Beef diseases directory - AHDB Beef & Lambbeefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/... · Diseases in the UK cattle industry account for huge losses and are a major welfare

Beef diseases directory

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The technical information in this booklet was supplied by NADIS, Jonathan Statham, Bishopton Vets/RAFT solutions Ltd (a member of XL Vets) and compiled by Katie Brian, AHDB Beef & Lamb.

AHDB Beef & Lamb Better Returns Programme is grateful to all those who have commented and contributed to this publication.

Photography: Jonathan Statham, MSD Animal Health, NADIS, and Zoetis.

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Tel: 024 7647 8834Email: [email protected]

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Contents The costs of diseaseDiseasesintheUKcattleindustryaccountforhugelossesandareamajorwelfareconcern.Ateamapproachtofarmhealthplanning,involvingthefarm’svet,performancerecordingandidentifyingareasforimprovement,canincreasereturnsforbeefproducers.

Diseasescauseproductionlossesthroughforexample,reduceddailyliveweightgain(DLWG),orincreasedcostssuchasfeed–eventhoughanimalsmaynotappeartobeill.Withoutattentiontoherdperformance‘sub-clinical’lossescansoonaddup.

Inthispublication,wehighlightever-presentandsignificantconditionsaffectingthebeefindustry.Weprovideinsightintothemainsymptomsandriskfactors–alongsidethemosteffectivepreventionandtreatmentprotocols.However,werecommendproducersshouldalwaysconsulttheirvetforclinicaldiagnosisandtodiscusseffectivetreatments.

Discussingafarmhealthplanwiththevetprovidestheidealopportunitytosetoutastrategicapproachtodiseasepreventionandmanagementintheherd.

KatieBrianBRPProjectManager

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2 Abortion

4 Bovine Viral Diarrhoea

6 Diarrhoea

8 Eye conditions

10 Hypomagnesaemia

12 Johne’s disease

14 Lameness

16 Liver fluke

18 Lungworm

20 Midge-borne diseases

22 Parasitic gastroenteritis

24 Plant poisoning

26 Respiratory disease

28 Septicaemia

30 Skin conditions

32 Summer mastitis

34 Best practice

Officiallyrecordedcasesofabortionincattlearerelativelylowbutthisisalmostcertainlyduetounder-reportingbyfarmers.Abortioncoversallformsofinfertilityfromtheloss(re-absorption)ofaveryyoungfoetustoprematurebirth,butisusuallydefinedastheproductionofoneormorecalvesbetween50and270daysofgestation.

Abortionisusuallycausedbyoneofanumberofinfectiousagentsandmayaffectoneortwoindividualanimals,butitcanoftencausewidespreadproblemsinaherd.Diagnosisofbovineabortioncanbechallenging.Failuretoidentifythecauseofanabortionquicklyandtakeactioncanresultinaproblemleadingtosignificantfinancialloss.

Costs and implications

Evenasinglecaseofabortionrepresentsasubstantiallossinabeefsucklerherd,astheaffectedcowiseffectivelyrenderedunproductivefortheyear.Purchasingareplacementcalftofosterontoacowthathasabortedpresentsnewriskstotheherd.

Abortionsmayoftenbeanindicationoffarwiderdiseaseproblemsandasinglecasecanquicklybecomemoresignificant.

Manycausesofabortionarezoonoticdiseaseswhichmeanstheycanbetransmittedtohumans.Youngchildren,pregnantwomenandtheelderlyareespeciallyvulnerable.

IntheUK,allabortionsandprematurebirths(beforeday271ofgestation)mustbereportedtoDefrawhowillthendeterminethenecessarycourseofaction.

Common causes and consequences

Viral:• InfectiousBovineRhinotracheitis(IBR,page26)

• BovineVirusDiarrhoea/MucosalDisease(BVD/MD, page4)Bacterial:

• Leptospirosis Abortionoftenoccurssixtotwelveweeksafter infection,usuallyinlatepregnancy.Alsoassociated withreducedfertilityandthebirthofweakcalves.

• Campylobacter foetus venerealis Abortionandretentionofdiseasedfoetalmembranes atfourtosevenmonthsofpregnancy,typicallyfirst recognisedbyreturnstooestrusfollowingservicebya carrierbull.CattlebredbyAIarenotaffected.

• Brucella abortus ThelastoutbreakinGreatBritainwasin2004,despite beingofficiallyeradicatedin1983.Veryhighlevelsof abortionoccurinnewlyinfectedherds.

• Salmonella Abortiontypicallyoccursinlatepregnancy.Byfarthe commonestcauseisS.dublininfection(whenabortion

oftenoccursinlatesummer),followedbyS.typhimurium.Ingestiontoabortiontypicallytakessixtoeightweeks.

• Listeria monocytogenes Sporadicabortionduringthewintermonths,linkedto verypoorqualitysilage.

• Bacillus licheniformis Sporadicabortionusuallyinlatepregnancy,most

commonlyoccurringinnorthwestEnglandandScotlandandduetothepresenceofBacillusbacteriainmouldyhay,straw,silageandotherfeedstuffs.

Protozoal:

• Neospora caninum Themostcommonlydiagnosedcauseofbovineabortion

(12.5%ofinvestigatedcases),mostcommonatfivetosixmonthsofpregnancy.Infectioniscarriedbydogsandhoundpacksandispassedonintheirfaeces.

Abortion

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Fungal:

• Mycotic (fungal) abortion Sporadicabortiontypicallyinthewintermonthsand

mostcommonlyinthewestcountryfollowingharvestingconditionsthatpromotefungalgrowthonhay,silageorstraw.Typicallyaffectscowsinmid-latepregnancy,eveniftheinfectionispickedupearlier.Mayaffectupto10%oftheherdinsomecircumstances.

Early identification

Lossofthefoetusbeforethreemonthsmaynotbedetecteduntilthecowunexpectedlyreturnstooestrus.

Ifabortionoccurslaterthanthreemonthsthefoetusmaybefound,especiallywhencattlearehoused,butretainedfoetalmembranesmaybetheonlyevidence,particularlyifwildanimalshavedisposedofthefoetus.

Prevention and control

• Biosecurity and disease-free status Strictbiosecuritytomaintaindisease-freestatusisthe

firstpriorityinminimisingtheriskofabortion.

Abortionsmustbereportedanditisimportantto isolateabortedcowsanddisposeoftheproductsof abortionwhereverpossibletoavoidpotentialvector

animalsgainingaccess;itmaybeadvisabletokeepsamplesforanalysis.

InthecaseofBrucella,UKcontrolmeasuresinclude thetestingofallbreedingstockover24months.

• Vaccination Vaccinationshouldbeusedtomaintaintheherd’s

disease-freestatuswhereappropriate.IBR,BVD/MDandS.dublincanallbecontrolledthroughvaccination.

• Feed quality Severaloftheorganismscausingabortionoriginatein poorqualityfeed(egListeria,Bacillusandahostof

fungalorganismsandmycotoxins).Itisthereforeessentialtoapplythehigheststandardsatalltimestoharvestingandfeedstorageprocedures.Ifcontaminationhasoccurred–bevigilantandremovepotentiallyharmfulfeeds.

Anabortedfoetusatthreetofourmonths.

Retainedfoetalmembranesmaybetheonlyevidenceofabortion.

Mouldysilagemaybeaprecursortoabortion,butriskassessmentisdifficult.

Thisin-calfcowdrinkingsurfacewaterclosetoadungmiddencouldbeatriskofpickingupaninfectionthatcouldcauseabortion.

AbortionA

bortion

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BovineViralDiarrhoeaisawidespreadinfectiousdiseaseofcattlethatisusuallytransmittedthoughdirectcattle-to-cattlecontact.ItiscausedbyavirusandlingersinherdsthroughPersistentlyInfected(PI)animals(whichcanappearclinicallynormal).Itcanalsodevelopintoanacuteformasatemporaryinfection,orfollowingchangesintheviruswithinPIanimals,asthefatalconditionmucosaldisease(MD).

NaturalvaccinationwithexposuretoPIanimalsisunreliableandriskscreatingfreshPIswithexposuretopregnantfemales.Goodvaccinesareavailableandshouldbeused.

BVDTypeIIisanemergingriskfortheUK.Althoughnotcurrentlyconfirmedaspresent,ithasbeenresponsibleforsevereoutbreaksofdiseaseinEurope,particularlytheNetherlands,Germanyandneighbouringstates.

Itismoresevereintheacuteformandcancausedeathinadultcattle.VaccineswithBVDTypeIIprotectionareemergingontotheUKmarketandcontrolshouldbediscussedwiththevet.


BVDcanleadtosignificantlossesresultingfromreducedfertility,poorproductionandincreasedsusceptibilitytootherinfections,especiallyinyoungcalves.Lossesareparticularlyseverewherethevirusisintroducedtogroupsofsusceptiblebreedingcattle.

Mucosaldiseasetypicallycausesthedeathoftheanimalwithinfivetotendays,socasesshouldbeculledondiagnosis.Calvesbornwitheyeandbraindefectsduetovirusinfectionduringdevelopmentshouldalsobeculled.

Risk factors and susceptibility

AllcattlearepotentiallysusceptibletoinfectionwiththeBVDvirus.Theviruscanbespreadinthesemenofpersistentlyinfectedbulls(orbullswithatemporaryinfection).

