Chapter 6: Learning
Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
The Little Albert experiment showed that emotional reactions
such as fear can be taught through classical conditioning.
The Experiment
· Eleven-month-old Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat
rather than be amused by it.
· Psychologists achieved this by pairing the rat with something
that Albert would find instinctively frightening.
The Results
· After they paired the rat with loud noises, Albert showed a
fear of the rat even when there was no noise.
· Albert’s fear spread to similar objects.
· By today’s standards, the experiment was unethical.
Section 1 at a Glance
Classical Conditioning
· Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov pioneered research into a
form of learning known as classical conditioning. In classical
conditioning, one stimulus causes a response that is usually caused
by another stimulus.
· Classical conditioning can help people adapt to the
environment and can help eliminate troubling fears or other
behaviors.
Classical Conditioning
Main Idea
Classical conditioning is a form of learning that involves the
use of a stimulus to generate a specific response.
Reading Focus
· What are the basic principles of classical conditioning?
· How might classical conditioning help people or animals adapt
to the environment?
· What are some applications of classical conditioning?
Principles of Classical Conditioning
· _____________________ is a type of learning that involves
stimulus-response connections.
· Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which
one stimulus calls forth the __________________ that is usually
called forth by another _______________________
Pavlov’s Dogs
· Russian physiologist _______________________ used dogs in his
studies of classical conditioning.
· He trained the dogs to associate the sound of a __________
with ________________
· They learned that the sound of the bell meant food was
coming.
Stimulus and Response
· Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that causes a response that
is ___________________, not learned
· Unconditioned response: caused by an unconditioned
________
· Conditioned response: a learned response to a neutral
________
· Conditioned stimulus: a previously ____________________
stimulus that causes a conditioned response
Adapting to the Environment
Taste Aversions
· Taste aversion: ______________ response to a particular
food
· ______-trial learning
Spontaneous Recovery
· Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of an
______________________ conditioned response after some time has
passed
Extinction
· Extinction: Disappearance of ______________________________
when unconditioned stimulus no longer follows conditioned
stimulus
Generalization and Discrimination
· Generalization: The tendency to respond in the ________
_________ to stimuli that have similar characteristics
· Discrimination: The act of responding _____________________ to
stimuli that are not similar to each other
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Flooding and Systematic Desensitization
· In flooding, a person is ______________ to the
________________stimulus until fear responses to that stimulus are
extinguished.
· With systematic desensitization, people learn
________________techniques and then, while they are relaxed, they
are __________________ exposed to the stimulus they fear.
Counterconditioning
In counterconditioning, a __________________ stimulus is paired
repeatedly with a ______________one, counteracting the fear
Current Research in Psychology
Learning from a Virtual Rat
To research learning and conditioning, psychologists often
design laboratory experiments with animals such as rats. But
experiments with live animals can be costly and time-consuming. Why
not take advantage of computer technology and use a virtual
rat?
· “Sniffy the Virtual Rat” allows students to design lab
experiments in a virtual environment with a virtual rat.
· To create “Sniffy,” researchers studied how real rats move and
learn.
· Students can use the program to design and run classical
conditioning experiments.
· A virtual rat is less costly than a real animal.
They never get tired, are always hungry, and learn more quickly,
saving researchers time and effort
Section 2 at a Glance
Operant Conditioning
· Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into a form
of learning known as operant conditioning, in which individuals
learn from the consequences of their actions.
· Operant conditioning depends on the use of reinforcements and
a schedule to execute them.
· The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help
people or animals learn to combine a series of simple steps or
actions to form complex behaviors.
Operant Conditioning
Main Idea
Operant conditioning occurs when people or animals have learned
to respond to a certain situation.
Reading Focus
· How are operant conditioning and reinforcement related?
· What are the main types of reinforcers?
· How do rewards and punishments shape learning?
· How do schedules of reinforcement influence learning?
· What are some applications of operant conditioning?
Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement
· In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to _____ or
____________ certain things because of the ______________ of what
they do.
· They learn from the _______________________ of their
actions.
· In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are
_________________.
· B.F. Skinner used the “Skinner box.” (rat presses bar for
food)(reinforcement)
· His experiment demonstrated _____________________, or the
process by which a stimulus (food) increases the chances that a
preceding behavior (a rat pressing a lever) will occur again.
· Knowledge of _________________ is often all the reinforcement
that people need to learn new skills.
Types of Reinforcers
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
· Primary reinforcers - function due to the _________________
makeup of an organism.
· Secondary reinforcers are learned by being ______________ with
primary reinforcers.
· _______________ is a secondary reinforcer because we have
learned that it may be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food
and shelter.
Positive and Negative Reinforcers
· Positive reinforcers _______________ the frequency of a
behavior.
· In positive reinforcement, a person receives something he or
she wants following the behavior.
· Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior when
they are ____________________
· In negative reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced because
something unwanted stops happening or is removed following the
behavior.
Rewards and Punishments
Rewards
· Like positive reinforcement, rewards help ________________
learning.
Some psychologists, however, prefer positive reinforcement
because the concept of reinforcement can be explained without
trying to guess what an organism will find rewarding
Punishments
· Punishments are quite different from negative reinforcers.
· Punishments are __________________ events that
__________________ the frequency of the behavior they follow.
· Punishments tend to work only when they are
________________
· Most psychologists believe it is preferable to reward children
for desirable behavior than punish them for unwanted behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
· The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends on the schedule
of reinforcement—when and _______ ____________ the reinforcement
occurs.
Continuous and Partial Reinforcement
· Continuous reinforcement is the reinforcement of a behavior
__________ time the behavior occurs. (not always practical or
possible)
· The alternative is partial reinforcement, which means
__________ reinforced every time the behavior occurs.
Interval Schedules
· Fixed-interval schedule: a ____________ amount of ________
must elapse between reinforcements
· Variable-interval schedule: ______________ amounts of time go
by between reinforcements
Ratio Schedule
· Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed
number of __________________
· Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a
_____________ number of responses
Extinction in Operant Conditioning
· In operant conditioning, extinction results from repeated
performances of the response without ____________________
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Shaping and Chaining
· Shaping is a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one
first reinforces ______________ steps in the ______________
activity.
· Chaining is ___________________ the steps of a sequence to
progress toward a ____________ action.
· Chaining can be forward or backward.
· Chaining can be used to teach complex behavior patterns to
animals.
Programmed Learning
· Programmed learning is based on shaping and chaining.
· Developed by B.F. Skinner, it assumes that any task can be
broken down into small steps.
· Programmed learning does not involve punishments.
· Instead, it reinforces correct responses.
Section 4 at a Glance
The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
· The PQ4R method is a study method based on the work of
educational psychologist Francis P. Robinson. Robinson believed
that students will learn more when they take an active approach to
learning.
· The PQ4R method includes these six steps: preview, question,
read, reflect, recite, and review.
Preview
· Previewing a textbook means getting a general picture of the
material before you start to read.
· Many textbooks are designed to encourage previewing.
· Previewing helps form a cognitive map of a chapter.
Question
· You can create learning goals by writing questions about the
chapter after you preview it.
· One way to write questions is to read the headings or the
first sentence of each paragraph and write a question about it.
Read
· Read the chapter with the goal of answering the questions you
wrote.
· As you read, jot down a few key words that will remind you of
the answer.
Reflect
· Relate new information to old information.
· Relate new information to events in your own life or to people
you know.
Recite
· After you have answered your questions, recite the answers out
loud or silently to yourself.
· You can recite alone or with a study group. Both are
effective.
Review
· Learning that occurs regularly and is distributed over time is
distributed learning.
· Learning that occurs all at one time is massed learning, or
cramming.