Beef cattle health and husbandry - Local Land Services - NSW ...

BEEF CATTLE HEALTH AND HUSBANDRYFOR THE NSW NORTH COAST

6th edition

Phil Kemsley, District Veterinarian LismoreNathan Jennings, Senior Land Services Officer (Agricultural Advice)

www.lls.nsw.gov.au

www.lls.nsw.gov.au

Beef cattle health and husbandry for the NSW

North Coast

6th edition

NCLSS_NC_BCHH-2021-COVER_Final.indd 1NCLSS_NC_BCHH-2021-COVER_Final.indd 1 18/08/2021 10:57:54 AM18/08/2021 10:57:54 AM

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Beef Cattle Health And Husbandry ForThe NSW North Coast

Beef Cattle Health and Husbandryfor the NSW North Coast

Cattle health and husbandry on the North Coast in a nutshell

Cattle are hardy and resilient animals

Cattle health, disease and productivity are primarily driven by nutrition.

In the North Coast grazing situation, sound nutrition requires producing adequate amounts of the highest quality

pasture possible. To do this year-round requires planning for seasonal periods of reduced pasture availability.

The most important diseases in the North Coast region are internal parasites (worms and liver fluke),

external parasites (ticks and buffalo fly), a small number of infectious diseases (blackleg, three-day sickness,

pestivirus, flood mud scours and botulism) and plant poisonings. By and large, the impact from these can be

addressed by good nutrition and husbandry, preventative programs and sound biosecurity.

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Contents1. Introduction

1.1 Acknowledgments1.2 Book overview1.3 How to use this book1.4 New topics in this edition1.5 Overview of the beef industry on the North Coast

2. About North Coast Local Land Services2.1 Our home — the North Coast2.2 How we are funded2.3 We help grow and protect farm productivity2.4 We help grow and protect healthy environments2.5 We engage with Aboriginal culture and communities2.6 We deliver frontline livestock health and biosecurity2.7 We conduct research and planning2.8 We deliver agricultural advice2.9 We assist landholders to control pest animals2.10 North Coast Local Land Services contacts

3. Responsibilities with owning cattle3.1 Responsibilities with owning rural land3.2 Biosecurity

3.2.1 On-farm biosecurity plans3.2.2 Biosecurity Act3.2.3 Emergency animal diseases and notifiable diseases3.2.4 Surveillance

3.3 Animal welfare3.3.1 Attitudes toward animals and social licence3.3.2 Planning to achieve quality animal welfare3.3.3 Animal welfare standards, guidelines and legislation3.3.4 Pain relief3.3.5 Humane destruction3.3.6 Animal welfare in emergencies and natural disasters, role of North Coast Local Land

Services 3.3.7 Animal welfare in fires

3.3.8 Animal welfare in floods3.4 Chemical residues

3.4.1 Residues from environmental contamination — organochlorines, PCBs and lead3.4.2 Residues from stock feed and supplements — agricultural chemicals and cadmium3.4.3 Residues from cattle treatments - sprays, drenches and antibiotics3.4.4 Antimicrobial stewardship

3.5 Quality assurance programs3.5.1 Meeting the quality assurance expectations for abattoirs3.5.2 Livestock Production Assurance (LPA)3.5.3 European Union Cattle Accreditation Scheme (EUCAS)3.5.4 Pasture Fed Cattle Assurance System (PCAS)3.5.5 Organic certification and production

3.6 Cattle identification and proof of ownership3.6.1 National Livestock Identification System (NLIS)3.6.2 Brands and earmarks3.6.3 Use of identification in management

3.7 Movement requirements for the road transport of cattle3.7.1 Movement checklist

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3.7.2 Fit to load, animal welfare requirements for road transport3.7.3 National Vendor Declarations and eNVDs3.7.4 National Cattle Health Declarations3.7.5 Transported Stock Statements3.7.6 Interstate movement

3.8 Permits for walking or grazing4. Looking after yourself – work health and safety

4.1 Zoonoses - diseases infectious to people 4.1.1 Q Fever 4.1.2 Leptospirosis 4.1.3 Hydatid disease 4.1.4 Salmonella 4.1.5 Cryptosporidium 4.1.6 Risks from drinking unpasteurised milk4.2 Care with chemicals and injections4.3 Injuries and accidents with cattle4.4 Mental, emotional and social health

5. Cattle management and husbandry5.1 Condition, fat and muscle scoring 5.1.1 Body condition score (BCS) system 5.1.2 Assessing fatness in beef cattle 5.1.3 Assessing muscle in beef cattle5.2 Normal values5.3 Cattle handling

5.3.1 Principles of cattle behaviour and responses5.3.2 Principles of cattle handling5.3.3 Cattle handling facilities

5.4 Beef breeds and genetics5.5 Dentition and aging5.6 Calf management

5.6.1 Care of the orphan newborn calf 5.6.2 Creep feeding 5.6.3 Castration5.6.4 Pain management5.6.5 Dehorning, disbudding and breeding polled cattle

5.7 Weaning management 5.8 Bull management

5.8.1 Bull selection 5.8.2 Joining5.8.3 Mating problems and infertility

5.9 Cow and heifer management5.9.1 Setting and achieving breeding targets 5.9.2 Nutrition levels 5.9.3 Joining5.9.4 Pregnancy5.9.5 Problems at calving5.9.6 Problems after calving5.9.7 Buying in females

5.10 Artificial breeding5.10.1 Artificial insemination (AI)5.10.2 Embryo transfer5.10.3 Synchronised breeding

5.11 Cattle management in specific situations5.11.1 Mixing groups of cattle5.11.2 Introducing cattle — biosecurity, reducing risk of diseases and weeds

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5.11.3 Introducing cattle from outside the district — risks and management5.11.4 Cattle on leases or agistment5.11.5 Buying a cattle property5.11.6 Specialist calf rearing5.11.7 Cattle on properties with pasture dieback5.11.8 Cattle on forage crops5.11.9 Cattle on supplementary feed5.11.10 Cattle in times of drought5.11.11 Filling the winter gap feed shortages5.11.12 Fattening steers5.11.13 Cattle in farm forestry5.11.14 Cattle on floodplains and wet pasture systems5.11.15 Cattle on small scale properties

6. Cattle nutrition6.1 The digestive system

6.1.1 The mouth6.1.2 Rumen (paunch)6.1.3 Reticulum (honeycomb)6.1.4 Omasum (bible)6.1.5 Abomasum (true stomach)6.1.6 Small intestine (small bowel)6.1.7 Large intestine (large bowel) and caecum (appendix)

6.2 Nutrient requirements6.2.1 Water6.2.2 Energy6.2.3 Protein6.2.4 Fibre6.2.5 Feed quality testing

6.3 Pastures6.3.1 Pasture feed intake6.3.2 Pasture quantity and quality6.3.3 Good quality, high productivity grasses6.3.4 Good quality, high productivity legumes6.3.5 Poor quality, low productivity grasses

6.4 Grazing management6.4.1 Principles of pasture growth on the North Coast6.4.2 Seasonal guidelines for grass-dominant subtropical pastures6.4.3 Pasture recovery and decision days

6.5 Grazing systems6.5.1 Continuous stocking6.5.2 Set stocking6.5.3 Rotational grazing

6.6 Forage crops6.6.1 Winter forages - ryegrass and oats6.6.2 Summer forages – millet and sorghum

6.7 Supplementary feeds6.7.1 Protein meals6.7.2 Molasses and molasses based mixes6.7.3 Grains and commercial rations6.7.4 Hay6.7.5 Silage6.7.6 White cottonseed6.7.7 Palm kernel expeller meal (PKE)6.7.8 Lick blocks6.7.9 Unusual feeds and by-products

6.8 Minerals

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6.8.1 Calcium6.8.2 Phosphorus6.8.3 Magnesium6.8.4 Sodium (salt)6.8.5 Sulphur

6.9 Trace elements6.9.1 Copper6.9.2 Selenium6.9.3 Iron6.9.4 Cobalt6.9.5 Iodine

6.10 Vitamins6.10.1 Vitamin A6.10.2 Vitamin B6.10.3 Vitamin C6.10.4 Vitamin D6.10.5 Vitamin E

7. Animal problems - signs and common causes7.1 Abortion, pregnancy failure, premature calves and stillbirths7.2 Anaemia (pale gums)7.3 Bleeding (haemorrhage)7.4 Bloating (swollen abdomen)7.5 Bottle jaw7.6 Colic (abdominal pain) and straining7.7 Constipation7.8 Deaths7.9 Downer cattle (recumbency)7.10 Drooling7.11 Eye conditions and blindness7.12 Fever, high temperature7.13 Ill thrift, underweight7.14 Infertility and reduced fertility7.15 Jaundice (the yellows)7.16 Lameness or unusual gait7.17 Nervous signs – tremors, seizures, abnormal behaviour and staggers7.18 Overweight and obesity7.19 Redwater (blood-coloured urine)7.20 Respiratory signs7.21 Scours (diarrhoea)7.22 Skin signs7.23 Urinary tract signs

8. Disease problems (in alphabetical order)8.1 Abscesses and swellings8.2 Akabane disease8.3 Allergies8.4 Anthrax *notifiable* *zoonosis*8.5 Arthritis8.6 Blackleg8.7 Bladder stones (urolithiasis)8.8 Bloat8.9 Botulism8.10 Bovine Johne’s disease (BJD)8.11 Bovine papular stomatitis 8.12 Buffalo fly8.13 Calf diphtheria

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8.14 Calf scours8.15 Cancer eye8.16 Choke8.17 Coccidiosis (black or blood scours)8.18 Colibacillosis (E. coli)8.19 Congenital diseases8.20 Cryptosporidium8.21 Dermatophilus (‘dermo’ or rain scald)8.22 Difficult birth (dystocia)8.23 Dog attack8.24 Dung beetles8.25 Enzootic bovine leucosis (EBL)8.26 Flood mud scours (yersinia, yersiniosis)8.27 Foot-and-mouth disease *exotic*8.28 Gastrointestinal obstruction8.29 Grain poisoning (acidosis)8.30 Grass tetany (hypomagnesaemia)8.31 Hardware disease (wire disease)8.32 Heat stress8.33 Histophilus (haemophilus)8.34 Hydatid disease8.35 Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBR)8.36 Ketosis and pregnancy toxaemia8.37 Lameness 8.38 Leptospirosis8.39 Lice8.40 Listeriosis8.41 Liver fluke8.42 Lumpy jaw (actino)8.43 Mad cow disease (BSE) *exotic*8.44 Mange8.45 Mannheimia haemolytica (MH, pasteurella) 8.46 Mastitis (infection of the udder)8.47 Metritis (infection of the uterus)8.48 Milk fever (hypocalcaemia)8.49 Navel ill 8.50 Neospora abortion (protozoan abortion)8.51 Pestivirus (bovine viral diarrhoea virus)8.52 Photosensitisation (sunburn)8.53 Pinkeye (blight)8.54 Pneumonia8.55 Poisonings – chemicals

8.55.1 Lead poisoning *residues*8.55.2 Urea poisoning8.55.3 Arsenic poisoning8.55.4 Organophosphate poisoning

8.56 Poisonings – plants8.56.1 Home garden, vegetable and orchard poisonings and hazards8.56.2 Avocado poisoning8.56.3 Black bean poisoning8.56.4 Blue-green algae poisoning8.56.5 Bracken fern poisoning8.56.6 Fireweed poisoning8.56.7 Grass tree poisoning8.56.8 Green cestrum and Night-blooming jasmine poisoning8.56.9 Mother of millions poisoning

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8.56.10 Noogoora burr poisoning8.56.11 Oleander and Yellow oleander poisoning8.56.12 Poison peach poisoning8.56.13 Red lantana poisoning8.56.14 Smartweed poisoning8.56.15 Zamia palm (cycad) poisoning

8.57 Poisonings – pastures and forages8.57.1 Nitrate poisoning8.57.2 Oxalate poisoning8.57.3 Cyanide poisoning8.57.4 Brassicas8.57.5 Clovers and lucerne8.57.6 Kikuyu poisoning8.57.7 Paspalum ergot poisoning8.57.8 Ryegrass and oats8.57.9 Setaria8.57.10 Sorghum8.57.11 Woolly pod vetch

8.58 Polio (polioencephalomalacia, PEM)8.59 Prolapse8.60 Pulpy kidney (enterotoxaemia)8.61 Retained afterbirth8.62 Ringworm (dermatomycosis)8.63 Rotavirus8.64 Salmonella (salmonellosis)8.65 Snakebite8.66 Stomach fluke (paramphistomes)8.67 Tetanus8.68 Theileria8.69 Three day sickness (bovine ephemeral fever)8.70 Tick fever (redwater) *notifiable*8.71 Ticks

8.71.1 Bush tick (bottle tick, haemophysalis)8.71.2 Paralysis tick (dog tick, shell back tick, ixodes)8.71.3 Cattle tick (boophilus) *notifiable*

8.72 Trauma and injuries8.73 Undernutrition8.74 Urinary tract infection (pyelonephritis)8.75 Vibriosis8.76 Warts (papillomatosis)8.77 Wooden tongue (actinobacillosis or ‘actino’)8.78 Worms

8.78.1 Cooperia (small intestinal worm)8.78.2 Haemonchus (barbers pole worm)8.78.3 Ostertagia (brown stomach worm)8.78.4 Dictyocaulis (lungworm)8.78.5 The where and when of worms8.78.6 Worm control principles and strategies8.78.7 Drenches

9. Chemicals and treatments9.1 Principles of chemical use9.2 Types of chemicals and treatments9.3 Administration routes and techniques9.4 Avoiding residues9.5 Training and record keeping

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10. Develop programs, budgets and calendars10.1 Sources of information and resources 10.2 Health, nutrition and management plans

10.2.1 Vaccination programs10.2.2 Internal parasite (worms and fluke) programs10.2.3 External parasite (ticks, flies and lice) programs

10.3 Develop a cattle health annual budget10.4 Develop a health and management calendar

11. Further information and references

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1. Introduction

1.1 AcknowledgmentsAs editor of the new edition, I wish to acknowledge all those who helped prepare the first five editions, particularly Paul Freeman, the then District Veterinarian Casino, who wrote editions one to three.

Special thanks go to co-author North Coast Local Land Services Senior Land Services Officer, agricultural advice Nathan Jennings, for writing the animal husbandry sections. Thanks also go to North Coast Local Land Services staff Ian Poe (Senior District Veterinarian), Graeme Moss (Team Leader, Strategy), Emmaline Froggatt (Team Leader, Sustainable Agriculture) and Susan Davison (Senior Land Services Officer). And also to Stephen Carrigg (North Coast Area Health Service) for writing the mental, emotional and social health section.

Phillip Kemsley

Local Land Services district veterinarian Lismore

1.2 Book overviewThis book aims to provide information on cattle health and husbandry for beef producers in the North Coast Local Land Services region of NSW. It is written for those new to the industry and producers who have run cattle for a long time.

The book is available as a hard copy from North Coast Local Land Services offices or as an electronic version from www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast

It is impossible to provide all the information available on beef cattle health and husbandry in a book of this size. Rather, the intent of this publication provides a summary of each topic, with links for further information. The links are embedded in the text of the electronic version. In the hard copy version, these can be found in section 11.

1.3 How to use this bookLook up the topic concerned in the table of contents. For each section and topic, there are links and references for further information.

In the case of sick cattle, check the signs observed against the various possibilities listed in chapter 7. Click on the internal links or turn to the appropriate sections in the book.

An important part of this book is using the information to put preventative programs in place, which are outlined in each topic. Chapter 10 explores ways to individualise programs and calendars so that important events are not overlooked in the busyness of life.

Not all cattle on the North Coast are managed in the same way. Nor are all grazing environments the same. Section 5.11 explores a variety of management types.

http://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast

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1.4 New topics in this editionSince the last edition, Australian beef producers have been required to implement biosecurity plans. There is a new section on steps in preparing and reviewing these plans and recognising potential biosecurity threats.

The North Coast region has also been devastated by an unprecedented number of natural disasters in recent years, including bushfires, droughts and floods. There are new sections on disaster preparedness planning and the role of Local Land Services in emergency recovery.

Animal welfare and social licence to farm will continue to be important for the beef industry. This edition includes pro-active approaches to pain management and the North Coast’s biggest welfare and productivity challenge, nutrition, during the late winter feed gap. The nutrition section has expanded sections on trace elements and pasture and grazing management. There is also information on the emerging problem of pasture die-back.

Chemical resistance has also become a problem in recent years, in particular worm resistance to drenches and buffalo fly resistance to insecticides.

Multiple antibiotic resistance is emerging as a worldwide threat to both human and animal health. This edition contains a section on antimicrobial stewardship.

A significant proportion of cattle on the North Coast are on small holdings, some of which are owned by those relatively new to the rural environment. This edition has an expanded section on the responsibilities of owning rural land, which covers a varying range of topics. Small farms often have a range of species of animals and have several unique biosecurity challenges. These are addressed in a section for small landholders.

1.5 Overview of the beef industry on the North CoastThe NSW North Coast boasts a mild temperate and subtropical climate which is well suited to beef cattle production. The North Coast Local Land Services region is a mixed agricultural district covering an area of approximately 3.2 million hectares. Of this area, 28 per cent (about 906,000 ha) is used for grazing beef cattle. The North Coast beef industry is valued at about $350 million per year (2011 figures), making it the single largest agricultural sector and worth almost as much as all other agricultural industries combined. At $92 million per annum, the dairy industry is the second most valuable agricultural industry, followed by sugar, blueberries, nursery and cut flowers, poultry and macadamias.

See: Characterisation of the socio-economic landscape of the North Coast region of NSW (EcoLogical NCLLS 2015).

See: Beef industry snapshot (Regional Development Northern Rivers NSW 2015).

https://northcoast.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/564789/characterisation-of-the-socio-economic-landscape-of-the-north-coast-region-of-nsw.pdf

https://ncmc-co.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Beef-Industry-Snapshot-2015-4.pdf

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2. About North Coast Local Land Services North Coast Local Land Services helps secure the future of farming and the environment for North Coast communities. Our services, projects and partnerships grow farm productivity and healthy environments and play a vital role to help protect against pests, diseases and environmental threats.

North Coast Local Land Services is a locally run organisation which means we are well placed to deliver services that address the needs of the communities we work with. Our team is here when it matters, helping with knowledge, networks, and local experience.

See: What We Do webpage (LLS).

Keeping you up to dateNorth Coast Local Land Services has regular media releases and information about current important local issues. See: Latest news and newsletters at: North Coast Local Land Services website (NCLLS).

Our staff prepare information sheets, podcasts, webinars and online resources on a wide range of topics. See: Articles, publications and resources at: North Coast Local Land Services website (NCLLS).

We also have regular landholder field days, seminars and information sessions on a wide range of topics. See: Workshops and events at: North Coast Local Land Services website (NCLLS).

2.1 Our home — the North CoastThe North Coast Local Land Services region is located in north-east NSW and includes Lord Howe Island. It stretches from just south of Port Macquarie to the Queensland border, covering 12 local government areas. It covers an area of more than 32,000 square kilometres, including 568 kilometres of coastline. More than 500,000 people live on the North Coast. The major population centres include Tweed Heads, Lismore, Murwillumbah, Grafton, Coffs Harbour, Nambucca, Kempsey and Port Macquarie.

The region is at the interface of the temperate and subtropical zones. Land use, agricultural industries, biosecurity risks and environments are diverse and reflect both climate zones. The area supports progressive, diverse and engaged communities and agricultural industries. It has a reputation for clean, green environments that grow clean, green agricultural produce.

See: Regional profile at: North Coast Local Land Services website (NCLLS).

See: Characterisation of the socio-economic landscape of the North Coast region of NSW (EcoLogical NCLLS 2015).

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/what-we-do

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/latest-news-and-newsletters

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/articles,-plans-and-publications?result_1188179_result_page=1&results_per_page=16&mode=results&current_result_page=12&region=Northcoast

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/events

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/region-profile

http://northcoast.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/564789/characterisation-of-the-socio-economic-landscape-of-the-north-coast-region-of-nsw.pdf

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2.2 How we are funded North Coast Local Land Services is funded in a variety of ways. The NSW Government contributes funding supporting biodiversity, native vegetation, threatened species and Aboriginal cultural heritage outcomes.

The Australian Government is a vital funding partner, primarily through the National Landcare Program. This supports the protection, conservation and rehabilitation of Australia’s natural environment.

Ratepayers also contribute significantly to funding our biosecurity, livestock health and welfare services.

More recently, both the NSW and Federal governments provided funding that supported land managers to address drought and bushfire recovery impacts. We also have industry partnerships that contribute to our work.

2.3 We help grow and protect farm productivityThe North Coast region supports diverse agricultural industries, including beef, dairy, sugar cane, macadamias and blueberries, to name a few. North Coast Local Land Services assist landholders to discover and implement new ways to improve their business while protecting the environment. Our staff take the time to understand the situation of individual landholders. We help farmers grow their knowledge and capacity to manage their land using best available practices through advice, information, training and networking. Better informed decisions help producers balance production, profit and sustainability.

North Coast Local Land Services works closely with landholders to protect against crop and livestock disease. Our economy, agricultural industries, environment and communities are all dependent on biosecurity. These are strengthened with support from the community as a whole and by everyone playing their role.

We help farmers protect their business by being prepared for natural disasters, and when disasters do happen, we are there to assist in getting back to business sooner.

2.4 We help grow and protect healthy environmentsThe North Coast is the third most biodiverse region in Australia. North Coast Local Land Services supports programs and partnerships that help raise awareness in the community of the importance of maintaining biodiversity - the plants and animals in our region and their ecological communities. Increased awareness leads to stewardship and protection of the environment, which is essential for sustainable agriculture and native habitat conservation.

Everyone has a role to play in growing healthy environments, so we focus on building relationships between farmers and community groups, such as Landcare, that have tangible outcomes for the environment, the economy, and our community.

North Coast Local Land Services works closely with the North Coast Regional Landcare Network, representing hundreds of volunteer networks across the North Coast. See: Landcare NSW website (Landcare NSW).

Healthy environments are essential for farm productivity which is why we build strong relationships between farmers and community groups. Working together on issues such as weeds and pest animals, protects farm productivity and vital natural habitats.

Individually and collectively, we can, and must, find ways of living sustainably and without impacting the biodiversity and natural environments around us. North Coast Local Land Services programs and partnerships bring people together to work towards a shared goal to protect our natural, living wealth – our biodiversity – for

https://landcarensw.org.au/

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future generations.

From time to time, North Coast Local Land Services has funding for specific environmental projects. To learn more about current projects, See: Grants and funding at: North Coast Local Land Services website (NCLLS) and our major projects at: What we do webpage (LLS).

See: Natural resource management at: Growing, grazing and land webpage (LLS).

See: Environment Energy and Science website (NSW Government).

2.5 We engage with Aboriginal culture and communitiesNorth Coast Local Land Services regularly consult and engage with the Aboriginal people to better understand and share traditional land management knowledge with the broader community. Our programs and partnerships help grow opportunities for Aboriginal people to care for Country.

See: What We Do webpage (LLS).

See: Heritage NSW webpage (NSW Government).

2.6 We deliver frontline livestock health and biosecurityNorth Coast Local Land Services district veterinarians and biosecurity officers have an important role in protecting and enhancing livestock health and production, animal welfare, and protecting human health and the environment. They also provide certification that livestock and livestock products are free of disease and residues. This is essential for continued and competitive access to domestic and international markets. In addition, the team remains prepared for any emergency disease outbreak, such as foot-and-mouth disease.

District veterinarians provide a frontline service, undertake investigations and post-mortems for unexplained stock deaths and herd disease problems such as ill thrift. There is no charge for these services. If laboratory testing is necessary, charges for laboratory fees may apply. They do not provide treatments for animals or do activities generally undertaken by private veterinarians. Our team maintain records of surveillance, disease events and trends in the region. This is for both certification purposes and to provide up to date information to producers.

The team has valuable local knowledge and is available for technical advice on disease prevention to help prevent the heartache of unnecessary animal health problems. They also have a presence at saleyards, events and field days.

We also conduct investigations into unusual or important wildlife disease events.

See: Livestock advice at: Livestock health and production webpage (LLS).

See: Disease control at: Pests, weeds and diseases webpage (LLS).

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/financial-assistance


https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/growing,-grazing-and-land

https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/


https://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/livestock-health-and-production

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/pests,-weeds-and-diseases

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2.7 We conduct research and planningOur staff has an active role in learning more about the area’s important health and productivity issues through research trials and projects. They also collaborate with various stakeholders, including local landholders, NSW Department of Primary Industries, universities, pharmaceutical companies, abattoirs, rural stores and private veterinarians. Examples of recent research are embedded in this book. These include drench resistance trials (see section 8.78.7), hydatid disease impacts on the North Coast beef industry (see section 8.34) and yellows resistant kikuyu cultivar(see section 6.3.3).

They also work together with NSW Department of Primary Industries to develop and implement strategic plans such as the NSW Animal Biosecurity and Welfare Strategic Plan 2019–2023. This plan aims to safeguard the economy, environment and community from diseases and pests that affect animals, as well as improve animal welfare outcomes. See: Biosecurity and food safety webpage (NSW DPI).

2.8 We deliver agricultural adviceNorth Coast Local Land Services works in partnership with farmers and farming groups to provide support, advice and best practice examples to increase productivity and profitability. They work closely with organisations such as NSW Department of Primary Industries to provide up to date technical advice and support.

Our agricultural advisory officers coordinate local producer groups and hold field days on timely and locally relevant topics, including pasture management, disease management, feeding and nutrition, animal husbandry, breeding and selection, as well as drought preparedness and flood recovery. They deliver education programs such as the PROfarm range of short courses, including ‘Beef Care and Handling’ and ‘Stock Assess’.

See: Livestock advice at: Livestock health and production webpage (LLS).

By sharing knowledge, we help to safeguard your farm’s productivity well into the future.

2.9 We assist landholders to control pest animalsPest animals and insects can cause severe economic losses to agricultural production, pose a risk for exotic diseases, threaten the survival of many native species, and cause environmental degradation. Wild dogs are a particular problem on the North Coast, and they will attack both livestock and native fauna. Small livestock such as sheep, goats, alpacas and calves are especially at risk from wild dog attacks, as are domestic pets such as dogs and cats. Management of wild dog attacks focuses on minimising the impacts, which is best achieved through landscape group control programs using 1080 baits. It is vital to be proactive with wild dog management and to seek assistance before attacks occur. (see section 8.23)

North Coast Local Land Services biosecurity officers can also assist landholders with the control of other pest animals such as wild rabbits, feral pigs and foxes and can advise best practice control methods, baits or traps, depending on the circumstance and compliance with relevant legislation.

Biosecurity officers can also provide training for landholders to use 1080 and Pindone products, the vertebrate pest induction training course and canid pest ejectors. The training is at no cost to North Coast Local Land Services ratepayers. Vertebrate pest induction training takes about three hours and provides accreditation for five years. Canid pest ejector is a two-hour course that is completed once.

See: Pest animal management at: Pests, weeds and diseases webpage (LLS).

See: Centre for Invasive Species Solutions website (Centre for Invasive Species Solutions).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/livestock-health-and-production/livestock-advice

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/pests,-weeds-and-diseases/pest-control

https://invasives.com.au/

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2.10 North Coast Local Land Services contacts https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast

Phone: 1300 795 299 (8.30 am–4.30 pm Monday to Friday)

Email: [email protected]

Mail: PO Box 1417, Coffs Harbour NSW 2450

District veterinarians Casino: 0412 303 907

Grafton: 0427 458 592

Kempsey: 0429 987 255

Lismore: 0427 896 822

Biosecurity officers Kempsey: 0429 842 966

Lismore: 0439 857 146

Senior land services officers - agriculture advice Coffs Harbour: 0427 007 501

Kempsey: 0400 685 400

Lismore: 0437 083 147

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast

mailto:%20admin.northcoast%40lls.nsw.gov.au?subject=

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3. Responsibilities with owning cattleOwning cattle involves responsibilities to help protect Australia’s reputation as a producer of ‘clean and green’ animal products free of diseases and chemical residues. To do this requires sound biosecurity, high standards of animal welfare, including during emergency situations and meeting industry expectations for quality assurance. It also involves compliance with animal identification, movement and traceability systems. Vigilance for diseases that could threaten our trade, industry, and economy is also essential and explored in sections 7 and 8.

3.1 Responsibilities with owning rural landLiving the dream of owning a rural property, be it large or small, carries with it some responsibilities in ensuring land use does not impact livestock trade or markets, the environment, or others. Recommended resources are:

• See: Every bit counts – supporting small farms and lifestyle blocks at: Local Land Services website (LLS)• See: Considerations before buying rural land (DPI 2018)• See: Rural living handbook, a guide for rural landholders (LLS 2020) at: Local Land Services website (Local

Land Services)• See: Living and working in rural areas handbook (DPI 2007).

The environment and natural resources:• join your local Landcare. Contact your nearest Local Land Services office or See: Landcare NSW website

(Landcare NSW)• protection of soil See: The Soil Conservation Service at: Growing, grazing and land webpage (LLS). See: Soils

webpage (DPI)• protection of water See: Water NSW website, including the Farm dam handbook (Water NSW 2011)• protection of native vegetation See: Land management in NSW webpage at: Local Land Services website

(LLS). See: Native vegetation at: Environment energy and science website (NSW Government)• protection of native animals and the environment See: Environment energy and science website (NSW

Government)• control of invasive species See: Invasive Species Plan 2018-2021 (DPI). See: Centre for Invasive Species

Solutions website (Centre for Invasive Species Solutions)• control of pest animal species See: North Coast Regional Strategic Pest Animal Plan at: Pests, weeds and

diseases webpage (LLS). See: Pest Animals in NSW webpage (DPI)• control of weeds See: Weed control handbook (DPI 2018) at: Weeds website (NSW DPI)• waste management. See: Agricultural chemicals website (DPI). See: Waste webpage (Environmental

Protection Authority).

Aboriginal cultural heritage. See: Aboriginal culture and communities at: What we do webpage (LLS). See: Heritage NSW webpage (NSW Government).

Protecting your property and assets:• against emergencies such as fire, flood and emergency animal diseases (see section 3.2.3 and section 3.3)

See: Emergency management webpage (DPI), Emergency and biosecurity webpage (LLS)• biosecurity. (see section 3.2) See: Farm Biosecurity website (Farm Biosecurity).

Considering others:• control of domestic pets See: Responsible pet ownership (Office of Local Government)• fences — The Dividing Fences Act. See: NSW Legislation website (NSW Government)• avoiding and managing conflict with neighbouring farms. See: Living and working in rural areas handbook

(DPI 2007) .

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/greater-sydney/key-projects/every-bit-counts#:~:text=Supporting%20small%20farms%20and%20lifestyle,land%2C%20production%20capacity%20and%20environment.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/lup/development-assessment2/precautions

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/what-we-do/plans-and-publications/rural-living-handbook


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/lup/living-and-working-in-rural-areas/living-and-working-in-rural-areas-handbook




https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/soils


https://www.waternsw.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/113687/FarmDamFinalLR.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/land-management-in-nsw

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/land-management-in-nsw

https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/native-vegetation



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/strategy/strategies/nsw-invasive-species-plan-2018-2021





https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/pest-animals-in-nsw

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/chemicals

https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/waste


https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/what-we-do/aboriginal-culture-and-communities



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/climate-and-emergencies/emergency

http://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au

https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/



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3.2 Biosecurity“Biosecurity protects the economy, environment and community from the negative impacts of pests, diseases and weeds. Biosecurity is essential to ensuring the safety, wellbeing and prosperity of all. North Coast Local Land Services works with landholders, the community, industry and all levels of government to promote sound biosecurity practices. This includes supporting producers with the development of farm biosecurity plans.”

For current biosecurity emergencies, See: Biosecurity emergencies at: Emergency management webpage (DPI). And See: Spotlights and latest news at: Biosecurity and food safety webpage (NSW DPI).

To ensure freedom requires vigilance with biosecurity at all levels:

• international borders. Australia is in a unique position due to its isolation and strong border quarantine regulations. Our country has a long history of keeping out many pests and diseases and responding quickly when incursions have occurred. Animal pests and diseases that are not in Australia are termed ‘exotic’

• state boundaries and regional areas are used to prevent the spread from one location to another. Animal pests and diseases that are in only some parts of Australia are known as ‘endemic’ (see section 3.2.2)

• at the farm gate, through sound on-farm biosecurity. (see section 3.2.1)

See: Emergency and biosecurity webpage (LLS).

See: Biosecurity and food safety webpage (NSW DPI).

See: Farm biosecurity website (Farm biosecurity).