High risk situations:

• Introductionofpersistentlyinfectedcattleintoa naïveandunprotectedherd

• Introductionofnaïve(uninfectedcattle)intoan infectedherd


• Non-pregnantcattleexposuretotheBVDvirus causesatemporaryinfectionbeforeprotective

antibodiesareproducedwithinthreetofourweeks.Thisinfectionmaytemporarilylowerimmunitytootherinfectiousdiseases,suchassalmonella,respiratoryinfectionsandcoccidiosis,leadingtomoreseveresymptomsorillthriftparticularlyinyoungcalves

• ForcattleinearlypregnancyexposuretotheBVD virusduringthefirst110dayscancausethe

followingproblems:

• Lowpregnancyrates

• Embryodeathandreturntoheat

• Foetaldeath/abortion

• Mummifiedfoetuses

• Birthdefectsofnervoussystemandeyes

• Weak/prematurecalves

• Livepersistentlyinfectedcalves

• MucosaldiseaseoccurswhentheBVDvirusin persistentlyinfectedanimalschangestoacytopathic

(cellkilling)virus,typicallyin6-12montholdcalves,causingthesesymptoms:

• Depression,salivationandfever

• Anorexia

• Mouthandmuzzleulcers

• Pusdischargesfromeyesandnostrils

• Severediarrhoeawithbloodandshredsof gutlining

Bovine Viral Diarrhoea(BVD)

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• ‘Naturalvaccination’–whereinfectionispresentand persistentlyinfectedcalvesactas‘naturalvaccinators’ andadultcattleareimmune,meansthediseasecanbe presentinaherdwithminimalclinicaldisease symptomsorobviouslosses.Introductionofnaïve breedingfemalestosuchaherdwill,however,resultin significantlosses

• Vaccination–whereallbreedingfemalesarevaccinated, thediseaseiscontrolledbypreventingBVDinfectionof

developingfoetusesduringpregnancyandstoppingtheproductionofpersistentlyinfectedcalves.BVDvaccinestypicallyinvolvetwodoses,threetofourweeksapartbeforefirstservicefollowedbyannualboostervaccinations

• Eradication–wholeherdbloodtestingandelimination ofallpersistentlyinfectedcarrieranimalscaneffectively

eradicateBVDfromtheherd.Thismustbebackedupbystrictbiosecuritymeasurestopreventre-introductiontothenaïveandfullysusceptibleherd

Diagnosis and treatment

• Testscanbecarriedoutforthevirus,forexample polymerasechainreaction(PCR)orantigenELISA.Itcan beusefultoperformserologyonagroupoffivetoten, eightmontholdhomebredanimalsasachecktestto classifyaherdascurrentlyactivelychallengedbyBVDor currentlyfree.SeeCattleHealthCertificationStandards (CHeCS)formoreinformationatwww.checs.co.uk

• Persistentlyinfectedcalvesmayappearclinically normalbutarecommonlystuntedorthinduetotheir susceptibilitytobacterialinfectionsuchaspneumonia. Twopositivebloodsamplestakenthreetofourweeks apartarerequiredtoconfirmpersistentvirusinfection. Thesecattlehaveoftenbeentreatedseveraltimes fordigestiveandrespiratoryinfectionsandshouldbe disposedofastheyactasasourceofBVDinfection

CalvesbornofinfecteddamsmaybepersistentlyinfectedwithBVD.

YearlingcalvesmayappearpoorlythrivenincomparisonwiththeirherdmatesduetopersistentinfectionwithBVD.

Calvesmaybebornwithdefectsofthenervoussystem,typifiedbyalowheadcarriageandwidestance.

CowsintroducedtoaherdfromoutsidemaypresentaBVDrisk.Stringentbiosecurityisessentialtopreventinfection.

Bovine Viral Diarrhoea(BVD) Bovine V

iral Diarrhoea (BVD

)

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Severediarrhoeaorcalfscoursisoneofthemostcostlydiseaseissuesaffectingbeefenterprises.Itisamajorcauseofcalfmortalityandleadstosignificantfinanciallossesduetotheseveregrowthcheckinrecoveringcalves.

Thefollowingarethemorecommonandimportantvariantsofcalfscours:

• Rotavirus infection (most common) Infectioncancauseacompleterangeofclinical

signs,fromnoobservedabnormalitytoseverediarrhoeaanddehydrationwithhighmortality.

• Coronavirus diarrhoea Infectioncanprogressrapidlytoweakness,

recumbency,severedehydrationanddeath.

• Enterotoxigenic E. coli Incidenceislow(1%ofscouringcalves)butlosses canbehigh.Suddenonsetofscourisaccompanied

byabloatedappearance.

• Cryptosporidiosis Diarrhoeaiscausedbythephysicallossofabsorptive

areafromthesmallintestineandincreasestheseverityofotherpotentialinfections.Dehydrationtendstobemild,butcalvesloseconditionovertwotofivedaysandhaveadulltucked-upappearance.

• Coccidiosis Causedbysingle-celledparasites,calledcoccidia.

Coccidialspeciesthatcausediseasedamagethecellliningofthelargeintestine,resultingindiarrhoea.

• Salmonella MostcommonlyS.dublinisassociatedwith

producingacuteorsub-acuteillnessincalves.


Financiallossesfromcalfscourscanbecrippling.Mortalityratescanbeveryhighwithcertaininfections,butalsosignificantisthecostoftreatment(labour,drugs,etc),andtheimpactofseveregrowthchecksoncalvesthatsurvive.


Allyoungcalvesarepotentiallyatriskofinfection,butthefollowingwillincreasethelikelihoodofdiseaseoccurring:

• Historyofspecificinfectionontheunit

• Replacementsfromanotherunit

• Inadequatecolostrum

• Poorstandardsofhygiene

• Rotavirusmostcommonlyaffectscalvesat 8-14days

• Coronaviruscausesdiarrhoeaincalvesupto 20daysold

• EnterotoxigenicE.colitypicallyaffectscalves agedonetothreedays

• Cryptosporidiosisismostcommonincalves 10-21daysold

• Coccidiosisisparticularlycommonincalves betweenthreeweeksandsixmonthsold

• Salmonellausuallyaffectscalvestwotosix weeksofage


Earlysignsareasfollowsforthemaindiseases:

• Rotavirus Reluctancetostandandsuck,milddepression,

salivation,quicklyfollowedbyacuteonsetofdiarrhoea(wateryyellow/greenfaeces).

• Coronavirus Depression,reluctancetosuckandfaeces

containingmucusandmilkcurds.

• Enterotoxigenic E. coli Profuseyellow/whitediarrhoeacausingrapid

andseveredehydration.Calvesquicklybecomerecumbentandbloated.

• Cryptosporidiosis Profuseyellow/greendiarrhoeawithmucuspresent.

• Coccidiosis Awaterydiarrhoeaoftenaccompaniedby

straining,mucusandblood,depression,lackofappetiteandweightloss.

Diarrhoea (calf scours)

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• Salmonella Apastydiarrhoeaoftenwithbloodandshredsofmucus

fromtheintestinewithanoffensiveodour.Calvescanrapidlybecomedehydrated,collapseanddie.


• Management Theriskofallformsofcalfscourscanbeminimised

byensuringcalvingareasarecleanandwell-bedded,preferablymucked-outbetweencalvings.

Calvesshouldhaveatleast10%oftheir bodyweight(usuallyaboutthreelitres)as colostrumideallywithinsixhoursofbirth.

Inthecaseofcryptosporidiosis,wheretheparasite canremainintheenvironmentformonths,itis

importanttoavoidusingthesamefieldsforcalvingandtomovenewbornanimalsimmediatelytocleanpasture.

• Vaccination Annualvaccinationofpregnantcowswitha

combinedrotavirus,coronavirusandE.coliK99vaccineprovidesvaluableinsurance.Protectiveantibodiesarepassedoninthecolostrum.


Diagnosisfromsymptomsoutlinedaboveand/orthroughlaboratoryanalysisoffaecesshouldbecarriedoutbythevettodeterminethecause(s)ofdiarrhoea.

Treatment of severely scouring calves:

• Isolateinawell-beddedpen

• Feedonetotwolitresoforalelectrolytetwotofourtimes aday(stomachtubeonceandconsultvetifcalveswill notsuckthroughateatwithintwotofourhours)

• Ifdehydratedcalvescannotstandunaided,intravenous fluidsshouldbeadministeredbythevet

• Antibioticinjectionsshouldbeusedfor concurrentinfections(egnavelill)

• Ascalvesrecover,alternatemilkandelectrolyte solutioneverytwotofourhours

• Offerfluidsbyteatasactivesuckingisanindicator ofimprovement

Milddiarrhoeaorcalfscour.

Moderatediarrhoearequiresoralrehydrationsolutiontocorrectdehydration.

Severediarrhoea.

Affectedcalvesrapidlybecomedehydratedandrecumbent.

Diarrhoea (calf scours)D

iarrhoea (calf scours)

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InfectiousBovineKeratoconjunctivitis(IBK),alsoknownasPinkEyeorNewForestDisease,isahighlycontagiousdiseasecausedbythebacteriaMoraxellabovis.Itspreadsrapidlyduringthesummerandismorecommonlyseeninyoungstockthanadults.

BovineIritis,alsoknownas‘SilageEye’,isacommoncauseofinflammationofthemiddlelayeroftheeye.Itcanoccurincattleofallagesfedbaledsilage/haylage.

CancerEye(OcularSquamousCellCarcinoma)isuncommoninnorthernEurope.Thesecancerousgrowthstypicallydevelopfromthethirdeyelid(themembraneofthelowereyelid)followingprolongedexposuretosunlight.


Lesionsinandaroundtheeyeareverypainfulandwilldisruptgrazing,causingpoorperformanceandweightloss.Theycanalsocausetemporaryblindnesswithaffectedanimalswanderingaboutaimlessly.


FliesactasmechanicalvectorsforM.bovis.Foreignbodiessuchasdust,grassawnsorsmallbitsofensiledgrassstalk,cancauseBovineIritis.


• IBK ThefirstsignsofIBKareobvioustearstainingof thefacewithpusmattingthelashesandhair belowtheaffectedeye.Animalsfinditpainfulto beindirectsunlight.

Spontaneousrecoverymayoccurinmildcases afterthreetofivedaysandtheanimalswillbe betteraftertwoweeks.Inseverecases, ulcerationmayleadtoperforationofthesurface oftheeye(cornea).

• Bovine Iritis Initialsignsincludeexcessivetear-staining, blinkingandforcedclosureoftheeyelids.

Abluish-whiteopacityisusuallyseenonthe corneawithintwoorthreedays.Thiscanturn yellowaspusaccumulatesbeneath.These lesionscantakeseveralweekstoclearwithout treatment.

• Cancer Eye Cancerousgrowthsmayirritatetheeyesurface

leadingtosecondarycornealulcerationandinfectionleadingtoeyelidclosure.Thereisusuallyadischargeduetomechanicalirritationoftheeye.

Eye conditions

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Bovineiritisischaracterisedbyabluish-whiteopacityonthesurfaceoftheeyeball.


• IBK OutbreaksofIBKcanoccurafterthe introductionofpurchasedstock.Allnewcattle shouldbeinitiallymanagedseparatelyasone groupawayfromthemainherd.

Flycontrol,usingeartagsandpour-on insecticides,isneverabsoluteandrepeated treatmentsarecostly.Developmentofimmunity followinginfectionisvariable.

Injectionofallat-riskcattlewithasingle intramuscularinjectionoflong-actingantibiotic couldbeconsideredinsevereepidemics.Discuss theoptionswiththevet.

• Bovine Iritis Rollingoutbig-balesilageratherthanplacingin ringfeederswillpreventcattleburrowingtheir headsintothebale,butthismaybe impractical.

