e x t : D a v i s h a s c l e a r l y f a i l e d

t o c o n s i d e r i n p r e c i s e l y wha t ways t h e s h a ~ e o f t h e

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o s i t i o n a l r e w a r d s may b e m o d i f i e d

o v e r t i m e by t h e c h a n g i n g c l a s s p o s i t i o n s of f a m i l i e s

i n t h a t s o c i e t y .

Commenting o n t h e i d e o l o g i c a l b i a s of t h e c r i t i c s ,

Wrong o b s e r v e s ,

"I t i s s t r a n g ? how i n s i s t e n c e o n t h e a l l e g e d i n e f f i c i e n c y o f u n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t e n l e a d s s o c i o l o g i s t s t o s t r e s s g e n e t i c endowments t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f which t h e y a r e d i s p o s e d t o m i n i m i s e i n o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s . I s u s p e c t t h a t t h i s a r g u m e n t i s a n o t h e r i n - s t a n c e o f t h e p r o c l i v i t y o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t o f i n d " f a c t u a l " o r i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a s o n s f o r s u p p o r t i n g v i e w s t h e y u l t i m a t e l y f a v o r o n e t h i c a l g r o u n d s . "l

Wrong 's c l a i m t h a t c r i t i c s o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d i f f e r e n c e s

o f " p o t e n t i a l c a p a b i l i t i e s " b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s i n

o r d e r t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e " a l l e g e d i n e f f i c i e n c y o f

u n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , " i s i n a c c u r a t e , f o r , a s we h a v e

s e e n , c r i t i c s and p r o p o n e n t s a g r e e b o t h t h a t e q u a l

o p p o r t u n i t y i s r e s t r i c t e d b y c l a s s i n h e r i t a n c e and t h a t

1. D . H . Wrong, o p . c i t . , p . 779.

t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n i s d y s f u n c t i o n a l f o r t h e " o p t i m a l

u t i l i z a t i o n o f t a l e n t , " i n a s o c i e t y . Wrong's

" d e m o n s t r a t i o n t 1 o f c r i t i c s 1 b i a s d o e s i n f a c t r e v e a l

h i s own c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s t o l ~ a r d s s t r a t i f i e d

i n e q u a l i t i e s .

Wrong c l a i m s t h a t t h e b i a s of c r i t i c s i s i n d i c a t e d

by t h e i r f a i l u r e t o c o n s i d e r t h a t , u n l i k e some p o s i t i o n s ,

( e . g . m a t h e m a t i c i a n , p h y s i c i s t e t c . ) , o t h e r i m p o r t a n t

p o s i t i o n s d o n o t d e p e n d o n o v e r - a v e r a g e g e n e t i c

t a l e n t s , b u t o n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and l e a d e r s h i p s k i l l .

T h e s e p o s i t i o n s may b e b e s t f i l l e d by members of h e r e -

d i t a r y c l a s s e s who a r e " t o t h e manner born" and who h a v e

b e e n " s u b j e c t e d t o a p r o c e s s of c h a r a c t e r - m o l d i n g

b e g i n n i n g i n i n f a n c y , " i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e l a t e r

a s s u m p t i o n of t h e s e r o l e s .

T h i s a r g u m e n t , ( w h i c h , i n c i d e n t a l l y , was f i r s t

p r e s e n t e d by t h e E n g l i s h c o n s e r v a t i v e p h i l o s p h e r ,

Edmund B u r k e ) a s s u m e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f " r e s p o n s i b l e "

h e r e d i t a r y u p p e r c l a s s e s , i . e . , t h a t n o r m a t i v e

e x p e c t a t i o n s e x i s t o n t h e p a r t of a l l members f o r

t h e e f f i c i e n t and c o n s c i e n t i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e i r

d u t i e s . Wrong c o n c e d e s t h a t h e r e d i t a r y c l a s s e s 1 monopoly

of h i g h l y - r e w a r d e d p o s i t i o n s may p r o d u c e i n a d e q u a t e

m o t i v a t i o n t o p e r f o r m t h e n e c e s s a r y t a s k s a d e q u a t e l y ,

b u t , I t i t c a n n o t b e assumed t h a t a h e r e d i t a r y r u l i n g

c l a s s a l w a y s d e g e n e r a t e s i n ' o a " d e c a d e n t " l e i s u r e

c l a s s i n t h e V e b l e n i a n s e n s e . " R e s p o n s i b l e a r i s t o c r a c i e s ,

" d e e p l y imbued w i t h a n e t h o s o f h o n o r , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

and n o b l e s s e . : o b l i g e , " h a v e e x i s t e d i n some s o c i e t i e s .

Wrong ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t c r i t i c s h a - ~ e o v e r l o o k e d

t h e p o s s i b l e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a r e s p o n s i b l e h e r e d i t a r y

r u l i n g c l a s s , f a i l s t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t r e c e n t w i d e l y -

n o t e d d e v e l o p m e n t s i n Amer ican s o c i e t y : - A c c o r d i n g t o 1

C . W r i g h t M i l l s , t h e m a i n s o c i a l d i v i s i o n i s n o t o n e

o f " c l . a ~ s , . ~ ~ b u t i n c r e a s i n g l y b e t w e e n a t t p o w e r - e l i t e "

w h i c h makes a l l t h e m a j o r d e c i s i o n s and a " m a n i p u l a t e d

m a s s . " The p o w e r - e l i t e i s n o t a " r u l i n g c l a s s t t i n t h e

s e n s e o f a s t a b l e and c o n t i n u i n g g r o u p which p u r s u e s

a s e t t l e d p o l i c y , n o r d o e s h e r e d i t a r y a s c r i p t i o n

a p p e a r t o b e t h e p r i n c i p a l means o f e n t r y i n t o t h i s

p o w e r f u l , u n i f i e d g r o u p o f p o l i t i c a l , b u s i n e s s a n d

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s f a r f r o m b e i n g

" r e s p o n s i b l e . " One o f M i l l s 1 p r i n c i p a l a c c u s a t i o n s

l e v e l l e d a g a i n s t t h e p o w e r - e l i t e i s t h a t i t i s

" i r r e s p o n s i b l e , and d o e s n o t know e x a c t l y w h e r e i t i s

g o i n g . 2

However , Wrong ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t c r i t i c s

e x a g g e r a t e i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n g e n e t i c endow-

ment i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n

Tumin and Moore, c o n c e r n i n g t h e " j u s t i c e t t of s t r a t i f i e d

i n e q u a l i t i e s : Tumin o v e r e m p h a s i z e s g e n e t i c endowment

t o t h e t o t a l n e g l e c t o f o t h e r we l l -known f a c t s a b o u t

human b e h a v i o u r : -

1. C. N r i g h t M i l l s . "The Power E l i t e , New Y o r k : O x f o r d

2 . T . B . B o t t o m o r e , C r i t i c s o f S o c i e t y , New York : P a n t h e o n Books ( 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 57.

T u m i n c l a i m s , " n o s o c i e t y c a n e x p e c t o r demand

f r o m a n i n d i v i d u a l a n y more t h a n t h a t o f w h i c h h e i s 1

c a p a b l e . " Amongst p e o p l e of e q u a l n a t i v e endowment,

d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o c i a l l y r e l e v a n t t r a i t s s u c h a s

o c c u p a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t , a r e d e t e r m i n e d by s o c i a l

f a c t o r s , s u c h a s t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f c l - a s s s t a t u s .

Assuming men a r e e q u a l l y c o n s c i e n t i o u s , i t i s u n f a i r

t h a t t h e s e s o c i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d d i f f e r e n c e s s h o u l d b e

r e w a r d e d u n e q u a l l y . Amongst p e o p l e of u n e q u a l n a t i v e

a b i l i t y , d i f f e r e n c e s i n o c c u p a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t a r e

b o t h g e n e t i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d . Thus i t

i s u n f a i r t o r e w a r d h i g h l y d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h a r e b o t h

b i o l o g i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d . 2

I n r e p l y , Moore r i g h t l y p o i n t s o u t t h a t T u m i n ' s

m o r a l a r g u m e n t i s o v e r - d e t e r m i n i s t i c . The a s s u m p t i o n

o f " e q u a l c o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s t ' i s a s e r i o u s w e z k n e s s

i n t h e a r g u m e n t , f o r o n e c a n n o t d i s m i s s p u r p o s e f r o m

human b e h a v i o u r a s t h e p h r a s e i m p l i e s . It i s n o t

f e a s i b l e , w r i t e s Moore, t o t a k e t h e v i e w t h a t " s o c i e t y

i s a l l and t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s of i n d i v i d u a l m o t i v a t i o n

a r e a p u r e l y d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . I '

Tumin s t r e s s e s d i f f e r e n c e s i n g e n e t i c endowmen-t

and i n t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f c l a s s s t a t u s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e

a n . . i n d i v i d u a l T s o c c u p a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t , b u t f o r g e t s

1. M . M . Tumin, On E q u a l i t y , A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 2 8 , ( ~ e b r u a r ~ , l 9 6 3 ) , p . 26.

2 . W . E . Moore, " R e j o i n d e r , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 2 8 , ( ~ e b r u a r ~ , 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 27.

t h a t s i n c e i n d i v i d u a l s c a n c h o o s e w h e t h e r o r n o t

t o work d i l i g e n t l y , t h e y mus t b e m o t i v a t e d t o p e r f o r m

a d e q u a t e l y i n complex and e x a c t i n g p o s i t i o n s . Moore

p o i n t s o u t t h a t d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s a r e u n e q u a l l y demand-

i n g i n t e r m s o f t h e e f f o r t and s k i l l r e q u i r e d . E q u a l

r e w a r d f o r u n e q u a l Work, w o u l d , s a y s Moore, r e q u i r e a

d e g r e e o f f 'mar ty rdom" h i t h e r t o unknown.

Tumin ' s e x a g g e r a t i o n o f g e n e t i c d i f f e r e n c e s t o

t h e n e g l e c t o f t h e p u r p o s i v e n a t u r e o f human c o n d u c t ,

and t h e f a c t t h a t v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s a r e u n e q u a l l y

d e m a n d i n g , r e v e a l s t h e s t r e n g t h o f h i s c o n v i c t i o n of

t h e " i n j u s t i c e " o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

1 S c h w a r t z c o n c u r s w i t h D a v i s and M o o r e ' s e x p l a n a t i o n

o f t h e u b i q u i t y o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t e r m s o f i t s o p e r a t i o n

a s a s e l e c t i v e mechan i sm, b u t p r e s e n t s e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e

f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f o t h e r s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s i . e .

f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t s w h i c h h a v e p r e c i s e l y t h e same

s e l e c t i v e e f f e c t : - T h i s e v i d e n c e i s b a s e d upon a s t u d y

o f two I s r e a l i s e t t l e m e n t s , w h i c h a l t h o u g h s i m i l a r

i n t y p e of a g r i c u l t u r e and e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n e t c . ,

d i f f e r m a r k e d l y i n t e r m s of economic a r g a n i z a t i o n .

O r s h i s a c o l l e c t i v e k v u t z a i n w h i c h m a t e r i a l b e n e f i t s - a r e r o u g h l y e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d . T h e r e a r e f e w i n d e -

p e n d e n t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g j o b s and a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n

o f r o u t i n e s e m i - s k i l l e d j o b s . Tamim i s a s m a l l h o l d e r s 1

moshav , i n w h i c h m o s t f a m i l y h e a d s m u s t u t i l i z e t h e i r

1. R i c h a r d D . S c h w a r t z , " F u n c t i o n a l A l t e r n a t i v e s t o I n e q u a l i t y , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 20, ( ~ u g u s t , 1 9 5 5 1 , p p . 424-30.

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s k i l l s t o s e c u r e

a l i v i n g .

Assuming a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s e q u a l , s t a t e s S c h w a r t z ,

o n e would e x p e c t a s h o r t a g e of r o u t i n e w o r k e r s i n

t h e k v u t z a and a d e & h of r e s p o n s i b l e d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s

i n t h e moshav. A c c o r d i n g t o D a v i s and M o o r e ' s a r g g -

m e n t , o n e would e x p e c t d i f f e r e n t i a l r e w a r d s f o r e a c h

t y p e of p o s t t i o n f o r w h i c h q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n q e l a r e

s c a r c e . However , i n e a c h s e t t l e m e n t m e a s u r e s o t h e r

t h a n d i f f e r e n t i a l r e w a r d s h a v e d e v e l o p e d t o

e n s u r e q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s p e r f o r m c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y i n

t h e s e p o s i t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e k v u t z a o n e

m a j o r way h a s b e e n t o c h a n g e p o s i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s s o

t h a t t h e y c o i n c i d e more c l o s e l y w i t h a v a i l a b l e m o t i v a t e d

s k i l l s . M e c h a n i s a t i o n o f f a r m work t e n d s t o r e d u c e

t h e number o f r o u t i n e j o b s , w h i l s t t h e n u a b e r o f d e c i s i o n -

making j o b s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d by t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f

p o s i t i o n s by members o u t s i d e t h e i r own community i n

g o v e r n m e n t s e t t l e m e n - : p r o j e c t s . I n t h e moshav, p o s i t i o n a l

r e q u i r e m e n t s h a v e b e e n m o d i f i e d t o c o i n c i d e more c l o s e l y

w i t h a v a i l a b l e s k i l l s , b y t h e c o l l e c t i v e u n d e r t a k i n g

o f economic a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h d e c r e a s e s t h e numbers o f

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g jobs,: and i n c r e a s e s t h e number o f r o u t i n e

j o b s .

A n o t h e r m a j o r meqns o f e n s u r i n g q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s

fill t m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s i n e a c h communi ty i s t h e

m o d i f i c a t i o n o f members ' s k i l l s and m o t i v a t i o n t o s u i t

p r e v a i l i n g p o s i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n t h e k v u t z a

a f t e r c o n t i n u o u s i m m i g r a t i o n o f u n s k i l l e d w o r k e r s ,

many d e v e l o p e d o v e r t i m e t h e n e c e s s a r y s k i l l s f o r

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g j o b s . A p a r t i a l s o l u t i o n was f o u n d

i n l i m i t i n g i m m i g r a t i o n i . e . a c c e p t i n g i m m i g r a n t

t r a i n e e s f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d b u t r e f u s i n g them

p e r m a n e n t membersh ip i n t h e communi ty . E m i g r a t i o n of

d i s s a t i s f i e d i n d i v i d u a l s and t r a i n i n g programmes

c a l c u l a t e d t o p r o d u c e a l o w l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n

f o r m a n a g e r i a l p o s i t i o n s , h a v e a l s o s e r v e d t o m o d i f y

t h e w o r k i n g p o p u l a t i o n t o s u i t t h e p o s i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s

o f t h e k v u t z a .

S c h w a r t z s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s e v i d e n c e o f t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t s t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

p o s e s t h i s q u e s t i o n f o r t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t :

"Why a r e n o t s o c i e t i e s a b l e t o s u r v i v e u s i n g t h e

a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n - t s t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ? "

D a v i s and Moore m u s t , h e c l a i m s , e x t e n d t h e i r a r g u m e n t

t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e t a c t t h a t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n

o n e o f i t s f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t s e x i s t s i n mos t

s o c i e t i e s . S c h w a r t z c l a i m s t h a t t h e p r o p o n e n t s

c a n n o t d o s o , w i t h o u t r e f e r r i n g t o t h e d e l i b e r a t e

p e r p e t u a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i e d i n e q u a l i t i e s b y p o w e r f u l

g r o u p s w i t h i n s o c i e t y . He s u g g e s t s ,

"They may h a v e e r r e d i n s t r e s s i n g t h e maximum e f f e c t i v e m e s s i n s t e a d o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n w h i c h i - n e q u a l i t y t y p i c a l l y b r i n g s t o t h o s e p o w e r f u l 1 enough t o c o n t r o l t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e w a r d s . "

1. R . D . S c h w a r t z , o p . c i t . , p .430 .

Schwartz' argument is basically that an under-

supply of appropriately skilled and motivated personnel

may be rectified by means other thah the offer of

differential rewards, such as job rotation, emigration

etc. The basic premise of his argument is speculative

for he states,". . .one would expect.. . I' an under-supply of workers in each community. Schwartz is unable to

demonstrate empirically that the social arrangements he

discusses developed in each community as 2 response to

the shortages of skilled personnel. Furthermore, Schwartz,

as Richard Simpson, concentrates on one determinant of

positional ranking, i.e. the scarcity of qualified

personqel, to the neglect of the other, i.e. functional

importance of positions. SiJ7ce Schwartz does not

show social arrangements other than stratification,

meet the functional requirement of motivating qualified

persons to fill adequately, important positions, it is

doubtful whether his evidence requires Davis and Moore

to modify their argument to include the power element

of stratification.

However, some unexplored implication of Schwartz's

evidence are significant. Davis and Moore's emphasis

on the differential skill and ability required by various

positions may be inappropriate for agrarian societies

like the kvutza in which occupational specialization

is so low that unskilled workers were able, over time,

to develop the skills required for administrative

positions. The proponent's neglect of Schwartz's

e v i d e n c e , d e s p i t e D a v i s 1 l a t e r s t a t e m e n t , t h a t t h e

mos t r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e f o r p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t f u n c t i o n a l

r e q u i r e m e n t s i s p r o v i d e d b y e x p e r i m e n t a l c o m m u n i t i e s I

s e t u p b y r e l i g i o u s o r p o l i t i c a l s e c t s , i n d i c a t e s t h e i r

committmen-t t o t h e i d e a of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l n e c e s s i t y

o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n g n g r o u n d s w h i c h a r e u l t i m a t e l y

m o r a l and p o l i t i c a l .

Tumin c h a l l e n g e s t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s

b a s i c t o t h e Dav i s -Moore a r g u m e n t .

" A g e n e r a l i z e d t h e o r y ~f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e p r e v a i l i n g s y s t e m of i n d u c e m e n t s and r e w a r d s i s o n l y o n e of many v a r i a n ~ s i n t h e w h o l e r a n g ? of p o s s i b l e s y s t e m s o f m o t i v a t i o n w h i c h , a t l e a s t , t h e o r e t i c a l l y a r e c a p a b l e o f w o r k i n g i n human s o c i e t y . " 2

He s u g g e s t s t h e s t r i v i n g f o r d i f f e r e n - t i a l r e w a r d s

o f i n c o m e and p r e s t i g e i s n o t a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e m o t i v e

w h i c h d r i v e s p e o p l e t o make t h e e f f o r t t o o c c u p y

p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a r e i m p o r t a n t and r e q u i r e t r a i n i n g .

T h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e m o t i v a t i o n a l schemes a r e ,

" j o y i n w o r k , " " s o c i a l s e r v i c e , " and l l s o c i a l d u t y . "

A l t h o u g h no h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n a -

l i z a t i o n e x i s t s , Tumin a s s e r t s t h a t t h i s i s i n t h e o r y

p o s s i b l e .

D a v i s r e j e c t s T u m i n ' s " a l t e r n a t i v e s " t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

1. K i n g s l e y D q v i s : The Myth of F u n c t i o n a l A n a l y s i s a s a S p e c i a l Method i n S o c i o l o y and A n t h r o p o l o g y , A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Rev iew, 24 , 9 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 757-773.

2 . M . M . Tumin, Some P r i n c i p l e s o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n : A C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s , o p . c i t . , p . 388.

M o t i v a t i o n t o a t t a i n m e n t of complex and e x a c t i n g p o s i t i o n s

c a n n o t b e b a s e d s i m p l y on " j o y i n w o r k , " f o r i f e v e r y -

o n e e l e c t e d t o d o a s h e p l e a s e d , " t h e w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n

would wind u p i n o n l y a f e w t y p e s of p o s i t i o n . " "TTnre-

warded a l t r u i s m t t i s i n a d e q u a t e t o e l i c i t s o c i a l l y

a d e q u a t e b e h a v i o u r , " a s a n y s o c i o l o g i s t s h o u l d know." I

F i n a l l y , Tumin1 s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t , " s o c i a l d u t y " c o u l d

b e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s o t h a t , " s e l f and s o c i a l i n k e r e s t

come t o c o i n c i d e , " i s a c t u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d b y t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i a l r e w a r d s , a s D a v i s and Moore

e x p l a i n .

D a v i s s t a t e s t h a t t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f n o r m a t i v e

e x p e c t a t i o n a c t u a l l y m o t i v a t e f e w p e o p l e t o a t t a i n

d e m a n d i n g , i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , t h e y a r e

" s u p p l e m e n t a r y r a t h e r t h a n a l t e r n a t i v e , " t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ,

i n t h a t t h e y m o t i v a t e some i n d i v i d u a l s t o p e r f o r m

d i l i g e n t l y i n p o s i t i o n s , b u t d o n o t m o t i v a t e

i n d i v i d u a l s t o a t t a i n t h o s e p o s i t i o n s i n t h e f i r s t

p l a c e . D a v i s 1 b a s i c o b j e c t i o n i s t o t h e i m p o s s i b i i i t y

o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e s Tumin s u g g e s t s . The

a l t e r n a t i v e m o t i v a t i o n a l schemes a r e r e j e c t e d a s

" U t o p i a n , " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y r e p u d i a t e t h e t h e n

known f a c t s of h l ~ m a n m o t i v a t i o n . " . . . w e w e r e n o t

c o n c e r n e d , " s a y s Dzivis, " w i t h t h e i n d e f i n i t e o r ' u t o p i a n 1 I

f u t u r e b u t w i t h s o c i e t i e s a s we f i n d t h e m . "

1. K i n g s l e y D a v i s , R e p l y , o p . c i t . , p . 397.

The a b o v e e x c h a n g e r e p r e s e n t s a c o n f l i c t o f

p e r s p e c t i v e s i . e . b e t w e e n a c o n s e r v a t i v e o u t l o o k

w h i c h s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e m o t i v a t i o n o f t h e human

i n d i v i d u a l I s u n c h a n g i n g , and a n o u t l o o k , w h i c h i n

t h e L i b e r a l - P r o g r e s s i v e t r a d i t i o n e m p h a s i s e s t h e

p e r f e c t i b i l i t y of human n a t u r e and m a n ' s n a t u r a l l y

c o - o p e r a t i v e v i r t u e s .

Tumin a r g u e s t h a t D a v i s and M o o r e ' s a s s u m p t i o n s

a b o u t human m o t i v a t i o n a r e n o t u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e

t o a l l known s o c i e t i e s b e c a u s e some s o c i e t i e s d o n o t

e v a l u a t e h i g h l y t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s k i l l and a b i l i t y

r e q u i r e d by v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s , and d o n o t r e w a r d s u c h

p o s i t i o n s h i g h l y i n t e r m s of i n c o m e . I n I s r e a l i K i b b u t z ,

" a d e b a t e c o n t i n u e s w h e t h e r t o a s s i g n h i g h e r , e q u a l

o r l o w e r s a l a r i e s t o t h e more v e r s u s t h e l e s s s k i l l e d . ! "

A l t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t i a l s k i l l t e n d s t o b e e v a l u a t e d

h i g h l y i n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g ,

" d e m o n s t r a b l y n a t u r a l , " a b o u t r e a c t i n g t o i t i n ' h i s

way.