See: Biosecurity land manager website (Commonwealth of Australia).

3.2.1 On-farm biosecurity plans

Having active biosecurity plans in place is critical to protect properties from the entry of unwanted livestock diseases, pests and weeds. An on-farm biosecurity plan is an important means to consider these threats and put in place actions to protect livestock, assets and the environment. Biosecurity plans can be compared to fire and flood plans and are essential to protect against and respond appropriately to environmental disasters. (see section 3)

*industry requirement* In 2017, Livestock Production Assurance (LPA) introduced on-farm biosecurity plans as a requirement for cattle producers. At the time, North Coast Local Land Services ran producer biosecurity workshops to explain the requirements and assist in developing plans. The plans have six parts:

1. inputs — livestock, feed and water2. people, vehicles and equipment3. production practices — livestock monitoring, identification, animal health, waste management and fences4. Pests and weeds5. outgoing products — animal welfare and National Livestock Identification Scheme (NLIS)6. training and records.

The plans are designed so they can be individualised for the property. The templates can be completed electronically by downloading it as a fillable form. Alternatively, these can be completed as a hard copy, available from North Coast Local Land Services offices. See: Farm biosecurity plan webpage (AHA). See: Farm biosecurity website (Farm biosecurity).

North Coast Local Land Services staff are also available to assist producer groups with the principles of plan development. For individual assistance, the Australian Cattle Veterinarians have a resource for your private veterinarian to help develop on-farm biosecurity plans. See: Biocheck webpage (Australian Veterinary Association).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/emergencies/emergency/biosecurity


https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/emergency-and-biosecurity


https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/better-on-farm-biosecurity/

https://www.biosecurity.gov.au/environment/land-manager


https://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/


https://www.ava.com.au/about-us/ava-groups/cattle/resources/schemes/biocheck/

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3.2.2 Biosecurity Act

The NSW Biosecurity Act (2015) came into effect in July 2017. The act amalgamated more than 10 existing acts related to animal and plant biosecurity. The act recognises that the protection of NSW agricultural industries from biosecurity risks is not a sole responsibility of government, but a shared responsibility with industry and the community. For cattle producers, this means developing an on-farm biosecurity plan to help protect and minimise the negative impacts of pests, diseases, residues and weeds. It also means a responsibility under the act to notify any suspicion of these problems. If you have any suspicions, call a North Coast Local Land Services district veterinarian or the emergency disease hotline 1800 675 888. See: Biosecurity Act 2015 at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

3.2.3 Emergency animal diseases and notifiable diseases

Australian agriculture benefits enormously from its freedom from devastating disease outbreaks that plague livestock industries in other parts of the world. Emergency livestock diseases require a coordinated response from government, livestock industries and emergency management organisations. These diseases require a coordinated response as they could have significant national socio-economic consequences such as serious international trade or market loss. They may also cause significant production loss or environmental impacts, or in some cases, impact human health.

Many of these are exotic diseases; others are endemic, notifiable, or emerging diseases:

• exotic diseases refer to those that occur overseas and are not in Australia and need to be acted on immediately. Australian livestock industries and the economy would be devastated by an outbreak of an exotic disease such as foot-and-mouth disease or mad cow disease

• endemic notifiable diseases include those that may be established in one part of Australia but are being managed by authorities to contain their spread, such as tick fever

• emerging diseases are new or newly identified diseases such as the Hendra virus found in horses.

It is important that planning to protect livestock against entry of these diseases is embedded in the on-farm biosecurity plan. (see section 3.2.1)

See: Emergency and biosecurity webpage (LLS). See: Disease control at: Pests, weeds and diseases webpage (LLS).

See: Biosecurity emergencies at: Emergency management webpage (DPI).

See: Notifiable Pests and Diseases of Animals in NSW (DPI 2020) at: Animal biosecurity webpage (DPI).

Embedded in the book are alerts for conditions that are a notifiable and must be reported. These will appear as

*notifiable disease*

There is a responsibility under the Biosecurity Act to notify any suspicion of these diseases. Contact your North Coast Local Land Services district veterinarian or the emergency disease hotline 1800 675 888.

3.2.4 Surveillance

Across the North Coast and throughout Australia, livestock are regularly examined and tested to ensure they are free from exotic diseases. This allows Australia to provide our trading partners with proof of our freedom from various exotic diseases. This is called surveillance—the earlier the recognition and coordinated response to these diseases, the better the outcome.

“North Coast Local Land Services biosecurity staff are experienced and trained in emergency diseases and are the key players in any emergency disease response.”

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/chemicals/animal-chemicals





https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/notifiable-animal-diseases-nsw

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Experience and studies have shown that the most important players in the initial recognition of emergency diseases are producers. Hence the ‘shared responsibility’ in the Biosecurity Act. Look out for any unusual signs, in particular, the following syndromes. These are *notifitable*:

• sudden death of more than one animal or with blood discharges• lameness of more than one animal affecting all four feet• abortion ‘storm’ involving more than one cow• blisters in mouth, on feet or the udder• drooling and reluctance to eat in more than one animal• red urine• yellow skin• high fever and a reluctance to eat and or weight loss in more than one animal• behavioural or nervous changes such as staggering, head down or dullness• a tick you cannot identify.

If you see or suspect any of these, phone the emergency disease hotline 1800 675 888 or your North Coast Local Land Services district veterinarian immediately.

Section 7 explores these and other presenting signs in more detail and lists possible causes.

See: Key emergency animal diseases webpage (DPI).

See: Emergency animal disease at: Animal Health Australia website (AHA).

See: Emergency animal disease responses at: Farm biosecurity website (Farm Biosecurity).

“The price of freedom is eternal vigilance.”

3.3 Animal welfare“Achieving a high level of animal care is important for the health and wellbeing of cattle, for the cattle producer and the industry as a whole. All cattle producers aim to be in the business of producing quality livestock for quality meat and quality animal products. To do this requires and demands a high level of planning for the best animal welfare outcomes.”

Because of the importance of animal welfare, embedded in this book are alerts. These will appear as *animal welfare*

See: Animal welfare webpage (DPI). See: Animal health and welfare webpage (MLA).

See: Managing the welfare of cattle and on-farm animal welfare compliance, module 6 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

3.3.1 Attitudes toward animals and social licence

Background and historyRené Descartes was a 17th-century philosopher who postulated that animals did not experience pain or emotional distress. This thinking persisted in the west for at least two centuries. We now know that this thinking is incorrect. Unfortunately, some of this attitude towards animals continues in parts of society, particularly in regards to pain relief.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/your-role-in-biosecurity/veterinary-professionals/key-emergency-animal-diseases

https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/

https://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/about/emergency-animal-diseases/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/animal-welfare

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/herd-health-and-welfare/

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/herd-health-and-welfare/

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A spectrum of attitudes toward animalsAnimal welfare lies in the middle of the spectrum of human attitudes toward animals:

• animal abusers — view cruelty as acceptable and are prepared to break the law, an extremist view• animal users — believe animal wellbeing is secondary to production• animal welfare — believe that animal wellbeing is paramount for animal health and production —the

majority view• animal rights — believe that animals have equal rights to humans• animal liberationists — believe that humans should have no control over animals, including activists who

are prepared to break the law; an extremist view.

Trade and marketsAnimal welfare is an essential part of protecting livestock trade and markets. There is an increasing expectation by consumers and markets that animal welfare and wellbeing is paramount for agricultural production. Various terms have been used to describe these expectations, such as ‘right to farm’ and ‘social licence’.

See: Earning community trust in agriculture webpage (Australian Government GRDC).

3.3.2 Planning to achieve quality animal welfare

Achieving the best possible outcomes for the animal is the aim of every cattle owner. This doesn’t happen by accident but requires planning to embed animal welfare at all levels of cattle management. The on-farm biosecurity plan provides a means to this. (see section 3.2.1, above) If you require assistance, the Australian Cattle Veterinarians have a resource for your private veterinarian to help develop farm welfare plans. See: Welfare check webpage (Australian Veterinary Association).

In the plan, consider:

• planning for seasonal food shortages (see section 5.11.11)• providing adequate water of good quality (see section 6.2.1)• provision of shade and minimising heat stress (see section 8.32)• minimising pain and discomfort through pain management (see section 5.6.4)• adopting sound animal handling practices (see section 5.3)• ongoing assessment of body condition score (see section 5.1)• minimising social stressors such as mixing of mobs, trough space, handling in yards (see section 5.11.1)• developing sound animal health programs to minimise disease threats (see section 10.2)• identifying and planning for environmental disasters; flood, fire and drought (see section 3.3.5 and

section 5.11.10)• timely and humane animal destruction (see section 3.3.5)• ensuring only suitable cattle are loaded for transport (see section 3.7.2)• understanding and acting on legal requirements in animal welfare legislation and industry standards.

(see section 3.3.3 below)

3.3.3 Animal welfare standards, guidelines and legislation

The Australian animal welfare standards and guidelines provide a nationally consistent framework for farm animal welfare. The guidelines are voluntary recommended practice for animal husbandry. The standards, however, carry legal weight and are implemented through state and territory animal welfare legislation. In NSW, this is the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act and Regulation. See: NSW legislation website (NSW Government).

See: Australian animal welfare standards and guidelines webpage (AHA). See: Animal welfare webpage (DPI).

While standards set the minimum legal requirements, the aim for every producer should be to aim much higher to achieve the best possible animal welfare outcomes.

https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grdc-update-papers/tab-content/grdc-update-papers/2019/02/earning-community-trust-in-agriculture

https://www.ava.com.au/about-us/ava-groups/cattle/resources/schemes/welfarecheck/


https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/

http://www.animalwelfarestandards.net.au/


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Fit to loadIt is critical that cattle meet industry welfare requirements for transport, be it from property to property, to the sale yards or an abattoir. (see section 3.7.2) See: Is the animal fit to load? (MLA 2019).

Body conditionOngoing assessment of body condition is a must in dry seasons as a prompt to commencing supplementary feeding.

See: Welfare scoring nutritionally deprived beef cattle, dairy cattle and their crosses, sheep and horses (DPI 2019) at: Animal welfare webpage (DPI).

See: A national guide to describing and managing beef cattle in low body condition (MLA 2013).

3.3.4 Pain relief

Pain relief is an essential part of ensuring best practice for animal welfare and is strongly recommended for any procedure that involves pain. The cost of pain relief is on par with many other animal health treatments and is soon recovered through reduced setback after the procedure.

For procedures undertaken on calves; castration, dehorning, disbudding and branding. (see section 5.6.4) For any other procedures, consult with your veterinarian.

3.3.5 Humane destruction

Unfortunately, not all conditions are treatable. It is essential that all cattle producers forward plan if an animal requires humane destruction. This should be included in the animal welfare section of the on-farm biosecurity plan.

There are several acceptable means by which this can be achieved:

• euthanasia solution administered by a veterinarian• with a firearm by a licenced and experienced operator• captive bolt. In NSW, these do not require a licence and are not subject to the same conditions as

firearms.

See: Humane destruction of livestock (DPI 2018) at: Animal welfare webpage (DPI).

3.3.6 Animal welfare in emergencies and natural disasters, the role of North Coast Local Land Services

There have been a series of natural disaster events on the North Coast in recent years, including drought, fires, and floods. There is also the ongoing threat of emergency animal diseases. These are all significant animal welfare issues. Fire, flood and diseases can come with little warning, so it is important to have a plan. Having plans in place are vital to ensure the best possible outcomes for the welfare of cattle.

Droughts are a major concern for animal welfare. (see section 5.11.10)

For emergency animal diseases (see section 3.2.3).

The role of North Coast Local Land Services in preparedness

https://www.mla.com.au/fittoload

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/449796/welfare-scoring-nutritionally-deprived-cattle-sheep-horses.pdf


https://www.integritysystems.com.au/globalassets/isc/pdf-files/lpa-documents/a-national-guide-to-describing-and-managing-beef-cattle-in-low-body-condition.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/animal-welfare/animal-care-and-welfare/livestock/other-resources/humane-destruction-stock

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North Coast Local Land Services offer local support for landholders to develop emergency plans and preparedness through online resources and seminars. They also provide support in the preparation of on-farm biosecurity plans.

The role of North Coast Local Land Services in emergency recoveryNorth Coast Local Land Services also play an important role in recovery in the event of natural disasters, particularly with regards to animal welfare. These include:

• establishing evacuation centres and emergency accommodation for companion animals• provision of emergency fodder supplies• providing advice on feeding and management • assessing injured livestock and, if necessary, euthanasia• referral to other agencies for financial, emotional health and wellbeing and additional support.

See: Our role in emergencies at: Emergency and biosecurity webpage (LLS).

See: Emergency management webpage (DPI).

3.3.7 Animal welfare in fires

Preparedness - have a fire plan Bushfires are a part of the Australian landscape. Planning for bushfires can save the lives of those living on the property, companion animals and livestock, as well as houses, property and other assets. There is also a legal responsibility under the Rural Fires Act 1997 to minimise hazards and protect assets. Create a bushfire survival plan well ahead of the bushfire season.

See: My fire plan website (NSW Government, RFS). See: Fire plan and prepare webpage (RFS).

For information about current fire emergencies:• NSW Rural Fire Service hotline on 1800 679 737 • Fires near me app or online: My fire plan website (NSW Government, RFS).

Fire recovery for livestock:• assess livestock for burns or smoke inhalation. Contact Local Land Services for assistance if uncertain• remember ‘work health and safety’ — cattle in pain can be unpredictable and dangerous • water is the next priority — infrastructure may be damaged or destroyed. Ash contamination may make

surface water unsuitable. For water requirements and quality (see section 6.2.1)• feed - emergency fodder may be available initially until alternatives can be sourced or agistment arranged

For rates of feeding (see section 6.7)• be aware of any biosecurity or cattle health risks associated with agistment (see section 5.11.4)• following a fire, potentially toxic plants may be the first to shoot and place cattle at risk—for example,

bracken fern, zamia or grass trees (see section 8.56)• weeds are also an issue as pasture struggle to recover after a fire.

See: Bushfires at: Emergency and biosecurity webpage (LLS).

See: Bushfires at: Emergency management webpage (DPI).

3.3.8 Animal welfare in floods

Preparedness – have a flood planThe best way to manage the impacts of floods is to be prepared. Invest time in researching past flood events and local conditions. Have a plan in place, which should include where cattle can be moved to before a flood or in

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/emergency-and-biosecurity/our-role-in-emergencies

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/emergencies/emergency

https://www.myfireplan.com.au/

https://www.rfs.nsw.gov.au/plan-and-prepare


https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/emergency-and-biosecurity/bushfires



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the event of loss of grazing after a flood. Historically many landholders on the floodplain had higher country to move stock too. Through the development of subdivisions, some of these blocks are no longer associated with the holding. For those properties that suit, build flood refuge mounds.

See: Farm flood guide – farm flood readiness kit (NSW Government) publication at: Flood webpage (LLS).

See: Livestock flood refuge mounds (DPI 2009) at: Cattle yards and equipment webpage (DPI).

For flood emergency planning and current storm and flood advice, See: Flood webpage (SES).

Flood recovery for livestock:• emergency fodder and assistance may be declared in the event of a flood• for rates of hand feeding (see section 6.7)• there may also be disease risks, such as flood mud scours (see section 8.26)• hungry cattle are also at much higher risk of plant poisonings, which are not uncommon post-flood

(see section 8.56)• cattle congregated on smaller areas post-flood, experience a much higher effective stocking rate and are

at risk of conditions such as worms and coccidiosis (see section 8.78 and section 8.17)• if cattle remain on the land post-flood, there may be a prolonged delay in new growth of pasture,

particularly after a summer ‘hot flood’ See: Pasture recovery after a coastal flood (LLS 2021) at: North Coast Local Land Services Resources webpage (NCLLS)

• there is an increased risk of weeds, both from those introduced by the flood and the lack of ground cover after a flood event

• if the option is to agist, then be aware of any biosecurity or cattle health risks associated with agistment. (see section 5.11.4)

See: Caring for livestock in times of flood (LLS 2021) at: North Coast Local Land Services Resources webpage (NCLLS).

See: Floods at: Emergency and biosecurity webpage (LLS).

See: Floods and storms at: Emergency management webpage (DPI).

3.4 Chemical residuesConsumers, industries and governments are increasingly conscious of food safety, both in Australia and overseas. Australia’s continued access to many international markets depends on us, demonstrating that our cattle and cattle products are free of chemical residues.

North Coast Local Land Services play a pivotal role through district veterinarians who provide advice on avoiding residues. They also have the responsibility of undertaking investigations should residue detections ever occur. District veterinarians maintain records and have access to information on a property’s residue event and testing history, which can be accessed for solicitor’s searches and quality assurance programs.

Cattle producers also play an essential role through their ‘shared responsibility’ under the Biosecurity Act by ensuring cattle are not exposed to potential residue sources. This requires thought, planning and record-keeping as part of the on-farm biosecurity plan.

Sources of residuesThere are three primary sources of chemical residues in cattle:

1. environmental contamination; organochlorines, PCBs and lead2. stockfeed and supplements; agricultural chemicals and cadmium3. veterinary chemicals used to treat livestock; external parasite treatments, drenches and antibiotics.

See: Livestock chemical residues at: Livestock health and production webpage (LLS).

See: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI). See: Property risk assessments webpage (LPA).

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/articles-and-publications/corporate-app/farm-flood-readiness-kit

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/304491/livestock-flood-refuge-mounds.pdf

https://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/disaster-tabs-header/flood/

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1299139/Pasture-Recovery-after-a-Coast-Flood-2021.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1299139/Pasture-Recovery-after-a-Coast-Flood-2021.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1299229/Caring-for-livestock-in-times-of-flood-March-2021-WEB.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/emergency-and-biosecurity/floods

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/emergencies/floods

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/livestock-health-and-production/livestock-chemical-residues


https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/property-risk-assessments/

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3.4.1 Residues from environmental contamination

*industry requirement* Ensure that cattle do not have access to possible contaminated sites on farm. These sites may have residues from past chemical use, including:

• farm dumps (lead in car batteries, organochlorines from old timber or soil)• chemical mixing sites (organochlorines from past use for crops, such as bananas and sugar cane)• sites of fires (lead from old painted timber, arsenic from treated pine, also hardware disease risk)• buildings, including houses (lead from old painted timber, organochlorines from termite control)• lawn clippings from house yards (organochlorines from termite control).

Organochlorine (OC) residuesIn 1987 the Australian beef industry faced a crisis due to very low but unacceptable levels of organochlorine residues found in a small proportion of export beef consignments. The levels were of concern to markets but not a human health risk (the levels were set at 1/100th of that required to cause signs, based on continued daily consumption as the sole food source). However, the residues were an environmental concern, as they accumulated in the food chain in wildlife. The organochlorine group of chemicals, including dieldrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and benzene hexachloride (BHC), has a long half-life in the soil and animal tissues. Most of the residues were from trace levels remaining in the soil from past use for agriculture or termite treatments. An intense testing program followed, which identified affected properties and measures were put in place to ensure there was no further risk. Most of these holdings no longer pose a threat of residues in cattle. Those holdings that still have soil residues are subject to property management plans.

See: Management of organochlorine and related residues at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

If you require a chemical residue search for quality assurance programs, such as Livestock Production Assurance (LPA) or when buying or leasing land, contact your North Coast Local Land Services office at 1300 795 299.

See: Considerations before buying rural land (DPI 2016).

See: On farm risk assessment for persistent chemicals and physical contaminants factsheet at: Property risk assessments webpage (LPA).

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) residuesThese chemicals were previously used in fire retardants, transformer oils, hydraulic oils and electrical capacitors. They are very persistent in the environment and in animal tissues, with cattle developing residues from direct access to old leaking electrical equipment. As with organochlorines, residues also occur when cattle ingest contaminated soil with the roots of pastures.

See: Management of organochlorine and related residues at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

Lead residuesEnsure the potential for cattle deaths and residues from lead is not present on your property. Cattle are attracted to lead, and its salts and will lick at old vehicle batteries and lead-based paints on old sheds and farm dwellings. Posts treated in the past with sump oil from vehicles run on leaded petrol are also a source. The ash from old building timber with lead-based paint is another source. Cattle have an appetite for ash, and lead is not destroyed by fire, so it remains in the ash. Lead from flashing or putty on window frames, old bathtubs and old 44-gallon drums are possible sources. Cattle with lead poisoning show nervous signs or blindness. Cattle exposed to sub-lethal doses could have tissue residues for 12 months or more. (see section 8.55.1)

See: Lead poisoning in livestock at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

See: Property risk assessments webpage (LPA).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/emergencies/droughthub_old/information-and-resources/mgt-organochlorine-residues


https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/meat-safety-and-traceability/documents/livestock-production-assurance/factsheets/22422-lpa-fact-sheet-1_property-risk-assessment_web.pdf

https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/meat-safety-and-traceability/documents/livestock-production-assurance/factsheets/22422-lpa-fact-sheet-1_property-risk-assessment_web.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/emergencies/droughthub_old/information-and-resources/mgt-organochlorine-residues

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/general/lead-poisoning-in-livestock


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3.4.2 Residues from stock feed and supplements

The risk of residues in cattle from stock feeds introduced to your property is very low due to the safeguards and quality assurance systems in place in the supply chain. This helps assure feed buyers, domestic and export consumers that Australia’s animal products are clean and green. In processed feed, accreditation is through the Stock Feed Manufacturers Association of Australia, while fodder is assessed by the Australian Fodder Industry Association, the national peak body for the hay and silage industry.

See: FeedSafe accredited feed manufacturer website (Stock Feed Manufacturers Council of Australia).

See: Australian Fodder Industry Association website (AFIA).

Residue risks may arise when cattle are fed unusual products, which tends to occur when there are widespread feed shortages during drought. (see section 6.7.9) Most of these are not covered by feed industry quality assurance.

All introduced stock feeds should be accompanied by a commodity vendor declaration, particularly for unusual feeds, to fulfil Livestock Production Assurance (LPA) requirements. (see section 3.5.2) This guarantees they are safe from chemical contamination and meet restricted animal material controls. (see section 8.43)

These are important for on-farm quality assurance records and are also needed when completing the National Vendor Declaration for cattle. The National Vendor Declaration requires a feeding history for livestock in the 60 days prior to the sale, commodity vendor declarations provide the documentary evidence.

See: Stock foods at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

See: Commodity vendor declaration (MLA 2014).

CadmiumSome areas of the North Coast have soils that are known to be very deficient in phosphorus. Cattle in these areas are at risk of phosphorus deficiency. It is important to only use registered phosphorus supplements. Phosphorus fertilisers, such as superphosphate, have a risk of not only phosphorus toxicity but also cadmium residues. (see section 6.8.2)

3.4.3 Residues from cattle treatments

Agricultural and veterinary chemicals may produce unacceptable residues in animals if the withholding periods and Export Slaughter Intervals (ESI) are not observed. *legal requirement* For this reason these must be adhered to.

Labels of chemicals provide details on how long residues take to fall below acceptable limits before meat or milk can be processed and sold as food. This can be confusing, as two different definitions are used:

1. withholding period — is the time required to wait after treatment before an animal is slaughtered (or milked) to satisfy Australian laws

2. export slaughter interval — describes the waiting period after treatment with a chemical before cattle can be slaughtered for the export market. ESIs are always equal to the withholding period or longer.

Most chemicals used for internal and external parasite treatments and antibiotics have withholding periods and ESIs. Vaccines generally do not. The withholding period and ESIs are extended when treatments are repeated.

“Before using a product, always read the label and check the ESI and withholding period. Always keep a record of the product use as part of your on-farm biosecurity plan.”

https://www.sfmca.com.au/integrity-systems

https://www.afia.org.au/


https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/meat-safety-and-traceability/documents/commodity-vendor-declaration.pdf

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Avoid ‘off–label’ use unless prescribed by your veterinarian. A seemingly harmless suggestion found online or from a friend may be illegal or create a residue risk.

Extensive testing occurs at abattoirs to ensure Australia supplies clean beef, protecting our health and our markets. Many countries will not accept any levels of certain chemicals in their beef. If residues are identified at the abattoir, the producer is penalised, and an on-farm investigation undertaken to determine the cause.

See: Veterinary medicines at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

To check a withholding period and export slaughter interval, See: Withholding periods and export slaughter intervals at: Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority website (APVMA).

3.4.4 Antimicrobial stewardship

Multiple drug resistance is looming as a major international human and animal health issue. Resistance with E. coli and other bacteria are becoming a problem overseas. Australia is recognised as a country with very few problems due to our tight controls over antibiotic use, both in animals and humans. We all must do our part to maintain our countries leadership in this field. There is the potential for it to become a trade issue for animals and animal products. As cattle producers, it is important to remain vigilant with:

• only use antibiotics when directed to do so by a veterinarian (see section 9)• adhere to the dosage, timing, withholding periods and ESIs (see 3.4.3, above)• record all antibiotic usage, dates and details of animals treated in the on-farm biosecurity plan record of

treatment or diary (see section 3.2.1)• use these records to help accurate completion of the National Vendor Declaration (see section 3.7.3)• ensure recent overseas travellers do not have contact with livestock and observe strict hygiene

procedures, which should also be reported in the on-farm biosecurity plan. (see section 3.2.1)

See: Antimicrobial stewardship at: Animal health and welfare webpage (MLA). Written for the feedlot industry, but the principles apply for on-farm.

3.5 Quality assurance programs

3.5.1 Meeting the quality assurance expectations for abattoirs

Abattoirs have a high standard for the quality of cattle that they receive for slaughter. As food processing establishments, they turn quality cattle into quality beef and animal products.

Beef cattle producers are in the business of producing quality cattle that meet market specifications for age, fat cover and muscle score. Cattle presented at meatworks also need to have a low risk of carcass, offal or hide downgrades or chemical residues. Cattle must meet animal welfare standards at abattoirs. (see section 3.3) Many abattoirs now provide feedback on meat quality and any problems through Livestock Data Link.

See: Livestock Data Link webpage (MLA). (see section 10.1)

To reduce the risk of meat downgrades through bruising and muscle damage:

• ensure yards do not have protruding objects• breed for polled cattle (see section 5.6.5)• trim horns• draft and load cattle according to class and weight• vaccinate and give injections high on the neck and as directed (see section 9.3)• treat downer cattle early. (see section 7.9)


https://apvma.gov.au/


https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/antimicrobial-stewardship/

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/food-safety/livestock-data-link/

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To improve meat quality and avoid ‘dark cutters’

After slaughter, muscle needs a pH drop to become meat. A lower pH improves the eating quality, keeping and appearance. To become more acidic requires adequate energy reserves (called glycogen) in muscle at slaughter. Stress in the weeks prior to slaughter will reduce glycogen stores. To avoid dark cutters:

• ensure adequate energy intake before transport• reduce social stress by not mixing mobs — this is a significant stressor in cattle (see section 5.11.1)• gentle and quiet mustering and cattle handling (see section 5.3)• reduce environmental (wet and cold) and other physical stress prior to slaughter • provide access to water at all times before consignment• minimise transit time to abattoir.

See: Dark cutting beef at: Business management and market information webpage (DPI).

To reduce the risk of offal downgrades:

• test cattle for liver fluke and, if needed, implement a control program (see section 8.41)• reduce hydatid disease risk (see section 8.34)• feed grain with care to avoid acidosis and liver abscess (see section 8.29)• treat infectious diseases early, particularly pneumonia. (see section 8.54)

To reduce the risk of hide downgrades:

• maintain fences, in particular tension on barbed wire fences, to minimise cuts• control lantana, cockspur and other plants likely to cause skin injury• have control programs in place for external parasites, such as ticks, buffalo fly and lice (see section 10.2.3)• where possible, seek alternatives to branding. (see section 3.6.2)

*legal and industry requirements* To reduce the risk of residues:

• ensure that National Vendor Declarations are completed in full and correctly (see section 3.7.3)• keep records of all treatments given, product, dose rate, cattle treated and date (see section 3.2.1)• observe withholding periods for all treatments See: withholding period and expert slaughter intervals at:

Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority website(APVMA)• exclude cattle from risk areas such as around houses, sheds, chemical stores, chemical mixing areas, dip

sites and farm dumps (see section 3.4)• never use unregistered ‘bush’ remedies, for example, oil of turpentine, as it is illegal to do so.

See: Market specifications for cattle (DPI 2015) and Producing high-quality domestic beef (DPI 2002) at: Business management and market information webpage (DPI).

See: Factors affecting meat quality webpage (MLA). See: Australian Bovine Beef Language White Paper (MLA 2016).

See: Meeting market specifications, module 7 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

3.5.2 Livestock Production Assurance (LPA)

The LPA is a program that assures consumers and markets that Australian beef is safe and of high quality. It is a Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA) initiative and run by the Integrity Systems Company.

The LPA program has three pillars: LPA accreditation, National Vendor Declarations and the NLIS.

LPA accreditation*industry requirement* LPA accreditation is the first tier and the entry-level for all producers:

• to become accredited requires a Property Identification Code (PIC)• if the holding already has a PIC, then contact LPA to check if it is already accredited• complete the online learning modules See: LPA Learning webpage (Integrity Systems)• then complete the initial accreditation assessment and animal welfare certificate.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/management





https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/meat-standards-australia/factors-affecting-eating-quality/

https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/news-and-events/documents/aust-beef-language-white-paper_web-updated.pdf

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/meeting-market-specifications/

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/lpa-learning/

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Livestock Production Assurance on-farm Quality Assurance Program (LPA QA)This program is the second tier. Progression to this program requires full LPA accreditation. LPA QA also incorporates the CATTLECARE™ program. AUS-MEAT is the LPA QA administrator and certifying agency for the Integrity Systems Company. See: LPA webpage (Integrity Systems).

North Coast Local Land Services maintain records on diseases and chemical residue testing should this information be required for quality assurance programs.

National Vendor Declarations Signing a National Vendor Declaration is claiming compliance with livestock production assurance program requirements. Keeping good on-farm records is essential to support the claims made on the National Vendor Declaration. (see section 3.7.3)

National Livestock Identification System (NLIS)The PIC and completion of cattle movements on the NLIS database are essential to ensure cattle’s lifetime traceability. It demonstrates to both store buyers and beef markets what properties the cattle have been on during their lifetime. Think of the NLIS as a cattle passport. (see section 3.6.1)

See: Declarations and statements webpage (Farm biosecurity).

On-farm biosecurity plans are also a requirement of LPA. (see section 3.2.1, above)

For further information, including accreditation, PICs, National Vendor Declarations, NLIS, training modules, audits and the LPA guidebook, See: LPA webpage (Integrity Systems).

LPA has launched information on data protection, See: A guide to protecting your farm data and information at: Integrity systems website (Integrity Systems).

3.5.3 European Union Cattle Accreditation Scheme (EUCAS)

The European Union is a reliable, high-value beef market. The EUCAS is a voluntary accreditation scheme that allows beef producers to access this valuable market. It requires producers to meet specific traceability and Hormonal Growth Promotant (HGP)-free status requirements.

EUCAS requires accredited farms to:

• have only HGP free cattle on their property at all times (except for breeding bulls)• only purchase and sell cattle from other EUCAS accredited properties and saleyards (with the exception of

approved non-EU breeding females and bulls)• use the NLIS to identify and trace EUCAS cattle movements• use European Union Vendor Declaration (EUVD) forms and specific EUCAS transaction tail tags to identify

cattle.

See: European Union Cattle Accreditation Scheme webpage (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment). See: Hormonal growth promotants webpage at: Husbandry webpage (DPI).

3.5.4 Pasture Fed Cattle Assurance System (PCAS)

The PCAS is a voluntary quality assurance system that enables producers to prove that they operate grass-fed production systems and thereby access the pasture-fed beef market.

To meet PCAS requirements, cattle need access to graze on open pasture for their entire life and not be confined for the purposes of intensive feeding for production. Meat Standards Australia (MSA) based animal handling practices that influence eating quality are also requirements. Traceability, records, and audits support the system.

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/accreditation/#:~:text=LPA%20Learning%20is%20an%20online,prepare%20for%20their%20accreditation%20assessment.

https://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/toolkit/declarations-and-statements/

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/accreditation/#:~:text=LPA%20Learning%20is%20an%20online,prepare%20for%20their%20accreditation%20assessment.

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/about/news--events/news/2021/new-guide-to-help-producers-protect-their-farm-data/

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/about/news--events/news/2021/new-guide-to-help-producers-protect-their-farm-data/

https://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/meat/elmer-3/eucas


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry

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There are also two optional modules to support claims relating to the freedom from antibiotics and Hormone Growth Promotants (HGPs).

See: Pasture Fed Cattle Assurance Scheme website (PCAS Pasturefed). See: Meat Standards Australia webpage (MLA).