Attentiontodetailwhenbalingandwrapping andensuringgoodconditionsforfermentation, shouldlimitcontaminationwithListeria monocytogenes,thebacteriawhichcausethe problem.

However,abaleleftexposedtotheairfor severaldaysbeforebeingeatenup,providesan idealenvironmentforL.monocytogenesto multiply.Goodbalemanagementatfeedout isvital.

• Cancer Eye Selectcattlewithpigmentedskinsurrounding theeyelidsasthesearelesslikelytosuccumbto cancereye.

Lashesmattedwithpusindicateaneyeinfection.

YellowpusaccumulatesintheeyewithBovineiritis.

Cattleeatingsilagefromringfeedersareatriskofeyeinjuryleadingtoinfection.

Whiteheadedcattlearemoreatriskofcontractingcancereye.

Eye conditionsEye conditions

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Hypomagnesaemiaisacommonmetabolic/feedingrelateddiseaseofolderbeefcows(fourthcalvingorolder),butoccasionallycanaffectyoungercattle.Itisoftenfatalifnotdetectedwithinhoursandtreatedcorrectly,soshouldbeconsideredaveterinaryemergency.

Theconditioniscausedbylowbloodmagnesiumconcentrationsresultingfromseasonaldeficienciesingrazedgrassandismostcommonincowsthathavebeencalvedforonetothreemonths.Drycowscanalsobeaffectedifnotreceivingsupplementaryfeed.Hypomagnesaemiacanpotentiallyaffectnumerouscowsinaherdorgroup.Stressfactorssuchasbadweatherorhandlingcancauseclinicalcaseswherethereisanunderlyingproblem.

Affectedcowsaretypicallyfoundlyingwiththeheadthrownbackandmaybethrashingwildly.Cowsmayappearquietattimes,buthandlingusuallyleadstofitting.


Thelossofasucklercowexceeds£1000.

AllsuddendeathsinadultcattlemustbereportedtothelocalAnimalHealthOfficeandtestedforanthrax.Oncetestsprovenegative,furthertestingiscarriedouttoestablishmagnesiumconcentration.Bloodsamplingofothercowsinthegroupisrecommendedtoestablishherdstatus.


• Lushspringgrazingparticularlyinrecently turned-outspringcalvers

• Autumngrazingforautumncalversparticularly afterstormyweather

• Cowsonetothreemonthspostcalving(fourth calvingonwards)

• Drycowsnotonsupplementaryfeeding


Cowswithlowbloodmagnesiumconcentrationsmayappearnormaluntilstressfactorscausetherapidonsetof‘staggers’.

However,thefollowingsignsmayprovideanearlywarninginsomecases:

• Restlessnessandexcitability

• Unsteadiness

• Tremorsoftheskinovertheshoulders

• Eyelidtremors

Hypomagnesaemia (grass staggers, grass tetany)

Feedingmineralsad-libisnotareliablewaytoensureallcowsinagroupreceiveadequatemagnesium.

10 11


• Daily intake of magnesium

Thisisessentialascowsareunabletostoremagnesiuminthebody.

Feedingcattleconcentratescontaininganappropriatemagnesium,supplement(1-2kg/cow/day)isthemostreliablemethod.

Home-mixedrationsshouldbesupplementedwithmagnesiumasmanystraightsaretypicallydeficient.

Ad-libmineralsarenotareliablesourceofdailymagnesiumforallcowsinagroup.Themostreliablemethodofcontrolistogiveamagnesiumbolus.

• Supplement grazing with straw

Goodqualitybarleystrawfedad-libhelpsslowtheflowoflushgrassthroughthegutandaidsmagnesiumabsorption.

• Avoid potassium fertilisers

Potassiuminterfereswithmagnesiumabsorptionandshouldnotbeincludedincompoundfertilisersspreadontograsslandduringriskperiods.


Diagnosisisbasedonclinicalsignsandcanbeconfirmedthroughbloodsampling.

Symptomsofhypomagnesaemiashouldbetreatedasaveterinaryemergency.Fittingcowscanbesedatedfirstbytheattendingvet.Treatmentwilltypicallyinvolveintravenousinjection(byvet)administeredslowly,followedbyfurtherinjectionsatseveralsitesusingamixturecontainingsmallamountsofmagnesiuminacalciumsolution.

Itisessentialtodealwiththeriskofhypomagnesaemiaintheremainderofthegroup(seeabove).

Hypomagnesaemia (grass staggers, grass tetany)

Ifnotdetectedwithinhoursofonset,hypomagnesaemiaisoftenfatal.

Adverseweatherisoneofthestressfactorsthatcanleadtohypomagnesaemia.

Hypomagnesaemiaisaveterinaryemergency.

Turn-outontolushpastureisacommonfactorinvolvedinhypomagnesaemia.

Hypom

agnesaemia (grass staggers, grass tetany)

11

Johne’sdiseaseisaslowlyprogressinggutinflammationinadultcattlecausedbyasubspecies(paratuberculosis)oftheorganismMycobacteriumavium(MAP).Itischaracterisedbyprogressiveweightlossandchronicdiarrhoea,butdiagnosisandcontrolareparticularlydifficult.


Infectedherdsmaysufferannualcullingormortalityratesof1-5%.

Lossesduetosub-clinicaldisease,includingweightlossandpoorfertility,arealsosubstantial.

Thereisnoeffectivetreatmentandanimalsmustbeculledassoonasadiagnosisisconfirmed.


ClinicalcasesofJohne’sdiseasearenotusuallyseenincattleuntiltheyarethreetofiveyearsold,althoughyoungercasesarepossible.Theorganismispassedontoyoungercattlebyolderinfectedcattleandthereisthenalongincubationperiod.

Thediseasecanbetransmittedinthefollowingways:

• Pickedupfrominfectedfaecesfoundon contaminatedteats,feedstuffsorwatertroughs

• Passedtonewborncalvesinthecolostrumof infecteddams

• Passedfromheavilyinfecteddamstodeveloping calvesintheuterus

Infectedanimalsmayshedcausativeorganismsintheirfaecesforoverayearbeforeclinicalsignsappear.


• Diarrhoeaandweightlossincattlethreeto fiveyearsold,despitenolossofappetiteandan absenceoffever

• Signscanappearfollowingastressfulevent,such ascalvingortransportation


Johne’sdiseaseisdifficulttocontrolduetothelongincubationperiodandthefactthatanimalswillpassinfectiononlongbeforetheyshowclinicalsigns.Diagnosisisalsounrelieable,particularlyintheearlystagesofthedisease.

Practicalcontrolmeasurestolimitlossesinclude:

• Rapidcullingofdiseasedanimals

• Reducingtherisksoffaecalcontaminationof food,waterandpastureeg,raisefeedorwater

troughs,avoiduseofsurfaceorpondwaterfordrinking,avoidspreadingfarmyardmanureonpastures

• Notusingcalvesfrominfecteddamsas replacements

• Onlyrestockingfromaccreditedherds especiallywhenrestockingbulls

Johne’s disease (paratuberculosis)

12 13

Johne’s disease in cattle 1997-2009

• Vaccination–maybeacosteffectiveoption forcommercialbeefherdsrearingtheirown replacements,asitdoesreduceclinicalcasesand overalllosses.However,itwillnoteradicatethe diseaseandavaccinewouldneedtobeimported intotheUKunderlicence.

Keypoints:

• Inoculationmusttakeplacebeforecalvesare onemontholdandpreferablyinthefirstweek

• Inoculationisgiveninthebrisketareaanddoes produceaconsiderablelocalreaction

• Vaccinationisnotanoptionforherdsthatare buyinginreplacements

• VaccinationcomplicatesreadingoftheTBskintest

• Monitored-freeherd–thisrequiressubstantial commitmentbythefarmer,vetandlocal laboratory.

• Strategyisbasedontheidentificationandremoval ofinfectedanimals

• Bloodtestingand/orfaecalexaminationisdone everysixtotwelvemonthswithslaughterof

positivecases

• Twoconsecutiveherdnegativeswillindicate monitored-free

• Strictbiosecuritymeasuresarerequiredtoprevent re-introductionofthedisease


ThereisnosinglereliabletestforconfirmingJohne’sdiseaseduringitsearlystages.Inpracticaltermsdiagnosisisbestachievedthroughacombinationofbloodtestsandfaecalexamination.

Thereisnoeffectivetreatmentandanimalsmustbeculledassoonasadiagnosisisconfirmed.Itisrecommendedthattheprogenyofinfectedcowsarenotkeptasbreedingreplacements.

Contaminationofdrinkingwaterwiththefaecesofinfectedanimalsaidsspreadofthedisease.

ProgressiveweightlossandchronicdiarrhoeaarethemainsignsofJohne’sdisease.

Grosslyinfectedenvironmentsshouldbeavoided.

AcleancalvingenvironmentisakeypointincontrollingthespreadofJohne’sdisease.

Johne’s disease (paratuberculosis)Johne’s disease (paratuberculosis)

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Lamenessresultingfrompainand/orincapacityinthefeetcanresultfromanumberofinteractingfactorsintheenvironmentofcattle.Itismostproblematicalwhenaffectingastudbullorbreedingcowsduringthebreedingseasonandisaseriouswelfareissueinalllivestock.

Footlamenessisusuallyduetoanyofthefollowingconditions:

• ‘Foulofthefoot’anddigitaldermatitis(bacterial infectionbetweentheclaws)

• Hyperplasia(excessskingrowthbetweenthe claws,whichishereditary)

• Soleabscesses/whitelinedisease/solarulceration (impactionbydirt,smallstones,foreignbodies)

• Sandcrack(verticalfractureofthehoofwall)

• Overgrowth(elongationofthefoot)

• Corkscrewclaw(hereditary)


Lamecattleareunproductivecattle,whetherbreedinganimalsorfatteningstock.

Weightlossisacommonconsequenceingrazingcattle,withdelayedheatandpoorconceptionapossibilityinsucklercows.

Infertilityislikelytobethesinglebiggestcostimplication.

Common causes and consequences

• Foul of the foot/digital dermatitis Thistypicallyoccursasasuddenonsetof lamenessandtheanimalonly‘toes’itsfoot totheground.Itisusuallytheresultofwetdung andmudsofteningtheinterdigitaltissueand sharpstonescausingwoundsthatallowbacteria toinfectthedeepertissues.Reservoirsofinfection cansurviveinwetareasaroundgateways.

Thelesionappearsasawideningofthe interdigitalspacewithswellingprogressingup thelegasfarasthefetlockjoint.Thereisusually abreakoftheskinwithdamageoftissue betweentheclaws.