" A number o f a d d i t i o n a l f a c t s s u c h a s v e r y p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e d m o t i v a t i o n a l schemes and s o c i a l g ~ a l s a r r a n g e d i n v e r y p a r t i c u l a r h i e r a r c h i e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o b e p r e s e n t and t o b e u n d e r s t o o d i f we a r e t o u n d e r s t a n d i n t u r n why we h a v e 2 e x i s t i n g f o r m s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . "

T u m i n ' s d i ~ t i ~ ~ c t i o n b e t w e e n s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , - - -

1. M . M . Turnin: "On I n e q u a l i t y , " o p . c i t . , p.20.

2 . I b i d . , p p . 20-21.

t h e ways i n w h i c h ~ o s i t i o n s d i f f e r i n t e r m s o f t h e

c o m p l e x i t y , c l e a n l i n e s s e t c . o f i t s t a s k s , and

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , t h e t e n d e n c y f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

p o s i t i o n s t o b e u n e q u a l l y r e w a r d e d i n herms o f p r e s t i g e

and income e t c . i s v a l u a b l e . He r i g h t l y p o i n t s o u t

t h a t c o m p a r i s o n s i n t e r m s o f t h e i n t r i n s i c

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p o s i t i o n s e . g , t h a t one p o s i t i o n -

r e q u i r e s more s k i l l t h a n a n o t h e r , h a v e no, " e x i g e n t

o r u n a v o i d a b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . "

Whether o r n o t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s k i l l o r c l e a n l i n e s s

r e q u i r e d b y v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s g i v e r i s e t o d i f f e r e n t i a l

p r e s t i g e r a t i n g s e t c . d e p e n d s o n how members o f a

s o c i e t y e v a l u a t e t h 9 s e i n t r i n s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

But Tumin n e g l e c t s t o c o n s i d e r t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a l s k i l l

may n o t b e h i g 5 l y r e w a r d e d b e c a u s e , d u e t o t h e l o w

l e v e l of t e c h n o l o g i c a l developmen, and o c c u p a t i o n a l

s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , o n e p o s i t i o n d o e s n o t r e q u i r e v e r y much

more t h a n a n o t h e r . T h u s , h e e m p h a s i s e s l ' c u l t u r a l

v a r i a b i l i t y " t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o b j e c t i v e v a r i a t i o n s

i n c o n d i t i o n s s u c h a s l e v e l o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

E l s e w h e r e , Turnin a t t e m p t s t o c h a l l e n g e m o t i v a t i o n a l

a s s u m p t i o n s b a s i c t o t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t by s h o w i n g

t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s y s t e m of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p r e v e n t s

r a t h e r t h a n e n h a , l c e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p p r o p r i a t e

m o t i v a t i o n f o r a d e q u a t e r o l e - p e r f o r m a n c e i n e v e r y

i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r e a . H i s a r g u m e n t i s a s f o l l o w s :--

" . . . i f mos t a v a i l a b l e g o o d s and s e r v i c e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d a s r e w a r d s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e o f r o l e s i n t h e e m p h a s i s e d i n s t i t u t i o n , o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s w i l l s u ' f e r f r o m t h e a b s e n c e of r e w a r d s r e q u i r e d l o m o t i v a t e p e r f o r m a n c e o f n e c e s s a r y r o l e s . "

Tumin c l a i m s t h a t t h e t e n d e n c y f o r r e w a r d s t o

b e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e economic s t r u c t u r e o f A m e r i c a n

s o c i e t y , " p r o d u c e s " r e l a t i v e l y i n a d e q u a t e r e w a r d s f o r

c o n s c i e n t i o u s r o l e - p e r f o r m a n c e i n o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e k i n s h i p s y s t e m . P r e s t i g e , w h i c h i s

a l l o c a t e d p r i m a r i l y on t h e b a s i s o f income and

o c c u p a t i o n , h a s become t h e d o m i n a n t c r i t e r i o n o f a n

i n d i v i d u a l ' s m o r a l and s o c i a l w o r t h i n e v e r y i n s t i t u -

t i o n a l c o n t e x t . S i n c e t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l " r e w a r d s f o r

a d e q u a t e p e r f o r m a n c e o f p a r e n t a l t a s k s , m a i n l y , a

r a n g e o f p e r s o n a l g r a t i f i c 2 t i o n s , and community

a p p r o v a l , a r e no l o n g e r a d e q u a t e , economic c r i t e r i a f o r

e v a l u a t i n g r o l e p e r f o r m a n c e " i n v a d e " t h e f a m i l y s y s t e m .

The i n v a s i o n t a k e s s u c h f o r m s a s , " c o m p e t i t i o n among

p a r e n t s f o r i n v i d i o u s d i s t i n c t i o n a s p a r e n t s i n t e r m s

o f t h e g o o d s and s e r v i c e s w i t h w h i c h c h i l d r e n a r e

2 s u p p l i e d . The " i n v a s i o n " i s d y s f u n c t i o n a l b o t h f o r

t h e f a m i l y and t h e e n t i r e s o c i a l s y s t e m : - P a r e n t s

r a t e d l o w on t h e e c o n o m i c i n d e x o f s o c i a l w o r t h a r e

a b l e t o b a l a n c e t h e i r u n f a v o u r a b l e s e l f - i m a g e s w i t h

1. M . M . Turnin, llSome D i s f u n c t i o n s o f I n s t i t u t i o n a l I m b a l a n c e s , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, ( ~ e b r a u r ~ , l 9 6 3 ) , p . 2 2 1 .

2 . I b i d . , p . 2 1 9 .

f a v o u r a b l e d e f i n i t i o n s a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h c o n s c i e n t i o u s

p a r e n t h o o d , a s l o n g a s r e w a r d s g a i n e d i n o n e i n s t i t u t i o n a l

c o n t e x t a r e n o t s u b j e c t t o i n s t r u m e n t a l u s e i n o t h e r

i n s t i t u J ~ i o n a l a r e a s . I f " s o c i a l c o h e s i o n " d e p e n d s

s i g n i f i c a n t l y on t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h members s e n s e t h e i r

membersh ip i n s o c i e t y i s v a l u a b l e , t h e i n f l u x i n t o

f a m i l y l i f e o f i n v i d i o u s d i s t i n c t i o n s ba5ed on economic

c r i t e r i a i s l i k e l y t o b e d y s f u n c t i o n a l f o r s o c i a l c o h e s i o n .

Turnin 's e x p l i c i t a im t o r e f u t e D a v i s and M o o r e ' s

e x p l a n a t i o n i s u n s u c c e s s f u l ; s i n c e h e i s e x c l u s i v e l y

c o n c e r n e d w i t h m o t i v a t i o n t o c o n s c i e n t i o u s pe r f io rmance

o f p o s i t i o n a l t a s k s , t h a t i s , w i t h b e h a v i o u r a f t e r v a r i o u s

p o s i t i o n s i n a s o c i e t y h a v e b e e n a t t a i n e d , h e d o e s n o t

g r e a t l y u n d e r m i n e D a v i s and M o o r e ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f

how p o s i t i o n s come t o b e f i l l e d i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e .

The m a j o r d i f f i c u l t y o f t h e a r g u m e n t i s t h a t Turnin

a s s u m e s p r e s t i g e j u d g e m e n t s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m economlc

v a r i a b l e s , b u t h e d o e s n o t s p e c i f y t h e presumed c o n n e c t i o n

b e t w e e n p o s i t i o n o n o n e o f t h e o b j e c t i v e h i e r a r c h i e s o f

income s c a l e o r o c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and a 1

" t o t a l p r e s t i g e - r a t i n g " b a s e d upon i t . R e s e a r c h e v i d e n c e

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l - economic complex i s t h e

c o r e o f o v e r a l l p r e s t i g e r a t i n g s i n Amer ican c u l t u r e .

1. S e e , M i l t o n M. Gordon : S o c i a l C l a s s i n Amer ican S o c i o l o g y , New Y o r k : McGraw-Hill Book Company I n c . , (1963) e s p e c i a l l y , C h a p t e r V.

- 6 3 - 1

P a r s o n s n o t e s , t o o , t h a t a s o c i e t y t e n d s t o e m p h a s i s e

c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a a s more c r u c i a l f o r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

t h a n o t h e r s , i n t e r m s o f d o m i n a n t v a l u e s , and s u g g e s t s

t h a t t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s y s t e m i s t h e d o m i n a n t e l e m e n t

i n A m e r i c a n s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e

same s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s much more t h a n

t h i s c o r e complex - a n i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n c o n s i s t i n g

o f s u c h c r i t e r i a a s " s t y l e s o f l i f e , " p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o u r , 2

s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n and community power e t c . Gordon

n o t e s t h a t t h e e x a c t method w h e r e b y t h e s e s e p a r a t e

s t r a t i f i e d v a r i a b l e s a r e t o be combined i n t o a n

i n d i v i d u a l ' s " t o t a l p r e s t i g ~ s c o r e " i s a s y e t u n r e s o l v e d .

G i v e n t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f v a r i a b l e s w h i c h a r e

r e l e v a n t t o a t o t a l p r e s t i g e - r a t i n g , i t i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y

e x p e c t a b l e t h a t a n y g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s e n t s i n

h i m s e l f ' d i s p e r s e d p o s i t i o n s 3n t h e s e s e v e r a l component

c r i t e r i a . F o r e x a m p l e , a n i n d i v i d u a l may b e l o w o n t h e

income s c a l e b u t h i g h ?.n e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t s .

T h e r e i s t h e n , a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n h i s

o v e r - a l l s t a t u s s i t u a t i o n .

T u m i n T s a r g l ~ m e n t t h a t p r e s t i g e r a t i n g s d e r i v e d

f r o m economic v a r i a b l e s a r e s u b j e c t t o i n s t u m e n t a l u s e

i n non-economic c o n t e x t s of a c t i o n , s u c h a s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n

1. T a l c o t t P a r s o n s : "A R e v i s e d A n a l y t i c a l Approach t o t h e T h e o r y of S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " i n h i s vo lume, E s s a y s i n S o c i o l o i c a l T h e o r y , r e v i s e d e d . , G l e n c o e , I l l . : The F r e e P r e e , 719%).

2.M.Gordon, o p . c i t . , p . 1 7 7 .

o f t h e f a m i l y e n t a i l s a n e x a g g e r a t i o n o f s t a t u s c o n s i s t e n c y

and c o m p a r a b i 1 i : t y i n complex i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s . By

c o n t r a s t , D a v i s and Moore a r e c l e a r l y a w a r e of t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f some s t a t u s i n c o n s i s t e n c y w h e r e t h e y s t a t e ,

" e c o n o m i c r e t u r n " i s o n e o f t h e m a i n i n d i c e s o f s o c i a l

s t a t u s , b u t , " a p o s i t i o n d o e s n o t b r i n g power and 1

p r e s t i g e b e c a u s e i t d r a w s a h i g h i n c o m e . " F u r t h e r ,

Moore p o i n t s o u t t h a t T u m i n 1 s n e g l e c t o f t h e p r o b l e m

l e a d s h im t o i m p l y t h a t a s o c i t y w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l

d i f f e r e n t i a l s i n income would b e " u n s t r a t i f i e d . " B u t ,

" i n c o m e e q u a l i z a t i o n m i g h t w e l l h e i g h t e n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s , "

i n o t h e r v a r i a b l e s r e l e v a n t t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

T u m i n 1 s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e economic a s p e c t

o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d by h i s s t a t e m e n t s i n

o t h e r c o n t e x t s . The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n indicates

a n e a r l y p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o e m p h a s i s e t h e n e g a t i v e

e f f e c t s o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n i t s economic a s p e c t .

T h r o u g h o u t t h e t e x t book i n w h i c h t h e q u o t a t i o n

a p p e a r s , c l a s s c o n f l i c t and economic d e t e r m i n i s m a r e

s t r e s s e d t o a n e x t r e m e . The p o s t - w a r p e r i o d

o f economic improvement i s a c c o u n t e d f o r a s f o l l o w s : -

" I n Amer ica t h e g r o w i n g i n e q u a l i t y i n power among c l a s s e s h a s b e e n o b s c u r e d by t h e r e l a t i v e e q u a l i t y i n t h e a r e a o f w i d e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f c h e a p , m a s s - p r o d u c e d c o m m o d i t i e s . T h i s p r o c e s s works t o w a r d s a b l u r r i n g o f some o f t h e e x p e c t a b l e a t t i t u d e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c l a s s e s i n t h e f a c e o f d i s a r i t y b e t w e e n i d e a l and r e a l p a t t e r n s . " !I

Moore ,

2. J.W. B e n n e t t and M . X . Tumin: S o c i a l L i f e , New Y o r k : A . A . ~ n o ~ f , (1948) , p . 80.

What is "expectable" in American society is clearly

determined by the authorst own preconceptions of the 2

"ideal" society as classless.

In other criticisms, Tumin attempts to show on

the basis of a comparison of the job role and parental

role in the U.S.A.,that motivation to performance of

positional tasks would be developed more efficiently i

by eaual rather than unequal rewards. This argument

is that; whereas in the job structure rewards tend to

be differentially allocated according to position, in

the parent-role structure rewards (in the form of

personal gratifications and community approval) tend to

be given in direct proportion to effort. If one assumes,

as Davis and Moore, that men can only be motivated to

conscientious performance b-f the offer of differential

rewards, the "average employee" should work harder

than the "average parent. 'I But, Ifactu3l behaviour reverses 2

these theoretical expectations," since the average

parent typically works hard regardless of personal

rewards, whereas the average employee tends to calculate

the minimum work required.

Tuminfs comparison is unconvincing in view of the

decisive affectional bonds between parent and child which

are not present in the work situation; further, because

he is exclusively concerned with performance of

1. Melvin M. Tumin, "Rewards and Task-Orientations," .4merican Sociological Review, 20 ( ~ u ~ u s t , 1955), p.419-23.

2. Ibid., p. 421.

- 66 - p o s i t i o n a l d u t i e s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f

p o s i t i o n s i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . But more i n t e r e s t i n g

f rom t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a d i s c u s s i o n o f T u m i n 1 s

i d e o l o g i c a l b i a s , i s t h e marked d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n

t h e v i e w o f t h e A m e r i c a n k i n s h i p s y s t e m p r e s e n t e d i n

t h i s and i n t h e a r t i c l e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . I n t h e f o r m e r

h e c o n s i d e r s a v a i l a b l e r e w a r d s f o r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e

of p a r e n t r o l e s a r e a d e q u a t e , y e t i n t h e o t h e r a r t i c l e ,

( w r i t t e n o n e y e a r l a t e r ) h e c l a i m s s u c h r e w a r d s a r e

" i n a d e q u a t e " and a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y r e p l a c e d by " e c o n o m i c

c r i t e r i a of m o r a l and s o c i a l w o r t h . " r u m i n l s d e t e r m i n a t i o n

t o r e f u t e t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t a p p e a r s t o e x c e e d h i s

d e s i r e f o r t h e o r e t i c a l c o r s i s t e n c y .

I n c o n c l u s i o n , we h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e

" p e r s p e c t i v e s " o f p r o p o n e n t s and c r i t i c s , f o l l o w i n g

Mannhe imls s u g g e s t i o n s , i n t e r m s o f t h e i r p a r t i a l o r

o n e - s i d e d t r e a t m e n t o f v a r i o u s c o n c e p t s and p r o b l e m s ,

and b y t h e i r f a i l u r e t o c o n s i d e r i m p o r t a n t a r g u m e n t s

and e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d b y o t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s

t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s y . Mannheim s u g g e s t s t h a t p e r s p e c t i v e s

may a l s o b e i d e n t i f i e d by t h e t h i n k e r ' s i m p l i c i t o r

e x p l i c i t model of how " f r u i t f u l t h i n k i n g " c a n be

c a r r i e d o n ; b u t i n ? h e a r e a o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y p r e s e n t e d

a b o v e p r o p o n e n t s and c r i t i c s d o n o t d i f f e r i n t h i s

r e s p e c t - i n d e e d c r i t i c s d o n o t o f t e n p r e s e n t o b j e c t i o n s

t o t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t w h i c h assume d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l

p r e m i s e s .

I n a l a t e r c h a p t e r we s h a l l r e l a t e t h e c o n f l i c t

of p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n which h a s b o t h i n i a t e d and s u s -

t a i n e d t h e c o n t r o v e r s y , t o t h e c o n f l i c t s be tween American

l i b e r a l and c o n s e r v a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l s d u r i n g t h e

c o u r s e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . The f a 5 . l u r e of

c r i t i c s of t h e Davis-Moore a rgument t o p r e s e n t a n

e x p l a n a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n f rom a r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t

s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e w i l l t h e n h e e x p l i c a b l e i n

t e r m s of t h e l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l ' s l a c k o f a v i a b l e

p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y , wh ich would p r o v i d e a n a l t e r n a t i v e

t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g c o n s e r v a t i v e mood o f t h e f i f t i e s .

C h a p t e r ITJ

FUNCTION AND CAUSE : A METHODOLOGICAL DISCUSSION

I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r we r e v i e w e d t h e c o n t r o v e r s y

s u r r o u n d i n g t h e Davis-Moore a r g l ~ m e n t i n t e r m s o f t h e

p o l i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s u n d e r l y i n g v a r i o u s c r i t i c i s m s

and r e p l i e s . But n o t a l l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s y

m a n i f e s t i d e o l o g i c a l b i a s . Some o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e

a r g u m e n t a r e b a s e d on a c o n c e p t i o n o f c a u s a l , s c i e n t i f i c

e x p l a n a t i o n o f human b e h a v i o u r , w h i c h d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y

f r o m t h a t of t h e p r o p o n e n t s .

We b e g i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t a t u s

of th Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t by d e m o n s t r a t i n g i n a l o g i c a l

and s y s t e m a t i c manner t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i t o f some

i s s u e s r a i s e d by t h e c r i t i c s .

I n t h e 1 9 4 5 a r t i c l e , t h e p r o p o n e n t s a r g u e t h a t

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n m e e t s a d e s i g n a t e d f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e -

m e n t , and t h e n s o n c l u d e ,

"Hence, e v e r y s o c i e t y no m a t t e r how s i m p l e o r complex mus t d i f f e r e n t i a t e p e r s o n s i n t e r m s of b o t h p r e s t i g e and e s t e e m , and mus t t h e r e - f o r e p o s s e s s a c e r t a i n amount o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d i n e q u a l i t y . r t 1

D a v i s and Moore d o n o t d e f i n e t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o r c e o f

" h e n c e " But t h e y a p p e a r t o p r o c e e d f r o m a s t a t e m e n t o f

a f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t t o a c a t e g o r i c a l a s s e r t i o n t h a t

a c e r t a i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m i s a n e c e s s a r y T e a t u r e o f

1. K i n g s l e y D a v i s and W.E. Moore, "Some P r i n c i p l e s of S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Rev iew, 1 0 ( ~ ~ r i l , 1 9 4 5 ) , p . 243.

a n y s o c i e t y . L a t e r , D a v i s c l a i m s t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t

o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l n e c e s s i t y o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s a

g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e known f a c t s of

human s o c i e t i e s .

" I f a s o c i a l f o r m i s a c t u a l l y f o u n d i n a l l known s o c i e t i e s i t would seem h a r m l e s s t o e n t e r t a i n t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i t i s i n d i s - p e n s a b l e . 11 1

He c l a i m s f u r t , h e r t h a t i t i s a c o n t i n g e n t s t a t e m e n t ,

i n p r i n c i p l e s u s c e p t i b l e o f v e r i f i c a t i o n o r f a l s i f i c a t i o n ,

a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r i s u n l i k e l y i n v i e w o f t h e u b i q u i t y

o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

Tumin i n t e r p r e t s t h e p r o p o s i t i o n a s a s t a t e m e n t o f

some " i n h e r e n t n e c e s s i t y " i n t h e l 1 r 1 a t u r e of man" t o b e

u n w i l l i n g t o work h a r d o r a c q u i r e s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e ,

u n l e s s i n d u c e d t o d o s o hy t h e o f f e r o f d i f f e r e n t i a l

r e w a r d s . Da7~i.s a n d M o o r e ' s a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a p a r t i -

c u l a r m o t i v a t l o n a l p a t t e r n i s a p e r m a n e n t f e a t u r e o f

human b e h a v i o u r i s n o t a c o r r e c t i n f e r e n c e f r o m a v a i l -

a b l e e v i d e n c e , f o r t h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t man i s

c a p a b l e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g a r a n g e o f a l t e r n a t i v e

m o t i v a t i o n a l schemes o t h e r t h a n i n d u c e m e n t by d i f f e r t i a l

r e w a r d .

I n r e p l y , D a v i s o b j e c t s t h a t t h e " e v i d e n c e " Tumin

1 . K i n g s l e y D a v i s , "The Myth of F u n c t i o n a l A n a l y s i s a s a S p e c i a l Method i n S o c i o l o g y and A n t h r o p o l o g y , 2 4 , ( ~ e c e m b e r , 1 9 5 9 ) , r e p r i n t e d i n S v s t e m . Chanae and C o n f l i c t , e d . , N.J. Demera th and P.A. P e t e r s o n , New Y o r k , F r e e P r e s s ( 1 9 6 7 ) .

p r e s e n t s i s l a r g e l y s p e c u l a t 4 v e . H i s a l t e r n a t i v e

m o t i v a t i o n a l schemes a r e " b l t o p i a n " i n t h a t t h e y d o

n o t r e f l e c t r e a l s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e e x c h a n g e o f i d e a s s t o p s t h e r e .

i3ut t h e q u e s t i o n h a s b e e n r a i s e d o f w h e t h e r D a v i s is

w a r r a n t e d i n c a l l i n g t h e p r o p o s i t i o n , t h a t s t r a t i f i -

c a t i o n i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y , a p r e d i c t i v e i n f e r e n c e . 1

A c c o r d i n g t o H e m p e l T s a n a l y s i s L t h e p r o p o s i t i o n c o n t a i n s

two d i S 3 i n c t p r e d i c t i o n s : - (1) a d e s i g n a t e d f u n c t i o n a l

p r e r e q u i s i t e w i l l a l w a y s b e s a t i s f i e d , a n d , ( 2 ) t h i s

f u n c t i o n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e w i l l a l w a y s b e s a t i s f i e d b y

means of s t r a t i f i i a t i o n .

The f i r s t p r e d i c t i o n as? ,umes , " a g e n e r a l l a w t o

t h e e f f e c t , t h a t , w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s o f t o l e r a n c e and

a d a p t i b i l i t y a s y s t e m o f t h e k i n d u n d e r a n a l y s i s w i l l - e i t h e r i n v a r i a b l y o r w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e o f p r o b a b i l i t y - s a t i s f y b y d e v e l o p i n g a p p r o p r i a t e t r a i t s , t h e v a r i o u s

f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . . . t h a t may a r i s e f r o m c h a n g e s 3

i n i t s i n t e r n a l s t a t e and e n v i r o n m e n t . Hempel c a l l s

t h i s a ( g e n e r a l ) h y p o t h e s i s o f s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n . O n l y

i f i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s p e c i % y t h e e m p i r i c a l r e f e r e n t s

of t h e k e y t e r m s , " s y ~ t e r n , ~ ~ " l i m i t s j" " a d a p t a t i o n " e t c . ,

C a r l G . Hempel , "The L o g i c o f F u n c t i o n a l A n a l y s i s , " i n Symposium o n S o c i o l o g i c a l T h e o r y , Ed. L k w e l l y n G r o s s , New Y o r k , E v a n s t o n , and London: H a r p e r . and Row P u b l i s h e r s , ( 1 9 5 9 ) , Chap .9 .

T h i s r e s t s o n H e m p e l t s v i e w o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a - t i o n a s t h e s u b s u m p t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t s u n d e r g e n e r a l c a u s a l l a w s .

of t h i s g e n e r a l , h y p o t h e t i c a l law i s i t p o s s i b l e t o

g i v e c l e a r e m p i r i c a l meaning t o such c o n n e c t i o n s

a s " h e n c e , " and " c o n s e q u e n t l y . " The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t

a s o c i a l sys tem w i l l t e n d t o f u l f i l l i t s own r e q u i r e -

ments must be g i v e n i n a n o b j e c t i v e l y t e s t a b l e form.