3.5.5 Organic certification and production

The National Standard for Organic and Bio-dynamic Produce sets out the requirements for the organic industry in Australia. The standard provides market access for organic produce and assurance that products purchased by consumer meet organic standards. See: National Standard for Organic and Bio-dynamic Produce (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment 2016).

To achieve organic certification, cattle need to be home-bred and meet feeding, animal health, treatment, animal welfare, environmental impacts, and other conditions in a farm management plan. Audits are conducted to ensure compliance. Off-farm certification includes transporters, processors, labelling and retailers.

There are several certification organisations in Australia. For a list of approved certifying organisations for export and further information, See: Exporting Organic and Bio-dynamic Products webpage (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment).

3.6 Cattle identification and proof of ownershipCattle are given identification such as brands, ear tags and ear marks for three reasons:

1. disease and residue tracing 2. legal proof of ownership 3. to help prevent against theft and for management.

3.6.1 National Livestock Identification System (NLIS)The NLIS is a national system that provides information on individual cattle and properties for disease and residue status. It provides a means of traceability of cattle, supports several quality assurance programs and enables market eligibility.

Property Identification Codes (PICS)The PICs are an essential part of the tracing system. A landholder must register a PIC if they intend to have cattle on their land. To apply, See: Apply for a PIC at: Local Land Services website (LLS). Or contact your North Coast Local Land Services office at 1300 795 299.

NLIS ear tagsIdentifying individual cattle under the NLIS is by either an ear tag (or less commonly a rumen bolus). The ear tag has the National Livestock Identification System Identification (NLISID) printed on the outside. Inside, the ear tag contains a microchip. This has no battery and requires an external source to provoke signal transmission. Each microchip has a radio frequency identification device (RFID) number, with 15 numbers. These numbers are displayed when a scanner reads the ear tag. The RFID number is linked to the NLISID printed on the ear tag. Either can be used when entering an animal on the NLIS database.

NLIS ear tags should be applied in the right ear of the animal. Use the correct applicator for that tag and ensure the tags are well fixed in the middle of the ear and not near the tip. The tag identification numbers should face the inside of the ear. The rumen bolus is administered orally and is swallowed to remain in the rumen (first stomach). To order NLIS tags, contact your rural produce store. Tags are no longer ordered through Local Land Services.

https://pcaspasturefed.com.au/

https://www.mla.com.au/marketing-beef-and-lamb/meat-standards-australia/

https://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/organic-bio-dynamic/national-standard


https://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/organic-bio-dynamic

https://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/organic-bio-dynamic

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/i-want-to/apply-for-a-property-identification-code

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NLIS databaseThe NLIS national database provides details on the movement of individual cattle; this is called ‘lifetime history’. It relies on information concerning NLIS tags and cattle movements being entered into the database to be accurate. *legal requirement* All cattle are required to have an NLIS ear tag (or rumen bolus) before leaving the property to a saleyard, abattoir or to another property. It is the responsibility of the person receiving the cattle to transfer the tag numbers on the NLIS database within two working days. This is termed a property-to-property transfer (P2P). Never remove an NLIS tag from the ear; it is an offence to do so.

*legal requirement* Cattle movements that must be reported to the NLIS database:

• change of ownership• property to property transfers. This includes between holdings of the same owner if they have different

PICs • agistment, shows, camp drafts etc• into and out of saleyards• movement to abattoirs.

The following information is required for transfers on the database:

• NLISID (printed on the tag) or RFID (when read on a scanner) identification of the cattle• PICs of the property that the cattle are moving from and the property that they are going to• NATIONAL VENDOR DECLARATION number (if cattle were purchased)• dates of movement and transfer on the database.

Understanding the NLISID codes on an ear tag

Image of leadertronic HDX NLIS cattle tag https://www.bing.com/images

The code on the tag contains a wealth of information. It is made up of the PIC and information on the tag and the individual animal.

Take for example, the tag: NA123456LBE00222:

Number IdentificationN The first letter denotes the state or territory — N identifies NSWA The second letter is a check and confirms that the PIC is valid12 The first two numbers are for the original Rural Lands Protection Board district and remain un-

changed with any amalgamations or boundary changes — 12 is the code for Casino3456 The next four numbers are specific for a given property

L This is the code for the manufacturer of the tag — L is Leader, X is Allflex

https://www.google.com/search?q=+leadertronic+HDX+NLIS&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj3n7WXpJ7zAhUdnUsFHZukDgEQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=+leadertronic+HDX+NLIS&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1C-U1i-U2D-VmgAcAB4AIABqQGIAakBkgEDMC4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=8ENRYffnIZ26rtoPm8m6CA&bih=1758&biw=1836&rlz=1C1CHBF_enAU880AU880#imgrc=3D5cOWc3FyzxHM

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B This letter is the code for the device type:

B is for breeder (born on property) tags which are white

E is for post-breeder (not born on the property) tags which are orangeE Is the year of tag manufacture:

A is 2005

B is 2006 etc.00222 The last five numbers are unique to the tag and therefore to the animal

See: The National Livestock Identification System at: Livestock Health and Production webpage (LLS).

See: National Livestock Identification System website (Integrity Systems) and go to the animal identification page.

See: National Livestock Identification Database Information website (NLIS) or call the NLIS Help Desk; 1800 654 743.

3.6.2 Brands and earmarks

Brands and earmarks can be used as an identifier for proof of ownership of cattle. Local Land Services administer cattle earmarks and brands in NSW.

BrandsUnlike Queensland, hide branding is not compulsory in NSW. However, brands as a form of identification can be used in NSW to legally define ownership of cattle. Brands do not replace the use of NLIS tags but can be used in addition to tags. Branding has fallen out of favour with abattoirs due to hide damage. Animal welfare should also be considered regarding the pain and discomfort of branding. There are two types of brands: symbol brands and board brands.

Symbol brands Symbol brands have historic intrinsic value. A variety of symbols, numbers or letter combinations are used for registration. They are valid throughout NSW and can be transferred from the North Coast to another Local Land Services region. They can also be transferred to another person or property. Only symbol brands that are currently registered can be used. No new symbol brands can be registered. In the event of a symbol brand registration lapsing or being cancelled, it cannot be reregistered.

Board brandsBoard brands are a combination of three components, with the first being the identifier for the old Rural Lands Protection Board district. For example:

• K is Kempsey• G is Grafton• 2 is Casino • L is Lismore.

The second two are the property identifier. Board brands can be used anywhere in NSW, however, they cannot be transferred between districts. Unlike symbol brands, new board brands can be registered.

Size and position of brandsEach character must be between 35 mm and 75 mm in height. If more than one character, the characters must be at least 10 mm apart.

The site of the brand should be the left rump. With a change in ownership subsequent brands should be right rump, left thigh, then right thigh.

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/livestock-health-and-production/the-national-livestock-identification-scheme

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/identification--traceability/animal-identification/

https://www.nlis.com.au/NLIS-Information/

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EarmarksLike brands, registered earmarks may be used as a legal identifier for proof of ownership of cattle. As with brands, the use of earmarks in cattle is not mandatory.

The site in cattle is the left ear and there are six positions on the ear in which an earmark can be registered. Earmarks may be a combination of one or two dominations. Placement must be in the registered position and cannot be altered. The type of mark and position is determined by the availability in that Local Land Services region. Once registered the earmark can be used within the North Coast Local Land Services boundary.

For further information and any enquiry should be directed to the North Coast Local Land Services office: 1300 795 299.

3.6.3 Use of identification in management

Individuals or groups of cattle can be identified to assist in management. Many quality assurance systems require permanent individual identification. Ear tags are the most common method for individual animal identification. They have a failure rate so often a backup system is used to provide identification, if a tag falls out (for example double ear tags, ear tattoos, freeze brand). The advantages of ear tags are that they are cheap and easy to apply and can be read from a distance. Consideration should be made to the animal welfare aspects and choose a procedure that causes the least pain and discomfort.

NLIS tagsThese were introduced as a legal means of tracing cattle for diseases and residues. NLIS tags can also be a valuable management tool. Electronic reading devices can be handheld or race-mounted and linked to computer software and databases. Some of the ways in which they are being used include:

• individualised automatic feeding of calves and dairy cattle• recording weight gains, pregnancy status and reproduction performance• recording treatments — valuable for adhering to withholding periods and export slaughter intervals• stud and pedigree information• carcass information feedback at abattoirs.

National Cattle Pregnancy Diagnosis Scheme tail tagsThese tail tags are applied by a private veterinarian for the identification of cattle at the time of pregnancy testing. (see section 5.9.4)

BangtailsThis technique involves cutting the hair at the end of the tail (or brush). It is a common temporary method for identifying cattle e.g., cows to be culled that are broken mouthed or are empty on pregnancy test.

Ear marksUnregistered ear marks are used in the off-side (right) ear and are another herd identifier but are not legal proof of ownership. A triangular ear mark hole in the centre of the right ear must be used whenever cattle are implanted with Hormonal Growth Promotants (HGPs). (see section 3.5.3)

Identification into the future and DNA technologyDNA testing of hair samples is used in the cattle as a means of stock identification and verifying bloodlines. This system utilises a 13-digit European article number barcode for each individual animal.

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3.7 Movement requirements for the road transport of cattle

3.7.1 Movement checklist

Road transport to a sale yard or abattoir:

• ensure that welfare standards are met (see section 3.7.2)• ensure that meat quality standards are met • National Vendor Declaration (see section 3.7.3)• cattle are identified with NLIS tags (see section 3.6.1)• National Cattle Health Declaration (not mandatory), may be required for store sales. (see section 3.7.4)

Road transport between holdings when cattle are sold:

• ensure that welfare standards are met• National Vendor Declaration • cattle are identified with NLIS tags• person receiving cattle to ensure that NLIS tag numbers are transferred on NLIS database• National Cattle Health Declaration (not mandatory), may be required by buyer.

Road transport between holdings when cattle are not sold:

• ensure that welfare standards are met• National Vendor Declaration or alternatively a Transported Stock Statement (see section 3.7.3)• if the properties have PICs, the person sending the cattle must ensure they are identified with NLIS tags• the person receiving the cattle must ensure NLIS tag numbers are transferred on NLIS database.

Road transport from a saleyard:

• a copy of the National Vendor Declaration from the vendor• Saleyards Movement Out Record (SMOR) from the saleyards• National Cattle Health Declaration (not mandatory), if used.

Road transport interstate:

• ensure that welfare standards are met• National Vendor Declaration • interstate movement permit / waybill (see section 3.7.6)• cattle are identified with NLIS tags• person receiving cattle to ensure that NLIS tag numbers are transferred on NLIS database• National Cattle Health Declaration (not mandatory), may be required by buyer.

Show and event movement:

• National Vendor Declaration or alternatively a Transported Stock Statement (see section 3.7.3)• cattle are identified with NLIS tags• most show societies have health certification requirements for entry onto the grounds.

See: Moving and selling livestock at: Livestock health and production webpage (LLS).

See: Livestock movements webpage (DPI).

See Transportation at: Animal health and welfare webpage (MLA).

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/livestock-health-and-production/moving-and-selling-livestock

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/stock-movements

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/transportation/

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3.7.2 Fit to load, animal welfare requirements for road transport

Cattle being transported are at greater risk than in the paddock. There are standards to be met for road transport of cattle. These are summarised in the publication Is the animal fit to load? (MLA 2019)

There are animal welfare responsibilities for both the person sending the cattle (consignor) and the carrier (transporter). The person in charge of the cattle is responsible for welfare and ensuring they are not exposed to or treated in any way that causes pain, injury or distress. For the consignor these start with the preparation of the cattle before transport, including resting, feed, water and appropriate loading facilities. There are special requirements for calves. *animal welfare* Cattle must meet the criteria for ‘fit to load’:

• can walk on own by bearing weight on all four legs• are free from visible signs of severe injury or distress or conditions likely to further compromise its welfare

during transport• strong enough to make the journey and not dehydrated or emaciated• see well enough to walk, load and travel without impairment or distress (e.g., it is not blind in both eyes)• are not in the last month of pregnancy or in the first week of life• had adequate access to water prior to loading.

The standards and summary also provide examples of cattle with those conditions that are not fit to load. These include cattle that do not meet the above criteria and heat stress, lumpy jaw, cancer eye, prolapse and ingrown horns.

The transporter is responsible for the welfare of animals at the point of loading, during the journey and at the point of unloading. The transporter must meet appropriate loading density and effluent requirements.

If in doubt leave it out, contact your veterinarian or the abattoir.

See: Australian animal welfare standards and guidelines webpage (AHA).

See: Is the animal fit to load? (MLA 2019).

3.7.3 National Vendor Declarations and electronic NVDs

National Vendor Declarations are a critical part of the beef industry quality assurance to guarantee the integrity of Australian beef. They provide domestic and international customers with assurances on food safety, freedom from residues and product integrity. They also enable tracing in the event of chemical residue detection or a disease outbreak.

National Vendor Declarations are also a legal document for declaring cattle movements within and between states. For most movements across state boundaries a border crossing health certificate is also required (see section 3.7.6 below).

When cattle are simply being moved without any sale, a travelling stock statement may be used as an alternative to a National Vendor Declaration (see section 3.7.5 below).

The National Vendor Declaration provide a practical means of identifying:

• cattle with exposure to residues• cattle treated with HGPs and cattle not treated with HGPs• management history• compliance with withholding periods and export slaughter intervals• compliance with feeding restrictions (for example meat meal, access to chicken litter)• use of supplementary feeding and grazing history• trading name of the vendor and the vendor’s PIC.

There are specific declarations for bobby calves and for European Union accredited cattle.

https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/sites/gateway/files/MLA%20-%20Is%20the%20animal%20fit%20to%20load.pdf



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To order either hard copy National Vendor Declarations or use electronic National Vendor Declarations: See National Vendor Declarations webpage (Integrity Systems). The electronic National Vendor Declarations are much cheaper than the printed version.

*legal requirement* A signed National Vendor Declaration must accompany all consignments. The National Vendor Declaration is the means of providing the history of treatments to all parts of the chain that receive the cattle, other properties, sale yards and abattoirs. Only the vendor or person responsible for the husbandry of the animals can complete a declaration. The information recorded on a National Vendor Declaration is underpinned by state legislation making a person signing the declaration accountable under law for false or misleading statements. Ensure:

• National Vendor Declarations must be fully and correctly completed• agents cannot alter National Vendor Declarations or accept declarations over the telephone• outdated versions of National Vendor Declarations must not be used• the NLIS ear tags attached to cattle must relate to the PIC recorded on National Vendor Declarations.

See: National Vendor Declarations webpage (Integrity Systems).

3.7.4 National Cattle Health Declarations

National Cattle Health Declarations are an opportunity to provide information about the animal health status and treatment history when selling store cattle or seeking agistment. As part of the on-farm biosecurity plan, request a declaration when introducing purchased or agisted cattle.

While the declarations are not mandatory in NSW, they may be required for some movements such as interstate, to agricultural shows, at some sales or at the request of the buyer.

See: Animal health declarations webpage (FarmBiosecurity).

3.7.5 Transported Stock Statements

Transported Stock Statements (TSS) can be used in situations in which cattle are not being sold, for example, when transporting stock for agistment, to shows or between properties with the same PIC. The National Vendor Declaration still qualifies as a valid travel document and is an alternative to use in these situations.

TSS books are purchased from your Local Land Services office.

TSS must not be used when cattle are sold and moved to another holding, or for journeys to or from sale yards or to abattoirs. In these situations, a National Vendor Declaration is required.

See: Transported stock statement questions and answers at: Livestock movements webpage (DPI).

3.7.6 Interstate movement

Each state and territory has its own animal health requirements for the introduction of cattle. For example, diseases such as Johne’s disease, enzootic bovine leucosis and cattle tick. Western Australia also has requirements for freedom from weed seeds and liver fluke. The conditions vary from state to state and with time.

See: Interstate livestock movements webpage (DPI). See: Livestock movements: States and territory requirements webpage (AHA) or visit the website of the state of destination.

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/national-vendor-declaration-nvd/




https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/stock-movements/documentation/tss-questions-answers

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/stock-movements/interstate-livestock-movements



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3.8 Permits for walking or grazing

Stock movement permits are used for walking or grazing stock on public land. To obtain a stock movement permit, contact your Local Land Services office. Permit fees may vary according to region.

There are four classes of stock permits.

Walking Stock Permit A Walking Stock Permit may be issued to walk stock from the owner’s property to another property not owned by the stock owner. In regions that have contiguous routes (which does not include North Coast Local Land Services) walking permits are also used for walking stock long distances along a Travelling Stock Reserve (TSR).

Grazing Stock PermitThis is generally issued to the landholder adjoining an enclosed TSR for use over an extended period. A grazing permit is also issued for the use on an open TSR. It is a condition of the permit that travelling stock are still permitted to access the TSR.

Roadside Grazing Stock PermitThis type of permit is issued for a short period of time, over a specific section of road and usually in times of drought or for hazard reduction. The permit is normally issued to the landholder adjoining the area as it may not have watering facilities and therefore stock need to be moved back to the property at night. These permits are issued for shire roads.

Routine Stock Movement PermitA Routine Stock Movement Permit may be issued by Local Land Services to allow permit holders to move stock between properties for the purposes of undertaking normal and routine animal husbandry and grazing management practices. Whilst managing biosecurity risk through the recording of stock movement records (for traceability) and road safety through the use of appropriate stock signage.

See: Apply for a permit webpage (LLS).

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/i-want-to/apply-for-a-permit

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4. Looking after yourself — work health and safetyUseful referencesSee: Farm safety / Every bit counts – supporting small farms and lifestyle blocks at: Local Land Services website (LLS).

See: Farming Safework NSW webpage (Safework NSW).

Unfortunately, farming ranks high as a hazardous profession. There are many reasons for this, including tractors, quad bikes, livestock handling and infectious diseases. The stress of earning an income from the land and conflict with nearby holdings can be significant factors in mental health in rural areas. This section explores occupational hazards and steps that can be taken to minimise risks.

4.1 Zoonoses — diseases infectious to peopleZoonoses are diseases that are transmissible from animals to humans. Cattle are generally safe to handle in terms of human diseases. However, there are several important diseases that are important for human health.

The basic principles to reduce risks are:

• be vaccinated for Q fever — consult a doctor• vaccinate your breeding cattle with seven-in-one (reduces the risk of leptospirosis)• wear a mask, gloves, then wash hands if assisting in calving or handling an aborted foetus (reduces the

risk of Q fever and leptospirosis)• worm farm dogs every three months and wash your hands after handling (reduces the risk of hydatids)• wear gloves and then wash hands if handling cattle with diarrhoea, particularly calves (reduces the risk of

salmonella and cryptosporidium)• wear gloves and then wash your hands if handling calves with skin lesions (reduces the risk of

dermatophilus and ringworm)• if milking a house cow, be sure to pasteurise the milk.

See: Zoonoses webpage (DPI). See: Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health).

See: Zoonotic diseases of cattle, module 6.03 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

4.1.1 Q fever

Q fever is a disease carried by cattle without causing any symptoms in the animal but can make humans very sick. It is often an occupational disease, mainly of abattoir workers and farmers. The highest concentration of the infectious agent is in foetal tissue and fluids, with people infected by assisting calving or kidding. The Q fever organism can also be in the faeces of some native species. A common source of infection is the inhalation of dust while mowing lawns where kangaroos have grazed.

Symptoms are often attributed to the flu but may progress to being a severe illness with high fever, joint pain, headaches and hepatitis. It can lead to long-term complications, including fatigue, liver or heart problems. A vaccine for people at risk is available and is strongly recommended for anyone handling livestock or living on a rural lifestyle block. Before vaccination for Q fever, tests are undertaken to check for previous exposure.

See: Q fever factsheet and Q fever and farms factsheet at: Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health).

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/what-we-do/our-major-projects/every-bit-counts

https://www.safework.nsw.gov.au/your-industry/agriculture,-forestry-and-fishing/farming

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/humans

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/Pages/zoonoses.aspx

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/herd-health-and-welfare/tools/

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/q-fever.aspx

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4.1.2 Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is transmitted to people through the urine of several species, including cattle. However, the majority of leptospirosis cases in humans are not from cattle. Contact with floodwater and material contaminated by rodents are the primary sources. In humans, it is known as Weil’s disease. Signs of leptospirosis in humans are flu-like and include high fever, muscle soreness, headaches, vomiting and red eyes. Leptospirosis can also lead to long-term problems such as liver or kidney disease.

Vaccination of cattle for leptospirosis is an effective means of reducing the risk.

(see section 8.38) See: Leptospirosis factsheet at: Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health).

4.1.3 Hydatid disease

Hydatids are a tapeworm with a two-stage lifecycle. In dogs, the final host is an intestinal tapeworm. Eggs passed in dog faeces can then infect an intermediate host (including people, cattle, sheep, goats, wallabies and kangaroos), causing cysts in internal organs. In humans, it is a serious disease. To prevent human infection, treat dogs every three months with a wormer containing praziquantel, prevent dogs from having access to offal and wash hands after handling dogs, particularly before eating.

(see section 8.34) See: Hydatids - you, too, can be affected at: Zoonoses webpage (DPI).

See: Hydatids - the basics at: Zoonoses webpage (DPI).

4.1.4 Salmonella

Salmonella in people is a form of gastroenteritis, usually from undercooked chicken or meat or poor food handling. However, it may also be transmitted from cattle with the disease. In cattle, it causes scours, and in calves, this can be blood scour. If handling scouring cattle, wear gloves and then wash hands.

(see section 8.64) See: Salmonellosis factsheet at: Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health).

4.1.5 Cryptosporidium

Cryptosporidium can infect people and calves, causing gastroenteritis. People can be infected from a variety of sources, including contaminated drinking water and from handling infected livestock and pets. Like salmonella, wearing gloves and washing hands thoroughly is advised after handling scouring cattle, particularly calves.

(see section 8.20) See: Cryptosporidia factsheet at: Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health).

Other less likely zoonoses include dermatophilus (see section 8.21) and ringworm. (see section 8.62)

4.1.6 Risks from drinking unpasteurised milk

There is a risk of several zoonoses from drinking raw milk, including; Listeria, E.coli, Salmonella, Campylobacter and Q fever. If milking a house cow, be sure to pasteurise the milk. Heat to 72°C for 15 seconds (lower temperatures have less taste effect but take longer).

See: Raw milk advice to consumers (Food Authority NSW 2018).

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/leptospirosis.aspx

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/109986/hydatids-you-too-can-be-affected.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/parasitic-and-protozoal-diseases/hydatids-basics

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/salmonellosis.aspx

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/cryptosporidiosis.aspx

https://www.foodauthority.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/_Documents/foodsafetyandyou/raw-milk-advice.pdf

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4.2 Care with chemicals and injectionsThere can be safety issues when handling cattle chemicals, particularly external parasite treatments. Some, like organophosphates, can cause severe poisoning and can be absorbed into the body through the skin or breathing. Others, like synthetic pyrethroids, can cause a skin reaction in some individuals. It is important to read the safety directions on the label and wear the appropriate personal protective equipment.

Some injections such as copper glycinate and some vaccines can be extremely hazardous if accidental self-inoculation occurs. This can result in severe tissue reaction requiring surgery. Ensure cattle are well restrained to minimise movement when injecting. Vaccination guns with sheathed needles greatly minimise the risk.


(see section 9.1) See: Preventing and treating pesticide poisoning/farm chemical management page at: Agricultural chemicals webpage (DPI).

4.3 Injuries and accidents with cattleThe majority of farm accidents involving cattle occur in and around the yards or when mustering. Cattle handling is also an important cause of chronic problems, such as shoulder injuries and arthritis from slide gates and head bales. Safety when working with cattle requires an understanding of how cattle behave, practical handling skills and good facilities.

Cattle behaviour

Be aware that cattle behaviour and responses to the presence of humans can change. The following can turn cattle that are typically quiet into a threat in the yards or the paddock:

• the level of arousal (excitement), e.g., bulls fighting each other in the yards (see section 4.3)• cattle that feel under threat, e.g., new environments, personnel or social structures• cattle that are overheated• with disease states that involve pain, such as injury, burns or photosensitisation (see section 8.72, section

3.3.5 and section 8.52)• with diseases involving the brain, e.g., tick fever (see section 8.70)• when cattle are struggling to breathe or gain enough oxygen, e.g., theileria, nitrate or cyanide poisoning

(see section 8.68 and section 8.57)• with cows after calving• with bulls at the onset of sexual maturity.

Mustering:

• safety on horseback and quad bikes• be wary of cattle turning back if mustering on foot.

In the yards:

• cattle turning, circling, or heads in a corner are signs that they feel threatened (see section 5.3.1)• crush and pinch point injuries from gates, races, crushes and head bales• watch for head injuries from levers from head bales• slips and falls from wet or uneven surfaces and obstacles• injuries from jumping from rails.

Prevention:

• undertake a risk assessment to identify potential hazards




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• review yard design and handling facilities, e.g., escape routes and personal access gates (see section 5.3.3)• monitor changes in behaviour• avoid overcrowding• avoid entering the kick and ‘fight zones’ (see section 4.3)• be aware of crush and pinch points • change practices to avoid placing arms into a race or crush • install chin bars for procedures such as oral drenching, eye medications and checking teeth.

If cattle are not moving the way they should and in a safe manner, don’t keep doing the same — stop, have a break and think about what is going on.

See: Farming webpage (Safework NSW).

See: Guide to managing risks in cattle handling (Safe Work Australia 2016).

4.4 Mental, emotional and social healthBeing on the land can be a great challenge, particularly when cattle prices are low, with natural disasters or when stock health or seasonal conditions aren’t all they should be. Economic, climatic and regulatory uncertainty can have significant consequences for mental health.

Risk factors contributing to mental, emotional or social health include:

• high-stress levels• financial hardship• relationship problems at home or work• isolation - work or social• increased consumption of alcohol and other drugs• feelings of hopelessness.

Tips to stay mentally healthy at times of stress:

• eat well• exercise• get adequate sleep• stay socially connected• don’t shut the family out• reduce intake of coffee, cigarettes and alcohol• do something that makes you feel good• practice relaxation techniques.

Signs that a person may be experiencing a mental health problem can include:

• low mood, irritability, trouble concentrating, difficulty making decisions• constant worry about physical health, finances, family, self• feelings of nervousness, being on edge or even panic• sleep problems, appetite change or using more alcohol• loss of libido / sexual dysfunction• loss of confidence in themselves• low energy, drive and motivation or feeling useless and losing interest and hope in the future• thoughts of death or even suicide.

It is very important not to ignore these signs. Watch for these signs in those close to you and encourage the person to get help. Help is available. If the matter is urgent and someone is at risk, please call 000 or go to the nearest hospital emergency department.


https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/guide-managing-risks-cattle-handling

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For 24-hour, seven-days a week, over the phone confidential counselling contact:

• Lifeline 13 11 14• NSW Mental Health Line — professional help and advice referrals to local mental health services, available 24/7 on 1800 011 511 or NSW Mental Health Line webpage (NSW Health).

See: Telephone and online support services webpage at: Droughthub portal (NSW Government).

If you or someone you know needs help, and for local rural support and resources, contact:

• Family general practitioner

• The Rural Adversity Mental Health Program coordinator — provides information on access to local services. See: Mental Health Services webpage at: Droughthub portal (NSW Government)

• Rural Resilience team — links farmers with the most appropriate services, programs and information. See: Rural resilience program webpage at: Droughthub portal (NSW Government).

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/mentalhealth/Pages/mental-health-line.aspx

https://droughthub.nsw.gov.au/?f.4__Get+In+Touch%7Ccontact=3__Find+assistance+near+you&form=custom&query=%21querypadrenull&sort=metacustomsort&collection=drought-hub&f.3__Wellbeing%7Cwellbeing=1__Mental+Health+Services



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5. Cattle management and husbandryRecommended resourcesSee: Husbandry webpage (DPI).

See: Animal husbandry at: Animal health and welfare webpage (MLA).

5.1 Condition, fat and muscle scoringBody condition assessment and fat and muscle scoring are important tools for cattle management on-farm. They are important skills to learn and use for critical stages of the production cycle; pre-calving, joining, preparing for specific markets, and feeding shortages. By including fat reserves and muscle estimates, scoring provides far more information than just live weight alone.

Scoring systems are also used by the industry, for both trade and fat cattle and at the meatworks. This still requires uniformity so that a common language is used.

5.1.1 Body Condition Score (BCS) system

The BCS system is commonly used for management, welfare purposes and by advisors. It is popular in the industry in northern Australia. It ranks live cattle condition from score one (poor) to score five (fat). It is simple while being easy to understand and use on-farm. But it does not consider the detail in fat cover and muscling, which is required by the store and fat trade, particularly in the southern states.

See: Body condition score for beef cattle (Future Beef).

5.1.2 Assessing fatness in beef cattle

The three ways to assess fatness are visual fat assessment, manual fat assessment and objective fat assessment. Fat assessment uses a grade from one (emaciated) to six (obese).

Visual fat assessmentKey sites to assess are the tail head and pin bones, twist, flank, cod or udder, brisket, ribs and hindquarter muscle seams. As cattle become progressively fatter, ribs become less visible; hindquarter muscle seams fill with fat and are less evident; fat becomes visible beside the tail head; and the brisket, flank, cod and twist fill out and give the beast a square appearance, contrasting with the roundness of muscle.

Manual fat assessmentFat depth can also be assessed by manually palpating animals. The most informative locations are those where fat overlays only bone, so fat can’t be confused with muscle. Manual palpation and feeling for tissue softness on the pin bone, hip bone, long ribs, short ribs (this position is less accurate when animals are heavily muscled), and the back line allow fatness to be estimated.

• less than 4 mm of fat at the P8 site: there is no ‘give’ or softness felt at these sites • 4–7 mm fat at the P8 site: some softness is felt• more than 7 mm fat depth at P8 site: the tissue is easily depressed.

See: Condition scoring beef cattle, module 5.02 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).


https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/husbandry/

https://futurebeef.com.au/knowledge-centre/body-condition-score-for-beef-cattle/

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/weaner-throughput/tool-52-condition-scoring-beef-cattle/

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Objective fat assessmentLive animal fatness can be objectively assessed using ultrasound scanning at the P8 or the 12/13th rib sites. The P8 site is defined as the point at the junction of a line centred on the crest of the third (high) sacral vertebra and a line parallel to the backbone, centred on the pin bone. Rib fatness is assessed on the eye muscle at the carcass quartering site, usually between the 12th and 13th ribs. This position is found by locating the last long rib (13th

rib) and moving three-quarters of the width across the eye muscle away from the spine. A range of ultrasound scanning devices can be used to determine the subcutaneous fat depth at these positions on the live animal.

Sites used to assess fatness (visually or manually) (photo courtesy NSW DPI 2015)

These images and cations bring together the three means of assessing fat; visual, manual and objective with on-farm and industry expectations.

Fat score one (0–2 mm P8, 0–1 mm 12th rib) *animal welfare* Score one is emaciation and below acceptable limits for animal welfare. (see section 3.3 and section 5.11.10) Ribs and short ribs are sharp. There is no fat around the tail head. Hip bones, tail head and ribs are prominent.

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Fat score two (3–6 mm P8, 2–3 mm 12th rib) Score two is the minimum fat score for breeders. First calf heifers and cows nearing weaning of their calves are the most vulnerable cattle at risk of falling below this target, particularly in hard seasons. Act early by providing supplementary feed. (see section 6.7)

No fat beside tail head. Short ribs and long ribs are easily distinguished. Spines feel rounded rather than sharp. Hip bone and ribs are hard. Ribs are no longer visually apparent.

Fat score three (7–12 mm P8, 4–7 mm 12th rib)Score three is the target for trade cattle and heifers prior to first joining, for all females prior to calving and bulls prior to joining. (see section 5.9.3) Short ribs are prominent, rounded but are easily felt using firm pressure to distinguish between them. Fat that is easily felt covers either side of the tail head. This is the target fat score for cows at the start of calving.

Fat score four (13–22 mm P8, 8–12 mm 12th rib) Score four is the target for prime cattle. Short ribs cannot be felt. There is some fat cover around the hip bone. Small mounds of fat that are soft to touch are present around the tail head. Ribs are hard to feel.

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Fat score five (23–32 mm P8, 13–18 mm 12th rib)Score five is excess fat cover for most markets. Cows in score five may struggle to fall pregnant. (see section 7.18) Short ribs cannot be felt. Tail head and hip bones are almost buried in fat. Ribs appear ‘wavy’ due to fat folds. There is fat in the brisket and udder and squaring-off in the flank area.