Digitaldermatitisisthoughttobecausedby atypeofbacteriacalledatreponeme.Ittypically producesaredswollenlesionbetweentheclaws oftheheel,(‘hairyheelwarts’)butcaninfect andcomplicatethehealingofmanyothertypes oflameness.Itisamajorprobleminthedairy industryandalsoisemerginginbeefherds.

• Hyperplasia Thishereditaryconditionappearsasexcessskin growthatthefrontoftheinterdigitalspaceand

ismostcommonlyseeninthehindlegsofbulls.Lamenesscanresultfromsuperficialinfection.

• Sole abscesses/white line disease/solar ulcer Anysharpobjectcanpenetratethesoleand

causeanabscessthatistypicallyrecognisedasablackmarkoverlyingthepus.

Impactionofdirtandsmallstonesinthewhite linecanresultinwhitelineabscesses.Lesions areusuallyfoundintheouterclawofthehind foot,ontheoutsideborderclosetothejunction withtheheel,asthisiswherethereismost physicalstress.

Ifleftuntreated,infectioncanextendupthe hoofwallanderuptatthecoronaryband.

Soleulcerscanbecausedbyexcessivestanding onconcreteespeciallyinthepost-calvingperiod. Althoughmoreofanissueinthedairyindustry itcanbeanissueincubicle-housedbeefcattle.

• Sandcrack Thisisaverticalfractureofthehoofwallof

variabledegreesbetweenthecoronarybandandthebottomofthewall.Thedepthofthelesionvariesandpusmayormaynotbepresent.

Excessivedryingoutofthehoofhornduring summermonthsisthoughttobethecauseofthis condition,thoughthisisuncertain.

• Overgrowth Thisisanelongationofthefoot,especially

affectingthehindfeet.Theconditionreducestheweight-bearingsurfaceofthefootandinthelaterstagesthetoebendsupwardsandnolongertouchestheground.

Lameness

14 15

Lameness

15

Overgrowthistypicallycausedbyalackofnatural wearwhencattlearehousedinstrawyards.

• Corkscrew claw Aheritableconditiontypicallycausingtheouter

clawofthehindlegtobetwisted.

Treatment

Alllamecowsshouldbeattendedtopromptly,withveterinarytreatmentrequiredwhenthecauseofthelamenesscannotbedeterminedand/orwhenthelamenesspersistsaftertreatment.

• Foul of the foot/digital dermatitis Itisessentialtolifttheanimal’sfoottocheckfor

impactedforeignbodies,cleanthefootandspraythewoundwithoxytetracyclineaerosol.Aninjectionwithstandardpenicillinwillusuallycuretheinfection.

Preventionisbyregularfootbathingandimproved hygiene.Disinfectionofhoofknivesby foot-trimmerstopreventinter-herdspreadis importantandfootbathingofpurchasedanimals.

• Hyperplasia Treattheinfectionwithoxytetracyclineandif

necessary,injectableantibiotics.Surgicallyremovethegrowthsasalastresort.

• Abscesses/white line disease/solar ulcer Paredownwithahoofknifetoreleasethepus

andremoveallunder-runhorn–thereshouldbenobleeding.Avoiddamagetothesensitivecorium,asthiswilldelaythehealingprocess.Antibiotictreatmentshouldnotbenecessary.Ashoeblockmaybeusedtorelieveweightfromthesensitiveclawwherealargeareaofthesolehasbeenparedoff.

• Sandcrack Removeallaffectedhornbyparingoutashallow‘V’.

Antibiotictreatmentisnotnecessary.

• Overgrowth / Corkscrew claw Correctivefoottrimmingisrequired.

Incasesoffoulofthefoot,theswellingcanprogressupthelegasfarasthefetlockjoint.

Abreakintheinterdigitalskincausedbytheimpactofasharpstone.

Water-loggedgatewayswitholdbricksandstoneprovideanidealenvironmentforbacteriaanddamageanimals’feet,leadingtofoulofthefoot.

Whenabscessesarecorrectlyparedoutthereshouldbepus,butnoblood.

Lameness

Thisdiseaseisacommonanddevastatingconditioncommonlyfoundinwetgrazingland.ItresultsfromtheinfestationoftheliverbytheflatwormFasciolahepatica(liverfluke).

1. Eggspasstopastureviathedung

2. Eggshatchintowater-bornelarvae,whichinfect watersnails

3. Larvaedevelopintoyoungflukebeforeleaving thesnailwhilststillinthewater

4. Youngflukeareeatenbylivestockgrazing wetlands


Severelyaffectedcattlebecomeweakandemaciatedandunabletostand,withsuddendeathapossibility.

Eveninlessseverecases,weaknesscausedbyliverdamagemayleadtoanincreasedincidenceofmetabolicandinfectiousdiseases,particularlyincowsinlatepregnancy.Birthofweakcalvesislikely,particularlyincowsonmarginalwinterrations.


• Allgrazingcattlearesusceptibletoliverfluke

• Eggsfromaninfectedanimalcancompletethe lifecycleandre-infectgrazinganimalsina

minimumof20weeks

• Risktendstobeassociatedwithwetpastures, wherethereissufficientmoistureorstanding

watertosupportthesnail

• Exceptionallywetweather,orsuccessivewet summers,canincreasetheriskinpasturesnot

previouslyidentifiedwiththedisease

• Infestedsheepbroughtontoafarmforover-winter grazingwillcontaminatepastureandincrease

therisktocattleduringthefollowingsummer/autumn


Thefollowingsignsmayindicateliverflukeinfection:

• Persistentdiarrhoea

• Chronicweightlossdespiteadequatefeeding

• Anaemiainseverecases

Liverflukeiscommonlyconfusedwith:

• Poornutrition(whereitisawholeherdorgroup problem)

• Johne’sdisease(severalcowsinagrouporherd)

• Salmonellosis(severalcowsinthegroupor herd)

• Parasiticgastroenteritis(wholeherdorgroup problem)

Liver fluke (Fasciolosis)

1.4.

2.3.

Abovineliverwithenlargedbileductsduetoflukeinfection.

16 17


Fencingoffwetareaorcarryingoutdrainagetorestrictsnailhabitatsaretwosolutions,butthismaybeimpractical–particularlyinextensivelyfarmedareas.Itmayalsobepreventedbyenvironmentalstewardshipprotocols.

Controlusingeffectiveflukicidetreatmentsmaythereforebethebestsolution.Inareaswhereliverflukeisendemic,strategicflukicidetreatmentsshouldbegiveninaccordancewiththeveterinaryherdhealthplan.

• Inhighriskyearstreatat-riskcattleinJanuaryand againinOctober/November

• InlowriskyearsasingleannualtreatmentinJanuary shouldbesufficient


Diagnosisintheearlystagesmaybecarriedoutifhighriskconditionsareprevalentandisbasedonraisedliverenzymesinbloodsamplesanalysedbythevet.

Thechronicconditionisidentifiedfromsymptomsoutlinedaboveandmaybeconfirmedthroughtheidentificationofflukeeggsindungsamples,thoughthesemaybescarceanddifficulttofind.Specificantibodytestsforliverflukecanbecarriedout,buttendtobeexpensive.

Effectivetreatmentofallstagesofflukeisachievedwithtrichlabendazole.Nitroxynilandoxyclosanidearelesseffectiveagainstyoungflukesandshouldbeusedinthetreatmentofadultflukes(chronicdisease).Resistancetotriclabendazoleisemergingandsorepeateddoseswithadultflukicidesisoftenmoreappropriateforstrategiccontrolofflukeinbeefcattle.

Improvednutritionofaffectedcattleisessential.

Liverflukeismorecommonlyencounteredinbeefcowsgrazingpoorwetpasture.

Diagnosisofliverflukeisnotsimple.Doesthisbullhaveliverfluke,Johne’sdisease,orsomethingelse?Consultthevet.

Persistentdiarrhoeaisamajorvisiblesymptomofliverfluke.

Chronicweightlossandverypoorbodycondition,despiteanadequateration,isacommonindicationofliverfluke.

Liver fluke (Fasciolosis)Liver fluke (Fasciolosis)

17

Youngcattlegrazingforthefirsttimeareatriskfromlungworm.

Husk(orhoose)iscausedbyinfestationofthebronchialtubesbywhitethreadlikewormsknownaslungworm(Dictyocaulusviviparous).Theconditionischaracterisedbypersistentcoughingandbreathingdifficulties,withlungdamagepotentiallydevelopingintosecondarypneumonia.

Cattlebecomeinfectedbyingestinglungwormlarvaewhilstgrazing.Theseinfectivelarvaepenetratetheintestinalwallandpassviathelymphaticsystemandbloodstreamintothelungs.Inthelungs,theselarvaedevelopintoadultswhichcausetheproblem.Femalelungwormslayvastnumbersofeggsthatdevelopintominutelarvae;thesearecarriedinmucusupthewindpipeandareswallowedandpassoutontothepasture,wherethecyclebeginsagain.


Initsmostsevereform,lungwormcanresultinsuddendeath.Moretypically,affectedcattlewillsuffermarkedlossofbodycondition(upto10%ofbodyweight),withgrowingcattlelosing20-40kgspotentially.Withlongrecoveryperiodsandthepossibilityofsecondarypneumoniarequiringantibiotictreatment,lossesfromasevereoutbreakingrowingcattlecanaverage£50perhead.


• Allyoungcattle(firstgrazing)

• Adultcattlenotpreviouslyexposedtoinfection andthereforewithoutnaturalimmunity

• Young(firstgrazing)cattleareatgreatestriskif grazingpastureshavebeenrecentlystockedwith

oldercattle

• Autumngrazingconditionsaretypicallymost favourabletothedevelopmentandsurvivalof heavylungwormlarvaeinfestationsonpasture


Thefollowingsignsmayindicatelungworminfection:

• Panting

• Frequentcoughing,especiallyaftershortperiods ofexercise

• Reluctancetomove

• Standingwithheaddownandneckextended, oftengaspingforbreath

Lungworm (husk or hoose)

18 19


• Immunitythroughnaturalexposure–cattleexposed tolunginfectionthroughgrazingmoderately infestedpasturesallowstheanimaltodevelop immunity.Thismustbecombinedwithstrategic wormingtreatmentduringthegrazingperiodto preventthediseasedeveloping

• Immunitythroughvaccination–vaccinationpriorto firstgrazingshouldprovideimmunityforsixmonths. Thiscosts£5-£7peranimalandincombination withgoodmanagementpracticeisthebest insuranceagainstlungworm.