O t h e r w i s e , a p r e d i c t i o n based upon i t w i l l b e , i n

p r i n c i p l e , u n v e r i f i a b l e . A t i t s s i m p l e s t , t h e problem

i s , how can t h e p r e d i c t i o n t h a t a g i v e n f u n c t i o n a l

r e q u i r e m e n t w i l l b e -saki-sfied, be v e r i f i a b l e , i f one

canno t s t a t e i n e m p i r i c a l t e r m s what i t mezns T G ~ a

"sys tem" t o " f u n c t i o n p r o p e r l y . " S i n c e Davis and

Moore d o no t at-kempt t o d e l i n e a t e t h e s e t e rms p r e c i s e l y ,

a s we showed i n Chap te r Two, t h e f i r s t p a r t of t h e i r

p r e d i c t i v e i n f e r e n c e i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .

The second p a r t of Dav i s and Moore 's p r e d i c t i o n

i s t h a t t h e d e s i g n a t e d f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i s i t e w i l l

a lways be s a t i s f i e d by means of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . They

assume t h e r e a r e a d e q u a t e grounds f o r s t a t i n g t h a t a

g i v e n s o c i a l form i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e f u l f i l l m e n t

of a p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t . As Hempel p o i n t s

o u t , t h e e m p i r i c a l grounds f o r t h i s a s sumpt ion a r e ques-

t i o n a b l e . P a r s o n s , f o r example, s t a t e s t h a t , " t h e f u n c t i o n

of t h e r a i n dance migh t b e subse rved by some o t h e r c e r e -

m o n i a l , " i n o r d e r t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t i n many c o n c r e t e

c a s e s t h e r e a p p e a r t o b e a number of c u l t u r a l i t e m s which

can e f f e c t i v e l y meet t h e same f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t .

Fur the rmore , Merton h a s i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e concep t of t h e

f u n c t i o n a l i n d i s p e n s a b i l i t y o f g i v e n c u l t u r a l i t e m s and

s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s b e r e p l a c e d b y t h e c o n c e p t of

f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t s i n s o c i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h .

I n a d d i t i o n 'o t h e s e g e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , o n e c r i t i c

o f t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t h a s p r e s e n t e d e m p i r i c a l

e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w h i c h

mee t p r e c i s e l y t h e same f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t a s

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

T h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h a v e s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r

t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t a t u s o f t h e p r o p o n e n t s 1 p r e d i c t i o n t h a t

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s f u n c t i o n a l l y n e c e s s a r y and i n e v i t a b l e .

T h i s i s a m a t t e r o f l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e . The s t a t e m e n t

t h a t a g i v e n c u l t u r a l i t e m ( x ) i s a n e c e s s a r y f e a t u r e o f

a s o c i a l s y s t e m may b e v a l i d l y i n f e r r e d f r o m two p r o p o s i t i o n s : -

One, t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o a g e n e r a l l a w o f s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n , a

c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n k m u s t a l w a y s b e m e t ;

two , t h a t t h e r e a r e a d e q u a t e g r o u n d s f o r e x p e c t i n g ( x )

r a t h e r t h a n o n e o f i t s f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t s t o m e e t

t h i s f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n - t .

The a b o v e p o i n t s may b e p r e s e n t e d i n s c h e m a t i c

1 f o r m a s f o l l o w s : -

( a ) I f s y s t e m ( s ) i s t o f u n c t i o n p r o p e r l y ,

( p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g b e i n g d e f i n e d i n

t e r m s o f s p e c i f i e d i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l

c o n d i t i o n s ) t h e n c o n d i t i o n ( n ) mus t b e

s a t i s f i e d a t some f u t u r e t i m e ( t ) .

- -

1. C a r i Hempel , o p . c i t . , p . 283.

( b ) I f i t e m ( x ) w e r e p r e s e n t i n ( s ) -

t h e n a s a n e f f e c t , r e q u i r e m e n t ( n )

would b e s a t i s f i e d .

( c ) it hen), (x) i s p r e s e n t i n ( s ) a t ( t ) .

The f a i l u r e o f D a v i s and Moore t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e

g r o u n d s f o r s t a t i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s ( a ) and ( b ) means t h a t

t h e y c a n n o t v a l i d l y i n f e r ( c ) . Thus t h e i r s t a t e m e n t ,

I t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s a n e c e s s a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a n y

s o c i e t y , " a p p e 3 r s t o b e v e r y l i m i t e d i n i t s p r e d i c t i v e

i m p o r t , when i t i s c o n s i d e r e d on t h e b a s i s o f a s t r i c t

v i e w o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n .

C r i t i c s , Dore a n d B r e d e m e i e r , d e n y t h a t D a v i s

and M o o r e ' s f u n c t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

i s a s c i e n t i f i c c a u s a l t h e o r y o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t

c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h o n e c a n make t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m

a s t a t e m e n t o f " t h e f u n c t i o n o f x i " t o a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e

" c a u s e o f x u c o n t a i n s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s .

1 B r e d e m e i e r c r i t i c i z e s t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f c a l l i n g a n

e x p l a n a t i o n i n t e r m s o f f u n c t i o n , c a u s a l . He m a i n t a i n s

t h a t s o c i o l o g i s t s o f t e n c o n f u s e s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g

t h e f u n c t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f ( x ) w i t h s t a t e m e n t s

c o n c e r n i n g t h e c a u s e s o f ( x ) . T h i s c o n f u s i o n s t e m s f r o m

t h e i r t e n d e n c y n o t i b d i s t i n g u i s h two s e p a r a t e a p p r o a c h e s

t o f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s : E x p l a n a t i o n s which a t t e m p t t o

a s s e s s t h e p a r t p l a y e d by a n ~ b s e r v e d i tem ( x ) i n t h e

m a i n t e n a n c e o f some l a r g e r s y s t e m ( y ) i n w h i c h ( x ) i s

1. H a r r y C. B r e d e m e i e r , "The M e t h o d o l o g y of F u n c t i o n a l i s m , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 20 , ( ~ ~ r i . 1 , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 1 7 3 .

i n c l u d e d , a r e o f t h e g e n e r a l f o r m , " t h e f u n c t i o n o f

( x ) f o r ( y ) i s ( t ) , " w h e r e ( t ) a r e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f ( x )

f o r ( y ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , e x p l a n a t i o n s w h i c h a t t e m p t

t o e x p l a i n t h e o r i g i n o f ( x ) mus t l o o k f o r t h e c a u s e s o f

( x ) i t s e l f . S o c i o l o g i s t s , h o w e v e r , o f t e n c o n f u s e

t h e s e d i s t i 4 2 c t k i n d s o f e x p l a n a t i o n and i n c o r r e c t l y

a s s u m e t h a t , h a v i n g s h o w n , " t h e f u n c t i o n o f ( x ) f o r ( y )

i s ( t ) , " t h e y h a v e e x p l a i n e d t h e c a u s e o f ( x ) .

The t r a n s i t i o n f r o m o n e t y p e o f c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e

o t h e r i s l o g i c a l l y i n c o r r e c t . The s t a t e m e n t " t h e f u n c t i o n

o f ( x ) f o r ( y ) i s (t)," c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h i s

s t a t e m e n t , " a c o n t r i b u t i n g c a u s e o f ( y ) i s ( t ) o f ( x ) . "

T h u s , w h i l s t a f u n c t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f a g i v e n c u l t u r a l

i t e m d o e s t e l l u s s o m e t h i n g o f t h e c c n t r i b u t i n g c a u s e

o f t h e w i d e r s y s t e m i n w h i c h t h e i tem i s i m p l i c a t e d ,

t h i s k i n d o f e x p l a n a t i o n t e l l s u s n o t h i n g o f t h e c a u s e

o f t h a t i t e m , i t s e l f .

Wi th s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o +,he Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t

t h e s t a t e m e n t , " s t r a t i f i c a t i o n f u n c t i o n s t o make t h e

d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r w o r k a b l e , " may e x p l a i n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

a s a c o n t r i b u t i n g c a u s e ( o r c a u s e o f t h e p e r s i s t e n c e ) o f

t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r , b u t i t s a y s n o t h i n g a b o u t

t h e " c a u s e " of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i t s e l f .

I n r e p l y , D a v i s a r g u e s t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t

a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t e x a m i n e o n l y t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of a 1

c u l t u r a l i t e m f o r t h e w i d e r s o c i a l s y s t e m . I n

s o c i o l o g y a s i n s c i e n c e , some k i n d o f s y s t e m i s u s u a l l y

1. K i n g s l e y D a v i s , The Myth o f F u n s t i o n a l A n a l y s i s , o p . c i t . , p . 393.

b e i n g d e a l t w i t h . T h u s , " a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e e f f e c t

o f o n e f a c t o r m u s t a l w a y s b e made w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

i n mind o f t h e r e t u r n e f f e c t , o r " f e e d - b a c k . " Accord-

i n g l y , B r e d e m e i e r o v e r l o o k s t h e r e c i ~ r o c a l i n f l u e n c e s

o f " c a u s e " and " c o n s e q u e n c e s , " w h e r e b y a n e f f e c t may,

i n t u r n , come t o m o d i f y i t s o r i g i n a l c a u s e .

D a v i s ' e x a m p l e of t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a " f e e d - b a c k "

i s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , b i o l o g i c a l .

" . . , t h e i n c r e a s e o f f i s h ( y ) i n a pond h a s t h e e f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e t o x i c i t y ( x ) o f t h e w a t e r , t h e g r o w t h o f t h e f i s h p o p u l a t i o n ( y a g a i n ) w i l l e v e n t u a l l y c e a s e u n l e s s o t h e r f a c L o r s i n t e r v e n e . I I 1

But w h e r e a s t h e c o n c e p t o f " f e e d - b a c k " may a p p l y t o

i t e m s and t h e i r e f f e c t s w h i c h c a n b e e m p i r i c a l l y

d e l i n e a t e d and m e a s u r e d a s i n h i s e x a m p l e , i t i s

d i f f i c u l t t o s e e how t h e c o n c e p t a p p l i e s t o t h e D a v i s -

Moore e x p l a n a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , i n w h i c h s u c h p r e c i s e

d e l i n e a t i o n i s n o t e v e n a t t e m p t e d .

H u a c o l s c r i t i q u e 2 i s r e l e v a n t h e r e . He p o i n t s o u t

t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t i n v o l v e d i n

t h e i r s t a t e m e n " o f t h e r e l a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n t o t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f two f a c t o r s , t h e f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e o f

p o s i t i o n s and t h e s c a r c i t y o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l . They s t a t e

1. I b i d .

2. G e o r g e Huaco, " A L o g i c a l A n a l y s i s o f t h e Davis-Moore T h e o r y of S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, 2 8 , ( ~ c t o b e r , 1963), p p . 801-804 .

t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e two f a c t o r s g i v e n a b o v e i . e .

t h e f u n c t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d

by t h e o p e r a t i o n of a n u n d e r l y i n g mechan i sm. I n a n o t h e r

p a r t o f t h e i r a r g u m e n t t h e y e x p l a i n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

a c c o r d i n g t h e , " p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l i s t a p p r o a c h , "

i n t e r m s of i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e w i d e r s o c i a l

s y s t e m . H e r e , s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s s a i d t o b e a n

" u n c o n s c i o u s l y e v o l v e d d e v i c e ; 'I t h a t i s , a d e t e r m t n a n t ,

w h i c h e n s a r e s t h a t t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s a r e

c o n s & n t i o u s l y f i l l e d by t h e mos t q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n s .

Huaco c o n c l u d e s ,

" I n t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n of t h e t h e o r y , u n e q u a l r e w a r d s a r e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e mechan i sm s u r r o u n d i n g u n e q u a l f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n s e ; i n t h e s e c o n d v e r s i o n o f t h e t h e o r y , u n e q u a l r e w a r d s a r e t h e c a u s e of t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e mech n i sm s u r r o u n d i n g u n e q u a l f u n c t i o n a l impo&nce . I ' 7 .

One m i g h t s u p p o s e f r o m t h i s t h a t D a v i s ' c o n c e p t o f " f e e d -

b a c k " i s a n a t t e m p t t o j u s t i f y t h e a m b i q u i t y o f t h e i n t e r -

r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d .

Some c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s y h a v e s p e c i i i e d

t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e y would a c c e p t t h a t a

f u n c t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f a g i v e n i t e m ( x ) , i n t e r m s o f

i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e w i d e r s y s t e m ( y ) , c o n s t i t u t e s

a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e c a u s e of ( x ) .

B r e d e m e i e r a r g u e s t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n i s l o g i c a l l y

1. G. Huaco , o p . c i t . , p . 804. Note t h a t Huaco o m i t s t h e s e c o n d d e t e r m i n a n t o f p o s i t i o n a l r a n k i n g , s c a r c i t y of q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l . G e n e r a l l y c r i t i c s d e a l w i t h o n e o r t h e o t h e r , b u t r a r e l y b o t h .

a d e q u a t e i f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who compose t h e g r o u p o r

s o c l e t y examined c a n b e s a i d t o b e a w a r e o f , and i n t e n d , 1

t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f ( x ) f o r ( y ) . I n M e r t o n f s t e r m s

t h i s means t h a t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n n u s t b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d

on t h e l e v e l o f " m a n i f e s t f ~ n c t i o r i s , ~ ' t o r e f e r t o ,

" t h o s e o b j e c t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r a s p e c i f i e d u n i t . . . w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o i t s a d j u s t m e n t o r a d a p t i o n and

w e r e s o i n t e n d e d . " 2

D o r e a d o p t s a s i m i l a r v i e w . " S o c i o l o g i s t s a r e n o t

a l w a y s p r e c l u d e d f r o m making t h e . . , t r a n s i t i o n f rom t h e

f u n c t i o n o f x t o t h e c a u s e of x . Human i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e

now p u r p o s e f u l l y d e s i g n s d o n a s c a l e r a r e l y a t t e m p t e d

b e f o r e . " He c i t e s a s a n example t h e c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n

o f t h e o r i g i n o f C h i n e s e communes i n t e r m s o f t h e i n t e n d e d

p u r p o s e s of h i s t o r i c a l l y i d e n t i f i a b l e g r o u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s . 3

wrong4 and S c h w a r t z i m p l i c i t l y a d o p t t h e same v i e w

when t h e y s u g g e s t t h a t a f u l l c a u s a l a c c o u n t o f s t r a t i -

f i c a t i o n mus t r e f e r t o t h e i n t e n d e d p u r p o s e s o f p o w e r f u l

1. H a r r y C. B r e d e m e i e r , The M e t h o d o l o g y o f F u n c t i o n a l i s m , o p . c i t . , p .173-180 .

2 . R o b e r t K . M e r t o n , S o c i a l T h e o r y and S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , GI-encoe, I l l . , The F r e e P r e s s , ( 1 9 4 9 ) , Chap .1 .

3. R o n a l d P h i l i p D o r e , " F u n c t i o n and C a u s e , " Amer ican S o c i o l o g f - c a l Rev iew, 2 6 , ( ~ e c e m b e r , 1 9 6 1 ) , pp .843-853 .

4 . D e n n i s H. Wrong, "The F u n c t i o n a l i s t T h e o r y o f S t r a t i - f i c a t i o n : Some N e g l e c t e d C o n s i d e r a t i o n s , " Amer ican S o c i o l o g i c a l Rev iew, 2 4 , ( ~ e c e m b e r , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 4 3 0 .

- 78 -

g r o u p s w i t h i n s o c i e t y , " t o augument and p e r p e t u a t e 1

p r i v i l e g e s and r e w a r d s t o t h e i r own a d v a n t a g e . "

C r i t i c s c l a i m t h a t a n o t h e r c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e

t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f x , t o

t h e c a u s e o f x i s t h a t t h e s p e c i a l a p p r o a c h of e v o l u -

t i o n a r y f u n c t i o n a l i s m b e e m p l o y s d .

B r e d e m e i e r t a k e s D a v i s ' e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e i n c e s t 2

t a b o o a s a n e x a m p l e . D a v i s s t a t e s t h a t t h i s c u l t u r a l

i t e m e x i s t s , b e c a u s e i t h a s t h e l a t e n t f u n c t i o n of

p r e v e n t i n g c o n f u s i o n o f k i n s h i p r o l e s . Bredemeie r c l a i m s

t h a t a more s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n i n t e r m s of l a t e n t

f u n c t i o n i s a s f o l l o w s . H e h y p o t h e s i s e s ,

" . . . s o c i e t i e s w h i c h somehow s t u m b l e d upon a d e f i n i t i o n o f m o t h e r and s o n r o l e s which made s e x u a l r e s p o n s e s i m p o s s i b l e had a n a d v a n t a g e i n c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , s o t h a t t h e y a r e t h e o n l y o n e s which s u r v i v e d . . . I t (my e m p h a s i s ) .

H e r e , B r e d e m e i e r c l a i m s t h a t o n e may e x p l a i n t h e

p e r s i s t e n c e o f a s o c i a l f o r m i n t e r m s o f i t s d e f i n i t e

a d v a n t a g e s f o r " s o c i a l s u r v i v a l . " B u t t h e s t a t e m e n t ,

s o c i e t i e s w h i c h h a v e t h e i n c e s t t a b o o a r e , " t h e o n l y o n e s

t o s u r v i v e , " c a r r l e s t h e i m ~ l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e i n c e s t t a b o o

i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f a f u n c t i o n a l

r e q u i r e m e n t ; f o r a f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t i s a l s o d e f i n e d

by r e f e r e n c e t o " s o c i a l s u r v i v a l . " 3

1. R i c h a r d D . S c h w a r t z , " F u n c t i o n a l A l t e r n a t i v e s t o I n e q u a l i t y , " 20, ( ~ u g u s t , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 4 3 0 .

2 . Q u o t e d i n H a r ~ y C. B r e d e m e i e r , o p . c i t . , p . 1 7 3 .

3. S e e C h a p t e r Two f o r t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d i n s u c h a n a s s e r t i o n .

It i s t h e n d i f f i c u l t t o s e e how B r e d e m e i e r ' s r e s t a t e -

ment d i f f e r s f r o m D a v i s ' f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e m e n t .

Dore p r e s e n t s a more c a u t i o u s r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e

Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t i n t e r m s o f e v o l u t i o n a r y f u n c t i o n a -

l i s m . I t i s n o t o p e n 50 t h e o b j e c t i o n we r a i s e d f o r

B r e d e m e i e r ' s a c c o u n t b e c a u s e D o r e s l i p s t h e c o n c e p t

of " m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n , " i n t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n . Thus p a r t

of t h e r e a s o n s o c i a l f o r m s s u r v i v e i s t h a t human b e i n g s

e x p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i z e t h e i r a d v a n t a g e s , and d e l i b e r a t e l y

i n s t i t u t e them. Dore s u g g e s t s ,

" . . . f o r some r e a s o n s some s o c i e t i e s w h i c h b e g a n t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r a l s o h a d , o r d e v e l o p e d a s y s t e m of u n e q u a i p r i v i l e g e s . ~ ; ' T h o s e w h i c h d i d , b r e d more r a p i d l y , a c q u i r e d r e s o u r c e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f , and e v e n t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d , t h e o t h e r s . P e r h a p s . . . t h e i r o b v i o u s s u p e r i o r i t y i n w e a l t h , power ... i n d u c e d t h e o t h e r s t o i m i t a t e t h e i r i n s t i t u - t i o n s w h o l e s a l e i n c l u d i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . 'I

T h e s e h y p o t h e s e s a r e , h e a d m i t s , u n l i k e l y b u t t h e y

c o n s t i t u t e s e v e r a l c a u s a l c h a i n s , t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e

o f w h i c h c o u l d " b e a s s e s s e d i n t h e l i g h t of h i s t o r i c a l

e v i d e n c e . " But i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t a k e D o r e ' s s u g g e s t i o n

s e r i o u s l y d u e t o t h e a b s e n c e o f a d e q u a t e h i s t o r i c a l

a c c o u n t s o f t h e p resumed t r a n s i t i o n f r o m n o n - s t r a t i f i e d

t o s t r a t i f i e d s o c i e t i e s .

S impson o b j e c t s t o D o r e ' s r e s t a t e m e n t of t h e D a v i s -

Moore a r g u n e n t b e c a u s e t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t p r a c t i c e s

w h i c h a r e n o t a d v a n t a g e o u s , b u t d e f i n i t e l y d e t r i m e n t a l t o

- 80 - 1

" s o c i a l s u r v i v a l " w i l l b e e l i m i n a t e d , i s q u e s t i o n a b l e .

. W h i l s t some s o c i a l f o r m s a r e c l e a r l y d y s f u n c t i o n a l ,

o t h e r s a r e n e i t h e r " a d a p t i v e " o r " m a l a d a p t i v e , " b u t ,

l i k e t h e human a p p e n d i x , f u n c t i o n l e s s . Q u o t i n g Riesman ,

h e a s s e r t s ,

" S o c i e t i e s c a n t o l e r a t e , e v e n w i t h o u t d i s - i n t e g r a t i o n much more d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n 2 and e v e n r u i n t h a n many p e o p l e r e c o g n i z e . "

D o r e r e c o g n i z e s t h e l i m i t e d v a l u e o f t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y

a p p r o a c h . E v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y i s i r r e l e v a n t t o some

i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h d i d n o t l ' e v o l v e " b u t w e r e c o n c e i v e d

and d e l i b e r a t e l y s e t u p , s u c h a s t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m

o f t h e U.S.A. I n s u c h c a s e s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a p p l y a

w e a k e r v e r s i o n o f e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y , w h i c h d e f i n e s

c a u s a l l y i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a

c u l t u r a l i t e m , o n c e o r i g i n a t e d . T h i s would i n v o l v e

s t a t i n g i n w h a t ways a n i t e m i s n o t d y s f u n c t i o n a l .

But s i n c e s u c h n e g a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e e n u m e r a t e d

a t l e n g t h , a l l p l a y a s m a l l p a r t i n a c o m p l e t e c a u s a l

e x p l a n a t i o n . The p r o b l e m r e m a i n s , o f a s s i g n i n g

r e l a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e v a r r a b l e s i d e n t i f i e d .

D o r e a d d s t o t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

1. R i c h a r d S i m p s o n , " A M o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e F u n c t i o n a l T h e o r y of S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " S o c i a l F o r c e s , 35, [ December , 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 132.

2 . D a v i d Riesman , N a t h a n G l a z e r and R e u e l Denney, The L o n e l y Crowd: A S t u d y o f t h e C h a n g i n g Amer ican C h a r a c t e r , New York : D o u b l e d a y Anchor Books , ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 4 5 .

f r o m " f u n c t i o n " t o " c a u s e " " t h e p o s t u l a t e of a n immanent -

t e n d e n c y u n i v e r s a l i n human s o c i e t i e s , f o r t h e p a r t s o f

a s o c i e t y t o b e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e w h o l e . " G i v e n s u c h a

/ t e n d e n c y t h e f u n c t i o n o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n i s i t s r a i s o n - d ' e t r e

and h e n c e i t s c a u s e . " ' He a r g u e s t h a t D a v i s t s t a t e m e n t

c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o s t u 3 . a t e o f f u n c t i o n a l u n i t y , "It

would b e s i l l y t o r e g a r d s u c h a p r o p o s i t i o n a s t r u e , " 2

d e s t r o y s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m " f u n c t i o n "

t o " c a u s e " .