Photo courtesy Jo Miller (Future Beef QLD)

Fat score six (32+ mm P8, 18+ mm 12th rib)Score six is obese. Cows will struggle to fall pregnant or are barren. (see section 7.18) Short ribs cannot be seen. Tail head and hips are entirely buried by large ‘rounds’ of fat. Ribs are ‘wavy’ due to fat folds. The brisket and udder are heavy. The flank is squared-off and has a blocky appearance.

See: Cattle assessment manual (MLA 2017).

5.1.3 Assessing muscle in beef cattle

It is important not to confuse muscle and fat when assessing cattle. The two do not always match each other because the rates at which fat and muscle are laid down vary considerably with nutrition, sex, age and breed.

• cattle on high energy diets such as grain lay down more fat sooner than they would for the same muscle score on pasture

• females and steers lay down fat at a younger age and body weight and finish at lighter weights than bulls• bulls lay down significantly more muscle than fat• most British breed cattle tend to lay down fat at a younger age and bodyweight (early maturing)• Bos indicus breeds and their crosses and dairy tend to lay down fat at an older age (later maturing) • European breeds (such as the Charolaise and Limousine) tend to be more heavily muscled, are leaner and

lay less fat down and later than muscle. When needed, cattle of these breeds will mobilise some energy from muscle tissue as they have less fat.

https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/prices--markets/documents/minlrs-information-brochures-etc/mla_cattle-assessment-manual_jan-2017.pdf

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Muscling is scored on a scale from A (very heavy) to E (very light). (Compared to fat scores, which are by number 1 to 6). This scoring system can be further increased to a 15-point scale by including pluses and minuses around each score (for example A+, A, A-… to …E+, E, E-). Muscle score describes the shape of cattle and is the degree of thickness or convexity of an animal relative to its frame size, after adjustments have been made for fatness. Note that very fat (fat score six, more than 18 mm at the P8 site) animals may look more muscular than they are.

Well-muscled animals tend to display:

• a convex or well-rounded butt profile when viewed side-on• noticeable muscling that bulges above the backbone (top-line)• a wider stance• noticeable muscle movements, such as the ‘jump’ muscle located above the hip bone when they walk.

Sites used to assess muscularity (visually or manually) (photo courtesy NSW DPI 2015)

Muscles core categories for beef cattle

A+ A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D D+ E+ E E-15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

See: Appraisal webpage (DPI).

See: Cattle assessment manual (MLA 2017).

See: Beefspecs calculator (DPI, MLA, Beef CRC), a good guide to estimate body weight without scales.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/appraisal


https://www.mla.com.au/extension-training-and-tools/tools-calculators/beefspecs-calculator/

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5.2 Normal valuesHeart rate 60–80 per minute

Respiration rate 15–30 per minute

Temperature (rectal)* 38.5°C (increases to 39.3°C on hot days)

Cycle length 21 days (18–24)

Heat period 18 hours (10–24)

Gestation period 280–290 days

*Rectal temperature varies significantly with air temperature and recent exercise. It is important to record the temperature of other cattle in the yards and those suspected to have a fever.

5.3 Cattle handling Knowledge of how cattle behave, practical stock handling skills and good facilities are essential to reduce the risks of injury. (see section 4.3) These make for reduced stress on both man and beast and efficient use of time in the yards. Reducing stress in cattle is an important component of quality production on-farm for quality beef and animal welfare. (see section 3.5.1 and section 3.3)

5.3.1 Principles of cattle behaviour and responses

It is important to understand why cattle behave and respond the way they do to develop good cattle handling skills and routines. *work health safety* Cattle are large and potentially dangerous, so they need to be handled thoughtfully and with confidence. Cattle have a social order, senses that differ from humans, instinctive behaviour and can learn and be trained.

Social order and structure:• within a mob, there is dominant order. Dominant cattle are the first to drink or eat. Social order is

maintained by pushing and head butting, so cattle of lower rank will stand back until the dominant animals have finished

• this aggression can cause stress if feed or water space is limited or the cattle are in a confined space• the mixing of mobs upsets the social order, which then needs to be re-established and is a significant

stress event• dominant cattle lead the mob and are the first to enter gateways; middle rank are the followers• when cattle mill in yards, low rank are at the centre, surrounded by followers and leaders on the periphery• social behaviour varies with breed, age and sex. Bos indicus tend to be more sensitive and temperamental • young bulls are playful, i.e., pushing and shoving, however, they become more aggressive and territorial

with age • adult bulls have a large personal bubble of six metres or more. When crowded, arousal levels rise, leading

to fighting and bulls become uncontrollable. Handlers have to be extremely careful to avoid injury• cattle are social and will try to maintain other cattle within their vision. They resent being singled out

either in the paddock or in yards and can become agitated and aroused• cattle will naturally move toward other cattle and follow other cattle• cows with young calves can be very protective; therefore, handling calves with their mother’s present can

be dangerous.

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EyesightCattle need to see the handler. They can see about 330° and have a 30° blind spot behind them and another immediately in front of their nose. Vision using both eyes (binocular) is limited to a small arc in front of them. They have poor depth perception, particularly to each side, which is monocular vision. Their long-distance vision is good (better than most people), but close vision is poor; they will baulk at objects and movement in yards. To focus better, they will lift up their head and look down their nose. Cattle move readily from dark to light but baulk at moving from bright light into shadows. Colour vision is less common than in humans, and they have good light-dark contrast, so they react to bright clothing like hi-vis jackets.

Cattle like to see where they are going, e.g., opening the head bale so they can see an escape from the crush.

HearingCattle are sensitive to high pitch and loud sounds. These can raise their arousal level and be a distraction. Better handling can be achieved with little or no noise.

Instinctive behavioursInstinctive behaviours are generally predictable and can be used in handling. Examples include:

• immobility when they are first threatened to stand and assess the situation• flight — if frightened, the instinct is to escape. This behaviour is used so animals ‘escape’ to where they

are intended to be, e.g., the next pen. Infrequently handled animals that are flighty have less chance of learning the flow of paddocks and yards

• grouping behaviour such as milling, circling or heads in a corner are defensive behaviours and can be a sign that too much pressure has been applied.

ArousalThis is the state of activity ranging from deep sleep to fight or flight. The aim is to have the appropriate level of arousal to control the animals and keep them as calm as possible to move quietly. Then temporarily raise arousal for a particular purpose, such as forcing lead animals through a gateway.

Social structure of a mob of cattle in the yards

*work health safety* If too highly aroused, cattle may become self-protective when the flight zone is entered and will run away, kick or become aggressive. They are also more responsive to further stimulation; a highly aroused bull needs little provocation to attack. Mustered cattle should be allowed to settle down before handling in yards.

In times of sickness, arousal levels can change dramatically; they can become depressed or aggressive, possibly because of pain or effects on the brain.

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Learned behaviours and trainingCattle are naturally wary of new experiences and may even view them as a threat. These include new places, surfaces, people, sounds, smells and of course, foods. They also see humans as predators. Through desensitising and repetition training takes this fear to a familiar experience that they accept.

Cattle have good memories and usually learn quickly, e.g., they can be taught to be mustered and worked through yards. Every time cattle are handled is an opportunity to train them. Consistency is important, for example, entering and workflow through yards the same way each time. Create situations so what you need them to do becomes their idea.

Unwanted behaviours can also be learnt and reinforced through repetition. So, if it doesn’t work the first two times, don’t repeat it; try another way! If cattle are anxious or reluctant about a new experience, give them time and space to appraise the situation before training or pressuring them. This lowers their arousal level, reduces their fear and may even make them curious, e.g., watch cattle approach a new feed or work through a new set of yards.

The best time to educate cattle is at weaning. This experience should also be made as pleasant as possible. Yard weaning is a powerful tool to educate young calves in handling. (see section 5.7)

Learnt behaviour can also motivate cattle; for example, rather than through fear and desire to escape, cattle can be taught to follow or be led. This is seen in cattle that are regularly hand fed following a ute.

5.3.2 Principles of cattle handling

Cattle handling skills takes the knowledge of social order, senses, instinctive and learnt behaviours and applies these to how cattle are worked in the paddocks and yards.

*work health safety* Personal safety should always be in mind. Keep calm. Keep the cattle calm. Assess the temperament and state of arousal of the cattle. Watch what is going on. If things are not working, take time and consider why? Work with at least two people, plan an escape route and watch for pinch points such as gates.

The principles of position and movement can make the difference between working the mob smoothly or leading to chaos.

Flight distance principle Flight distance is an important concept in livestock handling — it is a circle of safety around cattle or their personal bubble. When a person penetrates the flight zone, the animal moves away. A good stock handler knows when to penetrate this zone and when to retreat so that cattle move quietly in the desired direction.

The flight distance varies with the tameness of the animal. The distance may be up to 200–300 metres for feral cattle but for feedlot cattle it may be only 1–5 metres. Very tame cattle are difficult to move because they no longer have a flight zone. If a handler arouses cattle, for example by shouting, this enlarges the animal flight zone.

Flight zones. These will vary greatly between individual cattle Use of flight distance to move cattle

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Field of viewCattle move most effectively if they can see the handler at all times. They have a field of view of 330°, so have a 30° blind spot at the rear. Attempting to drive cattle by standing directly behind them will cause them to turn and look at the handler, rather than move forward. They are best driven when the handler is at 45–60° angle from a line perpendicular to an animal’s shoulder. This same principle applies to driving mobs of cattle.

Points of balance principleExperienced stock handlers use the points of balance of cattle, to make them move. The two points of balance are from the side at their shoulder and from in front at the centre of their head.

When the handler moves closer to cattle and into the flight zone, the animal will move forward if the handler is behind the shoulder or backwards if the handler is in front of the animal’s shoulder.

The second point of balance is from the centre of the head. The animal will move left, right or backwards; depending on the position of the handler.

Use of points of balance principles to move cattle

Images courtesy Handling cattle at: Husbandry webpage (DPI)

Stand on line beast does not move Beast moves forward On a fence beast moves backwards

With no fence beast turn away


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Pressure and pressure release principlesThese are two important principles in training and handling. Cattle perceive pressure as a negative experience; moving closer is seen as a potential threat from a predator and arouses fear. Too much pressure and cattle will want to return to where they came from. Turning and facing, and milling behaviour are also signs of too much pressure.

Pressure release works by using the removal of the pressure as a reward and is powerful motivator. It is the pressure release (and not the pressure) that rewards and trains cattle. In yards, only apply as much pressure as needed to elicit the desired response, or initiate or control the movement. Back-off the pressure as soon as the animals respond correctly. This may be as simple as stepping back. Have cattle move steadily and preferably not on the run.

Avoid overcrowdingOvercrowding of yards is the most common and dangerous mistake. Too many animals in a yard arouses cattle, as they fight for their personal space. If unable to move freely they will panic. Young cattle may go down and be trampled.

The appropriate number for a particular yard will depend on the size of the yard, and the size, sex and temperament of the cattle. A guide for efficient cattle movement through yards is that all animals in the yard, with the exception of the race, should be able to turn around without hitting a fence or another animal. Hence the rule ‘half the number – twice as fast’.

Avoid yarding a mob that is too large for the first entrance pen to the yards (or force yard) to hold. A small holding paddock or lane way before the first pen will enable splitting a bigger mob into more manageable size.

See: Handling cattle at: Husbandry webpage (DPI).

See: Recommended basic livestock handling webpage (Grandin T).

5.3.3 Cattle handling facilities

Cattle yard designRegardless of the size of a herd, a well-designed, functional set of yards is essential for good management and safe, efficient handling. The yards should enable drafting, loading and restraining; for procedures such as drenching, vaccination, ear tagging and pregnancy testing.

Cattle yards should ideally be:

• well drained with sound surface to reduce slip, trip and fall risks for both cattle and operator• little unevenness of ground or unnecessary drops or steps; cattle baulk as they have poor depth

perception• on level-ground or slightly uphill as cattle resist going downhill• oriented so cattle in the race, or on the loading ramp, are not moving into shadows — cattle baulk at

shadows and resist moving from light to dark areas• oriented so the handler is not looking into the sun• located so livestock carriers do not need to reverse onto a public road and do not block traffic• built strong enough for the type of cattle to be handled• have gates that swing/slide fully open and closed with no obstructions and all latches be in working order• have a small pen or lane before the entrance to the first pen to help getting cattle into the yard and to

hold back any cattle to avoid overcrowding in the yard.

There are numerous companies on the North Coast that specialise in the design and manufacture of cattle yards, and there are various designs available for download off the internet. A yard design that is based around a circular forcing yard has proven better for cattle flow than traditional ‘sharp angle’ forcing yards. This is because cattle tend to bunch up with their heads in corners, which is time consuming and can be dangerous to move them as

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry/general-management/handling-cattle

http://www.grandin.com/behaviour/principles/principles.html

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they perceive there is nowhere to go.

Cattle crushThe cattle crush is the most essential part of a yard. All enterprises, particularly those that run adult cattle should have a crush. It enables catching a beast to perform management or animal health procedures. A head bail alone at the end of a race is a cheaper option than a crush, but is far less safe for restraining adult cattle.

Aim to have a crush with at least the following attributes:

• easy, quick and quiet operation and ease of maintenance — including greasing points• access gates on both sides with split side opening, preferably with the catch at rear. Allows for a safe and

easy release should an animal go down. Lower side panels of access gates closed in to avoid kicks and animal legs getting caught between rails

• veterinarian gate for access to the rear of the animal• self-closing, slam-shut gates or catches• gates and head bails that operate effectively in capturing and securing stock and do not fly open when

kicked or struck• chin bar head restraint• font and rear head bail operation (preferred), capable of being operated with one hand only• safety locks on the head bail release• crush gates, bail and latches all free of nip or crush point hazards• no overhead protrusions such as those on sliding gates or bail closing mechanisms, that can be a hazard

for head knocks• a slide-through hock bar or backing bar• side squeeze facility for safer cattle control• solid and secure anchorage points for crush to be set in concrete (don’t overlook as is much safer)• the crush exit should be designed to allow processed animals to be separated from the work area.

See: Yards and Equipment webpage (NSW DPI).

5.4 Beef breeds and geneticsThe question of what breed is best, runs closely behind football clubs and brands of beer. There are some 100 cattle breeds represented in Australia with new breeds constantly being introduced and developed. Generally, breeds fit into one of five types:

1. British breeds, such as Hereford and Angus.

2. Bos indicus, such as Brahman.

3. European breeds, such as Charolais, Limousin and Simmental.

4. Composite breeds which are fixed crosses based on one, two or more of the above, such as Santa Gertrudis, Brangus and Braford.

5. Crossbreeds of one, two or more of the above, for example, an F1 may be a Brahman x British breed.

“The general rule of thumb for breed selection is: ‘Pick the cows for your type of country and the bull for your market’.”

Breeding females make up the bulk of a breeding herd and it is important that the breed suits the climate and feed type. Bulls contribute 50 per cent of the genetic makeup of calves, so it is important that the calves that they produce match the desired market. For example, a vealer producer selects an early maturing bull for early maturing well finished vealer calves. Or for later maturing, larger frame calves, use a later maturing bull.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/equip

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An example of a common crossbreeding program on the North Coast is running F1 (Brahman x British breed) cows for their heat and tick tolerance and ability to forage and joining to a European or British breed bull depending on the desired market.

These are only a couple of examples. There are many drivers for why breeds are chosen, including:

• personal preference• environment — climate, country type, soil type and pastures• Inputs, improvements, infrastructure and the level of capital that a landholder is able to invest, for

example, improving pastures and grazing management so that ‘softer’ breeds can be run• the identified, desired end-market for sale stock, be they store cattle, weaners for backgrounding or

finished weaners direct off their mothers• temperament and facilities for handling.

Bear in mind that to meet their genetic potential cattle must have adequate nutrition and disease control.

See: Breeding webpage (NSW DPI).

For information on individual breeds; See: Beef cattle breeds at: Breeding webpage (DPI).

See: Cattle genetics, module 4 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

5.5 Dentition and agingThe front teeth (incisors) are used to age cattle. Young cattle have all their temporary teeth. The age of replacement with permanent incisors is variable. So this table is only a guide:

Age TeethUnder 1.5 years All milk teeth

1.5 – 2.5 years Two permanent teeth

2-3 years Four permanent teeth

2.5 – 3.5 years Six permanent teeth

Over 3 years Eight permanent teeth

Dentition is used by the store and fat trade and also abattoirs to classify cattle.

Assessment of incisor wear in adult cattle (known as ‘mouthing’) is an important management tool to assess whether breeders should be culled or kept to be joined and rear another calf. Mouthing should be a routine part of the animal health and management calendar, preferably before joining. (see section 10.4)

Worn teeth is a common reason for ill-thrift in older cows (see section 7.13) and consequentially poor weaner weights in their calves. They should not be left to this stage but culled while they are still in good condition. For both sound animal welfare and to achieve the best possible market value for cull cows. After about seven years, the front teeth can be worn flat and progressively fall out over the next two to four years. The age and rate of wearing and loss of teeth is highly variable and depends on the individual, the pasture species and soil type. Sandy soils or some grasses such as blady grass and bahia (pensacola) will accelerate teeth wear.

See: Cattle must have sound teeth (DPI 2002) at: Beef cattle health and disease webpage (DPI).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/breeding


https://mbfp.mla.com.au/cattle-genetics/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/160344/sound-cattle-teeth.pdf

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5.6 Calf management

5.6.1 Care of the orphan newborn calf

When a cow dies at, or soon after calving, or the cow rejects it or has mastitis, there is a decision to either rear the orphan or have someone else handle it. This decision may be affected by time (daily care for two months), expertise, facilities, emotions, education of children and genetic value.

The following information relates to care at birth and for the first week, for details on rearing calves from that age and on rearing introduced bobby calves. (see section 5.11.6)

Firstly, assess the calf, it should be bright, alert with clear eyes, stands soon after birth, free of injuries and have a strong suckle reflex. (Check by putting fingers in its mouth). Clean the navel with a disinfectant such as tincture of iodine, as hygiene is critical in the first two days of birth.

Ensure the calf has received colostrum in the first 24 hours, as it will have little immunity against infections if it has not. Colostrum can be milked from the cow (even after death) or taken from another freshly calved cow. It can also be sourced from a dairy producer or purchased and frozen. If frozen, warm to no more than 38°C, feed two litres and if available another two litres in 12 hours. If it cannot suckle, a stomach tube can be used and are available from veterinarians or rural stores.

When using a stomach tube, mark the distance from the mouth to the point of the elbow with a pen, to prevent over insertion. Ensure the tube is lubricated. With the calf standing and the milk container held low, pass the tube over the tongue and allow the calf to swallow the tube without forcing it. Feel the tube going down the neck (to check that it is not in the windpipe). On reaching the stomach lift the milk container up and give the milk slowly. Withdraw the tube when the container is empty.

After 24 hours feed any surplus colostrum, fresh whole milk or a quality milk replacer. Calves require 10–12 per cent of their body weight in milk per day. For a 30 kg calf this is three to 3.5 litres per day, given in two or three feeds. Do not overfeed and ensure the bottles or buckets are thoroughly cleaned after use.

5.6.2 Creep feeding

Creep feeding is a simple management practice. It allows calves access to additional feed while they are still suckling the cow. Calves gain access to the feed supplement through a ‘creep’, which is a fence opening or a gate opening large enough for calves to pass through but too small for the cows. Creep feeding is typically found in self-feeders but can also be by a creep gate allowing calves access to higher quality pasture.

The benefits of creep feeding are both for the calf and the cow. Calves with a better finish meet the veal market opposed to the store weaner market. For the mothers there is a sparing effect; with less weight loss and earlier return to cycling. These benefits are particularly noticeable in harder seasons.

Considerations:

• identify the market targeted and the weight and finish required• a cost–benefit budget to decide when creep feeding is viable. See: Business management and market

information webpage (DPI)• grain prices vs anticipated value of weaners as veal or as stores is a major driver• assess seasonal conditions and the quality and quantity of available pasture (see section 6.3.2)• start as early as one week old to as late as two months prior to weaning (creep feeding before a calf is

actively sourcing most of its diet from pasture usually does not have much economic benefit) • body condition score of the cows.

Introducing grain-based supplements to calves should follow the same rules as introducing grain to older stock. (see section 5.11.9) See: Creep feeding beef calves at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed/creep-feeding-beef-calves

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5.6.3 Castration

Why is castration done?Castration provides greater flexibility in the sale of male calves as they have a range of markets and age at slaughter. Steers are quieter and have fat cover earlier and finish at a younger age.

Entire calves have faster growth rates, have better feed conversion and are leaner. But there are issues of aggression and handling as they age. There may be a market bias against heavier entire calves. Speak with your agent or cattle buyer if considering this option.

Delayed castration to a later age is not widely practised for the same reasons. Also castration over six months of age must be done by a veterinarian.

Techniques:

• banding involves placing a rubber or latex band around the cords using a special applicator• burdizzos are a heavy plier that crushes the cord—the process is slow and experience is required to avoid

failures• surgical, preferably by scalpel has the advantage of being able to see the result and be certain of success.

To reduce the risk of infection, avoid surgical castration in muddy, dirty conditions, or wet weather.

AgeCastration, regardless of the technique, should be done as young as possible to minimise pain, bleeding, risk of infection and failure.

The guidelines for cattle animal welfare state:

• calves less than two weeks old should be castrated by the rubber-ring method in preference to the cutting method

• calves more than two weeks old should be castrated by the cutting method in preference to the rubber-ring and tension-band methods

• a person castrating cattle must have the relevant knowledge, experience and skills.

In NSW, castration of calves over the age of six months is act of veterinary science under the Veterinary Practice Regulations 2013.

Pain reliefAll forms of castration are painful and pain relief is now recommended for improved animal welfare outcomes. The guidelines for cattle animal welfare state that surgical procedures (which includes castration) should be done with pain relief.

See: Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines webpage (AHA).

See: Castrating calves (DPI 2004) at: Beef cattle husbandry webpage (DPI).

5.6.4 Pain management

*animal welfare* Pain relief is strongly recommended for castration, dehorning, disbudding, injuries and any other procedure or disease that is painful. Pain relief is an essential part of ensuring the best animal welfare outcomes for cattle.

The guidelines for cattle animal welfare state that surgical procedures (which include castration and dehorning) should be done with pain relief and that operators should seek advice on current pain minimisation strategies.

https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/whole/html/inforce/current/sl-2013-0490



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/174167/castrating-calves.pdf

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The need for pain relief should not be dismissed, cattle feel pain every bit as much as people, they just express it in different ways.

The cost of pain relief for castration, dehorning and disbudding of calves is on par with many other animal health treatments. There is also a cost benefit in terms of reduced setback and return to normal grazing after the procedure.

Current pain relief recommendations for castration, dehorning and disbudding of calves are a combination of a short-acting and long-acting product. Other options may become available, so consult your private veterinarian.

Pain relief option

Source WHP/ESI Comments

Tri-Solfen®

(Bayer Animal Health)

S5 - over counter at rural stores

WHP 90 days

ESI 90 days

Topical spray contains local anaesthetics to reduce pain and adrenaline to reduce blood loss. Almost immediate effect with 24-hour relief.

Buccalgesic®

(Troy Animal Healthcare)

S4 - veterinary prescription required

WHP 14 days

ESI 21 days

A gel placed into the cheek cavity, preferably before procedure. Pain relief in 10–15 minutes with relief for three days.

See: Pain mitigation for castration in beef cattle in southern Australia (MLA 2020), at: Animal health and welfare webpage (MLA).


5.6.5 Dehorning, disbudding and breeding polled cattle

Bruising is a major meat quality issue and horns are the major cause. (see section 3.5.1) Intimidation and bullying by cattle with horns is a significant stressor and reduces access to supplementary feed and water. A mob of cattle without horns are generally easier and quieter to handle in the yards and a lower work, health and safety risk. (see section 4.3)

Dehorning and disbuddingAs discussed above, pain relief is now strongly recommended for both disbudding and dehorning and is under the national guidelines for cattle welfare. Also, under the guidelines, a person dehorning cattle must have the relevant knowledge, experience and skills.

*animal welfare* *legal requirement*

Be aware of the animal welfare and legal requirements when considering dehorning and horn tipping. In NSW Veterinary Practice Regulation 2013 prescribes the dehorning of cattle over 12 months of age to be a restricted act of veterinary science that must be undertaken by a veterinarian. Removal of horns without anaesthesia may also be considered an act of cruelty.

Disbudding This should be done before calves are two months, prior to the horn bud becoming attached to the skull and when the horn bud can be felt. The methods are ‘hot irons’ (thermal cautery) available as gas or electric and knife or scoop (tube) dehorners. Chemical disbudding with caustic paste is not recommended.

Hot ironsThese are preferred for animal welfare as there is less risk of infection than with surgical methods.

*work health safety* Burn and electrical hazard: Use a circuit breaker with electric irons. Work with an assistant. Wear long sleeved overalls and leather gloves to prevent burns to hands and arms.

https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/research-and-development/program-areas/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/20mla-pain-mitigation-factsheet_cattle_v5.pdf

https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/research-and-development/program-areas/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/20mla-pain-mitigation-factsheet_cattle_v5.pdf



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Procedure:

• test cautery iron to ensure it is hot — it should burn dry wood within one second • work out of the wind as this will cool the iron • clip/shave the hair over the horn bud • restrain the calf in a head bale or on its side with head held back over shoulder• hold the iron firmly for 2–4 seconds, but do not hold too long as this could cause damage — usually the

bud will then come off easily • clean the iron tip and allow it to reheat fully before doing the other side.

Surgical techniquesDisadvantages of these techniques are the potential for blood loss (see pain relief table above), environmental contamination of the wound, spread of the virus enzootic bovine leucosis (see section 8.25) and fly worry. Use fly repellent / antimicrobial spray, keep calves in a clean and dry environment for two days and check them daily for the next 10 days for infection or fly strike and treat if needed.

Disbudding knives and scoop (tube) dehorners are used to remove the horn bud before two months of age. Start the cut about two centimetres away from the base of the horn, then cut swiftly and firmly with the knife, slicing the horn and skin level with the skull.

After two months of age the horns are attached to the skull. Total removal requires cup dehorners. Be sure to include at least one centimetre of skin around the horn.

Horn tipping is the partial removal of the tip of the horn in grown stock using wire, saws or guillotines. Dehorning or disbudding at the correct age and breeding for polls, will reduce or eliminate tipping of horns. Tipping has been found not to reduce the incidence of bruising and blunt horns can still cause severe injuries to man and beast. Tipping is no replacement for good cattle handling skills and temperament selection.

See: Dehorning cattle at: Beef cattle husbandry webpage (DPI).


Breeding polled cattle The Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for beef genetic technologies has developed an Australian poll gene marker test which allows producers to identify animals that are genetically true polled. Hair samples can be taken from young animals, well before breeding age, which enables producers to make selection or bull purchase decisions with some certainty around the number of horned progeny they can expect based on the genetics of the parents.

The poll gene test is currently available through several genetic testing companies across Australia for the following breeds and their crosses: Brahman, Brangus, Charolais, Droughtmaster, Hereford, Limousin, Santa Gertrudis, Shorthorn, Simmental and Tropical Composites. Many stud cattle breeders are beginning to adopt the poll gene testing technology and there are an increasing number of tested bulls being offered for sale each year.

See: The Australian poll gene marker test (CRC Beef).

See: Improving the Australian poll gene marker test (MLA 2020).

5.7 Weaning managementWell-managed and timely weaning has benefits for both the cow and the calf.

Weaning reduces the nutritional stress on cows. At weaning the cow uses nutrient intake, which was going to milk, to improving her own condition in preparation for next calving. The better the condition of a cow at calving, the better her milk supply, the better her calf and the sooner she will cycle after calving. All the important aspects of herd fertility, calving percentage, calving pattern and inter-calving interval are driven by body condition.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry/general-management/dehorning-cattle


http://www.beefcrc.com/documents/publications/fact-sheets/FS01-TheAustralianPollGeneMarkerTest.pdf

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/reports/2020/improving-the-australian-poll-gene-marker-test/

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For the calf, good weaning reduces stress on their immune system, resulting in better meat quality and the lifetime benefit of quieter, more resilient cattle.

Procedures at weaningFor weaners that are to be retained as fattening stock or potential replacement heifers:

• internal parasite control, worms and if present on farm, liver fluke• external parasite control• booster five-in-one or seven-in-one. A second dose is preferable four to six weeks after the first dose, but

give booster if this was overlooked or if are going onto grain or fodder crop• pestivirus vaccination.

For those weaners to be sold to feedlots or backgrounders, consult with buyers as pestivirus and mannheimia haemolytica (MH) are best given prior to movement.

Age at weaning Calves are generally weaned between eight and 10 months of age. Weaning of calves earlier at six to seven months should be considered for first-calf heifers, cow in light condition and later calving cows. In very dry years early weaning is a useful management tool. However, unless precautions are taken, weaning at a very young age stresses the calves’ immune system making them more susceptible to disease.

Age to wean is influenced by:

• feed availability — cows can continue lactation without losing condition in good years, but early weaning should be considered in drier years

• in drought situations — calves can be weaned as young as two months provided, they have a high quality diet

• cow condition — if poor will have greater difficulty in returning to service, particularly first calvers and old cows. Cows skipping a year is very costly

• heifer calf condition — if they become too fat at puberty, future milk production is affected as the laying down of fat in the udder affects the development of the milk secreting tissue

• type of production — calves sold straight off cows as vealers or store weaners may be left on the cow for up to 10 months, depending on feed availability and cow condition. Calves destined for sale as yearlings or older can be weaned younger with little effect on their eventual weight and condition.

See: To wean or not to wean - that is the question? Land fact (LLS 2015) at: Local Land Services website (LLS).

See: Wean early, module 5 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

Weaning benefits for sale cattleWeaning is a particularly stressful experience if calves are taken straight off their mothers and sent to the yards. This stress has the potential for significant impacts on meat quality if purchased by meat buyers and reduced health and productivity if sold as stores. Buyers may seem to prefer the ‘bloom’ of calves straight off mum, but the weaned, preconditioned calf is a much sounder, resilient buy. Many are increasingly aware of these issues and favour properly weaned calves. Consider the multitude of stressors calves can face:

• trucking, saleyards, mixing with other cattle, dipping, more trucking and adapting to a new environment • exposure to new diseases and social stress of being removed from their mother and mixing with other

cattle• adapting from a milk based diet to a full grass and/or supplement diet.

Yard weaning Yard weaning is the preferred industry method. Lessons learnt at weaning stay with cattle for life. Movement and handling in the yards becomes a familiar, less threatening experience. It is also the opportunity for them to experience new feed types. They are also able to establish a social order in the group and results in less stress to the immune system, healthier, more productive and quieter cattle both in the short and long term. (see section 4.3)

https://northerntablelands.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/572570/landfact-earlyweaning.pdf

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/weaner-throughput/tools/

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The weaning and training program may last up to 10–14 days and includes feeding, drafting, working through the race and yarding from adjoining paddocks. Ensure that:

• yards are well-built and weaner-proof (rubber belting 1.2 metres high is ideal)• yard surfaces are well-drained, non-boggy and not slippery• pen stock density of 4 m2/head for calves 180–260 kg, or 2.5 m2/head for calves 100–170 kg• feed is good quality hay or silage fed ad lib, the younger the calves the better-quality feed required• drinking water of good quality and in a trough that is less likely for them to stand or defaecate in• are able to remove shy feeders and manage them separately to prevent excessive weight loss• have routine human contact, e.g. walking quietly through the yard two to three times each day• take time to encourage calves to approach you and handle them calmly aiming to leave them with a

memory of positive associations.

Abrupt separation With this technique calves are drafted from the cows and moved to a paddock as far away as possible. Abrupt separation is not a recommended weaning practice. It is more stressful than other methods for cow and calf. Both are difficult to move to their respective paddocks and take longer to settle down, often walking the fence lines rather than feeding. Calves may have trouble finding water. A few older animals run with the calves may help settle and teach them the run of the paddock. Good fencing is essential as more determined animals break through fences to get back to each other.

Gradual separation Cows and calves are put on either side of a secure fence in adjoining paddocks. Cows will move to water and graze away for increasing periods, while the calves will group together on the fence. After four to five days the cows are then moved to a more distant paddock — again it is important that calves find the water.

Creep weaning This is gradual ‘self-weaning’ process that causes minimal stress to the calves, but requires paddock preparation, a creep gate and supervision. As they approach weaning age, calves (but not cows) have access to a good quality pasture or crop in an adjoining paddock via a specially constructed creep gate on the fence line. The openings in the creep should be 400–450 mm wide. Good fencing is essential. To wean, close the creep gate when calves become accustomed to grazing away from the cows, leaving all the calves on that side of the fence. After a few days move the cows away.

