Bell Ringer – Keep this sheet all class Write down as many observations about behavior of people @ North Country as you can.

Bell Ringer – Keep this Bell Ringer – Keep this sheet all classsheet all class

Write down as many observations about behavior of people @ North Country as you can.

ObjectivesObjectives

Students will be able to: Students will be able to: -Understand and interpret -Understand and interpret

correlational datacorrelational data

-Complete naturalistic -Complete naturalistic observationobservation

- Compile data and form a - Compile data and form a hypothesis based on datahypothesis based on data

What is the Scientific What is the Scientific Method?Method?

Do Now: Ask Do Now: Ask a question a question based on based on one of your one of your observatioobservations. ns.

How do the 5 Goals of How do the 5 Goals of Psychology relate to Psychology relate to Research Methods?Research Methods?Observation: What do I observe?Observation: What do I observe?Description: What are the Description: What are the

characteristics of the behavior? characteristics of the behavior? operational definitionoperational definitionPrediction: How likely is it that the Prediction: How likely is it that the

behavior will occur? behavior will occur? Explanation: What causes the Explanation: What causes the

behavior?behavior? Control: Can I make the behavior Control: Can I make the behavior

happen/ not happen?happen/ not happen?

What are the Three What are the Three Types of Questions and Types of Questions and Which Did I Ask?Which Did I Ask?

DescriptiveDescriptiveA question describing what exists.A question describing what exists.(e.g. What percent of the population would vote for a Democratic or a (e.g. What percent of the population would vote for a Democratic or a

Republican in the next presidential election?Republican in the next presidential election?))RelationalRelational A question describing the relationships between two or more variables. A question describing the relationships between two or more variables. ((e.g. “What proportion of m & f say they would vote for a Dem. or a Rep. e.g. “What proportion of m & f say they would vote for a Dem. or a Rep.

candidate in the next presidential election? candidate in the next presidential election? gender and voting preference.)gender and voting preference.) CausalCausalA question designed to determine whether one or more variables (i.e. A question designed to determine whether one or more variables (i.e.

an advertisement) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. an advertisement) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. (e.g. Public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political (e.g. Public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political

advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying “Did the advertisement (cause) changed the essentially be studying “Did the advertisement (cause) changed the proportion of voters who would vote Democratic or Republican proportion of voters who would vote Democratic or Republican (effect)?” (effect)?”

Scientific Method: Scientific Method: DevelopingDevelopingExplanationsExplanations

TheoriesTheories

Broad explanations and predictions Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interestconcerning phenomena of interest

HypothesisHypothesis

A prediction stated in a way that allows it A prediction stated in a way that allows it to be testedto be tested

Null hypothesisNull hypothesis - no difference - no difference

Alternative hypothesisAlternative hypothesis – one more – one more prevalentprevalent

Naturalistic-Naturalistic-Observation MethodObservation Method

AdvantagesAdvantages

– – Enables Enables researchers to researchers to witness the witness the behavior of the behavior of the people or animals people or animals in settings that are in settings that are not artificial.not artificial.

DisadvantagesDisadvantages

– – Researchers have Researchers have no control over the no control over the setting of the setting of the events that occur.events that occur.

Researchers observe the behavior of people or animals in their natural habitats.

Laboratory-ObservationLaboratory-ObservationMethodsMethods

AdvantagesAdvantages– – Enables researchers Enables researchers

to control certain to control certain aspects of the studyaspects of the study

DisadvantagesDisadvantages– – Laboratories cannot Laboratories cannot

duplicate real-life duplicate real-life environmentsenvironments

Participants are observed in a laboratory setting.

Survey MethodSurvey Method

AdvantagesAdvantages

– – Enables the Enables the researcher to researcher to gather information gather information about large about large numbers of people numbers of people (orally/digitally)(orally/digitally)

DisadvantagesDisadvantages

– – People may not be People may not be entirely honest in entirely honest in answering questions.answering questions.

– – Survey samples are Survey samples are not always not always representative of the representative of the population as a wholepopulation as a whole

People respond to a series of questions about a particular subject.

SurveySurvey

Idea of a Population & SampleIdea of a Population & SampleA target population is everyone you wish to A target population is everyone you wish to

studystudy A sample is a representative part of the large A sample is a representative part of the large

populationpopulation– – used b/c it is very difficult to survey everyoneused b/c it is very difficult to survey everyone– – Random people selected by chanceRandom people selected by chance– – Stratified guarantees that all identified Stratified guarantees that all identified

subgroups are represented in an amount subgroups are represented in an amount equal to their numbers in larger populationequal to their numbers in larger population

Surveys cont.Surveys cont.