D o r e 1 s a r g u m e n t i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r e v e n i f o n e

g r a n t e d t h e c o n d i t i o n o f p e r f e c t f u n c t i o n a l u n i t y , t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y s t i l l e x i s t s o f s e v e r a l s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s

a l l e q u a l l y c a p a b l e of m e e t i n g e f f e c t i v e l y a g:.ven

f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t . Thus t h e p r o b l e m p o i n t e d o u t

by Hempel, o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g e m p i r i c a l l y t h a t one o f t h e s e

s o c i a l f o r m s i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e o r a t l e a s t more l i k e l y t o

o c c u r t h a n t h e o t h e r s , r e m a i n s u n r e s o l v e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

D a v i s and M o o r e ' s s t a t e m e n t o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l n e c e s s i t y o f

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n c a n n o t b e s a i d t o b e a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e

c a u s e o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n e v e n i f we assume a cond i i jon o f

p e r f e c t f u n c t i o n a l u n i t y .

On t h e w h o l e t h e a b o v e c r i t i c i s m s d o show t h a t t h e

g r o u n d s f o r making t h e t r a n s i t i o n f rom a s t a t e m e n t o f

t h e f u n c t i o n of a s o c i a l f o r m t o s t a t e m e d o f i t s c a u s e a r e

l o g i c a l l y i n a d e q u a t e . F u r t h e r , t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r

1. R.P. D o r e , o p . c i t . , p . 845.

2. . K i n g s l e y D a v i s , The Myth of F u n c t i o n a l A n a l y s i s , o p . c i t . , p . 389.

w h i c h s u c h a t r a n s i t i o n - c o u l d b e made c o n t a i n s s r i o u s

d i f f i c u l t i e s . D a v i s r e p l i e s t h a t a l t h o u g h f u n c t i o n a l

a n a l y s k s i s a t a p r i m i t i v e s t a g e , i n t h a t n o t a l l

t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s a r e l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e s o r e m p i r i c a l l y

v e r i f i a b l e , i t i s s t i l l c a u s a l a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e i t e x p l a i n s

phenomena, a s a n y s c i e n c e , " f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f a

s y s t e m of r e a s o n i n g w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y b e a r s a r e l a t i o n t o a

c o r r e s p o n d i n g s y s t e m i n n a t u r e . "

D a v i s c o n c e i v e s s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n a s a s y s t e m mode

~ f r e a s o n i n g . H e a s k s ,

"How e l s e c a n d a t a b e i n t e r p r e t e d e x c e p t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e l a r g e r s t r u c t l ~ r e s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e i m p l i c a t e d ? Wow c a n d a t a o n t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t f o r e x a m p l e b e u n d e r s t o o d e x c e p t i n r e l a t i o n t o a s y s t e m i n w h i c h t h e y a r e i n v o l v e d - i n t h i s c a s e , t h e s p l a r s y s t e m o r t h e e a r t h ' s c l i m a t i c s y s t e m . "

F u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s d o e s n o t d i f f e r i n i t s b a s i c p r e m i s e s

and c o n c e p t s f r o m s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n f o r i t t y p i c a l l y

r e l a t e s t h e p a r t s o f a s y s t e m t o t h e w h o l e , and r e l a t e s one

p a r t t o a n o t h e r .

C r i t i c s t e n d t o t r e a t f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s a s a

s p e c i a l mode o f s o c i o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n b u t t h i s i s n o t

s o . F u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s d a e s n o t d i f f e r b a s i c a l l y f r o m

s o c i o l o g y i n g e n e r a l . The " r e q u i r e m e n t - m e e t i n g ' ' mode

o f r e a s o n i n g , a s M e r t o n p o i n t s o u t , t y p i c a l l y s e e k s

t o i n t e r p r e t d a t a , " b y e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s rn L

f o r t h e l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e i m p l i c a t e d . "

1. K i n g s l e y D a v i s , "The Myth of F u n c t i o n a l A n a l y s i s , " o p . c i t . , p . 3 9 3 .

2 . Q u o t e d by K i n g s l e y D a v i s , o p . c i t . , p . 393 .

I f , s a y s D a v t s , t h i s means t h a t among t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

u s e d t o i n t e r p r e t a g i v e n i t e m a r e i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r

t h e l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e , t h e n t h i s i s t r u e o f an.^ s c i e n c e . 1

T h e r e a r e s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s f o r s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s

w h i c h d e r i v e f r o m t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r ,

s o c i e t y . The a n a l y s t c a n n o t b e t o t a l l y o b j e c t i v e i n

d e s c r i b i n g s o c i a l r e a l i t y b e c a u s e s o c i a l r e a l i t y i s

o n l y m e a n i n g f u l i n t e r m s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t s h a r e d

d e f i n i t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , o v e r and a b o v e t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s

o f o b j e c t i v i t y , f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t e n a d o p t s a k i n d

o f l a n g u a g e w h i c h i s c l o s e t o p u r p o s i v e and m o r a l i s t i c

r e a s o n i n g , and s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e a b a n d o n e d .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s we d o n o t i n t e n d t o e x p l o r e

t h e complex p r o b l e m o f t h e o b j e c t i v i t y o f s o c i o l o g i c a l

e x p l a n a t i o n ; o u r m a i n c o n c e r n Ls t o c o n t r a s t t h e d i f f e r e n t

c o n c e p t i o n s o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n e s p s u s e d b y D a v i s

and h i s c r i t i c s .

D a v i s 1 a r g u m e n t t h a t s o c i o l o g i c a l o r f u n c t i o n a l 2

a n a l y s i s i s f r e q u e n t l y i n t u i t i v e and u n v e r i f i a b l e

b u t y e t " s c i e n t i f i c , " r e s t s on a n a n a l o g y b e t w e e n t h e

n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s and s o c i o l o g y , w h i c h a s s u m e s b o t h

d i s c i p l i n e s t y p i c a l l y t r y t o show how a g i v e n u n i t i s

r e l a t e d t o a w i d e r s y s t e m i n w h i c h i t i s i m p l i c a t e d . 3

Dore o b j e c t s t h a t t h i s a n a l o g y i s m i s l e a d i n g ; w h e r e a s

I-. K i n g s l e y D a v i s , "The Myth o f F u n c t i o n a l A n a l y s i s " , o p . c i t . , p . 3 9 3 .

2 . T h e - t e r m s a r e , a c c o r d i n g t o D a v i s , i n t e r - c h a n g e a b l e .

3. R.P. D o r e , o p . c i t . , p p . 843-533.

i n n a t u r e t h e p a r t s o f a g i v e n s y s t e m a r e i n c o n t i n u o u s

i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r , i n s o c i a l s y s t e m s t h e p a r t s

d o n o t a f f e c t e a c h o t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . He w r i t e s ,

"The m u t u a l r e l a t i o n o f , s a y , t h e s y s t e m of s o c i a l i z a t i o n t o t h e s y s t e m o f p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l i s m e d i a t e d by t h e p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e , and a s s u c h i t i s a r e l a t i o n w h i c h r e q u i r e s a l o n g t i m e i n t e r v a l t o work t h r o u g h t h e w h o l e c a u s a l s e q u e n c e . :I 1

D o r e p o i n t s o u t f u r t h e r t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s o f s y s t e m s

s u c h a s t h e s o l a r s y s t e m c a n , a s D a v i s s u g g e s t s , d i s p e n s e

w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f c a u s e i n f a v o u r o f f u n c t i o n , b u t t h i s

i s s t r i c t l y t h e m a t h e m a t i c i a n ' s f u n c t i o n , n o t t h a t o f

t h e s o c i o l o g i s t . D o r e 1 s p o i n t i s t h a t t h e system-mode o f

r e a s o n i n g means v e r y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s when a p p l i e d i n

t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s and i n s o c i o l o g y . Whereas t h e c o n c e p t

of c a u s a l i t y c a n n o t b e a p p l i e d t o D a v i s ' " s y s t e m - e x p l a n a -

t i o n " o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , i t can b e a p p l i e d t o D a v i s 1

e x a m p l e s o f " s y s t e m - e x p l a n a t i o n " i n t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s .

We d o n o t in te iqd t o e x a m i n e D o r e 1 s h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l

a r g u m e n t s i n t h i s r e s p e c t . He a p p e a r s t o h a v e s u c c e s s -

f u l l y t r a n s l a t e d a t l s y s t e m - e x p l a n a t i o n t l o f a g i v e n e v e n t ,

( t h e movement o f t h e moon) i n t o a n e x p l a n a t i o n w h i c h

r e l a t e s a w h o l e s e r i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t s t o e a c h

o t h e r b y mezns o f g e n e r a l , c a u s a l l a w s .

H a v i n g p r e s e n t e d a r g u m e n t s f o r t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f

s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n i n t e r m s o f t h e s u b s u m p t i o n o f

i n d i v i d u a l e v e n z s u n d e r more g e n e r a l l a w s , D o r e c l a i m s

t h a t s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e s o f e x p l a n a t i o n may b e a p p l i e d t o

1. I b i d .

s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . D a v i s , h e s a y s , a s s u m e s a , " s p e c i a l

a n d h a r d l y u n i v e r s a l , " v i e w o f w h a t s c i e n t i f i c s o c i o l o -

g i c a l a n a l y s i s s h o u l d b e . Bu t t h e system-mode o f r e a s o n -

i n g i s n o t t h e o n l y v i a b l e a p p r o a c h . An e q u a l l y v i a b l e

a l t e r n a t i v e i s t h e s e a r c h f o r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e

c o n c o m t a n t o c c u r r e n c e s o f s o c i a l phenomena, and t h e

a t t e m p t t o i n d u c e c a u s a l l a w s f r o m s u c h r e g u l a r i t i e s

i n o r d e r t o i n c o r p o r a t e them e v e n t u a l l y i n t o a compre-

h e n s i v e t h e o r y .

A c c o r d i n g t o D o r e ' s v i e w , i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h a s

m a r r i a g e and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a r e summary g e n e r i c t e r m s

f o r i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t s , and s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e f u n c t i o n a l

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s o f i n s t i t u t i n n s a r e u l t i m a t e l y g e n e r a l i -

z a t i o n s a b o u t c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l r e c u r -

r i n g e v e n t s . T h u s ,

" ' t h e s y s t e m o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n f u n c t i o n s t o make t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r w o r k a b l e , ' i s a g e n e r a l i z e d summat ion o f l o w e r o r d e r g e n e r - a l i z a t i o n s t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t f o r i n s t a n c e , 'men s u b m i t t o a l e n g t h y m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e t h e p r o s p e c t of g r e a t e r r e w a r d s , ' e t c . , w h i c h a r e t h e m s e l v e s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s f r o m s t a t e m e n t s of p a r t i - c u l a r e v e n t s ( ' ~ a z k s u b m i t t e d . . . b e c a u s e h e h a d . . . ' ) . " l

Q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e " c a u s e t ' o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n , a r e

t h e n q u e s t i o n s a b o u t p a r t i c u l a r e v e n t s - e i t h e r w i t h t h e

p a r t i c u l a r e v e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o r i g i n o f t h e

i n s t i t u t i o n , o r w i t h t h e r e c u r r i n a e v e n t s w h i c h compose

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n . The c o n c e p t o f f u n c t i o n b l u r s t h e

p r e c i s e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s i m p u t e d and y e t d e s c r i p t i o n s

1. I b i d .

- 86 - i n terms o f f u n c t i o n seem somehow c a u s a l ; " i t makes it

e a s i e r f o r i n s t i t u t i o n s t o b e t r e a t e d a s u l t i m a t e u n i t s

w i t h o u t c o n s t a n t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e m p i r i c a l c o n t e n t of 1

s u c h c o n c e p t s . . . ' I

The d i s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n p r o p g n e n t s and c r i t i c s

c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n o f " f u n c t i o n " t o " c a u s e " i s

b a s i c a l l y a d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r t h e n a t u r e of s c i e n t i f i c

e x p l a n a t i o n . On o n e h a n d , D a v i s i n t e r p r e t s i t a s t h e

a t t e m p t t o r e l a t e a n i t e m t o t h e w i d e r s y s t e m i n

w h i c h i t i s i m p l i c a t e d . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , Dore i n t e r p r e t s

s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n a s t h e s u b s u r n p t i o n o f t h e g i v e n i t e m

u n d e r more g e n e r a l c a u s a l l a w s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m e r

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e c o n c e p t of f u n c t i o n i s u n n e c e s s a r y ;..

s i n c e i t a d d s n o t h i n g t o t h e s y s t e m mode o f r e a s o n i n g ; a c c o r d i n g

t o t h e l a t t e r , i t i s i n a d e q u a t e b e c a u s e i t p r e c l u d e s t h e

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t s i n r e l a t i o n t o g e n e r a l

c a u s a l l a w s .

A d o p t i n g a v i e w o f s o c i o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s i m i l a r t o 2

D o r e ' s , B r e d e m e i e r s u g g e s t s t h a t a c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n mus t b e g l v e n i n t e r m s w h i c h a r e u l t i m a t e l y

r e d u c i b l e t o i n d i v i d u a l r e c u r r i n g e v e n t s and t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l

p r o p o s i t i o n s . Thus h e a t t e m p t s t o r e f o r m u l a t e t h e Davis-

Moore a r g u m e n t i n t e r m s o f e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t a b l e m o t i v a t i o n a l

p a t t e r n s and p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s .

1. I b i d .

2 . H.C. B r e d e m e i e r , "The M e t h o d o l o g y o f F u n c t i o n a l i s m , " o p . c i t . , e s p e c i a l l y pp . 178-180.

B r e d e m e i e r c o n c u r s w i t h t h e " b a s i c l o g i c " o f t h e i r

a r g u m e n t , w h i c h i s t h a t ,

" i f p e o p l e a r e m o t i v a t e d t o maximize t h e i r r e w a r d s , and i f t h e y c a n d o s o o n l y by p e r f o r m i n g t h e mos t i r p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s t h e i r t a l e n t s p e r m i t , t h e n t h e y w i l l d i s t r i - b u t e t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h t h e r o l e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e manner mos t e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m . "

He g o e s on t o p o i n t o u t t h a t i m p l i c i t i n t h i s a r g u m e n t

a r e a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t m o t i v a t i o n .

"TIiet e m p i r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e two ' i f ' p r e m i s e s c a n n o t b e f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d u n t i l t h e y a r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d on a l e v e l w h i c h s t a t e s c l e a r l y t h e s t r u c t u r a l s o u r c e s o f m o t i v a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s 2nd t h e p s y c h o l o - g i c a l p r o c e s s of a d j u s t m e n t t o t h o s e s o u r c e s . 11 2

I n o t h e r w o r d s w h e t h e r o r n o t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t e s

a s D a v i s and Moore c l a i m , d e p e n d s on t h e p r o c e s s o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l a d j u s t m e n t t o c e r t a i n m o t i v a t i o n a l

p a t t e r n s . A f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s w h i c h d o e s no more t h a n

p r e s e n t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e w i d e r s o c i e t y o f a g i v e n

s o c i a l f o r m i s c o m p l e t e . A t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s

t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t make t h e s e c o n s e q u e n c e s

f u n c t i o n a l . I n o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e a n y f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s

o n e m u s t r e s t a t e t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a s o c i e t y

i n t e r m s o f t h e k i n d s o f b e h a v i o u r i n d i v i d u a l members o f

t h a t s o c i e t y m u s t m a n i z e s t . T h u s , t h e q u e s t i o n s h o u l d

a l w a y s b e r a i s e d a s t o wha t k i n d o f m o t i v a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s

l e a d i n d i v i d u a l s t o b e h a v e i n t h e r e q u i r e d way. F u r t h e r -

more , B r e d e m e i e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l -- -

1. I b i d . , p . 1 7 8 .

2 . I b i d .

p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e s e m o t i v a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s s h o u l d

b e made e x p l i c i t . H a v i n g made t h e s e t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t e -

m e n t s , t h e o b s e r v e r - s h o u l d e x a m i n e t h e f u l l r a n g e

o f b e h a v i o u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a l l known m o t i v a t i o n

s t r u c t u r e s .

The e x p l a n a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n b a s e d o n t h e s e

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s i s a s f o l l o w s : - I f t h e d i v i s i o n

o f l a b o u r i s t o b e made w o r k a b l e , p e o p l e mus t f i l l

d i l i g e n t l y t h e o c c u p a t i o n s f o r w h i c h t h e y a r e b e s t

s u i t e d i n t e r m s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , s k i l l , e t c . The m o t i -

v a t i o n a l mechanism w h i c h would l e a d t o s u c h b e h a v i o u r

would b e s u c h t h a t s e l f - r e s p e c t f o l l o w s f r o m p l a y i n g

t h e r o l e o n e i s b e s t s u i t e d t o . The p s y c h o l o g i c a l

p r i n c i p l e assumed h e r e i s t h a t p e o p l e a c t t o m a x i m i z e

g r a t i f i c a t i o n s and w h a t i s m o s t g r a t i f y i n g t o human

b e i n g s i s t h a t c e r t a i n n o r m a t i v e c r i t e r i a of s e l f -

r e s p e c t and ego-enhancement b e m e t . The c o n s e q u e n c e s

o f a n o b s e r v e d m o t i v a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e w h i c h makes s e l f -

r e s p e c t d e p e n d u p o n h a v i n g a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n o r

i n c o m e , a r e t h a t many p e o p l e a r e d e p r i v e d o f s e l f -

r e s p e c t . C o m p u l s i v e a d j u s t m e n t t o s u c h d e p r i v a t i o n may

b e o n e o f s e v e r a l t y p e s : c o m p u l s i v e a c h i e v e m e n t o r d o m i n a n c e :

a g r e s s i o n ; r i t u a l i s m e t c . , a n y o n e o f w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s a

s o u r c e o f i n s t a b i l i t y .

I n r e p l y t o B r e d e m e i e r , D a v i s w r i t e s , "One c r i t i c

f e e l s t h a t t h e o n l y way t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n a c t i o n

c a n s e r v e t o e x p l a i n i t s p e r s i s t e n c e i s by t h e a c t o r s

p e r c e i v i n g t h e p o s s i b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s and g u i d i n g h i s

b e h a v i o u r a c c o r d i n g l y . To v i s u a l i z e t h e u n r e c o g n i z e d

s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n a c t i o n a s l e a d i n g by t h e i r

u n r e c o g n i z e d e f f e c t o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s , t o t h e c o n t i n u o u s

r e i n f o r c e m e n t o r m i n i m i z a t i o n o f t h a t a c t i o n i n s o c i e t y

i s t o o much a g a i n s t t h e g r a i n o f o r d i n a r y d i s c o u r s e , I1 1

D a v i s f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s e s B r e d e m e i e r ' s a p p r o a c h a s

" u t i l i t a r i a n t t ; b u t a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r c l e a r l y a d o p t s

s u c h a n a p p r o a c h w h e r e h e s t a t e s one c o n d i t i o n f o r a

t r a n s i t i o n f r o m " f u n c t i o n o f x " t o " c a u s e o f x , " i s

t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a w a r e n e s s and p u r p a s e f u l i n s t i t u t i o n

o f t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f x , D a v i s u n d e r - r a t e s

t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f B r e d e m e i e r l s r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e

Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t .

S r e d e m e i e r s t a t e s t h a t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s

n o t b e c a u s e i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r s o c i e t y a r e p e r c e i v e d

by t h e a c t o r s , ( w h i c h would b e a u t i l i t a r i a n e x p l a n a t i o n ) :

r a t h e r , t h e i d e a o f l a t e n t f u n c t i o n i s r e t a i n e d . The

p u r p o s e s t h e a c t o r s h a v e i n mind a r e t r e a t e d a s n o t

n e c e s s a r i l y i n c l u d i n g t h e s e c o n s e q u e n c e s , b l ~ t a s b e i n g

p a r t o f t h e mechanism by w h i c h s o c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s

a r e m e t . T h u s , B r e d e m e i e r ' s r e t e n t i o n o f t h e conlzept

o f l a t e n t f u n c t i o n means t h a t h e c o m n l c t ~ ~ r a t h e r t h a n

1. K . D a v i s , The Myth of F u n c t i o n a l A n a l y s i s , o p . c l t . , p . 3 9 3 .

r e w l a c e s t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t . i

I n c o n c l u s i o n , c r i t i c s r a i s e some s i g n i f i c a n t

o b j e c t i o n s t o D a v i s and M o o r e ' s f u n c t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n

b u t t h e m a j o r a t t e m p t t o r e s t a t e ; h e a r y u n e n t i n t e r m s

o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n d i v i d u a l i s m d o e s

n o t d e p a r t f u n d a m e n t a l l y f rom t h e a u t h o r s 1 f u n c t i o n a l

p r e m i s e s . I n r e p l y t o h i s c r i t i c s , D a v i s t r i e s t o j u s t i f y

f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s a s e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r t o s o c i o l o g y

i n g e n e r a l . S o c i o l o g y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e " s y s t e m -

mode o f r e a s o n i n g , " w h i c h , h e c l a i m s , " a n y s c i e n c e "

e m p l o y s . The b a s i c d i s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n c r i t i c s and

p r o p o n e n t s , c o n c e r n s t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c

e x p l a n a t i o n a s a p p l i e d t o human s o c i e t i e s , t h e l a t t e r

a d h e r i n g t o t h e " s y s t e m - a p p r o a c h " t h e f o r m e r t o t h a t o f

g e n e r a l c a u s a l l a w s . The d i s a g r e e m e n t h e r e i s u l t i m a t e l y

a c o n f l i c t o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a x i o m s , and d o e s n o t a p p e a r

t o b e g e n e r a t e d by a c o n r l i c t o f p o l i t i c a l p e r s p e c i i v e s .

Thus Mannhe imTs s u g g e s t i o n t h a t a body o f i n t e l l e c t u a l

k n o w l e d g e may b e a n a l y s e d e n t i r e l y i n t e r m s o f e x t r i n s i c

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n mus t b e m o d i f i e d . A t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e con-

t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e Davis-Moore a r g l ~ m e n t c a n o n l y

b e i n t e r p r e t e d on a n " immanent" b a s i s .

1. A s R.P. D o r e p o i n t s o u t i n " F u n c t i o n and " C a u s e , " op . c i t . , B r e d e m e i e r u n d e r m i n e s t h e a r g u m e n t p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r t h a t c a u s a l e x l a n a t i o n s i n f u n c t i o n a l t e r m s c a n o n l y b e g i v e n v i a a 7 m o t i v e s and b ) e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y .