Itreliesonalowdoseearlyinseasonwhich stimulatesimmunityafresheachyear.Avoid overworrmingearlyintheseasonaslungwormcan alsostrikeduringlategrazing.Discussastrategy withtheveteachyear.Diagnosis and treatment

Diagnosisisbasedonclinicalsignsoutlinedaboveandmayalsobeconfirmedthroughlaboratoryanalysisofdungshowingthepresenceoflarvae.

Whenthediseaseisidentified,promptwormingtreatmentisessential,usingaproductrecommendedbythevet.Antibiotictreatmentmayberequiredwheresecondaryinfectionhasoccurred.

Severelungworminfection.Notetheextendedneckandpainfulexpression.

Severelungworminfectionandsecondarypneumonia.

Respiratorydistressisawelfareconcernincasesofseverelungworminfection.

Notetheabsenceofdischargefromtheeyesandnostrilsincasesoflungworminfection.Frequentcoughingisthemostimportantclinicalsign.

Lungworm (husk or hoose)

Whitethreadlikewormsinfestingthelung.

Lungworm

(husk or hoose)

19

Overrecentyears,severalvirusestransmittedbyCulicoidesmidgeshaveemergedinEuropeanlivestock,perhapsassociatedwithclimatechange,leadingtosignificanteconomiclosses.Thetwomaindiseasestoaffectbeefcattleare:

Bluetongue virus (BTV)andmorerecently

Schmallenberg virus (SBV)

Allcattlearesusceptibletothediseaseiftheycomeintocontactwiththebitingmidgeresponsibleforcarryingthevirus.Actionstopreventboththesediseaseshaveshownlittleimpact.However,thefollowingaresuggestedoptions:

• Identifyanddestroymidgebreedingsites(dungheaps,dampareas,etc)

• Usemesh(impregnatedwithinsecticide)topreventmidgesenteringbuildings

• Applypour-oninsecticidestocattle

• Strictbiosecurityandquarantineofallcattleandsheepbroughtontothefarmareessentialelementsinthecontrolandpreventionofalldiseasesincludingbluetongue

Bluetongue virus (BTV)

Bluetonguevirusisaviraldiseaseofsheepandcattlethatischaracterisedbylamenessandfeverandcanresultinseriousproductionlossesandmortality.SpreadofthediseaseisdependentuponthepresenceoftheCulicoidesmidgehost.

BluetongueisnowalsowidespreadintheUSAandoutbreaksarebeingreportedinEurope,asfarnorthastheNetherlands.ThefirstincidenceofBTVstereotype8wasreportedintheUKinSeptember2007,inEastAnglia.ThisisconsistentwiththetheorythattransportofmidgesonaircurrentsfromcontinentalEuropeisapotentialthreat.Thereareseveraldifferentstrainsglobally.


BluetongueisanotifiablediseaseintheUKandsuspectedcasesmustbereportedimmediatelytothelocalanimalhealthoffice.

Thesymptoms,delayedrecovery,susceptibilitytosecondarybacterialinfectionsandpotentialmortalityofcattlemeanthatsignificantproductionlossesareinevitable.

Diseasecostshavebeenestimatedatupto£19/sheepand£17/cowonaffectedfarmsfrom:

• Deaths

• Lossofproduction

• Costofdisposal

• Veterinaryandmedicines

• Labour


Thefollowingsymptomsaremostlikelytooccurinaffectedcattle:

• Fever(temperaturesupto40ºC)

• Stiffnessandreluctancetomove,duetoswellingofthecoronarybandatthetopofthehooves

• Nasaldischargeandulcerationsofthemuzzle

• Lacrimation(dischargefromthetearducts)butnoobviouseyelesions


Vaccinesareavailablethroughthevet.Alwaysfollowmanufacturer’sguidelines.Inthecaseofanoutbreak,Defraprotocolswouldcomeintofocusontheinfectedpremises.


• Diagnosisisbaseduponclinicalsignsand/orisolationofthebluetonguevirus

• Thereisnofullyeffectivetreatmentforclinicallyaffectedanimals.Treatmentislimitedtoantibiotictherapytocontrolsecondarybacterialinfections

Midge-borne diseases

20 21

BTV – a continuing threat

WhiletheBTV8virusemergedinBelgiumandtheNetherlandsin2006andspreadrapidlytocentralandwesternEuropeancountriesincludingtheUK,waswellcontrolledbystrategicuseofvaccination,otherstrainsofBTVcontinuetorepresentathreat.Forexamplein2007,BTV1spreadfromtheMaghrebtoSpainandwassubsequentlydetectedinFranceandPortugal.

Schmallenberg virus

Morerecently,Schmallenbergvirus(SBV)wasidentifiedinGermanyinNovember2011.

Schmallenbergvirusprimarilyinfectsdomesticandwildruminantsandcausesclinicalsignsincludingdiarrhoea,moderatehypothermia,decreaseinmilkproductionandanorexiainadultcattle.Sheepandgoatscanbemildlyaffected.Infectionofbovine,foetusesbySBVisassociatedwithabortions,prematurebirthsandstillbirths,diversecongenitalmalformationsandabnormalitiesofthecentralnervoussystem.SchmallenbergvirushasspreadveryrapidlyfromGermanyandtheNetherlandstotheUK,FranceandotherEuropeancountries.

AlthoughSBViscurrentlylessapparentintheUK,thereisevidenceofcontinuedviruscirculationandsuccessfuloverwintering.ItisnotknownhowlongnaturalimmunitytoSBVmaylast,butitappearsthatimmunityinherdsispatchywithsomeanimalsremainingvulnerable.

AcommercialvaccineisavailableanddiscussionwiththevetisimportanttomanagetheongoingriskofSBV.

Bluetonguevirus:Extensiveteatdamagemayoccur.

Bluetonguevirus:Nasaldischargeandsoresmaybevisible.

Bluetonguevirus:Mouthsoresmaybepresentinsomecattle.

Schmallenbergvirus:Calfaffectedbybraindeformities.

Midge-borne diseasesM

idge-borne diseases

21

TheUKiscurrentlydeclaredBTVfree.Anysuspectedcasesofbluetonguevirusmustbereportedquickly.TelephonethelocalAnimalPlantHealthAgency(APHA)Officeimmediately.CalltheDefrahelplinetoobtainthelocalofficenumberon08459335577,orvisitwww.defra.gov.uk.

Parasiticgastroenteritis(PGE)iscausedbythematurationofOstertagiaostertagilarvaeintheabomasum(fourthstomach)andusuallyaffectsgrowingcattleduringtheirfirstsummeratgrass.PGEisnotusuallyseeninadultcattle.

1. Adultnematodesindigestivetract

2. Eggsarelaidindigestivetract

3. Eggsinfaeces

4. Eggshatch,larvaedevelopsintoinfectivestage

5. Hostingestsinfectedlarvae

6. Larvaematuretoadult

Thediseasecanbedividedintotwoforms:

Type I Ostertagiosis

Typicallyseeninsusceptiblecalvesoryearlingsduringthelatesummer/earlyautumnandiscausedbytheingestionandimmediatematurationoflargenumbersofinfectivelarvae.

Type II Ostertagiosis

Resultsfromtheingestionofinfectivelarvaefromautumnonwards,withdiseasebeingcausedlaterinthewintermonthsfollowingdelayedemergenceoftheadultworms.


Lossesfromasevereoutbreakofparasiticgastroenteritisingrowingcattlecouldreach£50perhead.Thisresultsfrommarkedlossofbodycondition(upto10%)andprotractedconvalescenceresultinginextendedfatteningperiods(uptothreemonths).

Lowcostpreventativeprogrammesareavailabletoallproducers.


Anycattle(usuallygrowingcattleintheirfirstgrazingseason)aresusceptibletoparasiticgastroenteritis,iftheyareexposedtocontaminatedpasturebeforetheyhavedevelopednaturalimmunity.

Circumstancesthatincreasetherisk:

• Whenyoungcalvesaregrazedforthefirsttime onpasturesthathavebeenrepeatedlygrazed

byotheryoungcalves,soabuildupofinfectivelarvaehasresulted

• Whenweanedbeefcalvesaregrazedon contaminatedpastureduringtheirsecondseason

whentheyhavenothadsufficientexposureintheirfirstgrazingseason

• Whenadryearlysummerisfollowedbywet weatherduringAugustandSeptember,resulting

inmassemergenceoflarvaeandingestionbygrazingcattle(TypeI)


Type I

• Characterisedbylossofappetiteandsuddenandprofucegreendiarroheainthelatesummer/earlyautumnperiod.Symptomscanaffectmostanimalsinagroupwithinafewdays

Type II

• Diseasesymptomsaresuddenandsevere.Theyareseenduringthelatewintermonthsfollowingdelayedmaturationofthelarvae

Parasitic gastroenteritis (PGE or gut worms)

3.6. 1.

2.5.

4.

22 23

Inspring-calvingbeefherds,earlyseasonpasturecontaminationisingestedbyimmuneadultcows.

SymptomsofPGEincludealossofappetitewithsuddenandprofusegreendiarrhoea.

ItisimportanttokeepdetailedrecordsofgrazingpatternsandpastanthelminticproblemsinordertotailorthebestPGEandlungwormcontrolprogrammeforagivensituation.

ProblemswithPGEcanariseinbeefcattlewhenweanedcalvesgrazecontaminatedpastureduringtheirsecondseason.

Parasitic gastroenteritis (PGE or gut w

orms)

23

Treatment and prevention

Preventionisfarmorecosteffectivethantreatment;planningwormcontrolcansavesignificantamountsofmoney.Formostfarms,wormerswillstillbeanessentialpartofeconomicstockproduction,andstrategicwormeruseneedstobebuiltintothewormcontrolplan.Eachfarmshouldhaveitsownindividualwormplan,basedonfarmmanagement,previouswormhistoryandtypeofstock.

Thereareseveralfactorstobearinmindwhendevelopingtheplan:

• Usepastureeffectivelysothatcattleavoidgrazingcontaminatedpastureduringthepeakseason.Thiscanbeassimpleasmovingcattleontofresh,ungrazedpasture(suchassilageaftermath)justbeforethesummerriseinlarvalnumbers

• Reduceroutinewormingbymonitoring,particularlyfaecaleggcounts(FEC)andandanimalgrowthrates.Thiswillsavemoneyandreducetheriskofresistancedevelopingonthefarm

• Wormathousinginstocksusceptibletohibernatinglarvae

• Donotforgetlungwormcontrol;thisisanincreasingproblemonmanyfarms.Controlmeasuressuchaspasturemanagementarelesseffectiveforlungwormthangutworms,sousevaccinationtocontrollungworms

Larvaematuretoadultinthedigestivetract.