Does not have to be large to be Does not have to be large to be representative - 1,000 to 1,500 representative - 1,000 to 1,500 people selected correctly can people selected correctly can represent the views of the entire represent the views of the entire United States.United States.

Generalizing Results: when collectingGeneralizing Results: when collectinginformation about a subgroup of the information about a subgroup of the

general population; results directly general population; results directly apply to that group onlyapply to that group only

Volunteer Bias Volunteer Bias

Volunteer Bias:Volunteer Bias: people who volunteer for survey people who volunteer for survey are different from those randomly selectedare different from those randomly selected

– – they are more willing to disclose more personalthey are more willing to disclose more personalinfoinfo– – they are more interested in researchthey are more interested in research– – they have more free timethey have more free timeMagazine SurveysMagazine Surveys: people who answer: people who answerthese survey are not representative of the these survey are not representative of the

general population or even readers of general population or even readers of magazinemagazine

CorrelationCorrelationA correlation coefficient A correlation coefficient (-1 (-1 ≥≥ r r ≥ 1≥ 1) is a statistical ) is a statistical

measure of relationship.measure of relationship.– – A positive correlation A positive correlation

indicates a direct indicates a direct relationship while a relationship while a negative correlation negative correlation indicates an indirect indicates an indirect relationship. relationship.

--

Correlations Methods:Correlations Methods:

Indicates how well two variables are relatedIndicates how well two variables are related– – Does NOT indicate whyDoes NOT indicate why– – CANNOT be used to infer cause-effect CANNOT be used to infer cause-effect

relationshipsrelationships– – Used for PREDICTING one variable from anotherUsed for PREDICTING one variable from another How does one behavior relate to the occurrence How does one behavior relate to the occurrence

of another behavior?of another behavior? If we know one behavior’s pattern can we then, If we know one behavior’s pattern can we then,

in turn, predict the pattern of occurrence of in turn, predict the pattern of occurrence of another behavior?another behavior?

Determining the Direction of Determining the Direction of Correlations Correlations 1.1. A study of married couples showed that the longer they A study of married couples showed that the longer they

had been married the more similar their opinions are on had been married the more similar their opinions are on social and political issues. social and political issues.

2.2. An intelligence test was given to all the children in an An intelligence test was given to all the children in an orphanage. The results showed that the longer the children orphanage. The results showed that the longer the children had lived in the orphanage, the lower their IQ scores. had lived in the orphanage, the lower their IQ scores.

3.3. In a study of American cities, it was found that as the In a study of American cities, it was found that as the number of violent crimes increased, so did the number of number of violent crimes increased, so did the number of stores selling violence-depicting pornography.stores selling violence-depicting pornography.

4.4. A college professor found that the more class absences A college professor found that the more class absences students have, the lower their grades in the course tend to students have, the lower their grades in the course tend to be. be.

5.5. A politician running against a candidate who had been in A politician running against a candidate who had been in office for eight years pointed out that violent crime had office for eight years pointed out that violent crime had increased steadily during those eight years while the increased steadily during those eight years while the administration had appropriated more and more money to administration had appropriated more and more money to fight crime. fight crime.

6. It was found that elementary school children who earned high 6. It was found that elementary school children who earned high scores on a vocabulary test also tended to earn high scores scores on a vocabulary test also tended to earn high scores on a test of physical strength and muscle coordination. on a test of physical strength and muscle coordination.

7. The more money a person spends on his or her wardrobe, the 7. The more money a person spends on his or her wardrobe, the higher the salary. higher the salary.

8. The larger the sum of money chemical plant corporations 8. The larger the sum of money chemical plant corporations contribute to political campaigns, the fewer the number of contribute to political campaigns, the fewer the number of citations their plants receive for violating environmental citations their plants receive for violating environmental regulations. regulations.

9. The more semesters of psychology a student takes in college, 9. The more semesters of psychology a student takes in college, the greater his or her reported satisfaction in life ten years the greater his or her reported satisfaction in life ten years after graduation. after graduation.

10. The earlier the age at which a person starts to smoke, the 10. The earlier the age at which a person starts to smoke, the greater the number of years that it takes for him or her to greater the number of years that it takes for him or her to quit smoking.quit smoking.