See: Weaning beef calves at: Husbandry webpage (DPI).

See: Weaning webpage (MLA).

5.8 Bull management

5.8.1 Bull selection

Bulls contribute 50 per cent of the genetics of offspring and are an essential and expensive part of the breeding herd. Bulls drive the market for offspring and the genetic future of the herd. Cows should reflect property, feed and management type. Consider bringing together these breeding goals for genetic improvement and markets to develop a breeding plan. See: Developing an effective breeding plan for your beef business at Breeding webpage (DPI). Buying bulls with Estimated Breeding Values (EBVs) is an important part of this plan (see: below). If uncertain, speak with a consultant or others in the industry.

There are many important things to consider when selecting and purchasing a bull. Purchase bulls with a veterinary certificate of soundness. Also consider health status, vaccinations and the area of origin.

See: Bullcheck (VBBSE) Scheme webpage (Australian Veterinary Association).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry/general-management/weaning-beef-calves

https://www.mla.com.au/weaning

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/148105/Developing-an-effective-breeding-plan-for-your-beef-business.pdf


https://www.ava.com.au/about-us/ava-groups/cattle/resources/schemes/bullcheck/

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Conformation and feet Inspect knees, hips and feet—very straight or very angular conformation can result in early joint damage and arthritis. Watch the bull walk around—stringhalt (locking of the kneecap) is sometimes seen in bulls with Bos indicus content. Look for bulls that stumble on uneven ground as it usually indicates some musculoskeletal problem. Check the feet carefully. Fibromas (foot warts) are common in many bulls. Unevenly grown claws usually indicate uneven weight bearing and may indicate joint pain. Corkscrew claws and scissor claws also appear to be heritable and should be avoided. Avoid inspection in muddy yards as it will be difficult get a good look at the feet. (see section 8.37)

Reproductive organs Watch for sheaths that hang low and close to the ground as they can be easily injured. Testicles should be free of lumps or swellings and equal in size. Bulls with a high scrotal circumference have greater fertility and have daughters who are more fertile. Aim for 29 cm at two years of age in Brahmans and 27 cm at 15–18 months of age for British and European breeds.

Age Young bulls (18 months to two years) are quite fertile, but inexperienced. By using bulls earlier, you can increase the working life and uptake of the new genetics and save money, but they are also prone to more injuries because they mount more often than older bulls. See: Yearling bulls, below.

Diet Be careful about grain-fed bulls. They may not do as well on an all pasture diet and need time to adapt before joining. Bulls should not be more than condition score three. (see section 7.18)

Serving If it is possible, observe the bull trying to serve. Spiral deviation and persistent frenulum are two common penis problems that can only be detected with the penis extended. Spiral deviation is seen most commonly in polled breeds (up to 20 per cent) and can increase with age.

Temperament Bulls can be very dangerous, so selection on temperament is important. Bulls will also influence the temperament of their offspring.

Estimated breeding values (EBVs) and BREEDPLANEBVs provide estimates of the likely performance of the bull’s progeny for a variety of genetic traits. These include growth, feed intake, milk, fertility, carcase, temperament and soundness. They are based on performance records for the individual bull or their relatives (parents / progeny). EBVs are calculated by using BREEDDPLAN, an advanced genetic evaluation system which uses computer analysis of pedigree and performance information. EBVs separate the influence of environmental factors such as nutrition, as well as age and sex, which allows comparisons between different localities. They are available for many bull sales and are listed next to the number on the catalogue.

See: Breedplan articles at: Breeding webpage (DPI).

See: Cattle Genetics, module 4 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

Veterinary certificates When buying bulls, always ask for a veterinary certificate. It is like an insurance policy and essential because unsound bulls can set a breeding program back a long way. The veterinarian soundness certificate addresses the following:

• conformation and mobility • examination of reproductive organs — testes, penis, seminal vesicles and scrotal circumference • semen quality assessment — sperm count, mobility and shape • serving ability — serving capacity tests.


https://mbfp.mla.com.au/cattle-genetics/

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See: Bullcheck (VBBSE) Scheme webpage (Australian Veterinary Association).

See: Bull health at: Breeding webpage (DPI).

Health considerations — bulls are valuable so be vigilant:

• purchase bulls that are tested free for pestivirus and with a reduced risk of bovine Johne’s disease (see section 8.51 and section 8.10)• vaccinate for vibriosis, seven-in-one, three day sickness, botulism and pestivirus (see section 10.2.1)• worming — quarantine drench on arrival and hold in yards for several days before putting in paddock,

after calves and weaners, bulls are the most susceptible cattle on farm to worms (see section 10.2.2)• ticks — treat on arrival to farm to reduce the chance of introducing cattle tick• buffalo fly — as needed, bulls generally carry more flies than cows (see section 10.2.3)• seek professional advice.

5.8.2 Joining

Preparation before joiningBefore mating, undertake the following preparation on all bulls:

• have a veterinary bull soundness check done• feet — trim claws if overgrown, check for corns• booster vaccinations for vibriosis, seven-in-one and three day sickness, botulism and pestivirus• parasites — treat for worms, liver fluke and lice• assess body condition — if too fat it limits mobility and too thin limits durability, change feed and

supplement if required.

If year round joining is practiced and the bulls are in with the cows all the time, select the month which is 10 months before the bulk of calves arrive (and so the month before peak joining activity). Make this the time on the management calendar for the above preparations.

Joining ratesJoining rate is the number of cows that a bull is run with to serve, either as a per cent or as a ratio. This will vary with property size and topography, management type and the age and fertility of bulls:

• high joining rate of four per cent (one bull:25 cows) used for young bulls when first used or if uncertain how good bulls are

• a common joining rate for older bulls is three per cent (one bull:33 cows)• a well-managed herd can use 2.5 per cent (one bull:40 cows)• a low joining rate of two per cent (one bull:50 cows) can be used for bulls with proven fertility (such as a

high serving capacity test result).

Single vs multiple sire mating Multiple sire mating means more than one bull in a given mob of cows. For example, two bulls run with 66 cows for a joining rate of three per cent.

Advantages including using multiple sires of a similar age will usually result in more bull activity, a larger group of sexually active females and higher conception rates. Single-sire mating groups are particularly sensitive to individual bull fertility.

Disadvantages include fighting between bulls. Some bulls can spend all their time fighting and be too worn out to serve the cows. Injury rates in multiple-sire matings tend to be higher than single-sire, particularly if bulls in the group are of different ages.

To prevent problems with multiple sire matings use sires of a similar age and run the bulls for that group together before joining. This lets the bulls sort out their pecking order with other bulls prior to going out with the cows and problems can be seen if they arise.


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/breeding/bull-selection/bull-health

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Back up bulls — a spare bull can be handy because breakdowns can be quite common. Also bulls lose a lot of weight during joining so changing bulls over regularly can help.

Use of young (yearling) bulls There is a trend toward using young bulls. The age when first used depends on breed, body weight and testicle size, measured by scrotal circumference, which needs to be 32 cm minimum. For British breeds this may be 12–18 months if well grown or two years old for most European and Bos indicus. Tips with using young bulls:

• if multiple sire mating use young bulls of the same age together. If young bulls are with old bulls, bullying and injury may occur

• introduce young bulls with 10 quiet females, then add another 15 cows after two to three weeks, this gives a high joining rate with young bulls of four per cent (one bull:25 females)

• remove them after a total of six to eight weeks and give them three months' rest on good feed• it is critical not to have young bulls drop below condition score two as this can ruin their fertility and

lifetime performance.

5.8.3 Mating problems and infertility

A bull’s job is to get cows pregnant. To do this he must have a good libido, the ability to serve, be free of deformities and injuries and have fertile sperm. Problems with any of these can affect results. The problem may be infertility (no pregnancies) or more commonly subfertility (fewer pregnancies). Either way the consequences are expensive. It is important that any issues are detected early and before joining. It is sound breeding management practice to have veterinary examination of all bulls before joining each year, leaving time to purchase replacements if required. These are not a guarantee, but an indication of the potential breeding value of the bull in a normal mating situation.

See: BULLCHECK® (VBBSE) scheme (Australian Veterinary Association).

Libido Poor libido can be due to low male hormone testosterone, age, body condition and psychological factors, including:

• small and inactive testicles. Testosterone which is produced by the testes and is responsible for the male sex drive. This may be a heritable trait, which can be passed on to both male and female progeny and is a very undesirable trait to have in a bull

• testes may also be small and inactive due to poor nutrition, stress or a previous injury• young bulls may not be sexually mature, but in time will be more interested• old bulls may have less interest in sexual activity than bulls in their mid-years• heat stress can affect the bull’s libido.

Brahman cows have a shorter cycle which is often at night, so Brahman bulls tend to serve at night. Because they are not seen to be serving during daylight hours this should not be confused with low libido.

Fertility and ageBulls tend to be most fertile between the ages of two and 4.5 years. Research has found that after 4.5 years of age, libido, sperm quality and serving capacity drop markedly. So culling bulls at 4.5 is a good rule of thumb (unless proven to still have high fertility and libido). Valuable bulls of high genetic value may be kept beyond this age and joined to fewer females.

Ability to serve A penis should be straight to enable successful joining. If it is bent, the tip of the penis may become traumatised from hitting the rear end of the cow and painful ulcers may develop. The most common problems are persistent frenulum, spiral deviations and abnormal swellings.

Persistent frenulum is a small piece of tissue attaching the tip of the penis to the sheath. It will pull the penis


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downwards and may also limit how far the penis can extend out of the sheath. It must be removed to enable a bull to mate successfully. A simple surgical procedure is available to address this problem.

Spiral deviation (twist) of the penis can interfere with normal mating. It is only detected by watching the bull mating, so may be overlooked as the cause of low fertility. Several matings need to be observed because it is inconsistent. It increases with age and may not appear until a bull is a few years old. Spiral deviation is a heritable condition and affected bulls should be culled. It is most common in polled breeds (up to 20 per cent).

Abnormal swellings on or around the penis may be due to injuries, wounds or growths. This may inhibit the bull’s ability or desire to serve. Seek veterinary attention without delay as some conditions can be treated successfully if treated early, permanent damage may occur if left unchecked. Other conditions are untreatable or progressive and the bull should be culled. Conditions include:

• broken penis—this appears as a swelling along the midline somewhere between the sheath and the testes. Small swellings usually respond to medical treatment of sexual rest and inflammatory drugs. More extensive swelling will require either surgery or culling

• sheath injuries can cause considerable swelling and the penis may no longer be able to retract or pass through. Seek veterinary attention as soon as possible, if not treated scar tissue may form adhesions and restrict penis movement

• warts—penile warts are seen in young bulls and usually disappear by three years of age. Large warts may prevent normal retraction of the penis and have to be surgically removed.

Physical ailments Any physical discomfort associated with mating will discourage a bull from serving. This includes arthritis, lameness, illness and blindness. Sore backs are fairly common in bulls.

Sperm problems Sperm quality can be variable. Poor sperm quality may be permanent, e.g. inherited conditions or when the bull is old and producing faulty sperm. Temporary infertility can occur when the body temperature is too high and result in infertility for up to 3 months. Causes include fevers e.g. in three day sickness, heat waves, excessive scrotal fat and moving cattle in hot weather.

Infected accessory glands can result in degraded sperm cells and pus in the semen. It can be a common reason to cull young bulls. Treatment is with antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs, contact your veterinarian. Testicular infection or trauma may reduce the production of sperm either temporarily or permanently. Semen testing is the only way to assess the quality of a bull’s sperm, contact your private veterinarian.

See: BULLCHECK® (VBBSE) Scheme (Australian Veterinary Association).

See: Bull Health at: Breeding webpage (DPI).

5.9 Cow and heifer management

5.9.1 Setting and achieving breeding targets

The aim in breeding management is for every cow to wean a calf every year. Cattle are pregnant for 280 days, so in order to achieve a calf every 12 months, there is only 85 days after calving for the cow to fall pregnant. For the first 42 days she is probably not cycling, so that leaves 43 days – just two cycles to achieve this goal. Extension beyond 12-months will increase the inter-calving interval and result in late calves. If this occurs each year then in time cows will miss a year.

During this time the cow has the demand of peak lactation in rearing a calf, so a cow needs to calve in good condition and as far as possible maintain her weight. Nutrition is the most important limitation on achieving breeding targets. Other factors include infertility, abortions, deaths and bull breakdowns. The causes of each of these are covered in section 7.


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/breeding/bull-selection/bull-health

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Aim to keep breeders above the minimum body condition score of two at all times.

See: Body condition score for beef cattle (Future Beef).

First calf heifers have even greater pressures, as they are still growing into their mature body weight. To allow this group to achieve the above goals, many producers aim to calve their heifers one month before the main herd.

Because there are so many factors to consider with breeding targets for females such as genetic improvement, suitability of females to the property and pasture, market and whether to breed replacements or purchase, it is important to priorities these and to develop a breeding plan.

Tips on achieving reproductive targetsAchieving optimum reproductive performance requires skill, but is vital for breeding operations to run profitably. These tips summarise topics that are explored further in this section:

• decide market type for progeny, then choose the breed, management style and joining time to best meet that market

• ensure that nutrition is adequate to maintain good body condition and maximise cycling • join heifers when they achieve two-thirds of the expected mature bodyweight, join one month before the

cows and join 15–20 per cent more than required to allow for culling• vaccinate females against leptospirosis and pestivirus • use early pregnancy testing• vaccinate bulls against vibriosis, leptospirosis, pestivirus and if at risk, three day sickness• use sound fertile bulls in good working body condition• consult with your veterinarian.

See: Economic advantages of better management of your beef breeding herd at: Husbandry webpage (DPI).

See: Developing an effective breeding plan for your beef business at: Breeding webpage (DPI).

See: Record keeping for herd improvement at: Business management and market information webpage (DPI)

5.9.2 Nutrition levels

Some suggested targets for different herd nutritional levels are shown below.

Level of nutrition

High Medium Low

Pregnancy rate 95 % 90 % 80 %Calving rate 92 % 85 % 75 %Weaning rate 90 % 82 % 70 %

High — high output system with heavier and later weaning weights and heavier cows. Pasture improved and attention to supplementary “gap” feeding when required. Light or optimum stocking rate and sound pasture management.

Medium — moderate weaning weights and ages. Partially pasture improved properties with minimal supplementation.

Low — low output system with low weaning weights and earlier weaning ages and lighter cows. Minimal inputs with no pasture improvement or supplementary feeding. Often on soils of lower fertility, with mat pasture species of low productivity. (see section 6.3.5)

Movement to the next level of nutrition and productivity requires additional inputs in terms of pasture improvement and management, sowing winter forages and supplementary feeding when required. Factors that influence decisions to improve productivity include the nature of the property such as soil type, existing pasture


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry/general-management/better-beef-herd-management


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/management/business-management/record-keeping-herd

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species, fences, water points and available suitable land for winter forage. Human factors include attitudes, time, financial constraints and market type for stock.

Even holdings on a low output system can make significant improvements to productivity with sound pasture management principles. (see section 6.5)

5.9.3 Joining

Maiden heifers Age and weight at first joining:

• heifers must be at least two-thirds of their expected adult weight at joining. For a mature weight of 500 kg this is 330 kg. For 600 kg mature weight, this is a minimum heifer weight of 400 kg

• to calve at 24 months of age requires joining at 15 months. This may be difficult to achieve on many North Coast properties and heifer supplementation would normally be needed to reach target weight

• on medium planes of nutrition (with supplement according to season), can achieve target weight at 18–20 months of age (so calf at about 2.5 years of age). This is achievable on most North Coast holdings

• on low planes of nutrition, heifers may be two years of age or older before reaching target weights and calve as three-year-olds

• aim to join heifers one month before the rest of the herd. This then allows an extra month after they calve for them to get back into calf again, as they struggle with the demands of both growth and lactation.

When breeder numbers are low and the value of purchased replacements are high, such as after a drought, there is pressure to join heifers at a younger age to rebuild the herd. This needs to be done wisely. See: Calving two year old heifers to rebuild herds (DPI 2020).

Heifer selection:• cull for obvious faults such as conformation and temperament before joining• delay the main selection of replacement heifers at pregnancy testing, see below. It is recommended to

join 15–20 per cent more heifers than needed, then pregnancy test and cull those heifers that are slow to go in calf

• final heifer selection at weaning of their first calf, depending on mothering and weaner weight.

See: Selecting and managing beef heifers (DPI 2007) at: Beef cattle husbandry webpage (DPI).

Animal health in heifers:• maiden heifers at joining are the highest risk group for pestivirus and leptospirosis. Both diseases can

dramatically reduce in calf rates. Ensure that they are vaccinated pre-joining. They are also the high-risk group for vibriosis, so vaccinate the bulls (see section 8.51 and section 8.75)

• they are still at an age to be susceptible to worms (see section 8.78) and if present on the property, liver fluke. (see section 8.41)

Heifers with calves at foot ‘first calvers’:• these are the most difficult group in the herd to get back in calf because they are usually still growing as

well as lactating and can be slow to cycle if they lose a lot of body weight• to achieve optimum joining, this group requires preferential nutrition, such as supplementary feeding or

better quality pastures, to keep the body score above two while rearing their first calf• first-calf heifers with calves at foot can be slow to get back in calf because they are usually still growing

as well as lactating and can be slow to cycle if they lose a lot of body weight. Preferential feeding and allowing that extra month will allow them to come in line with the rest of the herd for their second calf

• they are also the most vulnerable class of cattle to the type two brown stomach worm. (see section 8.78.3)

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/1247950/calving-two-year-old-heifers-to-rebuild-herds.pdf


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry/general-management/managing-beef-heifers

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Cows:• ensure that they are in forward condition (body condition score three out of five) to maximise fertility• give vaccination boosters for pestivirus and leptospirosis pre-joining• mouth and cull those with unsound teeth• pregnancy test to enable empty or late cows to be identified and culled early — this strategy more than

pays for the cost of testing• fertility is heritable so not pregnancy testing and retaining late cows will lower the herd fertility in time —

infertility from vibriosis can be suspected if pregnancy test rates significantly lower than normal.

Duration of joining – restricted vs unrestricted joining Restricting the duration of joining has many management and animal health advantages:

• calving is more compressed so greater attention can be paid to this group• marking is more compressed so it can be done at the earliest age, with fewer musters• vaccinations are more compressed with more appropriate timing and fewer packs wasted• weaning is more compressed as most of the calves can be weaned in one or two events• sales are more compressed with larger and more even lines and timed to meet times when prices are

higher• less late calves that achieve lower weights and value at weaner sales or need to be carried through winter• bulls can have a well earnt rest and not lose so much condition during joining• the overall management and health calendar is greatly simplified. (see section 10)

Limitations of a restricted joining periodAchieving targets for breeders requires skill and adequate nutrition to ensure as many cows as possible fall pregnant within the time frame. This is more challenging in an adverse season. It is also more critical to vaccinate for pestivirus and vibriosis. These diseases cause early loss of the embryo. With a restricted join there will not be the opportunity for a second chance to fall pregnant. Whereas in unrestricted joined herds the presence of these diseases may go ‘under the radar’ as the reproductive losses are drawn out over a longer period, but the total numbers affected and financial impact may be just as great.

Unrestricted join can carry the advantages of:• a rear round supply of calves, for those selling calves straight of their mothers to an ongoing butcher’s

(vealer) market with specific age and weight requirements• no set paddock for bulls, if fencing cannot keep them (or the neighbour’s bulls) out• lower input / output systems (see above), particularly those on poorer soil and pasture types, in which

achieving a 12-month calving interval is difficult.

Another alternative that may streamline management for some producers is to have the bulls in three months and out three months. In effect, this is a split-breeder herd with two joinings a year.

The ultimate decision to restrict join is a personal one and should be based on management and property type and the desired markets.

Problems at joining:• reduced cow fertility—poor nutrition is a biggest cause of low numbers of cows cycling on the North

Coast. Cows need to be in good condition and a rising plane of nutrition at joining (see section 6)• early abortion or embryonic loss (see section 7.1 and section 7.14)• bull breakdown, infertility, poor condition or lack of libido. In larger herds it is wise to have a spare bull to

back up. Finding a suitable replacement bull at short notice is difficult • unwanted pregnancy—when cows are served by the wrong bull or when heifers are served too young.

Seek veterinary assistance as soon as possible, drugs (e.g. prostaglandins if less than four months) may be used to terminate the pregnancy.

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5.9.4 Pregnancy

Pregnancy testing and the National Cattle Pregnancy Diagnosis SchemeThis is a valuable management tool to maximise reproductive performance, productivity and financial return. Empty heifers or cows can be culled early, rather than carrying through to calving time, with no return for that period. It also allows more available feed to those that are pregnant, at the time that they need it the most. Fertility is heritable, so pregnancy testing has long term benefits in the breeding performance in the herd. Pregnancy testing will also be an alert at an early stage for infectious infertility (vibriosis or pestivirus).

Pregnancy testing is also done prior to store sale of surplus females. The cost of the test is recovered by the significant market premium that tested cattle attract.

Pregnancy testing is done by your veterinarian and special tags are used to identify cows. The tags are individually numbered and have an identity code for the veterinarian who did the testing. They are colour coded:

• red and yellow tags for over four months pregnant• blue and orange tags for under four months pregnant• green and white tags for not detectably pregnant.

See: PREgCHECK (NCPD) Scheme webpage (Australian Veterinary Association).

Problems during pregnancy:• abortion (see section 7.1)• vaginal prolapse (see section 8.59)• pregnancy toxaemia (see section 8.36)• undernutrition, which can cause cows to go down, become bogged or develop ketosis (see section 8.36)• overweight and obesity. Watch that cows don’t get too fat during pregnancy as this can lead to pregnancy

toxaemia and calving difficulties. Encourage them to move around; hilly paddocks can be good. (see section 7.18)

• hydrops — fluid accumulation (of up to 250 litres) in the uterus. The cow will look bloated or overweight, gradually stop eating and either die from a rupture or not be able to calve normally unless treated.

5.9.5 Problems at calving:• difficult birth, dystocia (see section 8.22)• uterine prolapse (see section 8.59)• downer cows, recumbency. (see section 7.9)

All these problems require immediate veterinary attention.

5.9.6 Problems after calving

Immediately after calving:

• vaginal prolapse, this can usually be readily returned• prolapse of the uterus requires immediate veterinary attention or destruction (see section 8.59)• retained afterbirth, failure to expel membranes by 24 hours (see section 8.61)• calving paralysis due to nerve damage, muscles or ligaments during calving (see section 7.9)• tears of the uterus or vulva usually after a difficult birth—contact a veterinarian as the cow may need

stitching and antibiotics• milk fever. (see section 8.48)

https://www.ava.com.au/about-us/ava-groups/cattle/resources/schemes/pregcheck/

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Problems in the weeks after calving:

• infections of the uterus, metritis. (see section 8.47) This can lead to blood poisoning or damage to the uterus. Cows will be listless and show signs of straining or colic. Contact a veterinarian

• mastitis an infection of the udder. (see section 8.46) It will be uncomfortable for the calf to drink and cow may reject the calf. Some forms of mastitis can be life threatening. Contact a veterinarian

• ketosis, often with nervous signs (see section 8.36)• hardware disease; straining at calving can cause any wire in the second stomach to penetrate the stomach

wall. (see section 8.31)

5.9.7 Buying in females

On the North Coast many producers run British breed x Brahman known as F1 (or first cross) females. Most producers do not have enough land to run a parent herd to produce F1’s, so this necessitates buying in these females. These replacements are typically heifers, either joined and pregnancy tested or unjoined maidens.

These herds are typically a non-self-replacing breeding herd in which all progeny, including females, are sold at a given weight or age. Known as terminal progeny, these calves are usually an F2 cross. These may be out of a British breed x Brahman F1 females over a European bull for later maturing background or feedlot market. Alternatively, the F1 female is put to a British breed bull to meet the early maturing butchers local trade.

Advantages of buying all replacements with this management and breed type:

• having breeders that match the grazing conditions and environment on the North Coast. The F1 female has the fertility and milking ability, forages well and has more heat and external parasite resistance

• these herds can run the desired F1 females without having to produce them. It takes a large holding to have the two breeding herds, to breed both replacement F1 females and the terminal calves

• can run more breeders as land is not given over to running a separate mob of replacement heifers and are also able to run only one mob, this management suits smaller holdings

• have progeny that are well suited to the desired market• have twice the number of marketable progeny as both heifers and steers are all sold.

Disadvantages of buying in females:

• dependence on the store market variations in availability and prices• depending on the market, may only be able to source adult cows, rather than heifers• in some years, may only be able to source females culled for low fertility, age, teeth wear, disease or poor

temperament (someone else’s problems)• uncertainty in genetic merits of purchased females• may be of different disease status and not accustomed to pastures or poisonous plants.

(see section 5.11.2)

Some producers are fortunate enough able to lock-in with a trusted local F1 breeder and top up their female numbers by purchasing replacement heifers direct from the same source/s each year. This system avoids many of these disadvantages.

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5.10 Artificial breedingSeveral techniques are available for artificial breeding in cattle. Adoption rates are not high for commercial beef herds. This section is for those who may wish explore these options further with either an artificial breeding specialist or veterinarian.

5.10.1 Artificial Insemination (AI)

Artificial insemination can be an effective method of introducing superior genetics to a herd. It also allows you to try a number of different bulls at the same time without having to go to the expense of buying the bull. To get good results, ensure that the females are in good body condition and are cycling. Heat detection is needed, either by observation (note Brahmans can be on heat for a short time), vasectomised bulls (teasers) or detection pads. Always use experienced inseminators, it is a skill that requires experience for good results. Cows are usually synchronised for AI programs.

5.10.2 Embryo transfer

Embryo transfer is a means of increasing the number of offspring from genetically desired females. Embryos are removed from females of superior genetic merit (the donor) and placing them in another female (the recipient), where they develop. The surrogate mother then gives birth to an offspring that is genetically unrelated to her.

It comes at a price requiring an embryo transfer specialist, treatment to synchronise, the harvesting and implanting procedures and cattle feeding, handling and facility costs. So is typically suited to high value females of very superior genetic lines. Surgical and non-surgical techniques have been used. Conception rates for implanted embryos are typically 60–70 per cent, but can be lower for a variety of reasons.

It is important that the quality and disease status of recipient cows is not overlooked, particularly for bovine Johne’s disease in dairy origin cows.

5.10.3 Synchronised breeding

The oestrus cycles of a group of cows can be manipulated using drugs so they all cycle at the same time. This has the advantage of batch calvings (natural join or AI) or embryo transfer programs. Fertility achieved may not be as high as natural cycling. It also requires a skilled and experienced producer and specialist.

5.11 Cattle management in specific situations

5.11.1 Mixing groups of cattle

Mixing cattle is often an unavoidable part of cattle management. This can occur with groups of cattle on farm, e.g. replacement heifers joining the breeding herd or when cattle are introduced either from various origins or when mixed with cattle already on farm. Regardless, when cattle of any age are mixed there is a period of several weeks in which there is an imbalance in the social order.

Factors that can increase social order imbalance include horned and not horned, differing ages, bodyweight,

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gender, socialisation, temperament, tameness and disease status. It also increases when there is competition for space at feeders, watering points and in yards. *animal welfare* As the pecking order is re-established cattle experience significant stress, particularly those lower on the social hierarchy. This social stress has several significant impacts on cattle:

• it is an important animal welfare issue • changed behaviour, flight and fight, social avoidance• a temporary but important stress on the immune system and so cattle are more susceptible to

infections—particularly when this social imbalanced is coupled with exposure to new pathogens and other stresses such as weaning, saleyards and transport

• reductions in feed intake and growth, particularly when coupled with unfamiliar feed• meat quality issues such as bruising and physical injury and depletion of muscle glycogen (energy) stores

and dark cutting at slaughter, if it occurs in the weeks before slaughter. (see section 3.5.1)

See: Handling cattle webpage (DPI). (see section 4.3)

See: Responsible, sustainable beef production webpage at: Husbandry webpage (DPI).

5.11.2 Introducing cattle - biosecurity, reducing the risks of diseases and weeds

*biosecurity alert* Introduced cattle can bring with them some unwelcome guests including worms, liver fluke, external parasites, diseases and weed seeds. It is best to know the history of the cattle by requesting a National Cattle Health Declaration, which will help with necessary treatments at induction. (see section 3.7.3)

Treatments at induction include:

• drenching for worms, preferably with a dual active or two different drench classes such as an Ml and a BZ, (see section 8.78) to minimise risk of introducing drench resistant worms

• treatment for liver fluke if cattle are from flukey country. If they are from clean country and are coming onto a property with fluke, treat six weeks after arrival (see section 8.41)

• vaccination – a full program if no history is available, never assume that they have been vaccinated. Five-in-one (or seven-in-one if breeders), botulism and pestivirus, and vibriosis for bulls (see section 10.2)

• visually inspect for body condition, external parasites, evidence of scour or weed seeds in coat, such as noogoora burr

• unless very certain that are from a low-risk area or the cattle have been through a dip, treat for ticks (see section 8.71)

• treat for buffalo fly (summer), preferably use two actives to help avoid introducing flies with chemical resistance (see section 8.12)

• if out of season for fly, still use an external parasite treatment for lice to avoid introduction (see section 8.39)

• hold the cattle in or near the yards for six days to empty out weed seed, in particular, tropical soda apple. It is much easier to control any new infestation in a small area See: Tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum) at: Weedwise NSW webpage (DPI).

• record the assessments, inspections and treatments in the on-farm biosecurity plan (see section 3.2.1)• be aware of toxic plants and differences in pasture—introduced cattle are far more at risk.

(see section 8.56)

This time in the yards or holding paddock is also the opportunity to feed, quieten and educate the cattle, as for yard weaning (see section 5.7). Provide plenty of room, feed and water space, particularly if they are a mixed group. (see section 5.11.1)

See: National Cattle Health Declaration (Farm Biosecurity 2018)

See: Managing weeds and diseases on your property at: Weeds website (NSW DPI).

See: Farm biosecurity website (Farm Biosecurity).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry/general-management/handling-cattle

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry/general-management/production

https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/TropicalSodaApple

https://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/NATIONAL-CATTLE-HEALTH-DECLARATION_nonfillable.pdf



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5.11.3 Introducing cattle from outside the district - risks and management

With modern transport and the search for the ‘ideal genetics’ cattle can be moved great distances. Cattle sourced from outside the North Coast face a variety of nutritional, climatic, disease and other challenges on arrival. Careful consideration must be given as cattle can lose weight and even die in significant numbers when moved to the North Coast. There are many well established studs and store breeders on the North Coast, with good genetics and covering a range of breeds that are already adapted to local conditions. Consider these first.

Stress of the journeyCattle moved over long distances can have welfare issues if they are not adequately rested, fed or watered. They are at risk of metabolic conditions such as transit tetany (see section 8.30) and ketosis. (see section 8.36) The stress of the journey can also suppress the immune system, making cattle more susceptible to infections, particularly pneumonia (hence the name ‘shipping fever’ for Mannheimia haemolytica. (see section 8.45)

Nutrition and climateMost cattle introduced to the North Coast from western or far southern areas experience varying degrees of weight loss, locally called ‘coastal setback’. This is a combination of climatic and nutritional adjustments, internal and external parasites. The risk and degree of setback will vary on the class of stock (young stock less affected), time of year (less when feed is at its best) and management of cattle on arrival (see section 5.11.2 above). While North Coast pastures look green, they are mainly tropical pasture species of lower nutritional value than southern and western areas. This translates to slower cattle growth rates.

Cattle from coastal QueenslandIf cattle are from a cattle tick infected area, they must have the necessary inspections, treatments and certification to enter NSW. Even with these tick treatments, there is still the risk they may be carriers of tick fever and cause outbreaks in local cattle that they come in contact with at a later date. (see section 8.71.3 and section 8.70) *notifiable diseases*

Cattle from drier areas in Queensland and western NSWThese cattle, even as adults, may be naïve to worms (including lungworm), liver fluke or stomach fluke. They arealso at risk of thieleria (see section 8.68). Any deaths in the days after arrival must be notified to the district veterinarian or the Emergency Animal Disease Hotline on 1800 675 888 to exclude anthrax. *notifiable disease* (see section 8.68)

Cattle from southern areasThese may well have resistance to internal parasites, but could be naïve to theileria. There is also the risk of introducing bovine Johne’s disease. (see section 8.10)

Pregnant femalesThe decision to move pregnant female cattle to the North Coast should not be taken lightly. There are very significant health risks, particularly if sourced from western and southern areas. Exposure to diseases that they have not previously been exposed to can result in:

• abortions, anaemia, jaundice and death from thieleria—this is a high risk and there have been many cases of significant losses in the second month after arrival (see section 8.68)

• fever, lameness, recumbency and abortions from three day sickness (see section 8.69)• malformed calves from akabane. (see section 8.2)

If in doubt, make enquiries with a veterinarian from the area concerned.