Mostplantsarenotpoisonoustocattle,butafewnotableexceptionswillcauseseriousproblemsifingested.

Ragwort

HighawarenessandcarefulmanagementofpasturesmeansragwortpoisoningisrelativelyrareintheUK.Incidencesusuallyoccurfollowingingestionofthewilted/driedplantinhayorsilage.

Yew

Acommonornamentaltreeoftenfoundinchurchyards.Ingestionusuallyleadstorapiddeath.

Bracken

Ingestionofbrackenoverseveralweekswhenpastureissparsecanbefataltocattle.Deathresultsfrombonemarrowsuppressioncausinglossofbloodcellsandclottingfactors.

Ingestionofbrackenovermanymonths,particularlywhenusedasbeddingmaterialcanleadtotumoursinthebladder,oesophagusandrumen.

Acorns

Thesecanpresentaseriousproblemonpastureswhichhaveoaktreesinthemafterautumnstorms.Tanninsintheacornscauseserious,oftenfatal,kidneydamage.

Water dropwort

Dry,hotweathercandrivecattletograzemarginalareasinsearchoffoodwheretheyencountertoxicplantstheywouldnormallyleavealone.

OneofthemostimportantisWaterdropwort,whichisverycommoninthewestandsouthofEngland.

Cattleareparticularlyatriskafterditcheshavebeenclearedoutwhichexposesthepoisonousroots,oftenreferredtoas‘deadman’sfingers’.


Plantpoisoningincattleisusuallyfatalincurringthelossofproductiveanimalsandtheassociatedcostsofbringinginorrearingreplacements.


Pasturemanagementshouldreducetherisksofplantpoisoningasmuchaspossible,egbydiggingoutragwort,sprayingbracken,ensuringaplentifulsupplyofnutritiousgrasses.


Ragwort

• Chronicweightlossanddiarrhoea• Jaundice• Accumulationoffluidunderthejawandbrisket causedbyliverdisease

Yew

• Noearlysigns.Deathrapidlyfollowsingestion

Bracken

• Weightlossandweakness• Bloodhaemorrhagingfromthenasalpassages andvagina• Deathwithinseveraldays

Acorns

• Constipation/strainingtodefecate• Diarrhoea• Anorexia• Bloatduetotherumennotworking• Renalfailure• Deathwithinfourtosevendays

Water dropwort

• Salivationanddilatedpupils• Breathingdifficulty• Collapseandspasmodicconvulsions• Mostaffectedcattledie


Ragwort

Controlragwortonpasturebysprayingwithselectiveherbicides,orbydiggingoutthewholeplant.

Yew

Preventaccessbycattlebyfencingoffyewtreesandmaintainingperimeterfencessotheycannotescape.

Plant poisoning

24 25

Bracken

Manyhillfarmshavesubstantialareasofbrackenwherefencing,burningorherbicidetreatmentswouldbeuneconomic.Adequatefeedingshouldensurecattledonotgrazebracken.

Acorns

Removecattlefrompasturewithoaktreesinthemespeciallyafterautumnstormsorheavyacornfalls.

Water dropwort

Supplementcattleonbarepasturesduringdroughttopreventthemgrazingmarginalareas.Movecattleoutoffieldswhereditcheshavebeencleared.

Diagnosis and treatmentRagwort

Diagnosisisbaseduponclinicalevidenceofliverdiseasewithknownexposuretoragwort.

Thereisnoeffectivetreatmentonceclinicalsignsappear.Removecontaminatedfeedanddestroy.

Yew

Causeofdeathcanonlybeconfirmedbyexaminingrumencontentsatpostmortem.

Thereisnotreatment.

Bracken

Inacutecasestreatmentwithbroadspectrumantibioticsisgenerallyunsuccessful.

Acorns

Diagnosisisbaseduponclinicalsignsandexposuretoacorns.Confirmationbypostmortem.

Thereisnospecifictreatmenttocuretheproblem.Supportivetreatmentincludesgivinglargevolumesofintravenousfluidswhichareprohibitivelyexpensive.

Water dropwort

Diagnosisisbaseduponevidenceofplantshavingbeengrazedorrootsexposedbyditching.Confirmationbypostmortem.Thereisnospecifictreatment.Ifpoisoningissuspectedremoveallcattlefromareaswheretheplantgrows.

Cattlethateatragwort,brackenoracornswillsufferexcessiveweightloss.

Diarrhoeaisasignofpossibleragwortpoisoning.

Removecattlefrompastureswithoaktreesintheautumn.

Longtermingestionofbrackencanbefataltocattle.

Plant poisoning

25

Respiratorydiseaseincattleisaninteractionbetweentheinfectiousagentoragents(bacteria,virusorboth),theenvironmentandtheimmunestatusoftheindividualanimal.Diseasecanresultfromprimaryviralinfection,orfromsecondarybacterialinfectionthatresultsfromviraldamagetothedefencemechanismsoftheupperrespiratorytract.Therearealsobacteriathatcauserespiratorydiseasethroughprimaryinfection,suchasmannheimiacausing‘pasteurellosis’whichcanbeassociatedwithsuddendeath.

Themainpredisposingviralcausesofrespiratorydiseaseincattleare:

• IBR(InfectiousBovineRhinotracheitis)

• BRSV(BovineRespiratorySyncytialVirus)

• PI3(Parainfluenza3Virus)


RespiratorydiseaseisestimatedconservativelytocosttheUKcattleindustry£60millioneachyear.Thisiscalculatedonthebasisof£30formildcasesrisingto£500whentheanimaldies.

Lossesresultfrommortalityandtreatmentcosts,butmostimportantlyfromweightlossduringillnessandoftenthroughdelayedrecovery.


Respiratorydiseasecanaffectallagesofcattlebutismostcommonlyseeninyoungeranimals.

Factorspredisposingcattletorespiratorydiseaseincludethefollowing:

• Poorventilationand/ordraughtsinbuildings

• Extremesoftemperature

• Stresscausedbymovement,mixingofstock, housingorexcessivehandling

• Generalpoormanagement,poornutrition, poorhygiene


Increasedrectaltemperatureisveryoftenthequickestandmostaccuratemethodofidentifyingaffectedcattlewithinagroup.

IBRClinicalsignstypicallyappeartwotothreeweeksafterhousingorotherstressfuleventssuchascalving.Affectedanimalsdonoteat,areverydepressed,slowtoriseandstandwiththeirheadlowered.Apusdischargeiscommonlyproducedfromtheeyesandnostrils.

BRSVClinicalsignsarehighlyvariable.Insevereoutbreaksanimalsmaybefoundstrugglingtobreatheandcanrapidlydeteriorateanddie.Infectionmayoccurwithnosignsofrespiratorydistress.

Respiratory disease (pneumonia)

26 27


• Husbandry Attentiontogeneralhusbandryisthefirstimportant

controlmeasureinrelationtorespiratorydisease,especiallyensuringbuildingventilationdesignprovidesasuitableenvironment.Reducingstockingdensitywillusuallyreducethediseasepressurewhenanoutbreakoccurs.

• Vaccination VaccinesareavailabletopreventIBRandBRSV.

Allbeefunitsshouldseekveterinaryadviceonthestrategicuseofvaccinationaspartoftheirherdhealthprogrammes.Laboratoryconfirmationofcause(s)maybenecessarybeforeembarkingonavaccinationprotocol.


Rapidandaccuratediagnosisofthecause(s)ofrespiratorydiseaseisessentialsothatstepscanbetakentopreventfurtherandfutureincidence.

Choiceofantibiotictreatmentiscriticalandwillbedeterminedbythevet.

Aswellasantibiotictreatmentitisimportanttominimiselongtermlungdamagethroughtheuseofanti-inflammatorydrugs.

AcalfsufferingfromrespiratorydiseasecausedbyBRSV;itappearednormal12hoursearlier.

Selectingcattlefortreatmentonthebasisofraisedrectaltemperatureisoftenthemostcosteffectivewaytodealwitharespiratorydiseaseoutbreak.

Lungdamagecommonlyimpairsfutureperformanceinnon-fatalcases.

Inadequateventilationincattlebuildingsiscommonandincreasestherisksofrespiratorydisease.

Respiratory disease (pneumonia)Respiratory disease (pneum

onia)

27

PrimarybacterialrespiratorydiseasecausedbyHistophilussomniandMycoplasmabovisisemergingasamajorproblemintheUK.Therearenovaccinescurrentlylicensedagainstthesepathogensandgoodhygieneandmanagementregardingventilationandstockingratesareimportant.

Septicaemiaisabacterialinfectionthatthreatensbeefcalveswithinthefirstsixdaysoflife.Jointilloftendevelopslaterincalvesthatsurvivetheinitialinfection.

Calvesarevulnerablewhenbornintoacontaminatedenvironment.Bacteriatypicallyinfectthecalfviathetonsil,upperairwayorgutand,althoughthenavelisnotamajorentrypointforbacteria,localinfectionwillcausenavelill,whichmaydevelopintoperitonitis(widespreadabomasuminfection).Thereisanincubationperiodofaround24hoursbetweenfirstinfectionandoutwardsignsandthediseasecanleadtodeathwithinaslittleaseighthours.


Thelossofyoungcalveswillpotentiallyunderminetheprofitabilityofanybeefenterprise.Avoidance,byensuringadequatecolostrumintake,isthereforehighlycosteffectiveuseoftime.

Newborncalfinfectionssuchasjointillandnavelillareextremelypainfulandareeasilyprevented.


Therisksofinfectionareheightenedbypoorhygienearoundcalvingtimeandfailuretoensurethecalfreceivesadequatecolostrumwithinthefirstsixhoursoflife.

• Poorhygiene

• Insufficientcolostrumintakewhichmayresult fromanyofthefollowing:

• Small,weakandsicklycalveseg,premature, twins

• Calvesrenderedweakfollowingadifficult calving

• Cowswithinsufficientorpoorquality colostrumduetopoornutritionordisease

• Downercowsaftercalvingeg,milkfever


Thefollowingsignsareanindicationthatcalvesmaybeinfected:

• Calvesareinitiallydullandlethargic

• Calveshavefailedtosuckandcowsbecome anxious(bellowing,udderfullwithmilk)

• Coldextremities

• Salivationandyellowmucoiddiarrhoea


Calvesmustingest10%oftheirbodyweightofcolostrum(usuallyaboutthreelitres)withinthefirstsixhoursoflife,otherwisetheyaresusceptibletoinfection.