C h a p t e r V

THE SOCIAL ORIGINS OF THE CONTROVERSY

I n t h i s c h a p t e r we d i s c u s s i n i t s w i d e r s o c i a l

c o n t e x t t h e i d e o l o g i c a l b i a s m a n i f e s t i n t h e c o n t r o v e r s y

s u r r o u n d i n g t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t . I n i t s w i d e s t

c o n t e x t , we s h a l l r e v i e w t h e m a j o r l i n e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t

o f A m e r i c a n C,hought t h r o u g h t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s of t h e

t w e n t i e t h c e n t ~ r y t o t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , p o i n t i n g o u t

w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e , t h o s e f a c t o r s , i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l t o

A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y w h i c h a p p e a r t o h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y

i n f l u e n c e d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n . The

c o n t e n z and s c o p e o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t w h i c h

a p p e a r s t o h a v e i n i a t e d and s u s t a i n e d a l a r g e a r e a of t h e

c o n t r o v e r s y , i s g i v e n a new d i m e n s i o n o f mean ing i n a

n a r r o w e r c o n t e x t , when ~ ~ i e w e d a s r e p r e s e n - t a t i v e o f c e r t a i n

t r e n d s of i n t e l l e c t u a l p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t i n t h e p o s t - w a r

p e r i o d . T h u s , t h e Davis-Moore a r g u m e n t , w h i c h we showed

t o b e a n i m p l i c i t l y c o n s e r v a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i -

c a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i t s u n q u a l i f i e d p r e s e n t a t i o n i n

1 9 4 5 , i s r e p r e s e n - t a t i v e o f t h e p o s t - w a r c o n s e r v a t i v e r e a c t i o n

b y t h e b u s i n e s s communi ty and c o n s e r v a t i v e c r i t i c s , and

more g e n e r a l l y b y t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c , t o t h e e x t r e m e

r a d i c a l i s m o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s , and

t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t r a p p r o c h e m e n t w i t h g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e

New D e a l r e f o r m s . The a b s e n c e o f a n i m m e d i a t e c o u n t e r -

a t t a c k by s o c i o l o g i s t s who e s p o u s e d a more l i b e r a l v i e w

o f s t r a t i f i e d i n e q u a l i t i e s , a n d t h e f a c t t h a t when

t h e c o u n t e r - a t t a c k was made i n t h e e a r l y f i f t i e s ,

i t was e s s e n t i a l l y o f a d e f e n s i v e n a t u r e and was p r e -

s e n t e d o n a n u n r e s d v e d i d e o l o g i c a l b a s i s , a r e s y m p t o m a t i c

of t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o c o n s e r v a -

t i v e c r i t i c i s m f o r p a s t a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h r a d i c a l s ; a s s o c i - t :

a t i o n s w h i c h l i b e r a l s t h e m s e l v e s came t o r e g r e t . The

l a c k o f a v i g o r o u s r e s p o n s e i s i n d i c a t i v e a l s o o f t h e

d e s p a i r o f many l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s of a new r a p p r o c h e -

ment w i t h g o v e r n m e n t , s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e P r o g r e s s i v e

p e r i o d , o r t o t h a t o f t h e New D e a l e r a , whereby t h e i r

p o l i t i c a l p r o p o s a l s c o u l d t o some d e g r e e b e i m p l e m e n t e d .

The i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e o f t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s i n

Amer ica was g e n e r a l l y ore o f e x t r e m e r a d i c a l i s m and was

a n ou tcome o f t h e e s t r a n g e m e n t f r o m t h e i r c o u n t r y f e l t

by m o s t Amer ican i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e t w e n t i e s . The o v e r -

a l l c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n h a d i n t h e t w e n t i e s b e e n o n e o f

r e v o l t ; i n t e l l e c t u a l s had a s s a i l e d p o l i t i c l n . 1 ~ and

b u s i n e s s m e n f o r t h e i r p e r s o n a l and c u l t u r a l i n a d e q u a c i e s

( a s i n t h e d i a t r i b e s o f H.L. Mencken) w h e r e a s i n t h e

e a r l i e r P r o g r e s s i v e e r a t h e y had a t t a c k e d t h e concen-

t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h and power a s inimitable t o i n d i v i d u a l

l i b e r t y . They had b e e n e x c l u d e d f r o m p o l i t i c a l l i f e

by t h e r e t u r n t o power of a s t r o n g c o n s e r v a t i v e l e a d e r -

s h i p w h i c h d i s s o l v e d t h e i n 5 e l l e c t u a l s t b r i e f r a p p r o c h e -

ment w i t h g o v e r n m e n t , and a i s o by p u b l i c r e a c t i o n , a g a i n s t

Woodrow W i l s o n f o r h i s a d v o c a c y o f t h e war and t h r o u g h

whom i n t e l l e c t u a l s r e c e i v e d w i d e n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n i n

t h e I n q u i r y o f 1 9 1 9 . Even i n t h e P r o g r 2 s s i v e e r a , t h e

r a p p r o c h e m e n t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s w i t h government h a d b e e n

s h o r t - l i v e d ; m o r e o v e r , b e f o r e t h e I n q u i r y , when a l a r g e

q r o u p o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s a c t i n g a s a d v i s o r s accompanied

W i l s o n t o P a r i s f o r t h e d r a f t i n g o f t h e P e a c e T r e a t i e s ,

i n t e l l e c t u a l s had n o t b e e n u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y t o a s i i s t

g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s . T h e o d o r e R o o s e v e l t , f o r e x a m p l e ,

c o n s i d e r e d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h government

i m p o r t a n t and a t t r a c t e d many i n t o p u b l i c s e r v i c e , b u t t o

q u o t e H o f s t a d t e r , h e , "embodied t h e Amer ican p r e f e r e n c e f o r

c h a r a c t e r o v e r i n t e l l e c t i n p o l i t i c a l l i f e . " l A f t e r t h e

e l e c t i o n o f 1 9 1 2 , Woodrow W i l s o n , who had b e e n P r e s i d e n t

o f P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y f r o m 1 9 0 2 t o 1 9 1 0 , d i d n o t r e a l l y

make u s e o f t h e many i n t e l l e c t u a l s who s u p p o r t e d him.

O n l y u n d e r t h e p r e s s u r e o f war i n 1 9 1 6 , w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n

o f s u c h a g e n c i e s a s t h e M i l i t a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e , C h e m i c a l

W e l f a r e and War I n d u s t r i e s B o a r d , d i d W i l s o n amend h i s

a t t i t u d e .

A f t e r t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h i s s h o r t - l i v e d r a p p r o c h e -

m e n t , and p a r t l y a s a r e a c t i o n t o i t , some i n t e l l e d u a l s i n

t h e t w e n t i e s e x p a t r i a t e d t h e m s e l v e s ; o t h e r s became e s t r a n g e d

f r o m p o l i t i c a l l i f e , d e s p i s i n g i t a s con:ormist , c o n s e r v a -

t i v e and m a t e r i a l i s t i c . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n

f r o m t h e b u s i n e s s community was d r a m a t i z e d by t h e S a c c o -

V a n z e t t i c a s e o f 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 2 7 , and i n 1 9 2 9 r e i n f o r c e d by

t h e S t o c k M a r k e t C r a s h .

I t was i n t h i s c o n t e x t o f a n i n c r e a s i n g e s t r a n g e m e n t

f r o m Amer ican p o l i t i c a l and economic l i f e , t h a t i n t h e

e a r l y t h i r t i e s a l a r g e m i n o r i t y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s became

1. R. H o f s t a d t e r , A n t i - I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m i n Amer ican L i f e , New Y o r k : A l f r e d A . Knopf , ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 208.'

i m p r e s s e d by S o v i e t a c h t e v e m e n t s i n economic p l a n n i n g and

t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e . They a d o p t e d t h e S o v i e t 'Union a s

a mode l f o r t h e r e f o r m o f t h e i r own s o c i e t y . Some

e n t e r e d t h e Communist P a r t y . Many l e a d i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,

e . g . J o h n Dos P a s s o s and o t h e r s v o t e d f o r t h e Communist

P a r t y i n 1 9 3 2 . But t h i s was t h e " p o l i t i c s o f d e s p a i r , " 1

t o u s e E . D igby B a l t z e l l ' s p h r a s e . Few o f t h o s e who

j o i n e d t h e Communist P a r t y , h o w e v e r , w e r e t o w i t h s t a n d

t h e , " s t u l t i f y i n g r i g o r s o f P a r k y d i s c i p l i n e , " and a f t e r

t h e 1934 e l e c t i o n , 7 , 0 0 0 members, ( o n e t h i r d o f t h e p a r t y

m e m b e r s h i p ) r e s i g n e d . The w h o l e i n + e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e o f

t h e t h i r t i e s was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e New D e a l e f f o r t s t o

c h a n g e t h e e c o n o m i c and c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t $ h r o u g h

l e g i s l a t i o n t o w a r d s more e q u a l c o n d i t i o n s . But i n t h e

f i r s t p e r i o d o f t h e New D e a l ( 1 9 3 2 - 3 5 ) mos t i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,

b e i n g c o m m i t t e d t o c e n t r a l p l a n n i n g a s t h e m a j o r means o f

s o c i a l c h a n g e - f o r t h e r a d i c a l s t o b e accompanied by

r e v o l u t i o n and t h e " d i c t a J i . o r s h i p o f t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , "

and f o r t h e l a r g e r g r o u p o f l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o b e

s e t w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s - c o n s i d e r e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s m e a s u r e s t o b e , " f r a n k e x p e r i -

m e n t a t i o n , " w i t h i n o r t h o d o x i n s t i t u t i o n s and u n d i r e c t e d

by a c l e a r i d e o l o g y .

J o h n Dewey 's s t a t e m e n t i n , " L i b e r a l i s m and S o c i a l

A c t i o n , " ( 1 9 3 5 ) , i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h i s mood.

l lExper imen- ta l . irlethod, " h e w r o t e , " i s n o t just m e s s i n g

1. E . Digby B a l t z e l l , The P r o t e s t a n t E s t a b l i s h m e n t , New Y o r k : V i n t a g e Rooks , ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 262 .

a r o u n d n o r d o i n g a l i t t l e o f t h i s and a l i t t l e o f t h a t

i n t h e h o p e t h i n g s w i l l i m p r o v e . J u s t a s i n t h e p h y s i c a l

s c i e n c e s , it i m p l i e s a c o h e r e n t body o f i d e a s , a t h e o r y

t h a t g i v e s d i r e c t i o n t o e f f o r t . " He c r i t i c i z e d R o o s e v e l t l s

p r a g n a t i c a p p r o a c h t o p o l i t i c s . " ' R e f o r m s ' t h a t d e a l now

w i t h t h i s a b u s e a n d ncw w i t h t h a t w i t h o u t h a v i n g a s o c i a l

g o a l b a s e d upon a p l a n , d i f f e r e n " i r e 1 y f r o m e f f o r t a t

r e - f o r m i n g i n i t s l i t k r a l s e n s e , t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l

scheme o f t h i n g s . " C e n t r a l s o c i a l p l a n n i n g was u r g e d

a s , " th ' e s o k m e i - h o d o f s o c i a l a c t i o n by w h i c h l i b e r a l i s m

c a n r e a l i z e i t s p r o f e s s e d a i m s . "

Amer ican i n z e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s w e r e

more r a d i c a l i n t h e r e f o r m s t h e y u r g e d , t h a n t h o s e o f t h e

New D e a l i n i t s f i r s t p e r i o d , y e t , i r o n i c a l l y , i n t e l l e c t u a l s

came t o s u p p o r t t h e New D e a l a f t e r 1 9 3 6 , when governmen;

m e a s u r e s w e r e more c o n s e r v a t i v e i n e m p h a s i s . L a t e r we

s h a l l examine t h e m a j o r f a c t o r s w h i c h l e d t o t h i s modera-

t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s m .

The d o m i n a n t i d e a s o f r a d i c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s w e r e

f r e q u e n ~ l y t a k e n u p f r o m t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , a s d e v e l o p e d

by J o h n Dewey, W i l l i a m J a m e s , C h a r l e s A . B e a r d , T h o r s t e i n

V e b l e n , L.H. C o o l e y , e t c . Dewey 's e m p h a s i s o n t h e

p l a s t i c i t y o f human n a t u r e t o e x p r e s s i t s e l f f u l l y ,

u n f e t t e r e d 5 y t h e h a r m f u l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f c o m p e t i t i v e ,

b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e , "l was s h a r e d by many i n ? e l l e c t u a l s

1. I b i d . , p . 2 6 8 .

i n t h e 3 0 ' s . The p r e m i s e s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r m i n i s m

w e r e e v i d e n t i n many a r e a s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t ,

v i z . t h e o r i e s o f c r i m e , l a w , r e l i g i o n and t h e a r t s .

R a d i c a l s a t t r i b u t e d i m p o r t a n c e t o s u c h books a s "Das

K a p i t a l " ( f i r s t E n g l i s h E d i t i o n , i886), t h e " G o l d e n

Bough, I t ( 1 8 9 0 ) and Edward B e l l a m y l s " L o o k i n g Backward, I '

However , a n y s t a t e m e n t o f t h e r a d i c a l i s m o f i n t e l L 2

l e c t u a l s i s s u b j e c t t o many q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h

many i n t e l l e c t u a l s e x p r e s s e d a c o n c e r n f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l

r e f o r m , f e w c o u l d b e t e r m e d M a r x i s t . T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d

by t h e r e v i v a l o f B e l l a m y l s " L o o k i n g Backward. I t I n i t ,

t h e a u t h o r v i s u a l i z e d a u t o p i a n w o r l d , r u n by e x p e r t s

i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a l l r a t h e r t h a n f o r t h e p r o f i t s of

a f ew. B i g g e r and b e t t e r consumer g o o d s . would b e

i n c r e a s i n g l y i n s u p p l y , b u t a b o v e a l l , t h e u t o p i a was

t o a l l o w men t o e x p r e s s t h e i r n a t u r a l l y co-opera t ive

v i r t u e s . W h i l e t h i s u t o p i a , " o u t - s o c i a l i z e d t h e s o c i a l i s t s , "

t o q u o t e t h e a u t h o r , i t s g r a d u a l a d v e n t was t o b e w i t h o u t

r e v o l u t i o n o r c l a s s w a r . M a r x 1 s i d e a s g a i n e d a new-

f o u n d p o p u l a r i t y amongs t Amer ican i n t e l l e c t u a l s . But

i t was t h e l i t e r a r y i n t e l l e c t u a l s ( f o r e x a m p l e , J o h n Dos

1. When i n 1 9 3 5 , C h a r l e s A . 8 e a r d , J o h n Dewey and Edward Weeks o f t h e A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y , i n d e p e n d e n t l y s e l e c t e d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b o o k s o f t h e l a s t h a l f - c e n t u r y , t h e s e t h r e e w e r e c h o s e n .

2 . T . B . 3 o t t o m o r e , C r i t i c s o f S o c i e t y , New Y o r k : P a n t h e o n Books I n c . , ( 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 37.

P a s s o s , . ~ J a m e s F a r r e l l , J o h n S t e i n b e c k e t c . ) r a t h e r t h a n

s o c i a l t h e o r i s t s , who i n c o r p o r a t e d them i n t o t h e i r 1

w r i t i n g s . Whereas Dos P a s s o s i n "LT.S.&. T r i l o g y "

w r o t e a b o u t t h e e v i l s o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m , s o c i a l

t h e o r i s t s , B e r l e anid Means a d v o c a t e d a s y s t e m o f

"managed c a p t i a l i s m " i n " t h e Modern C o r p o r a t i o n and

P r i v a t e P r o p e r t y , " ( 1 9 3 2 ) . I n t h i s s y s t e m t h e economy

would b e r e g u l a t e d by t h e s t a t e , and i n t h i s r e g u l a t i o n ,

a r e s p o n s i b l e b u s i n e s s community s h o u l d p l a y a l e a d i n g

p 2 r t .

The Lynds ' s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d y , "Midd le town i n

T r a n s i t i o n , " was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e " r a d i c a l i s m " o f

s o c i a l t h e o r i s t s . The L y n d s ' o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n t o

document f u r t h e r s o c i a l c h a n g e s of c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n

t o t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e had b e e n a b a n d o n e d , f o r a n

a n a l y s i s o f c l i s s s t r u c t u r e and d y n a s t i c power , n e i t h e r

o f w h i c h had b e e n p r o m i n e n t i n t h e e a r l i e r s t u d y .

A l t h o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s was i n f l u e n c e d t o some d e g r e e by

Marx and V e b l e n , i t was c l e a r l y n o t M a r x i s t i n I t s

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e w o r k e r t o t h e m u t u a l

m i s t r u s t b e t w e e n , " t h e b u s i n e s s c l a s s , " and " z k w o r k i n g

c l a s s , " was l a r g e l y a n i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e f o r e a c h

w o r k e r and was n o t , " g e n e r a l i z e d by him i n t o a c l a s s

e x p e r i e n c e . "

The L y n d s ' s t u d y d i d , however c o n s t i t u t e a b r e a k

w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e m o t e n e s s of A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y

1. P u b l i s h e d b e t w e e n 1930 a n d 1 9 3 6 .

f r o m p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s t r u g g l e s . The E c o l o g i c a l

S c h o o l , p a r t i c u l a r l y , e schewed t h e p o l i t i c a l i n t h e i r

s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e r e v o l t o f t h e

t w e n t i e s : A l t h o u g h t h e r e had b e e n d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

a t t h e U n L v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , i n t o a w i d e r a n g e o f

p u b l i c p r o b l e m s , r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s had b e e n d e v o i d o f

c r i t i c a 1 , m o r a l and p o l i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n

s o c i e t y . The " s c i e n t i f i c " e x p l a n a t i o n s o f s o c i e t y

i n t e r m s o f " n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s , " w h i c h w e r e t h o u g h t

t o u n d e r l y t h e human w i l l , w e r e i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e

g e n e r a l v i e w o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s of t h e i n e f f i c a c y o f

p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t w e n t i e s .

The r a d i c a l i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m i t t m e n t s o f many

i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s s t i m u l a t e d a n

u n p r e c e d e n t e d s e n s i t i v i t y , n o t a b l y by t h e L y n d s , t o

i n e q u a l i t i e s o f i n c o m e , s t a t u s and power , a n a w a r e n e s s

w h i c h was c o n t i n u e d i n l a t e r y e a r s by L loyd W a r n e r ' s

s t u d i e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , and J o h n

D o l l a r d t s " C a s t e and C l a s s i n a S o u t h e r n Town. '

The L y n d s t s t u d y , h o w e v e r , was h a r d l y t y p i c a l of

s o c i o l o g y i n t h e t h i r t i e s . The i d e a s of E u r o p e a a

s a c i o l o g i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y , o f t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w i t h c l a s s

s t r u c t u r e and c l a s s c o n f l i c t s u c h a s Marx, Weber, S o m b a r t ,

P a r e t o and Mannheim, w e r e o n l y b e g i n n i n g t o b e known

a t t h i s t ime, and d i d n o t p e n e t r a t e w i d e l y i n t o

A m e r i c a n sociological t h e o r y o r r e s e a r c h . O n l y L a c s w e l l

and P a r s o n s t o o k u p c o n c e p t s f r o m E u r o p e a n s o c i o l o g y ,

( t h e l a t t e r i n s o c i a l t h e o r y a l o n e , t h e f o r m e r i n

b o t h t h e o r y and e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h ) , b u t b o t h w e r e i n

d i f f e r e h t ways more c o n c e r n e d w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l

and s o c i a l o r d e r t h a n s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y and c o n f l i c t .

Mannheim's comment i n 1 9 3 2 , was l a r g e l y a p p l i c a b l e t o

A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y .

" A m e r i c a n C u d i e s s t a r t f r o m q u e s t i o n s i n n o w i s e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h o s e p r o b l e m s w h i c h a r 3 u s e o u r p a s s i o n s i p e v e r y d a y p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s t r u g g l e . "

The e m e r g e n c e o f r a d i c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t

c o m m i t t e d t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a s a mode l f o r r e f o r m ,

was a c c o m p a n i e d by a " s t r i c t l y n a t i v e b r a n d o f r a d i c a l 2

t h o u g h t . " The l a t t e r was a n a f f i r m a t i o n o n t h e p a r t

o f a l m o s t a l l A m e r i c a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s , e x c e p t f e l l o w -

t r a v e l l e r s , o f t h e P r o g r e s s i v e - L i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n . Some

o f t h e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s , s u c h a s p a t r i a r c h s J o h n Dewey

and C h a r l e s A . B e a r d , d e v e l o p e d a n a r t i c u l a t e body

o f l i b e r a l o p i n i o n h o s t i l e t o t h e d u a l d e s p o t i s m s o f

Communism and F a s c i s m . O t h e r s e x t e n d e d a more s y m p a t h e t i c

r e j e c t i o n o f Communism, s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e e d i t o r s o f t h e

N a t i o n and t h e New R e p u b l i c , who t e n d e d

Communism more f a v o u r a b l y t h a n F a s c i s m ,

t o e v a l u a t e

b u t r e j e c t e d t h e

1. K a r l Mannheim, "Amer ican S o c i o l o g y , " f r o m E s s a y s i n S o c i o l o g y and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , b y K a r l Mannheim, e d i t e d by P a u l K e c s k e m e t i , London: R o u t l e d g e and Kegan P a u l L t d . , ( 1 9 5 3 ) , Chap. 4 , p p . 185-94 .

2 . o p . c i t . , E . D igby B a l t z e l l , The P r o t e s t a n t E s t a b l i s h - m e n t , p . 267.

f o r m e r on p r a g m a t i c g r o u n d s , v i z . a s l a r g e l y i n a p p l i c a b l e

t o t h e Amer ican s i t u a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n on m o r a l g r o u n d s .

The e x t r e m e r e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p e r a t i v e o f r a d i c a l

t h o u g h t s h i f t e d a f t e r 1 9 3 6 , m a i n l y d u e t o r a d i c a l s '

s u p p o r t o f t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t w h i c h p u t o f f i n d e f i n i t e l y

t h e c a l l t o r e v o l u t i o n , and ended a f t e r 1 9 3 6 i n t n e 1

"domain o f e i t h e r - o r . " T h e i r a d h e r e n c e t o t h e

e i t h e r - o r a b s t r a c t i o n s of p u r e s o c i a l i s m o r t h e p r e s e r -

. . v a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m ( b y w h i c h t h e y m e a n t R o o s e v e l t

and t h e New D e a l m e a s u r e s ) i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a n a r t i c l e

f r o m t h e New R e ~ u b l i c i n 1 9 3 5 , w h i c h u r g e d ,

" e i t h e r t h e n a t i o n mus t p u t u p w i t h t h e c o n f u s i o n and m i s e r i e s o f a n u n r e g u l a t e d c a p i t a l i s m , o r i t mus t p r e p a r e t o s u p e r - c e d e c a p i t a l i s m w i t h s o c i a l i s m . T h e r e i s no l o n g e r a f e a g i b l e m i d d l e c o u r s e . "

A s i g n i f i c a n t abandonment o f i d e o l o g y i n t h e

s e c o n d h a l f of t h e t h i r t i e s , f a c i l i t a t e d s u p p o r t and

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n R o o s e v e l t ' s r e f o r m programmes, w h i c h

o n l y a f e w y e a r s e a r l i e r , had b e e n r e j e c t e d a s " a d h o c "

m e a s u r e s . C o s e r ' s comment t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l s no l o n g e r

f o u n d a c o n t r a d i c t i o n h e t w e e n w o r k i n g f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t 2

and w o r k i n g f o r r e f o r m , i s a p t . The e x t e n t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e

o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n g o v e r n m e n t h a s , h o w e v e r , b e e n o v e r - 3

e m p h a s i z e d s i n c e , a n d was e x a g g e r a t e d a t t h e t i m e .

1. A r t h u r M. S c h l e s i n g e r J r . , " S o u r c e s o f t h e New D e a l , " i n P a t h s o f A m e r i c a n T h o u g h t , by A . M . S c h l e s i n g e r J r . , a n d M. W h i t e , B o s t o n : Houghton M i f f l i n C o . , ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 3 8 9 .

2. L . A . C o s e r , Men o f I d e a s , A S o c i a l View, New York : The F r e e P r e s s , ( 1 9 6 5 ) , Chap. V I .

3. I b i d .

I n t e l l e c t u a l s were i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e government i n t h e

f i r s t New Deal w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e B r a i n s T r u s t

t o F.D.R. by Raymond Moley d u r i n g t h e e l e c t i o n

campaign of 1932. T h i s group of men, d i s t i n c t from

R o o s e v e l t l s e l e c t i o n s t a f f , were employed f o r t h e pur-

poses of r e s e a r c h and c o n s i s t e d of Moley, Rexfo rd ,

Tugwell and A . A . B e r l e . A f t e r t h e e l e c t i o n of

R o o s e v e l t t h e y came t o be known a s t h e most c o n s p i -

cuous of a l a r g e g roup of i n t e l l e c t u a l s a s s i s t i n g t h e

p u b l i c s e r v i c e . Many of t h e p r o p o s a l s and p l a n s of t h e s e

men ,sere t h w a r t e d ; moreover , t h e r e fo rm programme was

a t t h i s t ime g e n e r a l l y unsuppor t ed by l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s .