Determining the Direction Determining the Direction of Correlationsof Correlations

Answers:Answers:

1.1. PositivePositive2.2. NegativeNegative 3.3. Positive Positive 4.4. NegativeNegative 5.5. PositivePositive6.6. PositivePositive 7.7. PositivePositive 8.8. NegativeNegative 9.9. PositivePositive 10.10. NegativeNegative

““Correlation does not Correlation does not imply Causation”imply Causation”Perhaps the most irresistible thinking error Perhaps the most irresistible thinking error

made by both laypeople and professional made by both laypeople and professional psychologists is to assume that psychologists is to assume that correlation proves causation.correlation proves causation.

Correlation reveals how closely two things Correlation reveals how closely two things vary together and thus how well one vary together and thus how well one predicts the other.predicts the other.

The fact that events are correlated does The fact that events are correlated does not mean, however, that one causes the not mean, however, that one causes the other or while correlation enable other or while correlation enable prediction, it does not provide prediction, it does not provide explanation.explanation.

Ex. Correlation Ex. Correlation ≠ ≠ CausationCausationIf you observe a correlation between the If you observe a correlation between the

number of hours students use the number of hours students use the computer to study and their grade point computer to study and their grade point averages (with high computer users averages (with high computer users getting higher grades), you getting higher grades), you cannotcannot assume that the relationship is assume that the relationship is causalcausal: : that computer use improves grades. In that computer use improves grades. In this case, the third variable might be this case, the third variable might be socioeconomic status -- richer students socioeconomic status -- richer students who have greater resources at their who have greater resources at their disposal tend to both use computers disposal tend to both use computers and do better in their grades. and do better in their grades.

Correlation Does Not Correlation Does Not Equal CausationEqual CausationY changes due to X. Y changes due to X. X changes due to YX changes due to YZ, may be causing changes in both X and Y. Z, may be causing changes in both X and Y. As Z changes, X and Y change simultaneously, As Z changes, X and Y change simultaneously,

leading to their correlation. leading to their correlation.

A TV news show reported that women who A TV news show reported that women who have a baby after the age of forty are have a baby after the age of forty are more likely to live to be one hundred more likely to live to be one hundred than those who do not. Is having a baby than those who do not. Is having a baby at a relatively late childbearing age at a relatively late childbearing age responsible for prolonged life? responsible for prolonged life?

- Women who bear children when they are in Women who bear children when they are in their forties may tend to be healthier, their forties may tend to be healthier, better off financially, or have other better off financially, or have other characteristics associated with living characteristics associated with living longer. longer.

2. Neale and Liebert (1973) provide another 2. Neale and Liebert (1973) provide another striking example--there is a positive striking example--there is a positive correlation between the number of correlation between the number of churches in a city and the amount of crime churches in a city and the amount of crime in that city. Does this mean we should shut in that city. Does this mean we should shut down some places of worship to help curb down some places of worship to help curb crime? crime?

Correlation Does Not Correlation Does Not Equal CausationEqual Causation

3. The more a person weighs, the 3. The more a person weighs, the larger his or her vocabulary.larger his or her vocabulary.

HW: Find three good examples of HW: Find three good examples of correlational results being presented correlational results being presented as if they implied causality. For as if they implied causality. For each, include the statement made each, include the statement made by the news media and identify as by the news media and identify as many interpretations of the data many interpretations of the data

Correlation Does Not Correlation Does Not Equal CausationEqual Causation

Bell RingerBell Ringer

Share your examples of Share your examples of correlations with a neighbor and correlations with a neighbor and from your six examples and from your six examples and choose one that:choose one that:

1.1. Infers causalityInfers causality

2.2. Could have a third variableCould have a third variable

(z causing x and y to both change)(z causing x and y to both change)

Testing MethodTesting Method

Several types of tests, (AIMS & SAT) measure Several types of tests, (AIMS & SAT) measure various elements of human behavior such as various elements of human behavior such as abilities, interests, and personality.abilities, interests, and personality.

AdvantagesAdvantages– – Enables researchers to gain insight into certain Enables researchers to gain insight into certain

aspects of an individual’s abilities or behavior.aspects of an individual’s abilities or behavior.DisadvantagesDisadvantages– – Does not always provide a complete or accurateDoes not always provide a complete or accuraterepresentation of an individual’s true abilities orrepresentation of an individual’s true abilities orpersonalities.personalities.

Case-Study MethodCase-Study Method

Researchers conduct in-depth investigations of Researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or small groups.individuals or small groups.