BullsEach year bulls are brought in from New England, Queensland and further afield in the pursuit of desired genetics.

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There are significant health risks associated with bulls coming to the North Coast. Bulls are particularly prone to ill-thrift from dietary change, internal parasites, temporary infertility from three day sickness and the potentially fatal disease theileria.

Weaner heifers and steersThese are considered a lower-risk group for coastal setback and are cheaper to support with supplements than adults. Heifers intended as future breeders are at a safer age for thieleria, akabane and three day sickness as they will be exposed to these after arrival and before joining. However, they are a high risk-group for plant poisonings. (see section 8.56) And if sourced from drier areas, are at risk of internal parasites and coccidiosis. (see section 8.17)

5.11.4 Cattle on leases or agistment

Whether the owner of the cattle or the owner of the land, consider the following before leasing land for cattle grazing or for agistment.

Legal and financial aspects:

• the use of a formal written agreement• who is responsible for repairs and maintenance of yards, fences and water, pasture and weed control• public liability, this is important should cattle stray onto roads• a negotiated rate of agistment (usually per head), or lease (usually per hectare)• who is responsible for payment rates, including those to Local Land Services?

Cattle husbandry aspects:

• quality and quantity of the feed• infrastructure such as yards, fences and water• areas that may harbour wild dogs or be a problem for paralysis ticks• a reasonable stocking rate that will not result in degradation of the land or pastures• the potential for introduction of unwanted weeds, parasites or disease. (see section 5.11.2)

Quality assurance and biosecurity aspects:

• consider whether to amalgamate the PICs or maintain separate PICs, if long term. Applications for PIC amalgamations are to your Local Land Services office

• in the case of separate PICs, ensure that the owner of the cattle transfers the ear tag identifier numbers (NLIS-IDs) to the new PIC on the National Livestock Identification Scheme database

• ensure that the movement is embedded in the on-farm biosecurity plan. If using a separate PIC then a new plan will be required

• whether there are residue issues on the land or any notifiable disease problems such as cattle tick or bovine Johne’s disease, these can be confirmed by a search through your Local Land Services office

• biosecurity risks can include internal or external parasites and disease risks. (see section 5.11.2)

See: Agistment guidelines (DPI 2007) at: Business management and market information webpage (DPI).

5.11.5 Buying a cattle property

When contemplating rural land to run cattle, be it for the first time or an additional holding, there are important checks and searches to do including in the conveyancing process. Be sure to:

• undertake solicitors searches for current Biosecurity Act matters for chemical residues or notifiable diseases

• undertake searches for outstanding rates, including to Local Land Services• check that it has a PIC, if the holding does not already have one, a PIC will need to be registered in order

to graze livestock (see section 3.6.1)

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/management/business-management/agistment-guidelines

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• make enquiries with the vendor about any quality assurance programs (see section 3.5), on-farm biosecurity plans (see section 3.2.1), disease management plans e.g. for bovine Johne’s disease (see section 8.10) or organic certification (see section 3.5.5), these are not covered in a solicitor’s search

• when cattle are introduced, ensure that their NLIS ear tag identifier numbers are transferred to the new PIC on the database (see section 3.6.1)

• research potential risk for natural disasters, including flood and fire and any management plans for same. (see section 3.3.6, section 3.3.7 and section 3.3.8)

If you are new to cattle or to the area, it is wise to speak to local producers and to agricultural and veterinary advisors. Local Land Services have staff to provide local advice.

See: Considerations before buying rural land (DPI 2018).

For more information on responsibilities and resources when buying and owning rural land. (see section 3.1)

See: Rural living handbook, a guide for rural landholders (LLS 2020).

5.11.6 Specialist calf rearing

Many cattle producers rear orphan calves from time to time. The care of calves in the critical first week of life. (see section 5.6.1)

In contrast, specialist calf rearing enterprises typically introduce calves at a week or more of age (welfare standards require that calves cannot be transported younger than this). Many rear male dairy calves for beef, others have niche markets, such as for Wagyu calves, veal or dairy replacement heifers. Rearing calves is a specialised field and requires skill, feeds, sheds, equipment and time commitment to be done effectively. These enterprises are often on the side to other cattle business and may come and go depending on the changing economic balance between cattle markets and grain prices. See: Business management and market information webpage (DPI).

FeedingYoung calves are basically monogastrics (single stomach, like pigs) with milk passing direct to the fourth stomach. It is important that calves receive adequate colostrum in the first 24 hours of life for passive immunity. Having regular routine suppliers gives confidence that this has occurred and that the calves have been cared for in that important first week of life. Calves require 10–12 per cent of their body weight in milk per day. For a 30 kg calf this is three to 3.5 litres per day, given in two or three feeds. As grains, pasture and roughages are introduced, often as young as the second or third week, the rumen develops until it becomes fully functional. The rate at which this occurs is dependent on solid feed intake, particularly grain.

DiseaseThe major health problems of calves are dietary scours, bacterial scours, (see section 8.14) pneumonia, (see section 8.54) coccidiosis (see section 8.17) and worms. (see section 8.78) Immune suppression from inadequate colostrum and from pestivirus (see section 8.51) can have a major impact on calf health. Vaccination with five in-one, pestivirus and Mannheimia haemolytica (MH) can be initiated as early as six weeks. (see section 10.2.1)

Milk feeding and avoiding dietary scoursMilk by-passes the rumen to the fourth stomach where it quickly clots, this curd then takes up to 12 hours to digest. If overfed (more than five per cent body weight in a feed) or fed too frequently, this may overwhelm the ability to curd, with whole milk passing into the intestines. This can result in scouring. Poor quality milk replacer or milk replacer made too dilute can also fail to clot. Feed milk close to body temperature (35–38°C).

Milk spill-over into the rumen can go sour and cause scours. By-pass of the rumen is initiated by the suck reflex and the physical nature of milk. Stomach tubing, incorrect bucket feeding, poor quality or too dilute milk replacer can cause the by-pass to fail. For successful bucket feeding the bucket must be at least 300 mm off the ground. Teach the calf to bucket drink by allowing the calf to suck fingers first to stimulate the suck reflex. Ensure good





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hygiene of all equipment and that fresh water is always available.

For treatment, see section 8.14.

See: Calf scours webpage (MLA).

Solid food and transition to weaningConcentrates and hay / straw encourage rumen development. Calf meal or pellets (18–20 per cent protein) can be introduced as early as the second or third week of life. Hay or straw should be fed in a rack. Aim for 10 per cent hay and 90 per cent calf meal. Always remove the uneaten feed daily - this can then be fed to older calves. As intake increases, milk feeds can be reduced to once a day. The general rule for weaning is at six to nine weeks, when meal intake reaches one kilogram per day. Change to a lower protein (16 per cent), weaner concentrate at weaning and continue at levels of up to three per cent body weight for the next one to two months, depending on pasture quality.

Housing or shelter is important. The ideal is closed on the southern and western sides, to protect from weather and closed to no more than 1–1.5 m high on the other two sides, to prevent draughts at calf level and to allow for ventilation. Bedding of wood shavings, sawdust or rice hulls will provide some insulation and absorb moisture and nitrogen from urine, which helps keep ammonia levels low. Straw provides good insulation, but has poor absorption and calves may be tempted to eat contaminated straw. Poor air quality can trigger respiratory infections. (see section 8.54)

The calf paddock can become the most worm and coccidiosis contaminated area on the property, it is preferable to have at least three paddocks available and rotate between these. Give the first drench soon after the calves start to graze and consider coccidiosis prevention. (see section 8.78 and section 8.17)

5.11.7 Cattle on properties with pasture dieback

Pasture dieback is a condition that has killed large areas of both sown and native grasses in Queensland since the early 1990s and has continued to spread. It was first confirmed in NSW near Murwillumbah in March 2020 and has since spread to properties across the Tweed, Brunswick and upper Richmond valleys. It is possible it could continue to spread to any regions that grow C4 grasses (tropical grasses adapted to warm or hot conditions).

Dieback only effects grasses. Legumes and herbs are not affected, so properties with reasonable amount of these are not likely to be affected as badly as those with grass dominant pastures. Because North Coast pastures are tropical grass dominant, dieback can result in a dramatic decline in available feed for cattle. If dieback is confirmed, plan how to manage the cattle.

At the time of writing, research was underway to identify the cause of dieback. There are strong indications that pasture mealybugs (Heliococcus summervillei) are involved with pasture dieback. However, research also indicates there are secondary causal factors at play. Understanding these factors is key to understanding why outbreaks occur.

There is no evidence that cattle are affected from grazing dieback, other than feed shortage. However, cattle do avoid affected areas due to low feed. There are several cases of dieback in land that has never grazed cattle. So cattle are not suspected as being a major cause for spreading the problem. In some cases, cattle grazing has slowed the progression of dieback through reducing pasture biomass.

Signs to be aware of, especially after significant rainfall:

• yellowing, reddening and purpling starting at the tip and moving along the leaf blade• stunted and unthrifty plants with fewer leaves and tillers• patches of discolouration in less than one to several square meters in size • a rapid increase in the size of the affected area particularly after rain to occupy hectares• grasses die and the remaining dry grass material easily crumbles when handled • legumes and broadleaf weeds colonise patches where grasses have been killed.

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/diseases/infectious/calf-scours/

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Pasture dieback spreading across a 40 ha paddock in the Tweed valley.

Treatment and preventionAs the cause of dieback is not yet fully determined it is hard to treat or stop the spread. However, there are management options that enable a successful beef enterprise to continue. These include sowing winter forages, such as ryegrass or oats, to provide winter feed and for ground cover to suppress broadleaf weeds. (see section 6.6.1) For the spring and summer, sowing summer forages, such as millet or teff grass. (see section 6.6.2) It is important to seek advice from an agricultural specialist.

See: Biosecurity alerts / Pasture dieback at: Pests, weeds and diseases webpage (LLS).

See: Pasture dieback at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

See: Pasture dieback webpage (MLA).

Fall armywormBe on the alert for this insect pest, which has been detected on the North Coast. Fall armyworm damage in pastures and crops produces similar symptoms on foliage to that caused by other caterpillars and chewing insects.

See: Biosecurity alerts / Fall armyworm at: Pests, weeds and diseases webpage (LLS).

See: Fall armyworm webpage at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

5.11.8 Cattle on forage crops

Forage crops are grown to provide cattle with a higher quality diet than would be expected at that time of year, and enable better animal performance. They are classified as either winter growing (temperate) and summer (tropical) forage crops. Winter crops are becoming popular to fill the winter feed shortage. Examples include ryegrass, oats and brassicas. (see section 6.6.1)

Summer crops are valuable to help finish weaners for the autumn sales. They are also used for an economical means of producing silage or hay, for sale or for on-farm storage for supplementary feeding when needed. Examples of summer forage crops include millet, sorghum, lab lab and soybeans. (see section 6.6.2)

To maximise usage and improve regrowth potential of forage crops, rotational or strip grazing methods are preferable to set stocking methods. Re-entry time for repeat grazing is determined by the stage of growth of the particular crop and will be influenced by soil moisture, temperature and fertiliser use.

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/pests,-weeds-and-diseases/biosecurity-alerts

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/establishment-mgmt/pests-and-diseases/pasture-dieback

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/Grazing-pasture-management/pasture-dieback/

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/pests,-weeds-and-diseases/biosecurity-alerts

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/plant/insect-pests-and-plant-diseases/fall-armyworm

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Potential animal health problems on forages include:

• clostridial diseases, particularly pulpy kidney — it is recommended to give a booster five-in-one prior to grazing fodder crops if the cattle have not had a booster in the past three months (see section 8.60)

• nitrate poisoning on ryegrass, cereals, sorghums and brassicas (see section 8.57)• cyanide poisoning on sorghums (see section 8.57)• bloat on clovers and lucerne (see section 8.8 and section 8.57)• photosensitisation (see section 8.52)• polio (polioencephalomalacia) on brassicas. (see section 8.58)

5.11.9 Cattle on supplementary feed

“The principles of cattle nutrition are providing cattle in all seasons and conditions a balance of the three building blocks—energy, protein and fibre. When these are not provided in balance by the pasture or fodder crop on hand, supplementation creates an opportunity to maximise the benefit of paddock feed and performance of the cattle.”

The aim of supplementary feeding is to supplement. As a rule—feed that is grown on farm is cheaper than purchased feed, so the aim should be to provide as much paddock feed as possible, through efficient grazing of desirable pasture species and forages. And to regularly review the amount and quality of feed to ensure that it is balanced and meets the needs of the class of cattle concerned.

Supplying cattle their whole intake through hand feeding is not supplementary feeding, it is replacement feeding.This can be intentional in a lot feeding situation or in a drought where no effective paddock feed remains. It can also be an unintended consequence of either the wrong supplement for the situation and / or learnt cattle behaviour. For example; hay or an all of ration style pellet (which contains both grain and roughage) being fed in winter when there is paddock feed still available—the cattle learn to become welfare dependant, hang around close to the hay ring or trough and cease foraging to any extent. It can be a tricky balancing act.

Supplementary feeding - have a planBefore contemplating feeding have clear aims, know the class of cattle to be fed and have a budget. Will the feed be supplementary to balance paddock feed or replacement (full hand feeding)? Consider the type of feed, how to feed out and the equipment required. Be aware and act on any animal health issues. Feeding can be for:

• survival—no paddock feed, full hand feeding in a drought. The aim is to maintain healthy (production level) weight of those cattle selected to be retained (see section 5.11.10)

• maintenance and continuity of nutrition—for example breeders or to fill the late winter to early spring gap (see section 5.11.11)

• growth for production—fattening stock, when on pasture (supplement) or feedlot (full hand feeding) (see section 5.11.12)

• creep feeding calves—access to supplement while still suckling the cow (see section 5.6.2)• weaning—either in the yards or paddock (see section 5.7)• settling in introduced stock as part of induction. (see section 5.11.2)

Although the reasons vary and the supplements available can change with time, the principles of nutrition and supplementary feeding remain the same.

The decision to undertake supplementary feeding should be made after consideration of the resources available (infrastructure, time, money and conserved fodder) and the aim of the program. Infrastructure and equipment needed, e.g. silos for bulk storage, feed-out troughs and mixers, feed bins etc. Budget and review as seasonal or market conditions or feed prices change during the course of a season and adjust the program accordingly.

See: Drought and supplementary feed calculator and feed cost calculator at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Business management and market information webpage (DPI).

See: Tools and calculators webpage (MLA).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/nutrition/feeding-practices/drought-and-supplementary-feed-calculator


https://www.mla.com.au/extension-training-and-tools/tools-calculators/

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Consider the residue risks and on-farm quality assurance aspects of supplementary feeds. A commodity vendor declaration enables satisfactory completion of a National Vendor Declaration for the cattle at a later date. (see section 3.4.2)

What to feed and whenThe rules of thumb are to assess the pasture situation and decide on the appropriate supplement if needed:

• there is abundant mature, flowering or seeding grasses (as in autumn) then fibre is plentiful, but the energy and protein is falling. Supplements include grains or molasses / urea (non-protein nitrogen plus energy). Hay is not appropriate

• there is dry standing paddock feed (as in winter) then fibre is adequate but of straw quality, again the diet lacks energy and protein. Molasses / urea will feed the rumen flora to improve digestibility of the fibre and a protein meal, such as cottonseed or copra will help feed the animal. There is not yet a place in this situation for hay until paddock feed declines further

• paddock feed quality and quantity has declined to a point in which it is of little use (as in late winter in hard years or a drought) then all of ration — energy, protein and fibre are needed. Hay or silage, depending on their quality an energy and / or protein supplement as well. This is the situation in which knowing feed quality is important (see section 6.2.5)

• there is a break in the season (e.g. September / October rain) and only a short green pick is available (green drought), feed quantity is very limited and protein levels good, then fibre and energy are needed. Hay or silage is appropriate. If the quality of these is low, then include an energy supplement such as grain as well

• in a good season and in the pasture growing season (summer, early autumn) take a break from any supplement and focus on best utilisation of pasture through grazing management.

Feed types and situations in which they are fedGrains are high energy and variable protein, but lack fibre. Processed feeds are energy and protein, some contain fibre (but if finely processed the true roughage benefit is less). Feed when energy and some protein is needed, e.g. late winter and with a fibre source for drought and green drought supplementation. (see section 6.7.3)

Protein meals feed the animal, as much of the protein is by-passed and so not degraded by rumen flora, e.g. cottonseed meal and copra meal. Feed when cattle protein needs from rumen flora are not likely to be entirely met by rumen protein alone, for example on winter pastures. (see section 6.7.1)

Molasses / urea feed the rumen flora their energy and nitrogen to manufacture rumen protein and improve utilisation of fibre. Feed when there is dry standing pasture, which is high fibre, low energy and protein, e.g. mature grasses in late autumn or dry standing feed in winter. (see section 6.7.2)

Hay and silages which are high quality supply a balanced ration of energy, protein and fibre. Feed when replacement feeding required and at other times, such as at weaning, when paddock feed is in short supply, drought and green drought. (see section 6.7.4 and section 6.7.5)

Hay of poor quality is straw value, it supplies fibre but little else. Examples include hay from mature setaria or Rhodes grass and sugar cane tops. (see section 6.7.9) Feed with a protein meal or a non-protein nitrogen (molasses / urea) to balance.

If any paddocks suit cultivation, consider planting summer forage to supply on-farm hay or silage for later use. This is much cheaper than purchased feed and of known quality. It also means less paddocks of fast growing summer grasses to manage when conditions are seasonally wet. (see section 6.6.2)

Precautions:

• remove twine and wrap as cattle may eat it (see section 8.28)• introduce grains gradually over at least 10 days to avoid grain poisoning and grain bloat with grains and

manufactured feeds (see section 8.29 and section 8.8)• vaccinate for botulism before feeding silage (see section 8.9)• reduce the risks of unwanted chemical residues (see section 3.4.2)• reduce the risk of introducing unwanted weed seed by inspecting hay or grain before purchase. See: Look

out for new weeds in fodder (DPI 2021) at: Weeds website (DPI)

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/weed-and-drought/look-out-for-new-weeds-in-fodder


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• feed out in a separate or small paddock as it is much easier to contain any weeds introduced in a small area than over the whole property. See: Managing weeds and diseases on your property at: Weeds website (NSW DPI).

See: Supplementary feeding of cattle (DPI 2007): at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Opportunity lotfeeding of beef cattle (DPI) at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

5.11.10 Cattle in times of drought

Have a forward planThe cost and time to feed and provide water for cattle in drought years can be very high. Just as with fire and flood, it is important to have a forward plan to help drought proof a property, consider:

• security of water (see section 6.2.1)• conserving fodder—have excess summer pasture or intentionally grown highly productive summer forage

cut for hay or silage when conditions are good, or buy when and store when fodder prices are low. (Any surplus can be sold during the drought when prices are high) (see section 6.6.2)

• infrastructure and equipment for storage and feeding out (see section 6.7)• efficient grazing systems in place to maximise quality and quantity of paddock feed (see section 6.5)• features of the property, each is different and has its own challenges, for example small properties may

not have access to alternative water resources, opportunity to conserve or store fodder or ability to feed out

• lifestyle—off-work, off-farm may mean less time, but is offset by off-farm income• environmental factors—one of the greatest long-term economic impacts of drought is recovery from the

devastating effects of long term overgrazing, loss of topsoil and replacing pastures• consider the more localised impacts at supplementary feeding sites.

See: Confinement feeding of cattle in drought: protecting the environment at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

There are responsibilities and management decisions to ensure cattle remain healthy during dry times when feed and water levels decline. These are the same for everyone regardless of the number of cattle they run.

Animal welfare:• set target body condition scores for all classes of cattle to be retained and fed• do not allow condition to fall, there are long term management issues with this, in particular fertility• monitor body condition of cattle on an ongoing basis (see section 5.1.1)• body condition should be at least score two out of five. See: Body condition score for beef cattle (Future

Beef).

See: Welfare scoring nutritionally deprived beef cattle, dairy cattle and their crosses, sheep and horses (DPI 2019).

See: Beefspecs calculator (DPI, MLA, Beef CRC).

BudgetConsider the cost and time before feeding. Budget early, decide whether to feed cattle or sell. Define the time to sell and what class to sell first. The cost of drought feeding cattle can quickly become excessive. In widespread droughts the value of cattle declines, as feed prices rise and availability falls. Consider the time that is required to fully hand feed cattle when no pasture is left. Full feeding can take a few hours a day, seven days a week unless investment is made in bulk feeding equipment such as feeders. Even then checking animals have access to feed at appropriate rates still takes time.

See: Managing farm businesses during drought webpage (DPI).

See: Business management and market information webpage (DPI).


See: Drought and supplementary feed calculator and Feed cost calculator at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed/supplementary-feeding-cattle

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed/lotfeeding

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed/confinement-feeding-cattle-drought





https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/emergencies/droughthub_old/information-and-resources



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/nutrition/feeding-practices/drought-and-supplementary-feed-calculator

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Reduce cattle numbersConsider the class of stock to be culled and those to be kept. Young replacement breeders are the highest priority to keep and feed. Fattening stock should be fed for growth and not maintenance (which is more expensive), these are best sold for cash flow. Having older cows at the end of a drought is a waste of time and resources. Ensure that the nutritional demands for the particular class of cattle are met. (see table in section 6.2.2)

Prepare and act earlyFeed shortages on the North Coast typically occur seasonally in late winter and early spring and break sometime in spring or early summer. Preparation for this gap should be part of routine management. (see section 6.6) An early warning sign should be a failure of normal summer and autumn rain and pasture growth. Overstocking, poor grazing management (see section 6.4 and section 6.5) and pastures of low productivity (see section 6.3.5) exacerbate the situation.

Supplementation is more cost-effective when commenced before the obvious feed deficit has occurred and cattle have begun to lose weight. Consider an alternative to feeding, downsizing the herd in anticipation of a tough season may be a better option.

Water supplyCattle need to drink every day and the amount is significant. Unlike feed, carting water to cattle is seldom practical or economical, unless over very short distances. So tough decisions about selling or moving cattle need to be made early.

Larger land holdings often have more options with multiple dams, bores, creeks or river access points that cattle move to as levels decline. Holdings that have been subdivided may have only a single water source available and no alternative water supply. The drought of 2019–20 saw more small properties run out of water than large scale beef producers for this reason.

Safe access to good quality water is essential. In dry times availability and quality of water can decline and place cattle at risk. Some risks include:

• becoming bogged in drying watercourses and dams• decaying plant or animal matter can increase the risk of botulism (see section 8.9) and flood mud scours

(see section 8.26)• liver fluke, as cattle graze on the only available green pick in snail infested areas (see section 8.41)• increase in nutrients, which encourages the growth of blue green algae and increases the risk or poisoning

(see section 8.56.4)• in the lower catchment an increase in salinity due to the declining water table or saltwater pushing further

up the river system, or a fall in pH (water becomes more acidic), particularly in acid sulphate soil areas.

Water quality can be tested as supplies decline and is essential if transitioning to a new water source of unknown quality e.g. a new bore. For daily water requirements and water quality testing. (see section 6.2.1)

See: Water for livestock articles at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Agricultural water management webpage (DPI).

See: Water NSW website (Water NSW).

FeedingThe aim for a balanced ration is to provide all three building blocks of energy, protein and fibre. Early in a drought while there is at least some paddock feed (fibre), feeding is supplementary to balance the ration with energy and protein. As the drought progresses and there is no effective paddock feed, this changes to full hand feeding to provide fibre, energy and protein. (see section 6.7) See: Full hand feeding of cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI). Hand feeding cattle in drought (DPI 2016).

Consider the quality of feed available and keeping the diet balanced. There is a huge variation in the quality of hay and silage. Cattle cannot be expected to maintain weight on straw, over-mature Rhodes or setaria hay alone. These are fibre and are a waste of money and cattle will lose weight, unless the necessary protein and energy are also included. If unsure have a feed test undertaken and seek professional advice. (see section 6.2.5)

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/water


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/851341/hand-feeding-cattle-in-drought.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/851341/hand-feeding-cattle-in-drought.pdf

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*biosecurity alert* Consider biosecurity risks, many weeds have been introduced with fodder, particularly from drought feeding. See: Look out for new weeds in fodder (DPI 2021) at: Weeds website (NSW DPI). Feed out in a separate small paddock or yard. It will then be easier to contain any weeds introduced in a small area than over the whole property. See: Managing weeds and diseases on your property at: Weeds website (NSW DPI).

Finally consider animal health and how best to feed safely:

• residue risks with feeding See: Drought increases residue risks at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI)• grain poisoning (see section 8.29)• vaccination with five-in-one for pulpy kidney risk (see section 8.60)• dangers of plant poisoning if cattle become hungry or seek fibre (see section 8.56)• urea poisoning (see section 8.55.2)• botulism with silage (see section 8.9)• risk of plastic wrap and twine. (see section 8.28)

See: Managing a small beef herd in dry times (LLS 2019) at: North Coast Local Land Services resources webpage (NCLLS).

See: Drought webpage (LLS).

See: Droughthub portal (NSW Government) an online portal for primary producer drought assistance and information.

5.11.11 Filling the winter gap feed shortages

Unlike drought, late winter-early spring feed shortage is more predictable and it is part of the North Coast seasonal pattern in most years. Management decisions are annual and routine and should be included in part of the annual cattle health and management calendar and budget. (see section 10) In most years there are also more options available for filling the gap than there are for a genuine drought. They are normally more achievable and economic as well.

“Late winter and early spring is typically the time of year when availability and quality of North Coast pastures are at their lowest for the year.”


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/feed-and-fodder/managing-biosecurity

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/96252/drought-increases-residue-risks.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/1157930/Managing-a-Small-Beef-herd-in-dry-times_final.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/1157930/Managing-a-Small-Beef-herd-in-dry-times_final.pdf

lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/drought

https://droughthub.nsw.gov.au/


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*animal welfare* Most North Coast producers join cows in the spring to calve in July. So the feed gap coincides with the time of year when cows have the highest nutritional demands of late pregnancy and early lactation. Doing nothing and waiting until pasture growth in spring is not an option and it makes poor sense in terms of production and animal welfare issues. It results in cows losing weight, having less milk for their growing calves and not cycling. Cows then face the challenge of regaining this weight loss. Weaner weights are likely to be lower and at next calving there is a prospect of fewer calves and an increase in lower value late calves. Heifers that have calved for the first time are most at risk in this situation. When hungry, cattle are likely to be attracted to eat toxic plants and explore wet areas for a green pick and so exposing them to the risk of liver fluke and flood mud scours. (see section 8.56, section 8.41 and section 8.26)

*animal welfare* Aim to keep cows above the minimum body condition score of two at all times. (see section 5.1) See: Body condition score for beef cattle (Future Beef).

Nutritional approaches (in order of priority) include sound pasture management, such as rotation to enable higher quality feed to later in the autumn. The most economical way to have cattle meet their protein and energy requirements is by sowing winter forage, ryegrass or oats. The next alternative is to fill the gap with conserved or purchased supplementary feed. Conserved home grown hay or silage is a cheaper option and there is more control over the quality. In some years, supplements are expensive, of limited availability and of poorer quality.

Management approaches should include:

• ensuring there are no ‘free loaders’, for example cows that are empty or not going to produce a calf on time. These are simply going to eat feed that could be available for cows that are pregnant. Identify by early pregnancy testing and cull empty or late cows (see section 5.9.4)

• mouth cows and cull those with unsound teeth as part of an annual routine. They will struggle to rear a good calf (see section 5.2)

• early weaning and supplementary feeding of calves in very lean years. (see section 5.7)

See: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

Cattle in times of green droughtAfter a break in the season, cattle are faced with the challenge of a short green pick. This comes after a period of low feed availability. Typically this occurs in September – October on the North Coast. This time comes on the back of the late winter feed gap. It also occurs at the end of a prolonged dry period or drought. Nutritional support for cattle should not stop when the rain starts, the time for it to stop is when there is a bulk of paddock feed.

While the rain is appreciated at these times, a break is by no means the end of the drought. In fact, cattle will lose weight in this situation. Grass in the first stage of growth, phase one is nutritious, but there is little of it and cattle struggle with many hours of grazing trying to achieve gut fill and meet their requirements.

The aim of supplementation is always to balance the three main building blocks of energy, protein and fibre. With a short green pick, protein is not as limiting as energy and fibre. A quality hay (if available) as fibre bulk and a grain (or concentrate) as an energy source are needed. If only poorer quality hay is available, then the proportion of grain should be increased.

Hard grazing of pasture at this time should be avoided to allow the plants to recover, supplement for cattle provides this break. (see section 6.4.3)

5.11.12 Fattening steers

Finishing home bred weaners rather than selling them straight off their mothers is an opportunity for value adding. Fattening introduced stock creates alternative income to an entirely breeding operation. Other producers specialise in steer trading; buying, fattening and selling is their sole business. The decision depends on the farm system and country type.

Finishing steers can result in some very good economic returns. Two key aspects are precise understanding of the business cost of production and end market specifications. There is a market trend to have steers better finished at heavier weights and at a younger age, therefore, good nutritional management is essential.



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Fattening requires a high quality diet regardless of seasonal conditions, with no checks in growth. Options include:

• extra stock over the summer / autumn to take advantage of excess pasture or sown summer forage crops• conserving excess summer pasture or forages for feeding fattening stock at other times (see section 6.6.2)• sowing winter forages such as ryegrass or oats to fatten steers over the winter (see section 6.6.1)• opportunity feedlotting (see section 6.7.3)• To fatten all year round requires supplementary feed when required in lean times. (see section 6.7)

Properties that are not suited to growing quality fattening pasture or forages require high levels of supplementary feeding and should carefully consider the economics.

See: Opportunity lotfeeding of beef cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Cost of production webpage (MLA). See: Beefspecs calculator (DPI, MLA, Beef CRC).

See: Feed lot calculator at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

Animal health programs also need to be of a high standard to ensure no growth checks. On arrival follow induction procedures and treatments for internal and external parasites. (see section 5.11.2)

Vaccination with five-in-one is critical as improved pasture, fodder crop and supplementary feed are all risk

factors. To reduce the risk of pulpy kidney, give a five-in-one booster every three months while on improved pasture, forage or supplement. Seriously consider vaccination for pestivirus and Mannheimia haemolytica (MH). (see section 10.2)

Introduce grains gradually over a period of at least 10 days. (see section 6.7.3)

See: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

5.11.13 Cattle in farm forestry

Forestry is a major land use on the North Coast. There are 9.7 million hectares on the North Coast of which 65 per cent is forested. Over half of this forest area is privately owned, spread across thousands of holdings. Cattle are often grazed in and near forests and in plantations. Local Land Services is responsible for private native forestry advice and approvals. Grazing also occurs on forestry leases.

There are several significant management and animal health issues to be aware of before introducing cattle. Some of these issues may also be encountered on holdings adjoining plantations.

Management issues:• lack of infrastructure such as stock-proof fencing, water or stock yards• difficulties in mustering, particularly older, bush wise cattle and cows that hide calves • hazards when mustering on horseback, such as rip lines in young plantations, low limbs and steep terrain • temperament, if infrequently yarded cattle are more difficult to handle. Time permitting, more frequent

mustering and good handling can educate cattle (see section 4.3)• nutrition, as pastures tend to be lower quality native species, such as blady grass — the quality and

amount available under the trees is important when deciding the class of cattle• fire is a risk, so have a plan in place. (see section 3.3.5)

Animal health issues: • forestry plantations make good homes for wild dogs, calves are most at risk (see section 8.23)• paralysis tick, also more of a problem in young cattle (see section 8.71.2)• poisonous plants, in particular bracken fern, red lantana and poison peach grow well in the forest

understory. Recently introduced and young stock most at risk (see section 8.56)• for these reasons and nutrition, adult steers and bullocks are better suited, than cows with young calves.

See: Private Native Forestry webpage at: Local Land Services website (LLS).See: Conditions of forest permit: Grazing (Forestry Corporation 2019).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed/lotfeeding

https://www.mla.com.au/extension-training-and-tools/tools-calculators/Cost-of-production/


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/nutrition/feeding-practices/feedlot-calculator

https://www.mla.com.au/extension-training-and-tools/more-beef-from-pastures/

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/private-native-forestry

https://www.forestrycorporation.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/669626/conditions-forest-permit-grazing.pdf

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5.11.14 Cattle on floodplains and wet pasture systems

Much of the coastal floodplain wetlands were drained last century and planted to introduced pasture species, such as setaria and Rhodes grass. These were viewed as superior to native floodplain grasses such as water couch. In some areas, drainage achieved the desired results and the introduced pastures were highly productive. Unfortunately, in other areas (typically the very low areas) drainage wasn’t as successful, pasture production was poor and negative impacts on the environment arose such as acid sulphate soils and poor water quality.