Dur ing t h e second p e r i o d of t h e New Dea l , t h e r e fo rm

measures were g i v e n a more c o n s e r v a t i v e emphas is , which

was g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d by American i n t e l l e c t u a l s .

The l i b e r a l " b r a i n s t r u s t e r s " f rom t h e Columbia U n i v e r s i t y

economics d e p a r t m e n t , were g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d by more

c o n s e r v a t i v e men from t h e Harvard Law Schoo l . These

men, who were i n s p i r e d by t h e d e c e n t r a l i z i n g p h i l o s p h y

of Lou i s D. B r a n d e i s , c a l l e d f o r a change of emphas is

from c e n t r a l i z e d p l a n n i n g t o a government - regu la t ed

r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of w e a l t h i n o r d e r t o g i v e g r e a t e r 1

comsuming power t o t h e mass of consumers.

Although by 1940, t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l rappochement

w i t h government had passed i t s peak , i n t e l l e c t u a l s and

1. E . Digby B a l t z e l l , The P r o t e s t a n t E s t a b l i s h m e n t , p .243.

e x p e r t s were r e q u i r e d d u r i n g t h e w a r - y e a r s t o s t a f f

s u c h a g e n c i e s a s t h e O f f i c e s of S t r a t e g i c S e r v i c e s ,

and t h e O f f i c e of S c i e n t i f i c R e s e a r c h Development .

I n summary, t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l r app rochemen t w i t h

government was t y p i c a l l y , a l a r g e g n u p o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s

and , e x p e r t s f rom d i v e r s e d i s c i p l i n s s ? a c t i n g i n a n

a d v i s o r y c a p a c i t y . I n t h e s e c a n d p e r i o d o f t h e New

D e a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s who a s s i s t e d t h e '

government c o l ~ l d b y no means b e t e rmed r e v o l u t i o n a r y

b u t , a l t e n a t e d f rom t h e a s s u m p t i o n s and o b j e c t i v e s o f

t h e b u s i n e s s community, t h e y s o u g h t t o r e f o r m t h e sy s t em. 1

The s t r o n g e s t c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e New Dea l r e f o r m s

e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r 1 9 3 6 , came f rom t h e b u s i n e s s community.

The a n t i p a t h y of b u s i n e s s m e n t o economic r e f o r m s was

e x p r e s s e d e a r l y i n t h e New D e a l a s i t s accus tomed power

and a u t h o r i t y , which had b e e n v i r t u a l l y un touched d u r i n g

t h e " y e a r s of i n a c t i o n " of Hoover and C o o l e r i d g e became

t h r e a t e n e d by i n c r e a s i n g f e d e r a l r e g u l a t i o n s . F o r

example , t h e S e c u r i t y and Exchange Act h o r r i f i e d t h e

p r e s i d e n t o f t h e New York S t o c k Exchange , R i c h a r d Whi tnay ,

who p r o t e s t e d t h a t America "had b e e n b u i l t on s p e c u l a t i o n . "

N e v e r t h e l e s s , d e s p i t e i n c r e a s i n g f e d e r a l r e g u l a t i o n t h e

m a j o r r e f o r m s o f t h e e a r l y y e a r s c e n t e r e d on t h e

N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l Recove ry Act wh ich , a s a n e x p e r i m e n t

i n c e n t r a l i z e d p l a n n i n g u n d e r t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p

1. L.A. C o s e r , o p . c i t . , p . 181 -2 .

of b i g b u s i n e s s and gove rnmen t , was s u p p o r t e d i f

r e l u c t a n t l y by many members o f t h e b l ~ s i n e s s community.

A f t e r t h e N . R . A . was d e c l a r e d u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

by t h e Supreme C o u r t , t h e New Dea l m e a s u r e s

t u r n e d f rom c e n t r a l i z e d p l a n ~ i n g t o a c o m p e n s a t i n g

economy v i z . t o a g o v e r n m e n t - r e g u l a t e d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f w e a l t h d e s i g n ? d . t o e n c o u r a g e t h e m a s s e s t o spend

r a t h e r t h a n t h e few t o s a v e . The more c o n s e r v a t i v e

e m p h a s i s of R o o s e v e l t T s r e f o r m programme was n o t

app roved b y t h e b u s i n e s s community, m a i n l y b e c a u s e

t h e y r e a l i z e d t h e c o s t l i n e s s o f t h e p r o p o s e d i n rome

and i n h e r i t a n c e t a x e s .

The L i b e r t y League , founded in 1 3 3 4 , was an

o r g a n i z e d e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l h o s t i l i t y o f t h e

b u s i n e s s community t o New Dea l r e f o r m s . The League

was d e v o t e d t o t h e d e f e n z e o f t h a , C o n s t i t u t i o n , t h e

p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e Amer ican Way of L i f e , f rom N I > W D e a l e r s ,

Communists and t h e " i n 2 v i t a b l e d i c t a t o r s h i p " o f F r a n k l i n

3. R o o s e v e l t . These i d e a s we re a r t i c u l a t e d i n a f l o o d o f

p a m p h l e t s e . g . "Government by B u s y b o d i e s , "and "The

Way D i c t a t o r s h i p s S t a r t , " and p r o v i d e d t h e most " c o n c i s e

summary o f c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t . . . . w r i t t e n i n

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , s i n c e t h e F e d e r a l i s t e r a . I I 1

The p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e L i b e r t y League w i t h

e i t h e r - o r a b s t r a c t i o n s rn2tched t h e p o l a r i z e d a l t e r n 3 t i v e s

1. E . Digby B a l t z e l l , o p . c i t . , p . 2 4 4 .

o f t h e e x t r e m e L e f t a f t e r 1936 . Fo r example, A 1 Smi th

a t t h e o p e n i n g of t h e 1936 campaign y e a r , t h e h e i g h t

o f t h e L e a g u e ' s c r u s a d e t o p r e s e r v e t h e American Way

of L i f e , a t t a c k e d t h e N3w Dea l a s Communist and u r g e d : -

" T k e r c a n o n l y b e one c a p i t a l , Washington o r Moscow. . . T h e r e c a n o n l y b e o n s f l a g , t h e S t a r s and S t r i p e s , o r t h e f l g of t h e g o d l e s s Union of t h e S o v i e t s . " 7

I t would be m i s t a k e n t o i m p l y t h a t t h e bus in l ? s s

community was "unanimous"2 i n i t s a n t i p a t h y t o t h e

New D e a l , f o r t h e L i b e r t y League had more p u b l i c i t y t h a n

f o l l o w e r s , w h i l s t a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n o f i t s f u n d s

f o r 1935 snd 1936 were c o n t r i b i ~ t e d by a s m a l l number of

b a n k e r s , i n d u s t r i a l i s t s and b u s i n e s s m e n , Moreover , some

bus in3s smen z l e a r l y s t o o d t o p r o f i t f rom a t t e m p t s t o

i n c r e a s e mass p u r c h a s i n g - p o w e r , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e

engaged i n t h e newer consumer and communicat ion b r a n c h e s

of i n d u s t r y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e a n t i p a t h y was s u f f i c i e n t l y

w i d e s p r e a d t o c a l l f o r t h t h i s s t a t e m e n t i n Time magaz ine ,

i n A p r i l , 1935 : -

" R e g a r d l e s s o f p a r t y and r e g a r d l e s s of r e g i o n t o d a y members of t h e s o - c a l l e d u p p e r c l a s s e s f r a n k l y h a t e R o o s e v e l t . "

I n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Fasc i sm

had b e e n a m a j o r s o u r c e o f c o n t e n t i o n f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l s

w h e t h e r r a d i c a l o r l i b e r a l . The f o r m e r h e l i e v e d i t t o b e a n

e x t e n s i o n of c a p i t a l i s m , t h e l a t t e r , o f whom t h e most

1. I b i d .

2 . T h i s c l a i m was made by F.D.R. i n h i s e l e c t i o n campaign o f 1936 .

a r t i c u l a t e was A l f r e d Bingham, maintained i t was a

m i s d i r e c t e d r e v o l t a g a i n s t c a p i t a l i s m . By 1935 , w i t h

t h e r i s e t o power o f F a s c i s m i n I t a l y and N2zism i n

Germany t h e d e s i r e t o o p p o s e i t o v e r - r o d e d i f f e r e n c e s

o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and l i b e r a l s and r a d i c a l s j o i n e d i n

s u p p o r t o f t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t . The l i b e r a l a l l i a n c e

w i t h r a d i c a l s was v i a b l e i n t e r m s o f t h e f o r m e r ' s

L e f t - R i g h t wor ld -v i ew . As R u s s i a was u n d e r a t t a c k

f rom N j t i o n a l S ~ c i a l i s m , and s i n c e S o v i e t i d e o l o g i c a l

ends o f s o c i a l i n 1 2 q u a l i t y we re t a k e n t o b e " p r o g r e s s i v e "

l i b e r a l s p l a c e d t h e S o v i e t Union on t h e L e f t a s opposed

t o t h e r e t r o g r e s s i v e and t o t a l i t a r i a n R i g h t .

The t r e n d t o w a r d s m o d e r a t i o n 9n t h e p a r t of l i b e r a l

i n t e l l e d u a l s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l v i ews of t h e

L i b e r t y League . The f o r m e r ' s r e l a t i v e abandonmen-:, of

i d e o l o g y was t h e ou tcome, f i r s t , o f t h e compromised

p o s i t i o n i n t e l l e c t u a l s we re t h rown i n t o a s a consequence

of t h e r i s e o f N a t i o n 3 1 S o c i a l i s m : The l i b e r a l commit t -

men-t t o c e n t r a l p l a n n i n g had b e e n oushed i n t o t h e back-

g round a s l i b e r a l s j o i n ? d r a d i c a l s i n t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t

d e f e n c e o f democracy . Second , t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e

P o p u l a r F r o n t w i t h t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e N < ~ z i - S o v i e t p a c t ,

s e r v e d t o unde rmine t h e i d e o l o g i c a l b a s i s of b o t h

r a d i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t . The P o p u l a r F r o n t

w i t h i t s b a s i c p r e m i s e o f a u n i o n o f " p r o g r e s s i v e s "

a g a i n s t Fa sc i sm i n c r e a s i n g l y l o s t s u p p o r t a f t e r r e a c h i n g

i t s c l i m a x i n t h e S p ~ n i s h C i v : l War. As t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n

a s p e c t s of t h e S o v i e t Union became a p p a r e n t , l a r g e l y

d u e t o t h e Moscow T r i a l s , t h e r e was a g c n e r a l r e t r e a t

f rom t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t and i n 1939, w i t h t h e s i g n i n g

o f t h e N a z i - S ~ v i e t p a c t i t c o l l a p s e d .

F o r t h e l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e

P o p u l a r F r o n t r e s u l t e d i n a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r

wor ld -v i ew v i z . t h e deve lopmen t of a l i b e r a l - c o n s e r -

v a t i v e d i cho tomy , opposed t o a l l fo rms o f t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m ,

L e f t o r R i g h t . The l i b e r a l s ' a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h r a d i c a l s

had b e e n v i a b l e i n t e r m s o f t h e f o r m e r ' s wor ld-v iew,

b u t w i t h t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t , and i n

t h e c o n t e x t of t h e g rowing d i m e n s i o n s of t h e Cold War,

t h e y showed a s i g n i f i c a n t abandonment o f p r o - r a d i c a l

s y m p a t h i e s .

Former s y m p a t h s i z e r s and f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s , s u c h

a s Vincen- t S h e e a n , Ra lph B 3 t e s and L o u i s F i s c h e r ,

r enounced t h e Sov ie t -N i i z i p a c t and t h e New Communist

p o l i c i e s . To some e x t e n t sympathy f o r t h e S o v i e t Union

was r e v i v e d by h e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e A l l i e s d u r i n g t h e

s econd World War, b u t w i t h t h e a d v e n t of t h e S o l d War

i n t h e l a t e 4 0 t s , Communism was r enounced a s h o s t i l e t o

democracy .

A f t e r t h e Second World War t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e mood

became more g e n e r a l i z e d . One i n d i c a t i o n .sf t h i s i s t h e

p o p u l a r i t y which was a c c o r d e d H a y e k ' s "The Road t o

S e r f d o m , " i n w h i c h & e a u t h o r a r g u e d t h a t t h e i d e a s of

c e n t r a l economic p l a n ~ i n g w h e t h e r l i b e r a l , Naz i , s o c i a l i s t

o r Communist, l e d i n e v i t a b l y t o t o t a l i t a r i a n s e r fdom.

The book was h a i l e d by an t i -New Dea l p u b l i c a t i o n s ,

bough t i n quan ' i t y by a number of American c o r p o r a t i o n s ,

and r a p i d l y became a b e s t - s e l l e r . D e s p i t e H a y e k ' s

p r o t e s t a t i o n , " t h a t h e d i d n o t w i s h t o be a spokesman

f o r any p o l i t i c a l g r o u p , " ' h e found h e had g i v e n t h e

f i r s t i n t e l l e c t u a l a r t i c u l a t i o n t o t h e American

c o n s e r v a t i v e mood.

The p o s t - w a r c o n s e r v a t i v e mood was i n p a r t a

r e s p o n s e t o t h e r e c o v e r y o f c a p i t a l i s m b o t h i n America

and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y : The U.S.A. and S o v i e t R u s s i a emerged

f rom t h e second World War a s t h e o n l y two wor ld powers .

The U.S.A., t h r o u g h t h e M a r s h a l l P l a n , implemented i n

1946 , and p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t r e f i n a n c e d and a i d e d t h e

r e c o v e r v o f European i n d u s t r i a l c e n t r e s and J a p ~ n , on

c a p i t a l i s t l i n l l s , t o mee t t h e t h r e a t of S o v i e t Communist

t a k e o v e r s . Thus , t h e p a s t - w a r c o n s e r v a t i v e mood i n

America was a r e s p o n s e t o t h e r e c o v e r y o f c a p i t a l i s m

a t home and a b r o a d , f o r A m e r i c a n , c a p i t a l i s m was now

s e e n a s t h e o n l y v i a b l e a l t e r n q t i v e t o t h e t h r e a t of

S o v i e t Communism.

F o l l o w i n g t h e 1946 e l e c t i o n t o Congre s s o f R e p u b l i c a n s ,

many R e p u b l i c a n s l e d by S e n a t o r R o b e r t T a f t , p r o c e d e d

t o a t t a c k t h e New D e a l L e g i s l a t i o n . The Democrat

Truman had b e e n more f a v o u r a b l e t o b i g b u s i n e s s t h a n

R o o s e v e l t had b e e n , a l t h o u g h h e endeavoured t o m a i n t a i n

1. E r i c F . Goldman, The C r u c i a l Decade: America 1945-1955. New York : A l f r e d A , Knopf , (19%), p . 8.

t h e New Dea l o r i e n t a t i o n t o g o v e r n m e n t a l i n t e r v e n t i c n

i n f a v o u r o f l o w e r income g r o u p s . The R e p u b l i c a n C o n g r e s s

p a s s e d t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y Act t h e r e b y weakening t h e power

of u n i o n s and p r o c e e d e d t o r e d u c e income t , axes f o r

upp3r - income g r o u p s . I n t h e New R e ~ u b l i c came t h e

f o l l o w i n g comment: - m T h i s C o n g r e s s b r o u g h t back a n a t m o s p h e r e you had f o r g o t t e n o r n3ve r t h o u g h t p o s s i b l e . . . v i c t o r i e s f o u g h t and won y e a r s ago were s u d d e n l y i n d o u b t . E v e r y t h i n g was d e b a t a b l e a g a i n . !'

T u r n i n g now t o t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y u n d e r

e x a m i n a t i o n , we c o n s i d e r Dav i s and Moore ' s i m p l i c i t l y

c o n s e r v a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f s t r a t i f i e d i n e q u a l i t i e s ,

p r e s e n t e d i n 1 9 4 5 , t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f p o s t - w a r

c o n s e r v a t i v e r e a c t i o n t o t h e New Dea l r e f o r m s , p a r t i -

c u l a r l y t h o s e d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e t h e s c a l e of p r e v a i l i n g

economic i n e q u a l i t i e s by g o v e r n m e n t - r e g l ~ l a t e d r e d i s t r i -

b u t i o n of w e a l t h t h r o u g h t a x l e g i s l a t i o n . Moreove r ,

t h e Davis-Moore a rgument i s n o t o n l y c l e a r l y a n t i -

t h e t i c a l t o t h e e g a l i t a r i a n i d e a l s of most American

l i b e r a l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e t h i r t i e s , b u t i s i n l a r k e d c o n t r a s t

t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t man and s o c i e t y which domina t ed

t h e r a d i c a l c l i m a t e of t h o u g h t i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e o f s o c i o l o g y

d u r i n g t h e t h i r t i e s , D a v i s and M o o r e ' s s o c i o l o g i c a l

a p p r o a c h i s e x p l i c i t l y n o n - e v a l u a t i v e and n o n - p o l i t i c a l .

1. E.F. Goldman, o p . c i t . , p . 5 7 .

Thus t h e y s t a t e t h e i r c c n c e r n i s w i t h " s c i e n t i f i c

e x p l a n a t i o n s " of known f a c t s a b o u t a l l s o c i e t i e s , n o t

w i t h how s o c i e t i e s , " o u g h t t o b e r e fo rmed . ' ' T h e i r

emphas i s on t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of one dominant i n s t i t u -

t i o n , s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , c o n t r a s t s , .w i th t h e committment of . .

i n ? e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s , t o r a d i c a l r e f o r m of

t h e e n t i r e s o c i a l s y s t e m based on e g a l i t a r i a n a s s u m p t i o n s ,

and w i t h t h e commit tment o f most i n t e l l e c t u a l s a f t e r 1936,

t o R o o s e v e l t ' s g o v e r n m e n t - r e g u l a t e d tax-distrib- tio on

p r o p o s a l s t o r e f o r m economic i n e q u a l i t i e s . The o p p o s i t i o n

Sy 3 a v i s and Mo3re t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e f o r m i s i l l u s t r a t e d

by t h e i r emphas i s on t h e u n c h a n g i n g , " i n d i s p e n s a b l e "

i t e m s of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . F u r t h e r , t ,hey assume t h e

r a t i o n 2 1 c a l c u l . a t i o n of s e l f - i n t e r e s t t o be a permanent

f e a t u r e of h;.~man . n o t i v a t i o n . 'This a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t man,

i . n . t h a t h ~ wil .1. n o t u n d e r t a k e i m p o r t a n t , e x a c t i n ?

poc;i t i o n s o r a c q u i r c s p e c i a l i z e d kngwledgo, u n l e s s

i n d u c e d t o do s o by t , he o f f e r o f d i f f e r e n t i a l r e w a r d s ,

c o n t r a s t s marked ly w j t h t h e v i e w of i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e

t h i r t i e s , + h a % man i s n a t u r a l - l y v t r t u o u s and c o - o p e r a t i v e .

I n 1.945 t h e U . S . j o i n e d t h e ' r n l t e d N;~t . ions and a s

% h e d i f f i c u l . t i e s i n - ~ o l v e d i n p e a c e f u l c o - o p e r a t i v e

r e l a t i o n s w i t h R u s s i a were r e v e a l e d , members o f t h e

American Communist P a z t y became i n c r e a s i n g l y f e a r e d

and suh:ject. t o c h a r g e s o f c o n s p i r a c y and " r ;>ason . I n t h e

-,ont,ox-t of t h i s general f e a r of S a v - i ~ t Communism, which

had begun i n 1939 ~ i i h t h e s i g n i n g of t h e N j z i - S o v i e t

p a c t a s t h ~ t o t a l j t a r i a n 2 s p e c t c o f S t a l i n ' s r u l e became

e v i d e n t , many i n t e l l e c t u a l s we re h e l d i n s u s p i c i o n

by t h e American p u b l i c and some..were d i s m i s s e d a s

e a r l y a s 1945 f rom u n i v e r s i t y p o s t s , f o r p d s t i n v o l v e -

ment w i t h N2w Dea l r e f o r m s . One s u c h c a s e was t h a t

of Homer R a i n e y who was d i s m i s s e d f r o n t h e p r e s i d e n c y o f

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas i n 1945 b e c a u s e of h i s "N'?w

D e a l i s h " o p i n i o n s , and i n s i s t e n c e on academic f r eedom

.The Truman a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o u g h t t o meet t h e Communist

t h r e a t w i t h a p o l i c y of d e f e n c e and c o n t a i n m e n t .

L i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s h a v i n g abandoned t h e i r f o r m e r

i d e o l o g i c a l commit tments h e l d , " l i b e r a l i s m . . . c a n n o t

meet t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m w i t h a n o p p o s i n g i d e o l o g y : i t

must be d e a l t w i t h on an ad hoc " p r s g m a t i c " r e a l i s t i c

b a s i s . " 1

L i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e f i f t i e s were i n no

p o s i t i o n t o r e t u r n b a t t l e t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t a c k s

of t h e McCarthy e r a . They h a d , a s H o f s t a d t e r p u t s i t ,

b e e n " c a u g h t o u t " by h i s t o r y .

"Some f o u r hund red l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s appended t h e i r s i g n ~ t u r e s t o a m a n i f e s t o denodnc ing t h e f a n t a s t i c f a l s e h o o d t h a t t h e U.S.S.R. and t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e s a r e b a s i c a l l y a l i k e , and d e s c r i b i n g t h e S o v i e t Union 3s a " b u l w a r k " o f p e a c e . r h i s docu- ment was r e p r o d u c e d i n The N a t i o n t h e week t h a t t h e H i t l e r - S t a l i n p a c t was s i g q e d . I n % e l l e c t u a l s t h u s c a u g h t o u t were n o t i n t h e b e s t h i s t o r i c a l , m o r a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n t o m k e a v i g o r o u s r e s p o n s e t o McCa r t h y i sm. I' 3

1. F rank A . Warren : L i b e r a l s and Communism. B looming ton : I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 230.

2 . R i c h a r d H o f s t a d t e r , o p . c i t . , p . 4 0 .

I n - t e l l e c t u a l s abandonled t h e i r i d e o l o g i c a l c o m n i t t m e n t s

of t h e P o p c l a r F r o n t p e r i o d w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t when t h e y

were mos t v u l n e r a b l e t o a t t a c k d u r i n g t h e McCarthy

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f communist i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t h e

u n i v e r s i t i e s , t h e y no l o n g e r had a v i a b l e p o l i t i c a l

p h i b a p h y i n t e r m s of which t o meet t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e

c o u n t e r - a t t a c k .

O n e i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e abandonment o f p r e v i o u s

i d e o l o g i c a l commit tments i s t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n 1 9 5 2

and 1 9 5 3 r e s p e c t i v e l y , of two books , by J o h n Kenne th

G a l b r a i t h ( " ~ m e r i c a n ? a p i t a l i s m l ' ) a n 3 David L i l l e n t h a l

( " ~ i g R u s i n ~ s s : A New E r a " ) . Both w r i t e r s had b e e n

i n - ~ o l v e d i n New Deql a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a g e n c i e s , b u t

b 9 t h now d e f e n d e d t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n i n d u s t r y and t h e

t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y p r o g r e s s i v e c h a r a c t e r o f l a r g e - s l ~ a l e

i n d u s t r i e s . The f a c t t h e i r d e p a r t u r e f rom t h e

P r o g r e s s i v e - L i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n o f American i n t e l l e c t u a l s

met w i t h no s i g n i f i c a n ? d e g r e e of p r o t e s t , and f rom

o t h e r w r i t e r s , s u g g e s t s t h a t " t h e an5 i -monopoly

s e n t i m e n t which was s o l o n g a t t h e h e a r t of P r o g r e s s i v e

t h i n k i n g i s no l o n g e r i t s l i b e r a l c e n t r a l t h e m e . " 1

The l i b e r a l v i e 1 , ~ s on human n a t u r e had changed .