AdvantagesAdvantages– – Provides insight into specific cases.Provides insight into specific cases.DisadvantagesDisadvantagesMay focus on isolated circumstances or events May focus on isolated circumstances or events

that cannot be replicated.that cannot be replicated.– – People interviewed in case studies may People interviewed in case studies may

distort their pastdistort their pastexperiences.experiences.– – May unintentionally encourage people to May unintentionally encourage people to

answer questions a certain way.answer questions a certain way.

Longitudinal MethodLongitudinal Method

A group of participants are observed at A group of participants are observed at intervals over an extended period of intervals over an extended period of time.time.

AdvantagesAdvantages– – Enable researchers to see how Enable researchers to see how

individuals change over time.individuals change over time.DisadvantagesDisadvantages– – Time-consuming and expensive.Time-consuming and expensive.– – Participants may not be available for the Participants may not be available for the

duration of the study. (duration of the study. (attritionattrition) )

Cross-Sectional Cross-Sectional MethodMethod

AdvantagesAdvantages

– – Less time-Less time-consuming than consuming than the longitudinal the longitudinal method for method for studying changes studying changes over time.over time.

DisadvantagesDisadvantages

– – Differences Differences between the between the members of the members of the samplesample

cannot necessarily cannot necessarily be attributed to be attributed to age or age or development.development.

Researchers compare the differences Researchers compare the differences and similarities among people in and similarities among people in different age groups at a given time.different age groups at a given time.

Experimental MethodExperimental Method

AdvantagesAdvantages– – Researchers are Researchers are

able to manipulate able to manipulate variables to variables to determine cause determine cause and effect.and effect.

– – Laboratory setting Laboratory setting enables researcher enables researcher to monitor and to monitor and record all stages of record all stages of the experiment.the experiment.

DisadvantagesDisadvantages– – Conditions created Conditions created

in laboratory may in laboratory may not accurately not accurately reflect thereflect the

conditions of real life.conditions of real life.– – Experiments may be Experiments may be

subject to volunteer subject to volunteer bias, researcher bias, researcher bias, and the bias, and the placebo effectplacebo effect

Researchers administer a treatment, then carefully observe the participants to determine how the treatment influences their behavior, if at all. {Cause & Effect}

Experimental Method Experimental Method

Variables: Measurable factor or conditionVariables: Measurable factor or conditionIndependent Variables: factors manipulated to Independent Variables: factors manipulated to

determine its effectdetermine its effectDependent Variable: factor effectedDependent Variable: factor effected(Ex. Warm temperature causes aggression (Ex. Warm temperature causes aggression

independent variables dependent variables)independent variables dependent variables)Placebo: A substance or treatment that has no Placebo: A substance or treatment that has no

effect apart from belief in it.effect apart from belief in it.Single Blind: participant unaware if they have Single Blind: participant unaware if they have

taken placebotaken placeboDouble Blind: both participant or examiner are Double Blind: both participant or examiner are

unaware of who received placebounaware of who received placebo

AMERICAN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYASSOCIATION (APA)ASSOCIATION (APA)- A scientific and professional organization of - A scientific and professional organization of

psychologistspsychologistsCode of ethics guidelines was established in Code of ethics guidelines was established in

1993 to protect the rights of subjects: all 1993 to protect the rights of subjects: all psychology researchers must follow these psychology researchers must follow these guidelines:guidelines:

1.1. Issue of riskIssue of risk2.2. ConfidentialityConfidentiality3.3. Informed ConsentInformed Consent4.4. DebriefingDebriefing5.5. DeceptionDeception

Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

Psychologists follow ethical Psychologists follow ethical standards to promote:standards to promote:

-The dignity of the individual,-The dignity of the individual,-Foster human welfare, &-Foster human welfare, &-Maintain scientific integrity.-Maintain scientific integrity.Prevents scientists from undertaking Prevents scientists from undertaking

research or treatment that will be research or treatment that will be harmful to human participants.harmful to human participants.

Risk & ConfidentialityRisk & Confidentiality

ISSUE OF RISK:ISSUE OF RISK:No physical or psychological harm done to No physical or psychological harm done to

subjects.subjects.RIGHT TO PRIVACY:RIGHT TO PRIVACY:Studies must be conducted in complete Studies must be conducted in complete

confidentiality.confidentiality.Names omitted from data of these studies;Names omitted from data of these studies;Reported in group form rather than as Reported in group form rather than as

responses from individualsresponses from individualsSubjects more likely to disclose true Subjects more likely to disclose true

information and feelingsinformation and feelings

Informed Consent & Informed Consent & DebriefingDebriefingINFORMED CONSENT:INFORMED CONSENT:- People agree to participate in a research study only- People agree to participate in a research study onlyafter they have been given a general overview.after they have been given a general overview.- Given the choice of whether or not to participate.- Given the choice of whether or not to participate.- Subject must know the hypothesis being tested, and- Subject must know the hypothesis being tested, andnature and implication of these results for the sciencenature and implication of these results for the scienceof psychology.of psychology.DEBRIEFING:DEBRIEFING:Avoid misunderstandings, reduces anxieties and helpsAvoid misunderstandings, reduces anxieties and helpsto maintain subjects dignityto maintain subjects dignity