Challenges of floodplain grazing:• regular floods and the need to move cattle to high country• despite drainage, many low-lying areas may remain inundated for long periods and this does not suit

introduced grasses, as such this can result in scalding and loss of feed for considerable periods• frosts can be quite severe in low-lying areas and winter feed quality can be poor• under these conditions (during floods, inundation or after severe frosts) cattle require supplementary

feeding• water in rivers and creeks may be tidal and too salty for cattle to drink or too salty to use as irrigation

water• low soil pH limits the pasture species that can be grown• most low-lying floodplain areas are underlain by acid sulphate soils.

Opportunities of flood plain grazing:• high, reliable water table compared to the upper catchment, so floodplain farms fare better in droughts• large areas of fertile alluvial sediment• generally good access to water and most floodplain farms contain natural freshwater lagoons, wetlands or

creeks• low-lying freshwater wetlands provide ideal areas for establishing native, wet pasture systems.

Wet pasture systemsMany of the most successful graziers on the floodplain find the key to running a viable grazing enterprise on the floodplain is developing a wet pasture system. A wet pasture system involves the controlled retention of water in formerly drained swamps to enhance the growth of native wet pastures. These are much more adapted to the extreme environmental conditions, such as flooding events and low soil pH, than introduced pasture species.

Excessive surface water is still removed, but groundwater levels are kept intact to foster vigorous wet pasture establishment and growth. Water couch has feed quality equal to and in some cases above introduced grasses like setaria and Rhodes grass. Pasture yields exceeding 10 tonnes of dry matter per hectare per annum can be achieved with water couch.

Key points for successfully grazing a wet pasture system:

• have a plan for floods (see section 3.3.5)• grow pastures that are best suited to different parts of the farm. Low country that can flood regularly

and stay inundated better suits water couch. Levees rarely flood and have the most fertile soil and so suit introduced pasture species

• rotational graze to allow pastures to recover. Do not overgraze. Longer pastures are better able to handle floods and are more competitive against weeds

• maintain soil health to help avoid common soil problems such as compaction, pugging, acid scalds and lack of organic matter. Rotational graze, adjust stocking rates, minimise cultivation and maintain groundcover

• manage acid sulphate soils; reducing drainage is the key. Redesign drains so they are wide and shallow or install drop-board weir structures to hold water on low-lying areas

• for animal nutrition grow pasture species that are best suited to your property. Well-managed wet pasture systems provide cattle with the most nutritious pasture available on the floodplain, a far superior option to patchy introduced species mixed with unpalatable weeds. Supplement during the lean months (see section 6.6)

• controlling internal parasites is important. Stomach fluke is the main problem on the floodplain, particularly in cattle under two years in the winter months. (see section 8.66) Good nutrition, appropriate

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stocking and pasture rotation will reduce the impact of worms. Test cattle for liver fluke rather than just treat (see section 8.41)

• develop a cattle health program and calendar. (see section 10)

Manage weeds of pastureThe main pasture weeds of concern are smart weeds, rushes, tussocks and cuphea. These are seldom eaten by cattle and aggressively compete against preferred pasture species. Control by maintaining competitive pastures. Other control measures include:

• rushes — slashing or mulching increase the palatability of rushes and encourage cattle to eat the fresh growth. However, wet conditions often prevent access at the right time. Glyphosate is the only chemical registered for rushes and should be applied by a wick wiper to avoid killing pasture species

• smart weeds — selective broadleaf herbicides are available. These can be toxic to cattle (see section 8.56.14)

• Cuphea spp — control with a selective broadleaf herbicide. See: Controlling colombian waxweed (Cuphea carthagenensis) in pastures at: North Coast Local Land Services website (NCLLS).

See: Weed control handbook NSW (DPI 2018) at: Weeds website (NSW DPI).

Be on alert for weeds of drains and drain edgesThere are several species of weeds which interfere with functioning drains and are emerging threats on the far North Coast, these include job’s tears Coix lacryma-jobi and aleman grass Echinochloa polystachya, See: Weeds resources webpage (Rous County Council). See: Water weeds in NSW webpage (DPI).

Be on alert for weeds of waterwaysThese weeds are a major threat to water quality and water flow in floods. There are several of concern, including alligator weed Alternanthera philoxeroides and frogbit Limnobium laevigatum.

See: Water weeds in NSW webpage (DPI).

Compare overgrazed smart weed dominant paddock on the left with productive managed water couch dominant pasture on the right

See: Floodplain grazing project website (DPI).

See: Clean coastal catchments at: Agricultural water management webpage (DPI).

https://northcoast.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/685385/Factsheet-Colombian-waxweed.pdf

https://northcoast.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/685385/Factsheet-Colombian-waxweed.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/weed-control/management-guides/noxious-enviro-weed-control

https://rous.nsw.gov.au/weed-control

https://rous.nsw.gov.au/weed-control

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/weed-categories/water-weeds/water-weeds


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/soils/ass/posters/floodplain-grazing-project

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/water/clean-coastal-catchments

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5.11.15 Cattle on small scale properties

*industry and legal requirements* Having a tree change and buying a small property is a dream for many. However, owning a rural property and running cattle come with a range of challenges and responsibilities. For land purchase refer to section 5.11.5. Land aspects are covered in section 3.1.

Selecting where to purchase cattle:• buy from local herds with the cattle that suit the purpose, e.g. a house cow from a local dairy herd• if buying from the saleyard is a new experience, speak with a stock agent and take a friend who knows

cattle • buying from the yards has the advantage that all the movement and transfer documents are completed• be wary about purchasing sight unseen, on-line or from weekend papers.

Movement and identification:*industry and legal requirements* Having only one or a few head still requires compliance with industry identification and movement requirements. See section 3.6 and section 3.7 for details, but these are summarised as:

• apply for a PIC, if the holding does not already have one• ensure that the cattle are purchased with a National Vendor Declaration • enter details on the purchased cattle on the NLIS database• ensure that any cattle sold have an National Vendor Declaration.

Biosecurity:• consider animal diseases that could be introduced with purchased cattle (see section 5.11.2)• consider potential weeds in purchased hay or grains See: Look out for new weeds in fodder (DPI 2021) at:

Weeds website (NSW DPI)• develop an on-farm biosecurity plan, this is not difficult and involves completing a template.

(see section 3.2.1) *industry requirement*

Facilities:• even owning one cow requires a yard to handle, treat and examine and in the case of a house cow to milk• ensure fences are cattle proof to prevent straying into house yards, neighbours or onto roads• there are requirements for purchase, transport, storage and use of farm chemicals, as well as training and

record keeping. These are covered in Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) level three qualifications which is the minimum. (see section 9.3)

Feed:• be careful not to overestimate how many livestock the property can run, this results in overgrazing and

reliance on purchased feed, which is expensive, particularly in small quantities• there can be increased rodent populations from feed left out overnight, which can spoil feed and spread

diseases• growing paddock feed is the cheapest option (see section 6.3 and section 6.6)• smaller holdings often run a variety of other species, such as chickens or pigs as well as cattle. Ensure

that cattle, sheep, goats and deer do not have access to pig or poultry feed that contains restricted material (meat meal). This warning will be on the label or bag or the product (see section 8.43) *industry requirement*

• pig feed is high in copper and sustained feeding to sheep, goats and even cattle can lead to copper toxicity• beware of ‘home’ recipes for minerals and additives, some may not be balanced• kitchen waste and supermarket vegetable waste including excess bread and some vegetables may not

always be safe for cattle. (see section 6.7.9 and section 8.56.1)



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Grazing:• be wary of grazing with poultry or pigs, as cattle may access their feed, see above• never allow cattle into house yards or around houses and sheds, there are a wide variety of toxic plants

grown in gardens (see section 8.56.1) See: Poisonous houseplants and ornamentals table at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals)

• old houses and sheds are a risk for lead poisoning and residues for both lead and organochlorines (see section 3.4.1) *industry and legal requirements*

• surprisingly home orchards and vegetable gardens can also be a hazard to cattle (see section 8.56.1)• be aware of access to scrub and rainforest as several native species and weeds that grow in these areas

are toxic. (see section 8.56)

Fires:Cattle should not have grazing access to sites of fires. They are inclined to eat the ash and any rubbish or contaminants in the ash, this can cause problems including:

• if treated pine was burnt, then this is a source of arsenic poisoning (see section 8.55.3)• if any old painted timber was burnt, this is a source of lead from lead paint (see section 8.55.1)• if any wire or other metal is present, this can cause hardware disease. (see section 8.31)

Water:It is important to have fresh, clean water for livestock and that supply is secure in dry times. During droughts, small holdings are often the first to lose access to water. (see section 6.2.1)

Zoonoses (diseases transmissible from animals to people) and safety: Livestock on small farms usually have more time spent with them and have closer contact with people. While it is a pleasure to have animals about, there can be risks. (see section 4.1)

These include:

• dust inhaled while lawn mowing areas contaminated with the faeces of cattle and other livestock, kangaroos or other wildlife for Q fever. Q fever vaccination. Wear a mask while mowing

• contact with the afterbirth of sheep, goats or cattle for Q fever. Wear gloves and mask if assisting a birth• increased contact with young calves which carry several bacterial diseases. Wash hands after handling and

feeding• there is a risk of Q fever and hydatids from home killing. Always wear a mask when removing internal

organs, in particular the uterus. Deep bury offal to ensure dogs do not access and treat dogs every three months for tapeworms

• drinking unpasteurised milk provides a risk of several diseases. Pasteurise milk by heating (see section 4.1.6)

• inadequate facilities for handling cattle and other livestock can increase the risk of injury. (see section 4.3)

See: Every bit counts – supporting small farms and lifestyle blocks at: Local Land Services website (LLS).

See: Rural living handbook, a guide for rural landholders (LLS 2020).

See: Living and working in rural areas handbook (DPI 2007).

See: Small landholders at: Weeds website (NSW DPI).

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/toxicology/poisonous-plants/houseplants-and-ornamentals


https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/what-we-do/our-major-projects/every-bit-counts



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/small-landholders

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6. Cattle nutrition Useful referencesSee: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).


See: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

See: Grazplan decision support software for agriculture (CSIRO), including Grazfeed and Grassgro programs.

6.1 The digestive system To understand the nutritional requirements of cattle and make management decisions to meet their needs it helps to have a working knowledge of their digestive system.

Most North Coast pastures are high in fibre. Fibre is a group of large, structural carbohydrates such as cellulose. For most animals fibre is unable to be digested. However, the digestive system of ruminants like cattle, sheep and goats can break down fibre into simpler forms and provide nutrients for the animal. (see section 6.2.4)

6.1.1 The mouth

Digestion begins in the mouth where pasture is eaten, ground by the teeth and mixed with saliva. The water in the rumen originates from swallowed saliva. Saliva is high in bicarbonate which helps keeps the rumen pH stable and begins to break down fibre. Ruminates chew their cud. Partially digested feed from the rumen is returned to the mouth for further chewing, grinding and mixing with saliva. When cattle are unable to swallow (for example in choke, (see section 8.16) they quickly become dehydrated and loose acid-base balance.

Unlike other animals, ruminants have four stomachs:

• first stomach — rumen (or paunch)• second stomach — reticulum (or honeycomb)• third stomach — omasum (or bible)• fourth stomach — abomasum (or true stomach).

6.1.2 Rumen (paunch)

The rumen and reticulum are fermentation vats home to millions of fibres and protein digesting microorganisms.

These rumen microbes and cattle have an important working relationship. Cattle provide them with a home and supply the forage. The microbes digest the forage to supply their own needs and the nutrients cattle require.

In the rumen, fibre is broken down and most proteins are converted to microbial protein. Carbohydrates are fermented into volatile fatty acids which are absorbed across the rumen wall into the blood stream and are converted to glucose and fat, the main energy sources for cattle.

The rumen microbes have specific requirements for temperature, moisture, energy, pH and nitrogen. Feed quality and type can alter and effect this rumen environment. Dry mature grass is often low in protein and carbohydrate on the North Coast. This limits microbe growth and the amount of protein they produce. Normal rumen pH is




https://grazplan.csiro.au/

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neutral to slightly acid (pH 6.5–7). High grain diets can make the rumen too acidic, which is toxic to many rumen microbes and compromises digestion. (see section 8.29)

Young calves have a very small, non-functioning rumen. Their digestion is more like a single stomach animal. Milk is shunted directly to the fourth stomach and bypasses the rumen. When the calf eats pasture or grain, the rumen develops. Calves copy their mother, nibbling at increasing amounts of pasture from about three days of age. By about eight weeks of age the rumen is able to break down plant material reasonably well. Rearing calves has some challenges in helping the calf develop its rumen properly. (see section 5.11.6)

6.1.3 Reticulum (honeycomb)

The reticulum is a small pouch separated from the rumen by a ridge of tissue. Its digestive function is very similar to the rumen. The reticulum has a honeycomb-like pattern which enables it to sort feed particles by size before passing through to the other stomachs. It often captures foreign objects, with the potential for hardware disease (see section 8.28).

6.1.4 Omasum (bible)

The omasum has many leaves (hence the name bible) to absorb water. This reduces the amount of water passing out of the rumen to the abomasum. It also grinds and squeezes the partially digested material through to the abomasum. If the omasum stops working the rumen becomes very full of liquid and the animal dehydrates. This happens in kikuyu poisoning. (see section 8.57.6) The omasum is prone to impaction if feed is very coarse. (see section 8.28)

6.1.5 Abomasum (true stomach)

The abomasum is the true stomach. Its function is very similar to the stomach of single stomach animals such pigs and humans. The abomasum uses hydrochloric acid and enzymes to digest protein and fats. Interference in its function causes loss of protein, wasting and an acidic foul-smelling scour, this happens with brown stomach worm. (see section 8.78.3)

6.1.6 Small intestine (small bowel)

Enzymes and solvents in bile and pancreas juices enter the small intestine and continue the breakdown of fats and proteins. The small intestine is also the main site for the absorption of nutrients.

Small intestinal disease causes diarrhoea and rapid weight loss. For example flood mud scours (see section 8.26), the worm Cooperia (see section 8.78.1) and stomach fluke. (see section 8.66)

6.1.7 Large intestine (large bowel) and caecum (appendix)

Their main function is to absorb water and some nutrients before excretion. Conditions of the large bowel lead to failure to absorb water (seen as diarrhoea). Conditions of the small and large intestines often occur together, seen as weight loss and scour.

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6.2 Nutrient requirementsWhat are nutrients?A nutrient is a substance that provides nourishment or sustenance. There are six categories of nutrients essential for beef cattle and these are all found in plant material, either directly or from digestion:

• water• energy (volatile fatty acids from fibre digestion, glucose, starch)• protein (plant and microbial) • fibre (structural carbohydrates; cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin)• minerals• vitamins.

Common nutritional terms and units of measure used in this section of the book include:

• MJ megajoules (a measure of energy, similar to calories)• ME metabolisable energy• CP crude protein• RDP rumen degradable protein• UDP un-degraded dietary protein (i.e., bypass protein)• DM dry matter• kg kilograms• kg DM kilograms of dry matter• ppm parts per million• DMI dry matter intake.

6.2.1 Water

Useful referencesSee: Water for livestock webpage at: Beef cattle feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Agricultural water management webpage (DPI).

See: Farm dam handbook (Water NSW 2011) at: Water NSW website (Water NSW).

Water is the main constituent of an animal’s body and is essential to maintain vital bodily processes. Adequate water intake is essential for maximum cattle productivity. Provision of water, including during droughts, is also a legal obligation under animal welfare legislation. *animal welfare and legal requirements*

Water requirements and intakeIdeally, cattle should have unlimited access to high-quality water at all times. At a minimum, cattle need reasonable access to water at least once daily for dry stock and twice daily if they are lactating or the weather is hot.

The table below provides a guide to daily water requirements of cattle at an atmospheric temperature of 30°C. Water requirements increase dramatically with high temperatures and on high dry matter feed, such as dry standing pasture or hay. When pasture is lush and high in water cattle drink a lot less. Brahmans and their crosses require less water in hot weather than British breeds. Provision of shade for cattle will reduce heat stress and reduce water requirements. (see section 8.32) Cattle can be reluctant to drink hot water so it is important to bury pipes, this also reduces risk of damage from traffic and fire. Intake is also affected by ease of access to water (distance, trough space) and water quality.



https://www.waternsw.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/113687/FarmDamFinalLR.pdf

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Live weight (kg) Water required (L/day)Growing steers, heifers and bulls200 36–41300 54–60Finishing / dry stock350 57–70450 78–91Lactating cows400 60–81550 110+Mature bulls800 100+

Adapted from: Nutrient Requirements of Domesticated Ruminants (CSIRO 2007) ebook.

Ten cows and calves can drink at least 1,000 L of water per day. This empties a 1,000 L trough if it is not able to refill as they drink. This number of cattle would consume a 22,500 L (5,000 gallon) water tank in about 3 weeks (21 days).

AccessAll cattle should have safe access to water. Cattle walking through mud to access water have a higher level of foot abscess. (see section 8.37). Provision of troughs is the one single management tool to reduce the prevalence of lameness. When water supplies dry out during dry times, cattle can become bogged attempting to access water, particularly if they are poor in condition. (see section 5.1.1)

Water qualityWater quality is important to ensure cattle can safely consume their daily requirements. Water sources includebores, wells, dams, creeks and town water. All can have varying quality and availability. Having more than one supply and a plan-b is important to drought proof a property. As water levels fall, the quality can decline and cause reductions in water intake, particularly from extremes of pH and salinity. In some coastal areas, acid sulphate is an issue and surface water can be too acidic for cattle. During droughts water in tidal rivers may become too saline for cattle to drink, even at low tide, due to low river flows. Water in dams and creeks that stop flowing can also be toxic from blue green algae. (see section 8.56.4)

See: Water quality webpage (NSW DPI).

See: Water Quality Australia (Australian Government).

Water quality testingStandard stock water tests include pH, salinity (measured by electrical conductivity, chloride and total dissolved salts), nitrate, hardness, turbidity. Additional tests can be done for blue green algae and coliform bacteria.

See: Laboratory services webpage (DPI).

See: Water for livestock: interpreting water quality tests at: Agricultural water management webpage (DPI).

Water testing kits are available from Local Land Services or NSW DPI. Interpretation of results can be difficult and the units can vary between the laboratories. Seek advice about the most suitable water quality test and interpretation of results.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/water/quality

https://www.waterquality.gov.au/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/about-us/services/laboratory-services

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/about-us/services/laboratory-services/water-testing/livestock-water-quality-tests

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6.2.2 Energy

The three building blocks of a cattle diet are energy, protein and fibre and they all need to be in balance. Energy is the first and single most important nutrient when considering the diet of cattle. It sets the baseline for the other two nutrients and it is the standard against which pastures and supplements are compared.

The amount of energy in a feed that is available to cattle is measured by metabolisable energy (ME). It is also the measure of energy requirements of various classes of cattle, as seen in the table below. The unit of measurement for ME is megajoules (MJ). This is the metric equivalent of the energy unit calorie, used for the diet and energy needs of people.

Energy is required for all bodily functions, including maintenance, growth, pregnancy and lactation.

MaintenanceCattle are well adapted to eating plant material and roughage and can derive their energy from several components of their diet including sugars, starches, fibre, fat and protein. If the total energy from all these sources does not met their day-to-day maintenance requirements, cattle will draw energy from stored fat and then muscle and so will lose weight.

GrowthTo gain one kilogram of weight, cattle need between 35 and 45 MJ of ME above their maintenance requirement. This varies with their age, stage of production and type of weight being laid down. To gain muscle takes less energy than to lay down body fat. Young growing cattle tend to lay down more muscle than fat so they have a lower energy demand for growth. Whereas mature adult stock lay down more fat than muscle so have a higher energy demand for a kg of weight gain.

PregnancyWhen energy intake is low the cow draws on her fat reserves, these release ketones rather than glucose. Glucose is needed by the developing calf, the eye and the brain. Other tissues can use ketones as energy. Since the foetus has first call, the eye and brain of the cow can miss out, this accounts for the signs seen with the pregnancy toxaemia form of ketosis. A late-stage foetus gaining weight, while the cow is losing weight and getting weak is a formula for calving problems. *animal welfare* The other extreme, the obese cow is also predisposed to pregnancy toxaemia for surprisingly similar reasons (excess fat means less room for food and an inability to mobilise energy). Obese cows are also prone to calving difficulties also from inability to mobilise energy and excess fat in the pelvic canal. (see section 8.36, section 8.22 and section 7.18)

LactationMilk for the calf takes priority over body maintenance, so in an energy shortage a cow will ‘milk off her back’ and lose weight. Total milk production will still be less, however and calves will fail to thrive. The cow will also delay oestrus, particularly in Brahmans and their crosses. High milk producing cows in the first month of lactation that have inadequate energy intake, will mobilise fat and are prone to ketosis. (see section 8.36)

Aim to keep energy levels at or above maintenance in late pregnancy.

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Metabolisable energy (ME) requirementsValues presented in the following table are intended as a guide only. For more specific information, seek professional advice.

Live weight

(kg)

Growth rate

(kg/day)

Metabolisable energy

requirement (MJ/ME/day)

Minimum energy

concentration of feed source (MJ/ME/Kg/

DM)

Minimum crude protein of dietary dry

matter (%)

Minimum amount of feed

required to meet energy demands**

(kg DM/hd/day)Steers and heifers200 0.5 48 8 11 6

1.0 68 11+ 13 6

300 0.5 64 7 10 91.0 89 9.8 13 9

400 0.5 77 7 9 111.0 100 9 13 11

Dry pregnant heifers400 mid pregnancy

0.5 79 7.2 10 11

450 late pregnancy

0.5 85+ 7.7+ 10 11

500 mid pregnancy

0.5 86 7.2 9 12

500 late pregnancy

0.5 107+ 9+ 9 12

Lactating first-calf heifer (range depends on level of milk production)450 0.5 120-140+ 10+ 11 12

500 0.5 130–153+ 10+ 11 14550 0.5 135-158+ 10+ 11 15Lactating mature cows (range depends on level of milk production)500 0* 90–130 7+ 10 14

0.5 115-150 8.2+ 10 14

550 0* 97–135 7+ 10 150.5 120-157 8+ 10 15

600 0* 100-139 7+ 10 160.5 122-160 8 10 16

650 0* 105-140 7+ 10 17.50.5 127-165 8 10 17.5

Mature bulls600 0* 63 7 9 9

0.5 93 7 9 14

800 0* 81 7 10 120.5 112 7 10 16

950 0 89 7 11 130.5 122 7 11 17

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* Maintenance diets are only suitable for cattle in good body condition i.e., fat score two or above. Cattle in fat score one or below need to be fed to gain weight therefore use 0.5 kg daily growth rate.

**(for values in fourth column).

Adapted from See: Nutrient requirements of domesticated ruminants (CSIRO 2007).

6.2.3 Protein

Cattle require protein for almost all bodily functions. Their requirements vary according to age, growth rate and pregnancy or lactation status. Young cattle have a higher requirement for protein than adult stock as they are growing more muscle than fat. Cows in late pregnancy or those in lactation also have a higher protein requirement than adult dry stock for the growing foetus or milk production.

Protein requirements of cattle are expressed as grams per day (g/day). The protein in feed is measured as percentage of crude protein (CP) in the diet (CP % / DM). There are three sources of protein for cattle:

1. protein in the diet. This is broken down and rebuilt by the microbes into microbial protein. This usually accounts for most of the protein absorbed from the small intestine

2. microbial protein built from non-protein nitrogen sources by the rumen microbes. They use ammonia sources such as urea, ammonium sulphate. To do this they also need energy. Approximately 12 MJ/ME is required for the microbes to produce 100 g of microbial protein

3. bypass protein. This is not degraded in the rumen, but remains unchanged until it reaches the abomasum and small intestine where it is then digested.

Principles of protein supplementationRumen microbes cannot produce enough protein when pasture protein level is low. This occurs during the winter months on native and tropical pastures, when crude protein levels fall below six per cent. If there is sufficient paddock feed, non-protein nitrogen such as urea can be used at this time.

Energy and protein levels must be balanced for both the rumen microbes and the beast. The two are closely linked. A maintenance diet needs about 10 g of crude protein for each one megajoule of metabolisable energy (ME). For example, a kilogram of grain with an ME of 13 MJ/kg DM would need 130 g of crude protein (130 g in a kg = 13 per cent) to be in balance. The above table explores this in more depth.

Winter pastures are usually low in both energy and protein, so an energy source is needed with the non-protein nitrogen. For many years, urea with molasses has been used to achieve this.

There is an upper limit on microbial protein synthesis. Cattle, like lactating cows or rapidly growing young stock, have a requirement above that which can be provided by microbial protein production. Under these circumstances the extra protein can only be delivered by protein that is not degraded in the rumen (bypass protein). Examples of this type of protein fed on the North Coast during winter when pasture quality has declined include cottonseed meal and copra meal.

6.2.4 Fibre

Fibre (also known as roughage) is the third essential dietary component for cattle. It is the building block for microbial activity in the rumen. Fibre is important to stimulate cud chewing. This produces saliva which contains a natural rumen buffer and helps break material down for digestion. In calves, fibre is important for good rumen development.

Pasture is the most common fibre source. Mature North Coast pastures are typically high in fibre. Hay, silage and palm kernel expeller meal are examples of fibre supplements.

The amount of fibre in a feed is measured by Neutral Detergent Fibre per cent (NDF). It is expressed as a per cent of dry matter. NDF measures all the structural parts of plant, including hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin.

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Fibre type, quality and length all impact cattle health and productivity. For fibre to be effective and stimulate cud chewing it has to be at least three to four centimetres long. The fibre in commercial cattle pellets and meals has lost its roughage value because it has been milled. So an additional fibre source is needed, such as hay.

Fibre deficiencies These can result in major dietary upsets and even death. Consider some common fibre deficiency scenarios:

• inadequate paddock feed and the amount of supplementary fibre (hay or silage) is insufficient to meet minimum daily intake requirements (see section 5.11.10 and section 6.7.4)

• unbalanced ration. This can occur on high grain, low fibre diets, such as in feedlots or grain in self-feeders when there is insufficient pasture of adequate length (see section 5.11.9 and section 6.7.3)

• fibre milled too fine. Fibre length is important to stimulate regurgitation for ‘cud chewing’. This produces saliva, a natural rumen buffer, and helps break material down for digestion. If the label of a ration or mix lists fibre, it is important to know if the fibre is long enough to be effective (see section 6.7.3)

• short lush pasture; very young short pastures or forage such as ryegrass can lack effective fibre. The addition of low fibre feeds such as grain in this scenario can cause further problems. (see section 6.4.3)

A good indication if there is sufficient effective fibre in the diet is to calculate the percentage of cows chewing their cud. If less than 50 per cent of cows are chewing their cud at any time, then there is insufficient fibre in the diet.

Excess fibreFibre is a key factor in determining feed intake levels. If there is too much fibre in a diet, cattle will feel full before they have eaten their energy and protein requirements. They cannot physically eat enough. Even with a lot of feed they will lose weight from insufficient energy and protein. *animal welfare* This is a common problem on winter pasture on the North Coast, particularly if frosted. Other examples are mature setaria hay and sugar cane tops. Both are low energy, low protein, high fibre supplements. (see section 6.7.4 and section 6.7.9)

Sugar cane tops are very high in fibre but low in energy and protein

6.2.5 Feed quality tests

It is important to ensure that the nutrient value of pasture and feeds are suited to the requirements of a given class of cattle. Feeding an inappropriate, poor quality supplement or pasture wastes time, effort and money and results in poor performance or weight loss.

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Visual appraisal gives some impression of how good a feed is, but a quality test gives its true feed value. It is with hay and silage that the most variance is found between visual assessment and analysis. These can vary greatly in their nutrient content. Grains vary much less. The stage of growth when harvested has a profound effect on hay and silage quality, particularly with tropical grasses such as Rhodes grass and setaria. Growing conditions such as soil fertility, rainfall and frost also effect the nutrient content of pasture, hay, silage and grains. (see section 6.3 and section 6.4) An interesting effect on grains is when seed is small from a hard season, the protein levels are higher (but of course total yield is lower).

Manufactured stock feeds vary with quality of components and how they are processed. Analysis is on the label or request analysis from the feed manufacturer.

A laboratory feed analysis is the only way to accurately determine the quality of feed. Feed quality testing kits are available from North Coast Local Land Services or NSW DPI. It is important to collect a representative sample. Analysis of course only measures the composition of the sample provided. Follow the instructions in the sampling kit. See: Laboratory services webpage (DPI).

A feed analysis report will include results for the most important building blocks of nutrition in cattle — energy, protein and fibre. These only make sense if the moisture is not included in the analysis. These are expressed as:

• dry matter per cent (DM) is everything after all the water is removed, as a per cent of the sample. DM is used throughout this book and nutrition information as it is the best way to compare feeds and feed components

• dry matter digestibility per cent is the proportion of the dry matter in a feed that can be digested, as a per cent of DM

• metabolisable energy (ME) is the amount of energy in a feed that is available to the animal. Energy is the most important nutrient to assess and the most important nutrient for cattle. Measured in megajoules (MJ) found in a kg of DM

• crude protein per cent includes protein and non-protein nitrogen in the feed. It is expressed as a per cent of DM

• neutral detergent fibre per cent (NDF); is a measure of fibre, all the structural parts of plants; hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin. It is expressed as a per cent of DM

• how well a silage is fermented is assessed by pH (acidity) and silage ammonia nitrogen.

Interpretation can be daunting if not familiar with, so consult an advisor.

See: Silage and hay / feed quality service at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

The following two references provide a good guide to the nutrient content of feeds. See: Feed cost calculator and Mineral content of common ruminant stockfeeds, crops and pastures (DPI 2017) and Costs and nutritive value at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

6.3 Pastures

Useful referencesSee: Pastures at: growing, grazing and land webpage (LLS). See: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

See: Richmond, Tweed and Upper Clarence: What and when to sow at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

See: Tropical forages website (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research).

6.3.1 Pasture feed intake

Cattle have a limit to what they can eat. Feed intake is the most important factor when determining the amount of nutrients consumed and hence the level of production.


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/silage

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/180621/mineral-content-of-common-ruminant-stockfeeds-crops-and-pastures.pdf




https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/pasture-mix/richmond,-tweed-and-upper-clarence---2008

https://www.tropicalforages.info/text/intro/index.html

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Intake is referred to as kilograms of dry matter (kg DM) and is often expressed as a percentage of live weight.

For moderately digestible pastures, the daily dry matter intake (or DMI) is approximately 2.5 per cent x body weight. So for example, a 500 kg cow grazing tropical pastures in summer would have a dry matter intake of 12.5 kg (500 kg x 0.025). For pasture that is 30 per cent dry matter this 12.5 kg is the equivalent of 41.7 kg pasture per day (12.5 kg / .30).

The main factors that influence feed intake by cattle are:

• feed quantity, amount available in paddock / supplement • feed quality• physiological status, e.g. pregnancy restricts the available room for rumen expansion• saome disease conditions such as obstruction and fever.

Feed quantityThe amount of pasture on offer influences how much will be consumed. Intake is reduced when pasture availability is below 1,200 kg DM/ha (this is very short pasture), as cattle have to work harder to fill themselves. However, pasture intake only marginally increases with pasture that is over 2,300 kg DM/ha (this is moderate length and cover) as cattle have a limit to what they can eat and only graze 11–13 hours a day.

Feed qualityThe better quality the pasture or supplement, the more digestible it is and the more cattle are able to utilise nutrients from it. Better quality feed is also digested more quickly, so more pasture is grazed in a given day.

The same occurs when the digestibility of a feed is improved; feed turnover in the rumen is quicker and so more can be eaten. This is one of the very positive effects of providing a protein, nitrogen and energy source (such as fortified molasses) to cattle grazing dry standing feed in winter.

Relationship between feed on offer and cattle intake

See: Stocking rate calculator and Feed demand calculator at: Tools and calculators webpage (MLA).

See: Pasture growth, module 2 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).


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6.3.2 Pasture quantity and quality

Pasture quantity is measured in kilograms of dry matter per hectare (kg DM/ha). Dry matter refers to the amount of material remaining once the water is removed. Dry matter will vary with the stage of growth and with species. For example, young rapidly growing setaria is about 24 per cent dry matter, opposed to old mature setaria at 50 per cent or higher.