• Ensureadequatecolostrumintakethrough:

• Addedvigilancearoundcalvingtime,including athoroughcheckthatnewborncalveshave suckedwell

Septicaemia(blood poisoning)

28 29

• Keepingasupplyoffrozencolostrumforuse whennecessary.Ifusingcolostrumfrom

anothercow,besuresheisnotasourceofotherdiseasessuchasJohne’sdisease.Colostrumshouldideallybefedwithabottleandteat,inpreferencetoastomachtube

• Testingforcolostrumintake:

• Theveterinarysurgeonmaybeabletooffertests forpassiveantibodyingestion(colostrumintake)

throughthepracticelaboratory

Stricthygienearoundcalvingisanessentialmanagementfactorinthecontrolandpreventionofsepticaemiaandassociatedconditions.

• Maintainthehighestlevelsofhygieneby:

• Regularlycleaningoutcalvingboxesandusing sufficientcleanbeddingstraw

• Avoidingoutdoorcalvinginpotentiallywetand muddyconditions

• Fullyimmersecalves’navelsinstrongveterinary iodinesolutionsoonafterbirthandagainafter fourtosixhourswhencheckingcolostrumintake

• Movingcowsandnewborncalvesawayfrom heavilyusedcalvingpaddocksassoonaspossible


Septicaemiacanbediagnosedbythevetuponclinicalexamination.

Jointillappearsasahot,painful,swollenjoint(s)withobviouslamenessaffectingoneormorelegs.Calvesmaybeunwillingtostandwhenmorethanonelegisaffected.

Rapiddetectionandearlyveterinaryattentionisvitaliftreatmentistobeeffective.Antibiotictherapywilldependonthelikelybacterialcause.Anti-inflammatorydrugsmayalsobeprescribed.

Allcalvesmustsucksufficientgoodqualitycolostrumwithinthefirstsixhoursoflife.

Largeuddersorteatsoftenbecomecontaminatedandcanbeasourceofbacterialinfectiontoanewborncalf.

Ifcalvesrequireartificialfeeding,abottleandteatispreferabletoastomachtube(oesophagealfeeder).

Jointillisoneofthepotentialconsequencesifcalvesdonotreceiveadequatecolostrum.

Septicaemia(blood poisoning)Septicaem

ia (blood poisoning)

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Skinconditionsareusuallycausedbyectoparasites.Producersneedtoidentifythespecificectoparasiteinfectionaffectingtheircattletotreatitappropriately.

TheparasiteswhichcausemostdamagetocattleareLice(Pediculosis),Sarcopticmange,Psoropticmange,Choriopticmange,ticksandmidges.

Therearefivespeciesoflousewhichinfestcattle,classifiedaseitherbitingorsucking.

SarcopticandPsoropticmangeoccurworldwidebutarerareintheUK.Since2007therehavebeenafewcasesofthelatterreportedhere,whereinfestationshavebeenbroughtinonimportedcattle.

VigilanceisimportantasnewcasesareoccurringintheUKandtreatmentsarenotveryeffective.

Choriopticmange,causedbyinfestationwithChorioptesbovis,iscommonlyseeninadultcattleintheUK,towardstheendofwinterhousing.

Ticks(Ixodesricinus)arenotasignificantproblemintheUK,althoughtheycanactasvectorsfortheoccasionalcaseofredwater(Babesiaspp)andtick-bornefever(Ehrlichiaphagocytophila).


Ectoparasitescauseproductionlossesduetoreducedordisruptedfeedingcausedbyirritationanddamagedhides.

Sarcopticmangecanleadtoweightlossprogressingtoweaknessandincapacityinneglectedcattle.Itcanbetransferredtohumanbeings.Risk factors and susceptibility

Lousepopulationsarehighestincattlekeptindoorsduringwinterandthoseinpoorbodycondition.Spreadoccursbydirectcontact.Thelifecycle–egg,threenymphstagesandadult,takesthreeweeksandallstagesoccuronthehost.Early identification

Heavyinfestationsoflicecauseirritation,causingcattletorubagainstfencesandfeedbarrierstoscratchthemselves,resultinginhairlossusuallyovertheneckandshoulders.

Mangescauseoozingofliquidserumfromthebloodandthickeningoftheskin.

Sarcopticmangethickensovertheneckandcancausesevereirritationsaroundtheanus.InPsoropticmange,theskinthickensovertheneckandalongthemid-lineoftheback.

Choriopticmangeinfestationscharacteristicallyoccuratthebaseofthetail,butinfestationmayspreadtotheudder,scrotumandlimbs.

Skin conditions

30 31

Heavyinfestationsoflicecauseanimalstorubthemselvestorelievetheirritation.


Biosecuritymeasuresshouldpreventtheintroductionofparasitesoninfestedcattle.Diagnosis and treatment

Carefulinspectionoftheskinusingamagnifyingglasswillidentifyadultlousepopulationsandeggsstickingtohairs.Furtherexaminationunderamicroscopeatx100willdifferentiatetheparticularlicespeciespresent.

Mangecanbeidentifiedviaskinscrapingsunderamicroscope

Choriopticmangeisoftenobservedinfemalecattlebyvetsduringpregnancydiagnosis.

Treatmentusingapour-onsyntheticpyrethroidpreparationsuchasdeltamethrinwillremovealllice.

AninjectableGroup3anthelminticwillremoveallsuckingliceandmorethan98%ofbitinglice.Allcattleindirectcontactwitheachothermustbetreated.

TreatmentforChoriopticmangeisrarelynecessaryaslesionshealspontaneouslywhencattleareturnedouttopastureinthespring.

Skinconditionsareworsewhencattlearehoused–buttheeffectscanalsobeseenwhentheyareturned-outtograss.

Choriopticmangeusuallyoccursatthebaseofthetail.

Mangecausesoozingofliquidserumscabsandthickeningoftheskin.

Thelicelifecyclefromeggtoadulttakesthreeweeks.

Skin conditionsSkin conditions

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Summermastitisusuallyoccursinnon-lactatingcowsandheifersduringsummer.Itoccasionallyappearsintherudimentaryuddersofyoungheifers,bullsandsteers.

Inbeefcows,summermastitisisoftenseenwherebarrenspringcalvingcowsarekeptforbreedinglaterintheyear,ietransferredfromaspringtoautumn-calvingherd.

Thediseasecanbepresentinbeefcowsthathavestoppedlactatingbeforetheircalfhasbeenremoved.

ThereiswideregionalvariationinincidenceacrosstheUK.

ArangeofbacteriacausetheinfectionincludingArcanobacteriumpyogenes,PeptostreptococcusindolicusandStreptococcusdysgalactiae.

Infectionistransmittedbyheadflies(Hydroteairritans),whichliveinbushesandtrees.Theyonlyflyduringmild,humidconditionsandinlowwindspeeds.Casesofsummermastitistendtobeassociatedwith‘problemfields’nexttowoodsandhighhedges.


Lossofanaffectedquarteroftheudderreducesfuturemilkproductionbyaround10%,sothesucklingcalfwillsufferandwillnotgrowaswellasexpected.Affectedcowsmayloseupto100kgliveweightandgenerallycommandpoorsalepriceswhensold.


Riskfactorsinclude:

• Grazingpermanentpasturewheremoreflies tendtohatch

• Low-lyingfieldssurroundedbytrees

• Geneticsusceptibilityoftheanimal


Supervisionofmaidenandin-calfheifersanddrycowsatpasturemaybesporadicduringsummerandmastitiscanbewelladvancedbeforeclinicalsignsarenoted.

Duringtheearlystagesthereisgradualenlargement,bothinlengthanddiameteroftheteatsoftheaffectedquartersbeforetheheifer/cowbecomessick.Oftenlargenumbersoffliesclusteraroundtheaffectedteatorificecausingconsiderableirritationandtheanimalwillkickfrequently.

Obviousswellingaccompaniesmoregeneralisedsignsofillness,includingisolationfromthegroup,stiffnessandreluctancetowalk,lackofgrazingandrapidlossofbodycondition.

Theaffectedquarterisswollen,hard,painfulandhot.Theuddersecretionisthickandclottedwithfoul-smellinggreen/yellowpus.Affectedanimalscanabortandmaydiewithoutprompttreatment.

Theaffectedquarterisusuallypermanentlydamagedandthecowsoftengivebirthtoweaklycalveswhichoftendie.Thosethatsurviveshouldbegivencolostrumfromanothercow.

Summer mastitis

32 33

Itisimportanttostripoutthelumpymilkifpossible.


Reduceexposuretofliesbygrazingcowsawayfromsusceptiblefieldsinsummer.Movethemtohigher,moreexposedgroundawayfromclumpsoftreesorhighhedges.

Employflycontrolmeasures(usuallysyntheticpyrethroids),suchasimpregnatedflytags,pour-onpreparationsandsprays.

Drycowtherapyremainsthemosteffectivemeansofpreventingsummermastitisincowsatweaningandinsusceptiblepregnantheifers.

Uselongdurationdrycowantibioticpreparationswithveterinaryadvice.

Takecarewheninfusingintramammaryantibioticpreparationsinheiferstopreventteatdamage.Cattleshouldnotbetubedinwetweatherorinunhygienicconditions.

Sealingtheteatcanal,usingphysicalbarrierssuchmicropore/adhesivetapeandexternalteatsealants,canbeusedtogoodeffect.

Removeanyaffectedcowsfromothercowstopreventthespreadofinfection.


Diagnosisisbasedonspottingswollenuddersassoonaspossible.

Veterinarydrugsincludingantibioticsgivenasinjectionsandintra-mammarytubesarerequiredtotreattheinfection.

Strippingthelumpymilkoutoftheaffectedquartershouldbeundertakenasoftenasispractical,butmayberesentedbytheanimalduetothepain,sothereisahighriskofbeingkicked.

Obviousswellingaccompaniesmoregeneralsignsofdistress.

Largenumbersoffliesoftenclusteraroundtheaffectedteat.

Thecalvesofdamswithmastitismayhavetobebottlefedtoensuretheyreceiveenoughmilk.

Drycowtherapy,includingadministeringantibiotictubesisthemosteffectivewaytopreventsummermastitis.

Summer mastitisSum

mer m

astitis

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Subcutaneous and intramuscular injections

Subcutaneousinjectionsareadministeredinareaswheretheskinisloose,mainlytheneckorbehindtheshoulder.Graspafoldofskinandslidetheneedlethroughtheskinparalleltotheanimal’sneckortrunk.Thismethodwillavoidpenetrationofunderlyingmuscle.Theneedleshouldbeinsertedseveralinchesfromtheoperator’shandtoavoidaccidentalself-injection.Theplungerofthesyringeshouldalwaysbepulledbacktoensurethattheneedleisnotlocatedwithinabloodvessel.