DeceptionDeception

Should psychologists lie to their subjects?Should psychologists lie to their subjects?Ψ Not always possible to tell the whole truth about a study.Ψ Not always possible to tell the whole truth about a study.

Examples: Examples: Stanley Stanley MilgramMilgram, 1963, 1963

How far will people obey authority figure who orders themHow far will people obey authority figure who orders themto violate their own ethical code?to violate their own ethical code?

Only under specific conditions:Only under specific conditions:Ψ Belief that the benefit outweigh its potential harmΨ Belief that the benefit outweigh its potential harmΨ The subject might have be willing to participate if they Ψ The subject might have be willing to participate if they

had understood its benefitshad understood its benefitsΨ Must receive an explanation of the study after it occurredΨ Must receive an explanation of the study after it occurred

Animal ResearchAnimal Research

ΨShould animals be used in research?ΨShould animals be used in research?Ψ7 or 8 percent of psychological studies Ψ7 or 8 percent of psychological studies

are done on animals.are done on animals.Ψ95% of the animals are Norwegian Ψ95% of the animals are Norwegian

white rodents, which is bred white rodents, which is bred specifically for research purposes and specifically for research purposes and is relatively cheap and healthy.is relatively cheap and healthy.

Ψ Other animals used are pigeons, cats, Ψ Other animals used are pigeons, cats, monkeys, apes and other.monkeys, apes and other.

Harm of AnimalsHarm of Animals

ΨMost animals are not harmed.ΨMost animals are not harmed.ΨHowever, physical and psychological harm ΨHowever, physical and psychological harm

such as experiments in which infant monkeys such as experiments in which infant monkeys are reared apart from their mothers and as a are reared apart from their mothers and as a consequence develop abnormal behavior.consequence develop abnormal behavior.

ΨSome studies require the animal’s death ΨSome studies require the animal’s death (never vivisection) (never vivisection)

ΨExample: when rats brought up in deprived or ΨExample: when rats brought up in deprived or enrich environments are sacrificed so that enrich environments are sacrificed so that their brains can be examined for any effects.their brains can be examined for any effects.

Monkey TortureMonkey Torture

WHY ANIMALS?WHY ANIMALS?

- Similar Enough to Generalize Similar Enough to Generalize Biology and BehaviorBiology and Behavior

- Different enough to avoid empathyDifferent enough to avoid empathy

Ψ Ψ SpeciesismSpeciesism is the assigning of is the assigning of different values or rights to beings different values or rights to beings on the basis of their species on the basis of their species membership. membership.

SHOULD THERE BE A BAN SHOULD THERE BE A BAN ONONANIMAL RESEARCH?ANIMAL RESEARCH? BENEFITSBENEFITSΨ Treating enuresis (bed Ψ Treating enuresis (bed

wetting);wetting);Ψ Fecal incontinence (loss of Ψ Fecal incontinence (loss of

bowel control);bowel control);Ψ Improve classroom learning;Ψ Improve classroom learning;Ψ Teach retarded children to Ψ Teach retarded children to

communicate;communicate;Ψ Develop a device to correct Ψ Develop a device to correct

curvature of the spine;curvature of the spine;Ψ Devise behavioral therapies Ψ Devise behavioral therapies

for treating emotionalfor treating emotionalproblems and substance problems and substance

abuse;abuse;Ψ Combat life-threatening Ψ Combat life-threatening

malnutrition caused bymalnutrition caused bychronic vomiting in infants…chronic vomiting in infants…

CONTROVERSIALCONTROVERSIALΨ Medical use of animal;Ψ Medical use of animal;Ψ Drug testing;Ψ Drug testing;Ψ Surgical procedures;Ψ Surgical procedures;Ψ Bypass surgery, Ψ Bypass surgery,

pacemakers, heart pacemakers, heart transplants, & polio transplants, & polio vaccines;vaccines;

Ψ Eye make-up.Ψ Eye make-up.