The a s s u m p t i o n s of t h e f a l l i b i l i t , ~ of man, h i s p r o n e n e s s

t o e v i l , h a d , a s Warren s t a t e s , "become 1 - i b e r a l a s w e l l

a s c o n s e r v a t i v e cliche's s i n - , e t h e w a r , j u s t a s man ' s ---

1. R i c h a r d H o f q t a d t e r , The Aqe of Reform, New York : Al f rcd A . K i~c~pf , ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 314 .

c o - o p e r a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s and good-wi l l were t h e l i b e r a l 1

c l i c h k s of t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t . " T h i s change of a t t i t u d e

was g e n e r a l ' a m o n g s t t h e l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s of t h e

pos t -war p e r i o d . Less o p t i m i s t i c t h a n i n t h e

P r o g r e s s i v e e r a , o r i n t h e 3 O V s , l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s

t ended t o t u r n from a committment t o reform of t h e i r

c o u n t r y , t o an a c c e p t a n c e of dominant American i n s t i t u t i o n s .

Many i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e e a r l y f i f t i e s e x h i b i t e d

a s t r o n g pro-American o r i e n t a t i o n . I n 1952, t h e e d i t o r s

of P a r t i s a n Review gave a " q u a s i - o f f i c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n " 2

t o t h i s new i n t e l l e c t u a l mood i n d e v o t i n g a number of

i s s u e s t o a symposium e n t i t l e d , "Our Country and Our

C u l t u r e . " "American i n t e l l e c t u a l s , l1 t h e y s a i d , "n9w

r e g a r d America and i t s i n 5 t i t u t i o n s i n a n t w way, . . Many

w r i t e r s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s ngw f ~ e l c l o s e r t o t h e i r

c o u n t r y and i t s c u l t u r e . . . For b e t t e r o r worse, most

w r i t e r s no l o n g e r a c c e p t a l i e n a t i o n a s t h e a r t i s t ' s f a t e

i n America; on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y want ve ry much t o be

p a r t of American L i f e . "

The o v e r - a l l i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e of o p i n i o n a f t e r

t h e Second World War was i n c r e a s i n g l y moderate , and

e x h i b i t e d a s t r o n g pro-American o r i e n t a t i o n . T h i s p o s t -

war mood was c l e a r l y not conduc ive t o a l i b e r a l - c o u n i e r -

a t t a c k on t h e Davis-Moore e x p l a n a t i o n 7f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . -

1. Frank Warren, o p . c i t . , p . 231.

2 . R . Hof s t a d t e r , A n t i - I n t e l l o , , t u a l i 1 , c p . c i t . , p . 394.

It was not until 1953 that the initiative to

liberal criticism of the argument was given by M.M.

Tumin, We suggest that this criticism was prompted

by the intellectual articulation in terms of compre-

hensive political philosphy, of an implicit category

of p~litical preference.

Before the early fifties, whereas the business

establishmentexplicitly stated their conservative

attitudes, for example, in the series of pamphlets

issued by the Liberty League after 1936, intellectuals

usually stated their conservative attitudes implicitly,

through appreciation or in defence of the free-enter-

prise economic system, or in terms of isolationist

policy. One example is William Graham Sumner, ont?

of the "founding fathers" of American sociology who

frequently incorporated the values of the business

establishment into his writings. Although he was

primarily a champion of the middle-class and was

left-wing in the sense that he recognized as signifi-

cant class divisions and conflicts in community life, 1

he took over many ideas of S3cial Darwinism and was

as extreme as Spenzer in his opposition to "amateur

social doctors" with their socialist plans for "nourish-

ing the unfit." He believed the upper classes were the

main benc?factors of civilization. "The millionaires.. :

may be fairly regarded as the naturally selected agents

1. C.H. Paye: Class and American S3ciolo y: from Ward to Ross, New York: The Dial Press, (19409, p. 10.

of s o c i e t y f o r c e r t a i n work. ' ' They g e t h i g h wages

and l i v e i n l u x u r y , b u t t h e b a r g a i n i s a aood ont3 f o r

s o c i e t y . T h e r e i s t h e i n t e n s e s t compet i t ion f o r t h e i r

p l a c e and o c c u p a t i o n . T h i s a s s u r e s u s t h a t a l l who a r e

compe ten t f o r t h i s f u n c t i o n w i l l b e employed i n i t , s o

t h a t t h e c o s t of i t w i l l b e r e d u c e d t o t h e l o w e s t

t e r m s . . . I ' 1

Pos t -wa r c o n s e r v a t i v e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e N1.w

Dea l r e f o r m programmes and t h e r a d i c a l - l i b e r a l a l l i a n c e

i n t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t was h e i g h t e n e d i n t h e c o n t e x t of

t h e Cold War. I t i s no c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t t h e emergence

of c o n s e r v a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l t h e o r y h a s r u n p a r a l l e l

t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e of S o v i e t Communism a s t h e f i r s t r e a l

t h r e a t t o American v a l u e s and s e c u r i t y . * Morgenthau

a s s e r t s ,

"Europe i n c o n t r a s t t o America h a s known c l a s s e s d e t e r m i n e d by h e r e d i t y o r o t h e r w i s e s h a r p l y and p e r m a n e n t l y d e f i n e d i n c o m p o s i t i o n and s o c i a l s t a t u s , which h a v e had a s t a k e i n d e f e n d i n g t h e p r e s e n - t s t a t u s quo o r r e s t o r i n g a n a c t u a l o r f i c t i t i o u s s t a t u s quo o f t h e p a s t . But f o r t h e d e f e n c e o r r e s t o r a t i o n o f wha t s t a t u s quo c o u l d t h e American r o n s e r v a t i v e f i g h t ? Fo r p r i v a t e power , s t a t e s ' r i g h t s . . . e x c l u s i v e ma le s u f f r a g e , s l a v e r y o r p e r h a p s t h e B r i t i s h Monarchy? The a b s u r d i t y o f t h i s r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s t h e a b s u r d i t y o f t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n i n t e r m s o f l l m r p o s e s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of American p o l i t i c s .

1. Q u o t e d i n R i c h a r d H o f s t a d t e r ; S o c i a l Darwinism i n 4 m e r i c a n Though t , 1860-1915. P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s i t y of P h i l a d e l p h i a P r e s s , ( 1 9 4 5 ) , p . 4 4 .

2 . T . Mo lna r : The D e c l i n ? o f t h e I n t e l l e c t u a l , C l e v e l a n d : M e r i d i a n Books, ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 273.

3 . Quoted i n T . Mo ln3 r , c p . c i t . , p . 2 7 3 .

Morgen-thauls p o i n t needs t o be q u a l i f i e d . F r e q u e n t l y

c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s a r e j u s t i f i e d i n t e rms of t h e

C o n s t i t u t i o n . Thus t h e N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l Recovery

Act was d e c l a r e d u n ~ o n s t i t u t i o n a l by t h e Supreme

Cour t and d u r i n g t h e McCarthy e r a , i n t e l l e c t u a l s were

accused of u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i s l o y a l t y . What makes

t h i s p r a c t i c e u n f e a s i b l e from t h e p o i n t o f view of

p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y , i s t h a t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i t s e l f i s an

e s s e n t i a l l y l i b e r a l document based on e g a l i t a r i a n

a s s u m p t i o n s .

Conse rva t i sm became i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t

i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e emergence of t h e S o v i e t Union

a s a t h r e a t t o t h e American "way of l i f e . " R u s s e l l

K i r k ' s "The C o n s e r v a t i v e Mindt1 appea red i n 1953. I n

i t t h e a u t h o r a t t e m p t s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e of

an i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n from Burke t o Santayanq.

C o n t i n u i n g h i s a r t i c u l a t i o n of c o n s e r v a t i v e t h o u g h t ,

t h e weekly magazine N a t i o n a l Review was launched i n

1955, and had a s i t s e x p l i c i t aim, "a deep going renewal

of American l i f e i n t h e s p i r i t o f t h e w e s t e r n and

American t r a d i t i o n , " and sought t o g i v e d i r e c t i o n t o

t h e " c o n s e r v a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l r e s u r g e n c e . "

I n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e Cold W q r , c o n s e r v a t i v e

w r i t e r s a r t i c u l a t e d a l o n g - f e l t r e v u l s i o n a g a i n s t

New Deal Reforms. According t o Minogue t h e most

p o p u l a r * a t t a c k . o n l i b e r a l s i s i n terms of t h e l i b e r a l

t e n d e n c y " t o r e f e r a l l problems t o t h e l a r g e s t a v a i l a b l e

p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y . " l For t h r l i b e r a l , a l l w i d e s p r e a d

prohl .cms i n v i t e l ", a s ~ l u t i o n l7-y c t a t e a c t i v i t y . " - 2

Son.,.>rva t i l r c w r i t ~ r c i - v p i c a l l y r e s e n t t h e growi c.2

a u t h o r i t y o v c r p r i v a t~ l i f e , p r e f e r r i n g t h e autonomy

c~f ' h n i nc-Iividlial an-I c C i n c t i l l i l i o n s . rhey s: i-cs: t h e

i 1 3 7 of " ~ r i v a r ~ ?n ( I . q ~ l n l i t y . o r ~ J - ~ V ~ C V and a c e r t a i .i

~ i ~ ' . i Q ' I i t a l a i r [ ! b h ~ ~ j i b r a l s h a v ~ haen

. . " i nc f.r4c1 i v( o hc ~ P W I ~ J P ~ V J C I > * : ; ? r i v a c y a n d f reedorr!. "

7 : . I , v 1 , " C, I I ] ( v !I?\'- ~ e r i e i a l l y f o l l o w e d K i r k 1 ( l e a d i i y

c r i t i i - , j c j ny thc p i n , - , h a r a c t ( ~ r i s t i c o f P r o g r r s s i - r n

: 11o11ah l, o f t h e r n ~ ~ i c t i o n of t h e " n a t u r a l g o o d n e s s "

a r d p e r f e c t i b i l i l y o f man.

L i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e somet imes c r i t i c i s e d

f o r t h e i r p a s t i d e o l o g i c a l commit tment t o t h e S o v i e t

IJnion a s a model f o r r e f o r m , w h i l s t c o n s e r v a t i v e w r l t ~ r c

u r q p i n c o n t r a c t . t h e A m ~ r i c a n "way of l i f e , " wh ich

"hcy J e f i nr '-IV at r i o t i c and ( n o r a l s t a n d a r d s . K i r k ,

f o r example . ~ j s s e r t s t , h a t " c o n i e r v a t i s m " r e p r e s e n t s t h e ,

" n r e s e v v a t i o n 47f t h e an ( - i on ' m o r a l t r a d i t i o n . ; o f h u m a n i t y . "

P e t e r V i ~ r e c k h a s (c1.i-t ic; zcd K i r k and c o n t r i b u t o r s - 'o

Na- t ion21 Review, f o r "succum'cling t o . . . t h e c o n s e r v a t i s m

o f n o s t a l g i a , t h e c o n f u s i o n o f c o n c r e t e l i v i n g r o o t s

w i t,h a b s t r a c t y e a r n i n g f o r r o ~ t i . " ' and f o r e v a d i n g

such i s s u e s a s McCar thy i sm. 3 e r c j e c t s t h e i d e a t h a t

1. J u o t e d i n J 2 f f r e y Har-i,: The American 3 i s s e n t : A D e c a d ~ of Modern C o n : ; e r v a t i s n : New York: Doubleday , ( 1 9 6 6 ) ,p. 1.7.

2 . I b i d .

3. P e t e r V i e r e c k : Con3e rva t i s rn R e v i s i t e d , New York , C o l - l i e r Books , ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 150.

c o n s e r v a t i s m i s an i d e o l o g y ; i t j s r a t h e r a " b a l a n c i n g

a n d t r a n s c e n d i n g u 1 o f i d e o l o g i e s .

' J i e r e c k i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a number o f "new

c o n s e r v a t i v e s " ( e . g . Ravmond E n g l i s h , Chad Y a l s h ,

Thomas Cook, C l i n t o n R o s s i t e r , T . A . L u k a c s , A u g u s t

H e c k s h e r , W i l l H e r b e r g a n d Rei n h o l d N i ~ b u h r ) w h o s e

o r i e n t a t i o n i s m o r e l i b e r a l . They d e s c r i b e A d l a i

S t e v e n s o n 3 s c o n s e r v a t i v e , a n 6 r e j e c t t h e r i u h t - w i n g

c o n s e r v a t i v e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . C l i n t o n R o s s i t e r , f o r

e x a m p l e , d e f i n e d a conservative\ a s a man c o m m i t t e d ,

" t o no p a r t i c u l a r p a l i c i e s b u t m u s t a s p i r e t o a n i m a g i - 2

n a t i v e , h o p e f u l a n d t o l e r a n t o u t l o o k , " t h e r e b y r e j e c t -

i n g t h e a n t l - l i b e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f H a y e k , Burnham

a n d 3 u c k l e y . F u r t h e r , V i o ~ ' -17.' R o s s i t ~ r make c.

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n s e r v a t i s m w h i c h e m b o d i e s

t r a d i t i o n s o f f r e e d o m , a n d l i b o r a l f o r m u l a e " h a t d e f i n e

i t . " C o n s ~ r v a t i rn i s n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h l i l ~ ~ r ~ l i s m

n o r wiJ ih o p t i m i c r n a b o u t human n a t u r e , c t i i i t d r i a n

e m p n a s i s o n m a t e r i a l p r o g r e s c , o r t r u q ' i n + h e d i r e c t

d e m o c r a c y o f t h e m a s s . I I 3

T h e e m e r g e n c e o f articulate c o n s e r v a t i v e t h o u g h t ,

t h e n , e m b o d i e d two m a i n t y p p r - " t h o u g h t f u l c o n s e r v a t i v ~ s , "

o f whom V i e r e c k i s r e p r e c ~ n t ~ ~ t i v ~ a n d t h e " r i g h t i s t s . "

1. I b i d .

2 . H . Wish : S a c i e t y 7 TI-'ovnht i n k!o&~rn A m c r i c a , V o l 11, New Y o r k : - ,?) Yc Krl f,nrr;pa n y , I n c . , ( 1962) p . 601.

The r i g h t i s t e l e m e n t d o m i n a t e s i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n s e r v a -

t i v e t h o u g h t a s V i e r e c k acknowledges i n t h e t i t l e of

ont2 s e c t i o n o f h i s book: "The ?\Jew C o n s e r v a t i s m : What

went wrony?" The d i f f e r e n c e be tween t h e s e b r a n d s of

c o n s e r v a t i v e t h o u g h t must n o t , however , b e ove r - emphas i s ed

f o r t h e y s h a r e a b a s i c o p p o s i t i o n t o Communism, a

s u p p o r t o f t h e American "way of l i f e , " an3 t h e

p r i n c i p l e s of i n d i v i d u a l f r eedom.

The c r i t i c i s m s by many American s o c i o l o g i s t s of

t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e D2vis-Moore

a rgument we re t h e n prompted by t h e emergence of

a r t i c u l a t e i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t by a m i n o r i t y of

American i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e e a r l y f i f t i e s . These

c r i t i c i s m s r e v e a l a s t r o n y committment t o t h e P r c g r e s -

s i v e - L i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t :

T u m i n r s " e x t r e m e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m , " h i s assump-

t i o n o f t h e e x t r e m e p l a c t i c i t y o f human b e i n g s and

h i s o p t i m i s t i s t i c v i e w of human n a t u r e a r e r e p r e s e n -

t a t i v e o f p r o g r e s s i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t , p a r t i c u l a r l y

of t h e s o c i a l s c i e n z e s a s d e v e l o p e d by J g h n Dewey,

C h a r l e s A . Q e a r d , T h o r s t e i n Veb len e t c . ) . These

became o r t h o d o x r e a d i n g f o r manT/ American i n t e l l e c t u a l s

1 i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s . Thus, Tumin ' s s u g g e s t i o n - t h a t

c e r t a i n m o t i v a t i o n a l schemes s u c h a s " j o y i n w o r k , "

" s a c i a l d u t y " e t c . c o u l d be i n s t i t u t e d a s a l t e r n a t i v e s

t o s t r a t i f i e d i n e q u a l i t i e s , r e q u i r e s , a s Moore s t r e s s e s ,

t h a t men b e w i l l i n g t o do " u n e q u a l work f o r e q u a l pay"

1. E . Digby B a l t z e l l , op . c i t . , p . 270.

and b e t r a y s a n o p t i m i s m c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r a l l y

C O - o p e r a t i v e v i r t u e s o f man s i m i l a r t o Edward B e l l a m y 1 s : -

"Men by 7 a t u r a l i n t e n t i o n and s t r u c t u r e a r e g e n e r o u s n o t s e l f i s h . , . sympa the t i c n o t a r r o g a n t , g o d - l i k e i n a s p i r a t i o n , i n s t i n c t w i t h d i v i n e s t i m p u l s e s of t e n d e r n e s s and s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . " l

Most c r i t i c i s m s of t h e Davis-Moore argument a s

we d i s c u s s e d i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s , m a n i f e s t a cornmitt-

l e c t u a l s a f t e r 1936. The emphas i s of Tumin1s argumen-ks,

p a r t i c u l a r l y , r e f l e c t t h e p r i m a r y conce rn of t h e New

Dea l m e a s u r e s t o r e d u c e t h e s c a l e of e x i s t i n g economic

i n e q u a l i t i e s .

More i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s , a r e t h e

d i f f e r e n c e s be tween t h e c r i t i c s p o l i t i c a l i d e a s and

t h o s e which came t o t ,he ' f o r e i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s :

Tumin s u g g e s t s " a l t e r n a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t s " t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

which a r e not v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t

t h e y r e f l e c t r e a l s o c i a l d p v e l o p m e n t s . He h i m s e l f

acknowledges t h a t t h e y a r e " u t o p i a n " i n 'he s e n s e

t h a t t h e y a r e u n s u p p o r t e d by h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e , b u t

n e v e r t h e l e s s c l a i m s t h e y a r e , i n p r i n c i p l e , p o s s i b l e .

T h e s e p r o p o s a l s a r e o f s u c h a n a t ~ l r e t h a t t h e y c o u l d

n o t b e i n s t i t u t e d by a governmen-t ; f u r t h e r , t h e y

p o s t u l a t e a f u t u r e s o c i e t y which depends f o r i t s

1. Quo ted i n E . Diqby E . a l t z e l l , o p . c i t . , p . 259 . Bel lamy p r e s e n t e d i n f i c t i o n a l i z e d form t h e m a j o r a s s u m p t i o n s and i d e a s of t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e of t h e P r o g r e s s i v e E r a .

r r>a l ~ Z R : j on \ loon a "mora l c o n v ~ r . i o n " wl-lich woul d

r c p u d i a j c + h e t h c n krlown f a c t q o f h ~ ~ m a n b e h a v i o u r .

- r nkr.11 ~ r t u a l c o f t h ~ + h i r t i c s w e r e h o p e f u l t h a t

l h ~ i r c o c i a l t h c o r i e ~ c o u l d , t o e x t e n t a t l e a c t ,

h~ ? v p l p m ~ n t ~ d . T ~ P Ncw Dcal r e f o r m s ~ ~ ~ ~ n t i a l l y

r c f l + c ~ e d t h e o v c r a l I i n t r l I c c t u a l c o n r ~ r n w i t h

c n v i r o n r n n n t a l r c f o r m , w h i l c t -om0 o f ' h c i r n u ~ h e r

had b f ~ ~ n introduced i n t o gnvernrnr n t - n a n a d v i r o r y

c a p a c i t y .

-. P l l t ~wni n 7 c ~ ~ q r c a l i z a h l r. p r o p o p a l a r e , i.n marked

c o n t r a c t , qymptomati.: o f - f h c r n ~ s e o f i m p o t ~ ~ c ~ a n l

d 2 c p a i r o f l i h ~ r a l i n k c l l c r t l l a l - - : n t h o c a r l y f i f t i P.;

a t l h e i r ~ x c l t i ~ i o n f r o m t h e p o i i t i c a i 3 i f c o f t h c i r ;

c o u n t r y , t h c L r v u l n t - r a h i l i :y i n a t t a c k f rom ~ o n q r , r v a t i v c r ,

h u s i n c > 9 s m ~ n , p o l i t j c,' a n 5 jnd a r t r o n q n i n o r i t y o f

i n t c l l t c t u a l r , and f i n 2 l l y a t t h e l a c k o f h o p e o f

a n v nr3w r a p p r o c h n m ~ n t wi 'h q o v c r n r i p n t .

iflor t o l - j e c t - i o n . t o t h e Oav i r -h loorc a r g l ~ m e n ~ p r e q ~ n t c d

by A ~ ~ q r i c a n r o r i o l o g i q t q i n t h c c o u r c ~ o f t h e f i f t i c c ,

a r c n o 1 c o n v i n c i n q . O n t h ~ onp hand t h c i r o b j e c t i o n 2

t h a t . ; k r n t i f i c a t i o n 1 5 d y s f u n - t i o n a l and t h a t D a v i s

and Mmrc. h a v c i q n 3 r c d t h e ~ l ~ r n e n t o f pafirer i n t h c i r

p x p ? a n q t i o n , a r f 3 i r r e l e v a n ? i n t e r m s o f t h e t h c o r c t i r a l

framnw3t-k e m p l o y e d ; on t h ~ o t h e r h a n d , d c m o n c i r a t i onq o f

a l t e r n a t i v e s t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y b a s e d

upon t h e same p r e m i s e s a n d + h e f u n c t i o n a l c o n c e p t <

employed by D a v i s a n d V o n r e . No a l t e r n a t i v e a c c o u n t

of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n h a s i n f a c t been 9u t f o r w a r d by

t h e c r i t i c s , s i n c e c r i t i c s do n o t g e n P r a l l y s t r a y

f a r f rom D a v i s and M o o r e ' s f u n c t i o n a l p r o p o s i t i o n s

( v i z . o f f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e , f u n c t i o n a l p r e r e q u i -

s i t e s ) . The r e l u c t a n c e of c r i t i c s t o o f f e r s e r i o u s

c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s of f u n c t i o n a l

a n a l y s i s , o r t o abandon t h i s framework i n o r d e r t o

p r e s e n t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n a s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t

p e r s p e c t i v e t h a n Davic and Moore ' s a r e symptomat ic of

t h e p c s t - w a r l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l ' s l a c k of a v i a b l e

i d e o l o g i c a l f ramework i n t e rms of which he c o u l d

c o u n t e r - a t t a c k t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e emphas i s on f u n c t i o n a l

n e c e s s i t y of dominan t i n s t i t u t i o n s . Tn t h e a b s e n c e of

a ~ w _ r e f o r m movement, l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s have, n o t

s ; : r p r i s i n y l y , b e e n u n w i l l i n g t o examinc i n a d e t a i l e d ,

r e a l i s t i c way, t h e need f o r r e f o r m i n dominant i n s t i t u t i o n s .