Themainsiteforintramuscularinjectionisthemusclemassoftheneckforwhichtheanimalmustbeadequatelyrestrainedtoavoidhead-buttingorkicking.Alternatively,themusclesofthehindlimbcanbeused.Drawupthesolutionforinjectionintothesyringe.Disconnecttheneedleandholdthehubfirmlybetweenthumbandmiddlefinger.Inserttheneedleintothemuscletothehubwithasharpslapaction.Connectthesyringetotheneedle,drawbacktocheckfortheabsenceofbloodandthenslowlyinjectthecontentsofthesyringeovertenseconds.Donotinjecttooquicklyasthismaycausepaintotheanimal.

Neverinserttheneedlewhenconnectedtothesyringe,asthismakesitmoredifficulttoinserttothecorrectdepthwithasinglemovement.Thesyringehubistheweakestpointandwilloftensnapiftheanimalmoves,renderingthecontentsofthesyringeuselessandcreatingpotentialanimalwelfareandmeatsafetyissues.

Intravenous injection

Thisisthefastestroutefordrugadministration,bypassingabsorption.However,thisisavetprocedureonly.Drugsadministeredintravenouslyincludesomeantimicrobials,nonsteroidalanti-inflammatorydrugsandmineralsolutionsincludingcalcium,magnesiumandphosphorus.

Drenching

Smallvolumesofliquid(lessthan50ml)canbeadministeredbymouthusingadrenchinggun.Theanimalissuitablyrestrainedincattlestocks(notnecessaryforcalves).Theanimal’sheadisheldwiththechinupandtheliquidslowlysquirtedintothemouth.Theanimal’sheadisreleasedonceithasswallowedtheliquid.

Largervolumescanbeadministeredbystomachtube,mostoftenincalvestoadministercolostrumororalrehydrationsolutionbyoesophagealfeeder.Thesefeedersaredesignedsothatthebulbousendcannotbemistakenlypassedintothewindpipe.Thetubeispassedslowlythroughtheanimal’smouthandadvancedwhenthecalfswallows.Donotforcethetube.Afterrepeatedusetheplastictubemaybecomekinkedanditisnecessarytopassitthroughhotwatertosoftentheplasticandenablepassage.

Inadultcattle,restraintincattlestocksorheadyokeisnecessary.Selectthecorrectdiameterstomachtubeforthecow.Anarrowgaugetubemayincreasetheriskofpassageintothewindpipe.Measurethestomachtubeagainstthesideofthecowfollowingthecontourofthelowernecktoapoint30cmbehindthepointofthecow’selbowwhichistheentrypointintotherumen.Facethesamewayasthecowandplaceyourbackagainstthecow’schinwithonearmoverthecow’snosewithyourhandatthemouth.Withyourotherhandpassthestomachtubeintothemouthandguidethetipoverthecow’stonguewithyourotherhandadvancingthetubeintotherumen.Gasisoftenreleasedasthetubeenters.Theanimalshouldnotstrugglevigorouslyandrarelycoughs–suchreactionmayindicatethatthetubehasenteredthewindpipe.Amouthgagoranouterprotectivemetaltubewillpreventthecowchewingthestomachtube.

Best practice

34 35

Further information

• Thevolumeinjectedatasinglesitemustnotexceed thatstatedinthedatasheet

• Onlyadministermedicinesbythestatedroute(s)

• Anaccurateliveweightmeasurementmustbeused eitherbyweighcrateorweighband.Underestimates

ofbodyweightmayleadtounder-dosingandthemedicinenotbeingwhollyeffective.Thiscanpotentiallyalsoleadtothebuild-upofresistance.Thissituationismostlikelywhentreatingagroupofanimalswithawiderangeofweights,wheretheaveragebodyweightisselectedeg,drenchinggrowinganimalswithananthelmintic

• Whenusingmedicineswhicharesuspensions, thoroughmixingisessentialbeforeadministration

• Whenusingthesamebottleofmedicinemultiple times,aneedleshouldbeinsertedthroughtherubber

stopperandleftinplacewithsyringesattachedtothisneedle

Storage of veterinary medicines

Storage

• Storeinaccordancewiththemanufacturer’s instructions

• Refrigerationmustbeavailableandmaintained between2°Cand8°C.Refrigeratorsshouldbefitted

withamax/minthermometertoallowmonitoringofthetemperature

• Thedesignatedstorageareashouldnotbe accessibletothepublic

• Storageareasshouldbecleanandwellventilated witheating/drinkingforbidden

• Datesofdeliveryshouldbeloggedandmarked onproducts.Formulti-useproductsdateoffirstuse

shouldbemarkedontheproduct

Handling

• Directcontactbetweentheskinoftheperson dispensingthedrugandthedrugitselfshouldbe

avoided.Thiscanbeachievedthroughwearingprotectiveclothing,suchasdisposablegloves

• Thedatasheetshouldalwaysbeconsulted

Themainsiteforintramuscularinjectionisthemusclemassoftheneck.Foranintramuscularinjection,inserttheneedleintothemuscletothehubwithasharpslapactionandthenconnectthesyringetotheneedle;drawbacktocheckforabsenceofblood.

Weighcattletoadministratorcorrectdosageofmedicines.

Correctdrenchingprocedureinvolvesfacingthesamewayasthecowandplacingyourbackagainstthecow’schinwithonearmoverthecow’snose.

Amouthgagwillhelppassastomachtubeinanadultcow.

Best practiceBest practice

35

Disease prevention and biosecurity

Livestockmovementsareoneofthebiggestfactorsinthespreadofinfectiousdisease.Alwaysknowthehealthstatusofanimalsbeingboughtandmovedandensureadequatequarantineperiodsapply.

Biosecurityreduces/preventstheintroductionofnewdiseasesontoafarmfromoutsidesourcesandisthefirstlineofdefence.

Biocontainmentmeasuresaimtolimitthespreadofdiseasewithinaherdifbiosecurityhasbeenbreachedandanewdiseasehasbeeninadvertentlyintroducedontotheproperty.Disease spreadInfectiousdiseasescanbeintroducedby:

• Diseasedanimals

• Animalsincubatingdisease

• Apparentlyhealthyanimalsthathaverecovered fromdiseasebutarenowcarriers

• Vehicles,equipment,clothingandfootwearof peoplesuchasvets,contractors,otherfarmers, salesmenetc,whomovebetweenherds

• Feedstuffs,especiallyfeedstuffswhichcouldbe contaminatedwithfaeces

• Contaminatedwaterfromsurfacewater, streamsandriversetc

• Manurehandling,especiallybyoutside contractors

• Otherspeciessuchasdogs,cats,wildlife, rodents,birdsandinsects

Biosecurity principles

Biosecuritycontrolhasfourmajorcomponents:

• Selection

• Isolation

• Movementcontrol

• Sanitation

Selection

Selectallnecessarypurchasedanimalsfromknownsourceswhichhaveahealthstatusequalto,orhigherthantheexistingherd.

• Knowthehealthhistoryoftheherdsfromwhich cattlearepurchased

• Knowthehealthstatusofanimalsbroughtonto thefarm

• Neverbringinanimalswithoutknowingtheir vaccinationhistory

• Limitpurchasestomaidenheifersandbulls

Isolation

Strictisolationpreventscontactbetweenanimalsafterarrivalonfarmtoreducetheriskofspreadofinfectiousagents.

• Quarantineallnewarrivalsforatleast30days

• Cattlemustnotsharecommunity pastures/commongrazings

• Cattlemustnotsharefencelineswitha neighbour’scattle

• Donotusehirebullsfromotherfarms.

Movement control

Thisincludesallvehicle,animalsandpeopletrafficthatcouldintroduceinfectionontothefarm.

• Recordallvisitorstothefarmbothhumanand domesticanimals

Best practice continued

36 37

Keepcattleseparatebetweenneighbouringfarmswithadequatefencing.

Sanitation

Thisaddressesthedisinfectionofmaterials,peopleandequipmententeringthefarmandthecleanlinessofthepeopleandequipmentonfarm.

• Preventmanurecontaminationoffeedand feedingequipment

• Usedifferentequipmenttofeedandmuckout pensordisinfectbetweenuse

• Neverstepinthefeedbunker

• Transportanimalsincleanvehiclesonly

• Sitethelorryloadingareaattheperimeterof thefarm

Other steps to maintain biosecurity

• Maintainaclosedherdwhereverpossibleusing artificialinseminationtointroducenewgenetics. Oestrussynchronisationprogrammescanbe verysuccessfulingroupsofbeefcattle especiallyheifers

• Controldiseasesbyvaccination

• Maintainperimeterfences

• Donotimpulsebuyanimalsfromunknown sourcesatmarketordispersalsales.Theymay bringnewanddevastatingdiseaseontothefarm

Discuss the herd health plan, disease surveillance programme and disease response actions with the vet on a regular basis.

37

Diseasecanbespreadbymanurebroughtinfromotherfarms.Donotunloadmuckwherecattlewillgraze.

Best practice

Top herd health tips 1. Maintainbiosecurity–donotbuyindisease.

2. Monitorherdhealthstatus.Checkwhatdiseasesarepresentbybloodsamplingyoungstock.

3. Cullinfectedanimalseg,animalspersistentlyinfectedwithBVDorcarryingIBRorJohne’sdisease.

4. Controldiseasesthatcannotbeeradicated.Vaccinationpoliciessavemanytimestheircost.

5. Implementeffectivetreatmentprotocolswherediseasecannotbecompletelyprevented.Limitdamagebytreatingthediseaseasquicklyandeffectivelyaspossible.

6. Improvemanagementpracticeseg,batchcalving,allin/alloutpolicies.

7. Improvetheenvironmenteg,improveventilationinstockbuildings.

8. Recordreproductiveperformance.Beefproductionstartswiththebirthoflivecalves.

9. Recordgrowthrates.Findoutiftheanimalsarerespondingtotheirfeedinput.

10. Takeateamapproachtoreducingdiseaseandthecostsassociatedwithpreventing,managingandtreatingit.Involvestockmen,vetsandotheradvisors.

For more information contact:Better Returns ProgrammeAHDBBeef&LambStoneleighParkKenilworthWarwickshireCV82TL

Tel: 024 7647 8834Email: [email protected]

AHDB Beef & Lamb is a division of the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB)

© Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board 2015 All rights reserved.

Beef diseases directory - AHDB Beef & Lambbeefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/... · Diseases in the UK cattle industry account for huge losses and are a major welfare

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