C r i t i c s a p p z a r t o be m o t i v a t e d more by a d ~ q j r e

t o r e j e c t and r i d i c u l e t h e c l b i m t h a t " s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

i~ f u n c t i o n a l l y n e c e s s a r y " , t h a n by a d e s i r e t o p r e s e n t

s e r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l o b j e c t i o n s . I ndeed one c r i t i c ,

Tumin, h a s i n v o l v ~ d h i m s e l f i n 3 s e r i e s of c o n t r a d i c -

t o r y s t a t e m ~ n t c ( v i z . c o n c e r n i n y t h e f a m i l y s y ~ t e m i n

\ Amcrjcan s o c i r t l ~ ~ i n o r d e r t o show i n one a r t i c l e , t h a t

s t r a t i < i c a t i on i s d y s f u n c t i o n a l , and i n a n o t h e r a r t i c l e ,

t h a t more e q u a l p o s i t i o n a l r e w a r d s would enhance

c o n s c i e n t i o u s r o l e - p e r f o r m a n c e i n e v e r y i n s t i t u t i o n a l

c o n t e x t . The l a c k o f e f f e c t i v e c r i t i c i s m of key c o n c e p t s

on t h e p a r t of a l l c r i t i c s , b e t r a y s t h e i r r e j e c t i o n

o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n : t s e l f , r a t h e r t h a n t h e b a s i c

p r e m i s e s and methods whereby t h e c o n c l u s i o n was I

r e a c h e d .

The c r i t i c i s m s a r e i n t h i s s e n s z s i m i l a r t o t h e

v i e w s of a m l n o r i t y o f Americ.an i n t e l l e c t u a l s which

came i n c r e a s i n g l y t o t h e f o r e i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e

f i f t i e s , and whose main c o n c e r n i s t o a d o p t a c r i t i c a l

s t a n c e v i s - 5 - v i s t h e " a b s o r p t i o n t ' of American i n t e l -

l e c t u a l s i n t o American c u l t u r e . Loren B a r i t z c h a r a c t e r -

i z e s t h e i r m a j o r t o show t h a t " . . , a n y i n t e l l e c t u a l

who a c c e p t s d,ld a p p r o v e s of h i s s o c i e t y p r o s t i t u t e s h i s

s k i l l s and i s a t r a i t o r t o h i s h e r i t a g e . " They c o n s i d e r

a b e r a t i o n n o t a s a r i s k t h a t mus t be r u n t o p r e s e r v e

i n t e g r i t y , b u t " a s a n o b l i g a t i o n which p r e c o n d i t i o n s

a l l . o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n s . " 1

Thi . "new n o t e u 2 of i n s i s t e n s e on a c r i t i c a l v iew-

p o i n t may-,be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a "symptom o f d e s p a i r " a t

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of t h e a v a n t - g a r d e . C e r t a i n l y

t h e s e c r i t i c s a l l d e p l o r e t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s a p p r o v a l of

works of such " p r o f e s s i o n a l J e r e m i a h s " a s Vance P a c k a r d ,

C . Wr igh t M i l l s , David Riesman, Wi l l i am Id . Whyte.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s

a r e f o r t h e mos t p a r t engaged i n an e s : , e n t i a l l y

1. Loren 3 a r i t z : The S e r v a n t s o f Power, Middletocvn, C o n n e c t i c u t , ( 1 9 6 0 ) . Quo ted by R . H o f s t , a d t e r , o p . c i t . , p . 397.

2 . R . H o f s t a d t e r , o p . c i t . , p . 398 .

n o n - ~ o l i t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i r e s t r a n g e m e n t f rom

s o c i e t y .

D e s p i t e t h e c r i t i c i s m s by I r v i n g Howe, Norman

M a i l e r , C . Wr igh t M i l l s and Delmore Schwar t z p r e s e n t e d

i n t h e P a r t i s a n Review symposium men t ioned e a r l i e r ,

t h a t most American I n - t e l l e c t u a l s had s u r r e n d e r e d t o

c u r r e n - t p r e s s d r e s t o c o n s e r v a t i s m , t j t a t t h e y had

shown, "a s h r i n k i n g d e f e r e n c e t o t h e s t a t u s q u o , "

"a s o f t and a n x i o u s c o m p l i a n c e , " " a p a i n f u l l a c k o f

m i l i t a n c y , " t h e s e c r i t i c s do p o t p r o v i d e a new

p h i l o s o p h y t o meet t h e need oE a v i a b l e i d e o l o g i c a l

f ramework on t h e p a r t of most American l i b e r a l i n t e l -

l e c t u a l s .

T h i s i s e v i d e n t i n C . Wr igh t M i l l s ' White C o l l a r ,

(1951) i n which h e a p p e a r s t o embrace b o t h t h e r e j e c -

t i o n o f t h e l a b o u r movement a s a s < ? l f - s e e k i n g gro7Jp

w i t h i n t h e f ramework o f a m o d i f i e d c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y ,

and t h e d e s i r e f o r a " t h i r d p a r t y " which would q u e s t i o n

i h ~ e x i s t i n g c a p i t a l i s t way o f l i f e , o r a t l e a s t , t h e

s t r u c t u r e of power . But s i n c e C . IriTrLght M i l l s e x p l i -

c i t l y r e c o q n i z e s t h a t , w h i t e - c o l l a r worke r s a r e p o l i t i -

c a l l y i m p c t o n t and a p a t h e t i c , h e h a s no c h o i c e b u t t o

r e g a r d t h ~ i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n such a p o l i t i c a l i n s u r - 1

gency i n t h e i r " t r u e i n t e r e s t , " b u t e x t r e m e l y i m p r o b a b l e .

1. T . B . Bo t tomore c o n s i d e r s o t h e r of Wrigh t M i l l s ' w r i t i ~ g s f rom a s i m i l a r v i e w - p o i n t i n C r i t i c s o f S r c i e t y , o p . c i t . , pp . 53-61. A l s o , W.J. Nt>wman: I i h c r a l i s m a n d t h e R e t r e a t .

The emergence of t h i s p o w e r f u l m i n o r i t y o f d i s -

s e n - t i e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l s was p r o b a b l y c o n d u c i v e t o

c r i t i c i s m of t h e i m p l i c i t c o n s e r v a t i s m o f D a ~ ~ i s and

Moore i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e

most p e r s i s t e n t of t h e c r i t i c s , Me lv in M. Tumin, had

been men t ioned by K u r t Wolff i n 1946 a s one o f a

s i na l l m i n o r i t y of i n - t e l l e c t u a l s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b.1 a

" c o n s c i e n t i o u s a d h e r e n c e t o t h e c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e , "

and an e x p l i c i t l y v a l u e - o r i e n t e d a p p r o a c h t o s o c i o l o g y .

WoTff m e n t i o n s a s t u d y i n which Tumin a t t e m p t e d a n

e v a l u a t i v e compar i son o f c u i t u r e d t y p e s u s i n g S a p i r ' s

d i s t i n c t i - o n be tween " g e n u i n e " and " s p s r i o u ? " c u l t u r e . 1

I n r e s p e c t of t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o r e ~ u d i h Dav i s

and h loore ' s a r g u m e n t , and o f t h e i r l a c k o f a c l e a r

i d e o l o g i c a l rramcwork i n t e r m s of which an a l t e r n a t i v e

e r p l a n a t i o n c o ~ ~ l d be g i v e n , c r i t i c s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

o f a t e n d e n c v , c e n t e r e d i n a p o w e r f u l m ' n o r i t y o f

d i s . ; ~ n t i e * ~ c . i ~ t c l l ~ c t u a l r , t o c r i t i c i z e t h e i r f e l l o w

i n t p l l c ' 1 an6 n r i a1 c o n d i t i o n . i n Amcr ica , i n ?I

g i c a l I ~ a q i s .

1. M e l v i n M . Tumin., " C u l t u r e ; Gcnuini? and S p i ~ r i o ~ ~ c : A Tie-eva1.uatior.i. " Ameri-ca!~ . ?oc io log i ca l . Revicw. (1.945) .

C h a p t e r VI

CONCLUSION

I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h M a n n h e i m ' s s u g g e s t i o n s ,

d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r I , we h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o g o b e y o n d

a n i m m a n e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a b o d y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l

t h o u g h t i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n i t i n t e r m s o f s o m e t h i n g

e l s e , a s t h e f u n c t i o n L o f w h i c h i t t h e n a p p e a r s . T h u s ,

h a v i n g d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e s o r i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y

u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n w a s i n i t i a t e d a n d s u s t a i n e d by a

c G n f l i c t o f p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n , we showed t h a t t h i s

p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t w a s r e p r e s e q t a t i v e o f more g e n e r a l

p a t t e r n s o f p o l i t i - c a l c o n f l i c t a m o n g s t A m e r i c a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l s .

H o w e v e r , t h e a n a l y s i s d e p a r t s f r o m M a r ~ n h e i m ' s

c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s o - i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e i n o n e

i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t : A c c o r d i n g t o Mannheim, e x t r i n q i c

i n t e r p r e t a t i o ? i n v o l v e s a n a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l phenomenon b y r e f e r e n c e b m e a n i n g f u l s o c i a l

c x i s t ~ n c e . I n t h e e x a m p l e g i v e n , i n "The I d e o l o g i c a l

a n d t h e S o c i o l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I n t e l l e c t u a l P h e -

ncmena" i h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t t y p e o f i n q u i r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i s e x p l a i n e d b y r e f e r e n c e t o ,

" a n u n d e r l y i n g s o c i a l o r d e r " . ;:. b o u r o n ~ i s s o c i e t y ,

c o n c e i v ~ d o f a s a s y s t e m o f L . v n i c h i n c l u d e s t h e

2 i d e a o f f r e e c o m p e t i t i o n . F ' r e , t h e e x i s t e n t i a l

1. ' F u n c t i o n ' i s u s e d h e r r I..? ' . . l a t i c a l s e n s e o f - . c o - v a r i a t i o n . Set? R.:,. 1'' , ,PC^ a 1 C t r u c t u r e a n d -

S o c i a l T h e o r y , C h a p .

2 . K a r l Mannheirn: I d e o i o ;T a n d U t o p i a , ( ~ e w Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , , B r u c e a n d Wor ld I n c . , F i r s t P u h l i s h c d i n 1 9 3 6 ) , c h a p . ~ v .

c o n n e c t i o n i n v o l v e s more s p e c i f i c c l a s s v a r i a b l e s

d e r i v e d f rom t h e M a r x i s t model o f s o c i e t y , v i z .

" a s c 2 n d a n t c l a s s e s , " " d e c l i n i n g c l a s s e s , " " t h r e a t e n e d

c l a s s e c " e t c . F o r exampl-e, n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

German c o n s e r v a t i v e t h o u g h t i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s a

r e s p o n s e , g e n e r a t e d by t h e needs o f t h e c l a s s t o

which i t s c r e a t o r s b e l o n g e d ( t h e d e c l i n i n g b o u r g e o i s

c l a s s ) a s i t was c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e c h a l l e n g e

t o i t s p o s i t i o n by a n o t h e r c l a s s , ( v i z . " t h e

a s c e n d a n t g r o u p r e p r e s e n ' i n g a new e p o c h . " )

We d o n o t p r o p o s e t o d i s c u s s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a m b i g u i t i e s and p rob l ems i n v o l v e d

i n t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s . However, t h e a c c o u n t o f dominan t

t r e n d s i n i n t e l l e c t u a l tho ; lgh t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

M a r x i s t model of s o c i e t y which u n d e r l i e s them i s

l a r g e l y i n a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e U.S.A. The m a j o r " e x i s -

t e n t i a 1 f a c t o r s " why-ch i n f l u e n c e d t h e deve lopment

oE i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t we re n o t c l a s s v a r i a b l e s

b u t t h e c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s of t h e American economy,

f o r example , t h e Grea t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e New Dea l r e f o r m s

and t h e l a t e r r e c o v e r y o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t economy i n

t h e p o s t - w a r s i - t u a t i o n ; t h e p r e v a i l i n g mood o f t h e

American p u b l i c a s e x p r e s s e d i n p o s t - w a r c o n s e r v a t i s m :

a n d , A m e r i c a ' s r e l a t i o n t o t h e r e s t of t l ~ ~ w o r l d , f o r

example , t h e ewergpnce o f a p o l a r c o n f r o n t a t i o n be tween

America and R u s s i a .

A m e r i c m l i b e r a l and c o n s e r v a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l s do

n o t " a r t i c u l a t e t h e i n t e r e s t s and a s p i r a t i o n s o f

o p p o s i n g g r o u p s " w i t h i n s o c i e t y a s Mannheim s u g g e s t s ;

i n d e e d , l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e p o s t - w a r s i t u a t i o n

h a v e no w e l l - d e f i n e d a l t e r n a t i v e t o c o n s e r v a t i v e

t h o u g h t . L i b e r a l s f a c e a di lemma i n t h a t t h e c o n s e r v a -

t i v e ' s d e f e n c e o f t h e Amer ican "way o f l i f e , " i s

e s s e n t i a l l y a n a t t e m p t t o c o n s e r v e p r i n c i p l e s which

a r e t h e m s e l v e s l i b e r a l . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , l i b e r a l

i n t e l l e c t u a l s d o n o t e s p o x s e " r a d i c a l " i d e a s d u e t o

t h e r a d i c a l s ' c o m m i t t m ~ n t t o c o l l e c t i v e means t o t h e

a t t a i n m e n t of d e m o c r a t i c e n d s . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e

Cold War, l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y

v u l n e r a b l e t o p u b l i c r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e i r p a s t

sympathy t o w a r d s t h e S o v i e t Union a s a model f o r r e f o r m

by c e n t r a l i z e d p l a n n i n g , and f o r t h e i r p a s t a l l i a n c e

w i t h r a d i c a l j n ' , c l l e c t u 3 l s d u r i n n t h n I?cl ,~ l i ls- F r o n t

p e r i o d whcn t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n a s p e c t 5 cf C c v i e t Communism

became a p p a r e n t .

Thp i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of t h e M a r x i a n mode l o f

c l a s s t o Amer ican s o c i e t y i q i n d i c a t e d b y t h e L y n d 7 s

s t u d y , "Midd le town i n Trnnc i t i o n , " w h i c h c o n c l u d e s

t h a t t h e worki ng c l a s s i n Muncie d i d n o t d e v e l o p a

d i s t i n c t i v e i d e o l o g y ; f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e r e was no i n d i c a -

t i o n o f a c l a r q s t r u g g l e s i n c e r e s e n t m e n t o f w o r k e r s t o

p r e v a i l i n g p o l i t i c a l and economic i n ~ q u a l i t i c s was a n

i n d i v i d u a l r a I h e r t h a n a c l a y s e x p c r i c.?ce. More ----

r e c ~ n l y , C . Wr g h t M i l l r q s t u d i e c T I Amcrican c , o s i e t y

do n o t d e m o n s t r a t e a M a r x i s t e m p h a s i s . The "power-

e l i t e " which c o n s i s t s of t h r e e c o a l e s c i n g g r o u p s -

t h e p o l i t i c a l , b i g b u s i n e s s and m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s -

whose members a r e a l i k e i n s o c i a l backg round ,

e x p e r i e n c e and a s p i r a t i o n s , i s n o t , a s Bot tomore

p o i n t s o u t , " a r u l i n g c l a s s i n t h e s e n s e of a s t a b l e 1

and c o n t i n u o u s g r o u p which Dur sues a s e t t l e d p o l i c y . "

Moreove r , t h e d i v i s i o n Wr igh t M i l l s s t r e s s e s i s nQt

one o f c l a s s , b u t a c l e a v a g e be tween t h e p o w e r - e l i t e

and t h e m a s s e s : -

"The t o p o f modern American s o c i e t y i s i n c r e a s i n g l y u n ; - f i e d , and o f t e n seems w i l f u l l y c o - o r d i n a t e d : a t t h e t o p t h e r e h a s emerged a n e l i t e of power . The m i d d l e l e v e l s a r e a d r i f t i n g s e t of s t a l e m a t e d , b a l a n c i n g f o r c e s : t h e m i d d l e d o e s n o t l i n k t h e b o t t o m w i t h t h e t o p . The bo t t om o f s o c i e t y i s p o l i t i c a l l y f r a g m e n t e d , and even a s a p 2 s s i v e f a c t , i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w e r l e s s : a t t h e b o t t o m t h e r e i s emerg ing a mass s t l c i e t y . " 2

R a t h e r t h a n d e s c r i b i n g p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s

i n t h e Marx i an t r a d i t i o n , Wr igh t M i l l s emphas i ze s t h e

p o l i t i c a l a p a t h y and i m p o t e n c e o f t h e m a s s e s , and

t h e i n e f f i c a c y o f p o l i t i c s i n a s o c i e t y i n c r e a s i n g l y

c o n t r o l l e d by a n e l i t e .

Not s u r p r i s i n g l y mos t s t u d i e s of s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

i n America h a v e b e e n o r i e n t a t e d t o a f u n c t i o n a l i s t

model of c l a s s . Lloyd W a r n e r ' s t e c h n i q u e s and c o n c e p t s - - 1 . T . B . Bot to inore , o p . c i t . , p . 57.

2 . C . Wr igh t M i l l s , "The Power E l i t e t t , N e w York: 9 x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , I n c . , ( 1 9 5 6 ) ~ p . 324 .

have b e e n r e f i n e d , b u t h i s a t t e m p t i n "Yankee C i t y "

t o show t h e e s s e n t i a l i n t e r - r e l a t e d n e s s of a p p a r e n t l y

d i s p a r a t e b e h a v i o u r and i n s t i t u t i o n s by f o c u s i n g on

t h e " c l a s s - s t r u c t u r e , "I i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of Amer ican

s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s of s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

I f , however , Mannheim's s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge i s

m o d i f i e d s o t h a t " e x i s t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n " i n c l u d e s a

much w i d e r a r r a y of v a r i a b l e s t h a n " c l a s s , " i t i s

i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t most of h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g

t h e n a t u r e of c o n s e r v a t i t r e i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t h a v e

b e e n s u p p o r t e d by t h e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n of t r e n d s

i n American i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t .

Marlnheim s t a t e d t h a t ,

" C o n s e r v a t i v e m e n t a l i t y a s s u c h h a s no p r c d i s p 3 s i t i o n t o w a r d s t h e o r i z i n g . T h i s i s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t human b e i n g s do n o t t h e o r i z e a b o u t a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n s i n which t h e y l i v e a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e w e l l - a d j u s t e d t o t hem."2

F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s o n l y t h e " c o u n t e r - a t t a c k o f

o p p ~ s i n g c l a s s e s and t h e i r t e n d e n c y t o b r e a k t h r o u g h

t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r , which c a l l s f o r t h

a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a r t i c u l a t i o n o f c o n s e r v a t i v e t h o u g h t .

Mannheim's main p o i n t i s t h a t i t i s p r i m a r i l y t h e t h r e a t

of a c o u n t e r - i d e o l o g y whose p r o p o n e n t s b e l o n g t o a

" s o c i a l l y a s c e n d a n t c l a s s " which p r o v o k e s t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n

1. R . K . Mertm: Book Review: L loyd W a r n e r ' s "Yankee C i t y " S u r - ~ e y G r a p h i c ( 1 9 4 2 ) .

2 . K . Mannheim: I d e o l o g y and U t o p i a , o p . c i t . , p . 299 .

3. I b i d .

of f o r m e r l y i m p l i c i t c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s on t h e

p a r t o f t h e " t h r e a t e n e d c l a s s . " The a r t i c u l a t i o n i s

n o t , Mannheim o b s e r v e s , g e n e r a l l y g i v e n by members of

t h e s o c i a l c l a q s i t s e l f b u t by " a body of i d e o l o g i s t s

a t t a c h e d t o i t . " I n t h e c a s e of c o n s e r v a t i v e t h o u g h t

j n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Germany, t h e most n o t a b l e was

l l e g e l .

Mannheimls o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s

o n l y become e x p l i c i t i n t h e c o n t e x t of a c o u n t e r -

i d e o l o g y i s s u p p o r t e d by a d i s c u s s i o n of c o n s e r v a t i v e

t h o u g h t i n American q o c i e t y . T V I c o n c i s e sumrl

of c o n s e r v a t i v e t h o u g h t s i n c e t h e F e d e r a l i s t e r a and

b e f o r e t h e f i f t i e s was g i v e n i n a floe,' of p ~ i l p h l e t s

i s s u e d by t h e L i b e r t y League a f t e r 1935 . F o r e 1935

t h e f i r s t 1:evi Dea l c e n t e r e d on t h e N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l

Recove ry AT^, wh ich , a s a n e x p e r i m e n t i n c e n t r a l i z e d

p l a n n i n g unde r t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p o r b o t h

b i g b u q i ~ e s s m e n and gove rnmen t , d i d n o t s e r i o u i l y

t h r e a t e n t h e power of t h e b u s i n e s s e s t a b l i s h m e n t .

A f t e r 1 9 3 5 , a t t h e t i m e t h e f l o o d of p s m p h l e t s i s s u e d

by t h e League , denounced New D e a l e r s , Communists and

t h e d i c t a t o r s n i p o f F .D .R . , b u s i n e s s m e n l s p r o f i t s were

b e i n g s s r i o u s l y t h r e a t e n e d by t h e , ~ c o n d New Deal t a x

a n d i n h e r i t a n c e l e g i s l a t i o n - , . A l thouqh ma ly i n c t u a l . ;

wpre r a d i c a l i.n t h e i r o p p o s i t j o n t o I hc l ~ i t z ~ ' ~

sy s t em and urqp- ' c + , n t r a l i z e d p l a n n i n g :: 7 ;n '3 -, of

r e f o r m i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s , t h e ' c o u n t e r - i d ? o l o g y l

; h o r . $ r e C e ~ 7 ; - : ~ a - ni?t r l l f f i ~ i . ~ ~ ~ t o c a l ; f o r ' b aar

a r C i c t l i ' ; 7' of c 9nt7c3rva live though: . Only i n + h e

, r - c n r l , '-"' 6.1. i e a l i 7 ' a t i o n wh: r : ~ t l h r e a t ~ ~ ~ t

c f f c r t ; v e l z c , r e d u c e the : r p r o f i t s , were impi i i t

r o n ~ ~ r v a t i v t ~ a t t i t u d e s a r t i c u l a t e d 5y t h e b u s i n ~ ; s

c o m m u ~ i t y . ' h e i r a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e E n g l i s h e c o n o m i s t

F . A . Hayek d f t e r 1944 i n d i c a t e s t h e b r e a d t h of t h e i r

s e a r c h r o r 2 a r o a d e r p h i l o s p h y .

The f i r < i n t e l l e c t u a l a r t i c u l a t i o n o f American

c o n s e r v a t i v e choughi was n o t g i v e n ~ n t i l t h e e a r l y

f i f t i e s , when a m i n o r i t y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l c made e x p l i c i t ,

no t t h e needs o r a s p i r a t i o n s o f a t t c l a s s " o r g r o u p

a s Mannheim s d g q e s t s . b l ~ t t h e p r e v a i l i n g mood o f t h e

American p u b l i L . C o n s e r v a t i s m had become i n c r e a s i n g l y

g e n e r a l i z e d a f t e r t h e end of t h e Second World War,

l a r g e l y a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e r e c o v e r y of c a p t t a l i s m

a t home and a b r o a d and i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h ~ S o l d Wa1.

i n which t h e ;J. 3.4. c o n f r o n t e d R u s s i a a s t h e o n l y o t h c ~

w o r l d powel . .>ov i e+ -ommunisr was p e r c e i v e d by t h e

American o u h l i c , p c ~ i i t i r a l l e a d e r s e t c . a s a n a l i e n

and h o c t i l t : d e o l o g y t o which Amer ican c a p i t a i i s m

was t h e o n l , v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e . I n t e l l e c t u a l s e x p l i c i t l y

c o u n t e r e c ' , j v j P T hmmunism, by u r g i n q t h e American

"wav of l i f ~ . " d e f i n e d by p a t r i o t i c and m o r a l s t a n d a r d s ,

and by d c f c n d i n : ~ dominan t American i n q t i t u t i o n c of t h e

f a m i l y , r c l i a i on 2 n d democracy .

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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