To determine the dry matter content of pasture, cut samples and place into a microwave with a separate cup of water and repeatedly heat the pasture, measuring its weight each time until there is no further decline in the sample’s weight. The final weight of the sample divided by the initial weight multiplied by 100 gives the pastures dry matter content as a percentage. To determine the pasture quantity, cut a square metre and weigh. Microwave to determine dry matter then multiply the weight by 10,000 to give kg DM/ha. Alternatively have a feed quality test. (see section 6.2.5)

Pasture quality refers to the concentration of nutrients within the pasture. The most important nutrients are energy and protein. Energy and protein directly relate to the digestibility of a feed, which is another measure of pasture quality. Essentially, as pastures mature the digestibility decreases and so does the energy and protein content.

Relationship between digestibility and pasture maturirty for tropical pasture

Digestibility is expressed as a percentage and relates to the amount of feed that is utilised by the animal. If a cow consumes 10 kg of dry matter and three kilograms is excreted in dung, then the feed is said to be 70 percent digestible.

6.3.3 Good quality, high productivity grasses

This section covers the more important and common highly productive grasses found on the North Coast. These result in good animal production outcomes. The next section covers grasses of lower productivity and have significantly lower animal production.

Grasses are basically divided into the two growth types. The tussock or tufted species, which have a crown and are more deep rooted and the mat, prostrate or stoloniferous species that run.

There are also range of legumes and herbs used on the North Coast that should be considered. While these are of good quality and have a range of benefits, typically their population and contribution to the feed base is low.

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Useful referencesFor up-to-date results on pasture trials; See: Pasture trial network webpage at: Tools and calculators webpage (MLA).

For a wide range of pasture species and varieties factsheets; See: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

Two very handy reference printed booklets. On grasses; Grasses of Coastal NSW (DPI 2012). On legumes; Pasture “Weeds” of Coastal NSW (DPI 2018). To order See: Field crops and pastures webpage (DPI Tocal).

Setaria (Setaria sphacelata) Setaria is a tufted perennial tropical grass that can produce very high volumes of feed. It is the most cold and frost tolerant tropical grass, so it has a longer growing season than the other species. If correctly managed it can produce the highest quantity of feed of all species, in excess of 20 tonnes of DM/ha/ per year. Quality does decline rapidly with maturity, but at the optimal leaf stage for grazing, quality can be almost as good as ryegrass or kikuyu, making it one of the highest quality tropical grasses. The best animal production is from young growth, typically the 4.5 to five leaf stage. Slashing is often required to help maintain quality, particularly in the summer and autumn. Setaria is suited to a wide range of soil types, tolerates acidity and moderate waterlogging well. Because of its tufted growth habit setaria doesn’t tolerate continuous stocking or excessively hard mulching as the crowns of the plant can be damaged and plants killed. The aim is to keep a minimum 10 cm of height. Setaria is best suited to rotational grazing, which allows periods of rest. Its rapid growth potential can see grazing rotations as short as 14 days in ideal growing conditions through autumn. Within 14 days the plants have regrown four to five leaves and are ready to be grazed again.

Setaria is high in oxalate, particularly some cultivars and in the autumn. This can cause toxicity if cattle are not accustomed to setaria. (see section 8.57.2) If setaria is allowed to become too rank, cattle will graze it low in small areas or on cattle tracks. The effective very high stocking density that occurs in this situation can result in problems with worms and coccidiosis. (see section 8.78 and section 8.17) If slashed in late autumn the straw bed remains over winter providing harbour for paralysis ticks. (see section 8.71.2) These problems should not be seen as reasons not to grow this valuable pasture and can be addressed by good grazing management.

Setaria pasture

Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) Rhodes grass is a stoloniferous tropical grass that spreads readily by runners. It can produce high volumes of feed with most growth occurring in spring, summer and autumn. Quality does decline rapidly with maturity but at the optimal leaf stage for grazing, of four to five leaves, quality can be high and suits all classes of cattle. Rhodes grass is moderately drought resistant and suited to a wide range of soils from sandy loams to heavy clays. While adapted to lower fertility soils, it will respond well to improvements in soil fertility. It is not very tolerant of water logging or frost. Rhodes grass is more tolerant of heavy grazing than setaria due to its running growth habit, but

https://www.mla.com.au/extension-training-and-tools/tools-calculators/pasture-trial-network/

https://www.mla.com.au/extension-training-and-tools/tools-calculators/pasture-trial-network/


https://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/publications/field-crops-and-pastures/grasses-of-coastal-nsw

https://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/publications/field-crops-and-pastures/pasture-weeds-of-coastal-nsw

https://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/publications/field-crops-and-pastures/pasture-weeds-of-coastal-nsw

https://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/publications/field-crops-and-pastures

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best production results from a rotational razing system with periods of rest. Rhodes grass is one of the easier tropical grasses to establish due to good seed viability.

Rhodes grass pasture

Kikuyu (Cenchrus clandestinus) Kikuyu is a high-quality perennial tropical grass that spreads readily by runners. It is relatively frost tolerant, but growth will be slow during the winter months. Regarded as the highest quality of the tropical grasses with the potential for energy and protein levels equal to ryegrass. Well managed kikuyu can produce similar volumes of feed as setaria. Kikuyu is suited to high fertility, well drained soils. Provided soil fertility is moderate to high, it is more tolerant to heavy grazing than other tropical grasses. However, on low fertility soils it is rather unproductive compared to other species. Best time for grazing is when there are four to five leaves per tiller, at which quality is optimised relative to yield. It is best suited to rotational grazing. Continuous grazing will result in low production and reduce the amount of kikuyu as cattle select kikuyu in preference to other grasses.

Kikuyu is low in sodium and cattle grazing kikuyu have a salt appetite. This can trigger grass tetany, when cattle are moved onto kikuyu after being on ryegrass over winter. (see section 8.30) Occasionally bloat is seen on lush kikuyu. (see section 8.8) Rarely a syndrome called kikuyu poisoning occurs. (see section 8.57.6) These three conditions are infrequent and should not be seen as a reason not to grow this valuable pasture.

Kikuyu yellows and black spot can significantly affect kikuyu performance and survival. Currently the best options to reduce their impact are adequate moisture, nutrition and grazing management.

“The two diseases kikuyu yellows and black spot can significantly impact kikuyu. New cultivars have been trialled by North Coast Local Land Services for improved resistance to these two pathogens. One cultivar not only has higher resistance to both, but also higher yield, is more active in the early spring and has higher digestibility. This cultivar will be available commercially in late 2021.”

See: Selection for resistance to fungal diseases and other desirable traits in kikuyu grass (Cenchrus clandestinus) (Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales (2021) Vol. 9(1):60–69).

See: Milk production from kikuyu grass based pastures (DPI 2010) at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI). Although written for the dairy industry, it is an excellent resource kikuyu management in the beef situation.

https://www.tropicalgrasslands.info/index.php/tgft/article/view/815/0


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Kikuyu pasture when well managed is one of the highest quality tropical grasses

Common paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum)Paspalum is a tufted, perennial tropical grass with most growth in spring and summer. It responds well to irrigation and has a moderate tolerance to frost. Common Paspalum is suited in medium to high fertility soils. It can become sod-bound in long-term pastures and seed is often of low viability. It is at its best feed quality also at four to five leaves per tiller. Common paspalum is often selectively grazed by cattle. Rotational grazing is best for long-term persistence, utilisation and animal production. However, in late autumn it is often reported to be less palatable. In some seasons the seed heads are infected by an ergot which can affect stock health. (see section 8.57.7)

Creeping bluegrass (Bothriochloa insculpta)Creeping bluegrass is a stoloniferous perennial tropical grass with exceptional drought tolerance. Most growth is in late summer and autumn. It is well adapted to low fertility soils and is tolerant of heavy grazing. However, longevity of the sward depends on soil fertility, it will persist for longer under continuous stocking conditions on higher fertility soils. On lower fertility country blue grass can be selectively grazed over less palatable species such as blady grass, particularly with continuous stocking.

Digit grass (Digitaria eriantha)Digit grass is a spring and summer-growing perennial tropical grass that has some frost tolerance. It is suited to a wide range of soil types from the lower fertility sandy soils through to medium textured red brown clays. Digit grass has good drought tolerance but poor waterlogging tolerance. And doesn’t perform well on heavy black clay soils of the flood plains. It is very palatable and can be over grazed if continuous stocked and minimal other desirable species are present. The optimal quality for grazing is prior to seed head development.

6.3.4 Good quality, high productivity legumes

A range of subtropical legumes were introduced on the North Coast several decades ago. These included siratro, glycine, green desmodium, silver leaf desmodium, axillaris, burgundy bean and forage peanut. The aim being to fix nitrogen and improve overall quality of grass-based pastures. Being highly palatable, most of these struggled with grazing pressure and are now mainly found in ungrazed areas, such as roadsides. They can still be useful and persist if the grazing is carefully managed to suit their rest periods. Two tropical species of note have persisted including Shaw creeping vigna and Wynn cassia. White clover, a temperament legume, has also persisted. Lucerne is suited to restricted areas, the silty and sandy loams, as most soils on the North Coast are too acidic.

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White clover (Trifolium repens)White clover is the most widely used and naturalised perennial temperate legume on the North Coast. White clover has two important survival methods. With adequate moisture and good grazing management it can survive by using stolons (rooted stems). White clover is also a heavy seeder, with the naturalised types producing large amounts of hard seed which ensures a residual seed bank. Good grazing management aimed at reducing grass competition is essential for persistence of white clover. Maintaining a temperate legume like white clover in a subtropical environment is difficult. Temperate legumes require a high level of management to persist even with adequate soil fertility. This is because of strong grass competition during summer/autumn, variable rainfall during the hot spring months and root knot nematode. An abundance of lush clover can cause bloat. (see section 8.8 and section 8.57.5)

Shaw creeping vigna (Vigna parkeri)This is a prostrate, low climbing perennial subtropical legume. Shaw creeping vigna is very common in the warm hill sites across the far North Coast, particularly in the Tweed. It is the least susceptible to overgrazing of all the tropical legumes as its low growing (prostrate) and grows many stolons (horizontal stems that that take root to form new plants). This gives it a survival advantage over other tropical legumes and excellent persistence under heavy grazing. It combines well with kikuyu. Shaw is nutritious, with digestibility levels closer to temperate legumes than tropical legumes. It does not tolerate waterlogging or extreme droughts. Established stands will survive a frost, the leaves and stems frost burnt, appear dead, but recover. The high cost and low availability of seed is presently the biggest barrier to establishing more of this excellent tropical legume. Lotononis is another tropical legume like shaw creeping vigna, that can handle heavy grazing rotations. However, it is hard to establish and seed is difficult to obtain.

Round-leafed cassia (Wynn cassia) (Chamaecrista rotundifolia)Commonly called Wynn cassia, this is an introduced cultivar which is very common across the North Coast on lighter, sandy soils. It is very tolerant of acidic soils with high aluminium levels. Wynn handles droughts and frosts, but dislikes water logging. Like other legumes it fixes nitrogen, so benefits companion grasses. It is a rapid coloniser as it seeds heavily and these are eaten and spread by cattle. An advantage of Wynn cassia is its low palatability, particularly to weaners. Cattle leave it during summer, then consume it in autumn and winter when grass is in short supply. So it acts as ‘money in the bank’; a standing paddock protein supplement. This additional protein then improves intake and utilisation of low-quality grasses. For these reasons Wynn cassia is a very valuable addition to the pasture mix. As with other desired pasture species, it best suits rotational grazing, rather than continuous stocking.

Viney tropical legumesThese include glycine, siratro, silver leaf desmodium and green desmodium. They are suited to the higher rainfall areas of the North Coast in frost-free sites. They all need strategic spelling after grazing, especially during their main growth period of mid-summer to mid-autumn. The challenge is that this coincides with the main period of growth for tropical grasses which need to be re-grazed before the legume has time to recover. Rotational grazing (see section 6.5.3) is the best management tool to encourage the persistence of tropical legumes on the North Coast.

6.3.5 Poor quality, low productivity grasses

Broadleaf paspalum (Paspalum mandiocanum)Broadleaf paspalum is a tufted perennial tropical grass of minimal feed value. It has benefits for groundcover, but is poor from an animal production perspective. It is very shade tolerant, adapted to a wide range of soil types and responds to increased soil fertility. While it looks like it would be good feed it is seldom grazed. Cattle find broadleaf paspalum unpalatable and will select other species in preference. The only way utilisation is high is at very high stocking rates, which if not part of a planned rotational grazing system will see over grazing of more desirable species and a further increase in broad leaf paspalum. Feed intakes and weight gains are much lower on

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broad leaf paspalum dominant pastures. Cattle will survive on it, but production and overall health is much lower than on a more productive and palatable species. The more that broadleaf paspalum invades a pasture, the lower the carrying capacity.

Broadleaf paspalum despite looking nutritious is seldom eaten well by grazing cattle

Narrow-leafed carpet grass (Axonopus fissifolius) and broad-leafed carpet grass (Axonopus compressus)These are both introduced mat forming tropical grasses. They have a short growing season of summer to early autumn, are not very frost tolerant and are very low quality in winter once frosted. They are one of the most common grasses on the North Coast and often increase as a result of continuous stocking and over grazing, as this suits their growth habit. Both carpet grasses are suited to low fertility soils and are very unresponsive to fertilisers. They have very low productivity of one to four tonne of DM/ha/year compared to over 10 tonne of DM/ha/ year for most of the more productive tropical grasses. The more carpet grass that invades a pasture the lower the carrying capacity. The likelihood of a feed shortage and animal welfare problems on carpet grass dominate pastures is high.

Carpet grass is very adaptable to low soil fertility but is very low quality especially during winter

Common couch (Cynodon dactylon)Couch is both a native perennial and mat forming tropical grass. Some varieties of couch are introduced. Couch is a result of over grazing or run-down cropping country that has been left to return to pasture. It is an indicator of compaction, salinity, very sandy soils and/or high-water table. It is very tolerant of continuous stocking and is a good ground cover option in horse paddocks. Its best quality as a pasture is when very young and green although quantity is low at such a young growth stage. Once couch is mature cattle tend to avoid it and slashing is required to restore any quality. It is frost susceptible and cattle fail to maintain weight once frosted.

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Couch a rapid invader of lower fertility shallow soils that are subject to heavy grazing with limited rest periods

Bahia grass (Paspalum notatum)Bahia grass, also known as pensacola, is an introduced mat forming tropical grass that spreads from seed or underground rhizomes. It is dominant and will grow to the exclusion of other species. The main growth is during summer and spring. Its feed value and production is low to moderate compared with the more desirable tropical grasses. Bahia grass is suited to low fertility, light soils and it is a more productive option than carpet grass, couch or blady grass on these soils. However, on the more fertile soils that can support more productive species such as rhodes grass, setaria or kikuyu, bahia grass will not match their yield and quality. So, on these better soils bahia grass reduces the carrying capacity. Continuous stocking and long term over grazing favours its growth to the point of it becoming a monoculture. Bahia grass will respond to fertiliser but the economics are questionable.

“North Coast Local Lands Services has conducted fertiliser response trials on bahai grass over several soil types. The trials found that bahia grass on light sandy loam soils will respond to fertiliser applications, however it is not an economical way to increase beef production. Supplementing cattle on bahai grass is a more economical option.”

Bahia grass, photo taken from local trial work looking at quality and response to fertiliser, it is very much a low quality pasture

See: Evaluation of bahia grass (Paspalum notatum) pastures in response to fertiliser applications on sandy loam soil of the Far North Coast of NSW (NCLLS 2018) at: North Coast Local Land Services Resources webpage (NCLLS).

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/800883/nclls-factsheet-bahiagrass-fertiliser-response-sandy-loam-report.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/800883/nclls-factsheet-bahiagrass-fertiliser-response-sandy-loam-report.pdf

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6.4 Grazing management

Useful referencesSee: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

See: Grazplan decision support software for agriculture (CSIRO).

See: Prograze - profitable, sustainable grazing at: Beef cattle feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Pasture growth webpage at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

6.4.1 Principles of pasture growth on the North Coast

The warm temperatures and summer-dominant rainfall climate on the North Coast favour tropical perennial pasture species. In the warm months they produce high volumes of dry matter quickly and if well managed their quality can be very high. But they have more fibre and lower digestibility than temperate pasture species. During winter, temperatures and rainfall are too low for most tropical pastures to continue to grow at an acceptable rate, creating a feed gap.

Sown forage crops help fill the winter feed gap. (see section 6.6.1) The most productive pastures on the North Coast are fertilised kikuyu pastures oversown with ryegrass or oats for the winter. Alternatively, energy and/or protein supplements are used to increase feed intake and utilisation of lower quality carry over tropical grasses. (see section 5.11.11)

Temperate perennial grasses like perennial ryegrass, fescue and phalaris do not persist on the North Coast. Their growth is not suited to summer-dominant rainfall, temperatures and humidity. And they are selectively grazed out.

There are four phases of pasture growth and development:

• phase one: Pastures are growing rapidly following germination or reshooting after the season break. The plants are developing and growing new leaf material. Quality of pastures in phase one is very high, but they are very susceptible to overgrazing as they haven’t yet bulked up, hence there is low pasture quantity which will restrict intakes in grazing cattle. Also, overgrazing pastures in phase one of growth slows the speed in which plants can recover. Phase one mainly occurs from October–December on the North Coast

• phase two: This is the most favourable stage for grazing pastures in terms of trade-off between pasture quality and quantity. The pastures have begun to grow some stem material and tillers, with high levels of green leaf still present. Quality is still high and there is sufficient quantity to satisfy animal intake in most cases. Phase two mainly occurs from December–February on the North Coast

• phase three: Pastures begin to flower and set seed. There is a rapid increase in stem material and leaf growth slows as the plant transfers its energy from growth to reproduction. There will be little pasture growth from now on. Quality declines significantly at this stage and fibre levels increase, which becomes the intake limiting factor for grazing cattle. Quantity is seldom limiting. Phase three occurs from April–June on the North Coast

• phase four: Pastures have set seed and become dormant. Quality is low and declines further with frosting. Quantity depends on pasture utilisation at the phase three stage. It is mainly quality that is restricting intake. Phase four occurs from June–September on the North Coast.

Tropical pastures can be managed using these pasture growth stages. This requires a higher level of management to extend the period of phase two. Rotational grazing and adjusting stock numbers in paddocks or reducing paddock sizes with temporary fencing are the most common and cost-effective methods, as they utilise the cattle as the management tool. Strategic slashing or fodder conservation are mechanical options for those with the equipment and time. Results are more consistent but require more time and infrastructure. (see section 6.5)

Results from a demonstration site west of Casino are shown below. The yield of well managed setaria is lower but the quality is much higher. Management involved a mixture of frequent rotational grazing and strategic slashing to prolong the phase two of growth. The legume component increased as it was able to compete with the setaria. The follow up measurements were in the following spring.



https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/extensions-training-and-tools/creative-commons/prograze-ninth-edition-cc.pdf


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Setariaun-managed

Setaria managed

Setariaun-managed (follow up)

Setariamanaged + legume(follow up)

Crude protein (%) 9.7 21.9 8 22.7Metabolisable energy (MJ/ME) 8.1 10.4 7.5 11.2Digestibility (%) 57 70 53 74Yield (kg DM/ha) 7,893 2,016 5,145 2,257

For varieties, sowing times and rates, See: Pasture mixes / Richmond, Tweed and Upper Clarence webpage at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

For information on a comprehensive range of pasture species, See: Pasture species and varieties webpage at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

6.4.2 Seasonal guidelines for grass-dominant subtropical pastures

Summer to early autumnThis is the main period of rapid tropical pasture growth. The challenge at this time is to keep pasture at the most nutritious phase two of growth. Rotational grazing with a high stocking rate for a short duration is best for good quality productive grasses such as kikuyu, setaria, rhodes grass and paspalum. This leads to faster pasture recovery and better pasture utilisation. Periods of rest will also favour the viny tropical legumes. (see section 6.3.4, above). Graze grasses to the recommended heights:

• for the mat species kikuyu and rhodes grass, graze at the five-leaf stage, about 15 cm high then remove cattle when down to five centimetres

• for tussock grasses like setaria and paspalum, graze at the four-leaf stage, about 30 cm high and remove cattle when down to 10 cm. This height ensures that the crown is not eaten too low. (see section 6.3.5)

Strategic slashing to remove seed heads may help extend the quality window into winter. It also reduces the risk of paspalum ergot poisoning. (see section 8.57.7) Forage conservation such as hay/silage can also be considered to conserve high quality excess feed. See: Kikuyu silage (LLS 2021) at: Local Land Services website (LLS).

Paddocks with white clover potential or those planned to be sown to ryegrass or oats need to be grazed heavily to suppress grass growth during this time.

For newly sown tropical pastures, limit grazing in the first year to assist in establishment and seeding. Strategic graze to control excessive vigorous growth and any weeds, such as crows foot grass.

Late autumn to early winter In some years this can be a very wet time. In paddocks about to be sown with ryegrass or oats continue heavy grazing. Remove stock prior to sowing then direct drill (ryegrass or oats) or surface broadcast (ryegrass). Rotational graze winter pastures or forage crops. Strategic nitrogen fertiliser applications and if available irrigation will maximise growth and quality.

For cattle grazing tall, mature tropical grasses protein supplementation may need to commence. Dependant on the class of cattle, their condition, seasonal conditions and pasture availability. Viny tropical legumes can be grazed heavily prior to frosting in order to use the remaining green leaf before quality declines.

Late winter to spring This is usually the driest and hardest time of the year. When temperatures rise in late spring, tropical pastures may suffer severe moisture stress if there is not adequate rain. Protein and energy supplementation may be required for stock on frosted tropical grasses until the spring break arrives and new growth begins.

Ryegrass or oats will need adjustments to stocking rates to delay the run to head in late spring. Increased stocking





https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/1282970/LLS-200828-kikuyu-factsheet-web.pdf

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rates and irrigation (if available) can slightly delay this, but temperature is the main driver.

Start planning the rotation system for tropical pastures in anticipation of rapid growth. This will be dependent on rainfall and when the season breaks in spring. Reduce stocking density and increase the length of rotations until the spring break arrives. The rotation system ticking along slowly at this time, gives the ability to help control tropical grasses once they begin to grow.

6.4.3 Pasture recovery and decision days

These are very important tools to use during the year to determine what pasture is available and the influence seasonal conditions are likely to have on the predicted pasture feed supply. Assessment of pastures at these key times of the year enables a better match of stock numbers to available pasture and anticipating if supplementary feeding is likely to be required well before that time occurs.

The amount and timing of rainfall and minimum temperatures determine the growth of tropical pasture. This graph matches Bureau of Meteorology historic records, local pasture growth curve and key decision days for Casino.

Pasture recovery and decision days Casino

Decision day one - end of SeptemberIn September to October pastures are likely to begin to turn green after rainfall, this is called the green point. For setaria, a more cold-tolerant species, this green point is slightly earlier. As pastures turn green the quality is likely to be good, but quantity and ongoing growth response will be limited by minimum temperatures. In dry years with low soil moisture reserves, even if some rain does fall, the combination of low soil moisture and low minimum temperatures may limit pasture growth beyond turning green. The chance of a false break (pasture turns green but fails to grow and can even die without adequate follow up rainfall) is high during this time.

If pastures do not have a green point and regain some biomass their yield over the growing season will be reduced, resulting in reduced feed availability. Pastures are at their most vulnerable at this point. Allowing cattle

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to chew new green shoots hard will set back recovery and can affect yield over the coming growing season. Cattle ‘chasing the green’ is often experienced during this time. Their condition can fall rapidly as they spend hours walking paddocks trying to obtain enough feed intake.

Decision day two - mid to end NovemberThe rapid growth phase ‘main recovery’ is likely during November to January (based on historical rainfall and temperature recordings). This will depend on adequate rain to initiate the green point during September and October. During this time pasture quality is likely to be high but quantity still low, depending on when the break occurred and the rest period after grazing. If pastures still doesn’t show signs of rapid growth, yield over the growing season and feed availability will be significantly reduced and much lower than the above graph presents.

Decision day three - mid FebruaryAt this time tropical pastures should be at highest production, as rainfall and temperature in most years are not limiting (based on historical records). During this period pasture quantity should be high, but quality can decline. If adequate rainfall has failed and pastures struggle or are less advanced than expected decisions about available feed and stock numbers will need to be made at this time. This is due to closure of the growing window due to declining temperatures in the coming months. This will be earlier of course in southern areas.

Decision day four - end of AprilFrom this time on temperature will become the main limiting pasture growth factor, followed by rainfall. Pasture quality declines as pastures set seed in response to decreasing temperatures and day length, regardless of soil moisture. Quantity of pasture at this time is likely to be the highest until October or November. Decisions about stock numbers, supplementary feed supplies and winter forage planting options need to be finalised at this time to avoid a feed shortage sometime between the end of June and the break of next season.

See: Pasture recovery for North Coast beef producers (NCLLS 2019) at: North Coast Local Land Services Resources webpage (NCLLS).

6.5 Grazing systems

Useful referencesSee: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

See: Pasture utilisation webpage at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

6.5.1 Continuous stocking

In a continuous stocking system paddocks are continually stocked and pastures rarely if ever, receive a spell from grazing. Cattle selectively graze the most palatable, better quality pasture species, resulting in their decline. The likelihood of this depends on the stocking rate, suitability of the pasture species to the location and their tolerance to grazing. The potential for reduced animal performance with continuous grazing is far greater than other grazing systems. It is seldom the most appropriate system for several reasons.

Disadvantages of continuous grazing:

• lack of management control over the pasture quality and quantity and reduced pasture utilisation • patch grazing, uneven pasture growth • potential loss of preferred more productive species such as setaria, kikuyu, and rhodes grass• reduced persistence of climbing tropical legumes such as siratro• increase in less desired and less palatable species such as blady grass, carpet grass, couch and bahai grass

(pensacola)

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1155481/Pasture-Recovery.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1155481/Pasture-Recovery.pdf


https://mbfp.mla.com.au/pasture-utilisation/tool-34-pasture-utilisation/

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• reduced groundcover and subsequent weed invasion• all these have the potential to reduce cattle fertility and growth rates.

The main advantages of continuous grazing are minimal labour and infrastructure inputs.

6.5.2 Set stocking

The term set stocking applies to a strategy where stock are not moved and pastures not rested for a specific purpose. Input costs of fencing and water points are lower than intensive rotational grazing.

How long a paddock can be set stocked depends on the pasture type, time of year, season, stocking rate and class of cattle. After the period of set stocking the paddock is spelled.

Reasons for set stocking:

• pasture — to suppress tropical grasses in late summer prior to sowing ryegrass or oats, or prior to pasture improvement

• livestock — to reduce disturbance at calving.

Keys to success with set stocking

Set stocking systems can be used strategically through the year with a high level of success, but the key is to allow the pasture time to recover once stock are removed. It is also important that the pasture is not overgrazed to the point that it suffers long term damage.

Compare the set stocked paddock with increasing weeds on the left to the rotationally grazed,weed free pasture on the right

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6.5.3 Rotational grazing

Rotational grazing is a period of grazing followed by a period of rest. This is the most recommended form of grazing on the North Coast for beef production. There are various names applied to rotational grazing systems such as cell, block, and strip grazing.

The duration of the grazing and rest periods are determined by the pasture growth. The variables which determine this include pasture type, soil nutrition, temperature and rainfall. The aim is to have the pasture regrown to the most productive and nutritious stage (phase two to early phase three), at the next grazing. (see section 6.4.1) An example is one week grazing followed by a three or six week rest. The trigger points for grazing and rest can be measured. For example, once a pasture has reached 3,000 kg DM/ha stock re-enter the paddock and graze it until it reaches the desired residue of 1,500 kg DM/ha.

“The most productive pasture systems on the North Coast are fertilised kikuyu or setaria pastures that are oversown with ryegrass or oats for the winter. Particularly when these are rotationally grazed. The aim with tropical pastures is to graze in the phase two to early phase three of growth as often as possible and for as long as possible.”

Rotational grazing may be implemented for some or all year. A common practice is to rotate when conditions are good then move to a more continuous stock in harsh seasonal conditions.

The number of paddocks required for a rotation system vary. A minimum of four is required but in some intensive systems cattle that are moved on a daily basis (such as dairy herds) can have 30 or more. Paddock size is also important. Big paddocks with low stock numbers will seldom keep on top of tropical pasture growth especially in summer/autumn. So even with rotating paddocks, pasture moves to rank stage four growth and cattle will not be getting the best quality feed.

Advantages of rotational grazing:

• increase stocking rates through better pasture utilisation• improved nutrition and growth rates, with pasture being eaten at the most nutritious stage of growth• better control of what and how much pasture the cattle are consuming• improved control of pasture species mix• improved internal parasite control when used in conjunction with a drenching program. Better nutrition

improves resilience to worms. Worm larvae pick up is lower when pasture is grazed at the desired height rather than low to the ground. (see section 8.78.6)

Establishing a rotational grazing system

Rotational grazing has huge benefits for grazing enterprises on the North Coast, but a range of factors need to be considered:

• planning trigger points for pasture grazing and rest• consider which paddocks to use and for how long• pasture type, fencing and access to water and shade• classes of cattle and numbers• what the winter feeding strategies will be• strategies for the periods of rapid pasture growth.

Rotation requires higher inputs of fencing, water and labour. One of the simplest ways of starting rotational grazing is temporary electric fencing which is used to split larger paddocks into smaller blocks or cells. Another is to graze for a restricted time of day so that cattle still have access to water.

Most properties on the North Coast are stocked to cater for the leanest months in winter and spring, so it can be hard to control and utilise rapid pasture growth in summer and early autumn. Increasing the rotation speed by removing paddocks from the rotation is the easiest way of dealing with this. Select those paddocks that best suit fodder conservation as hay or silage, rather than let feed go to waste. It could be valuable next winter. This is usually much cheaper than buying hay in the winter months when prices are often high. (see section 6.7.4 and

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section 6.6.2) Baling at phase two of growth is far better nutritionally than conserving it when it’s mature.

Buying in more trading stock may be an option to utilise summer feed. Other options include strategic slashing or letting pasture become carry-over feed for the winter.

See: Managing pasture for soil health factsheet (LLS 2020) at: North Coast Local Land Services resources webpage (NCLLS).

There are some excellent resources on grazing management and rotational grazing at; See: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI) and select the species of interest.

6.6 Forage cropsForage crops are grown to provide cattle with a higher quality diet than would be expected at that time of year and enable better animal performance. They are classified as either winter growing (temperate) and summer growing (tropical) forage crops. Winter crops are becoming popular to fill the winter feed shortage. Examples include ryegrass, oats, barley, triticale, wheat and brassicas.

Summer crops are valuable to help finish weaners for the autumn sales. They are also used for silage and hay making, either for sale or for on-farm storage for later supplementary feeding when needed. Examples of summer forage crops include millet, sorghum, maize and lab lab.

To maximise usage and improve regrowth potential of forage crops, rotational or strip grazing methods are preferable to set stocking. (see section 6.5.3) Re-entry time for repeat grazing is determined by the stage of growth of the particular crop and will be influenced by soil moisture, temperature and fertiliser use.

Potential animal health problems on forages include: • blackleg and pulpy kidney. It is recommended to give a booster five-in-one prior to grazing fodder crops if

the cattle have not had a booster in the past three months (see section 8.6 and section 8.60)• nitrate poisoning on ryegrass, oats, sorghums and brassicas (see section 8.57)• cyanide poisoning on sorghum (see section 8.57)• bloat on clovers and lucerne (see section 8.8 and section 8.57.5)• photosensitisation (see section 8.52)• polio (polioencephalomalacia) on brassicas. (see section 8.58)

6.6.1 Winter forages - ryegrass and oats

The most productive year-round pastures on the North Coast are fertilised kikuyu or setaria pastures that are over-sown with ryegrass or oats for the winter. While there is an establishment cost in planting, well managed oats or ryegrass produce relatively cheap winter feed. Recent input costs and dry matter yields on the North Coast suggest that oats or ryegrass can provide quality winter feed for approximately $0.10 to $0.20 per kilogram of dry matter.

The return for investment from winter forages depends largely on on-farm infrastructure, soil type, class of cattle that will graze the forage and grazing management. Many producers benefit from planting some paddocks, typically those with better soil types. These are grazed strategically to provide high quality feed. However, unlike dairy properties, it is seldom possible or necessary for a beef enterprise to sow a large part of the property to ryegrass and oats.

Ryegrass and oats may also provide ground cover, control broadleaf weeds and supply winter feed on those holdings affected by pasture dieback. Seek agronomy advice. (see section 5.11.7)

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Sowing winter forage:• plan ahead in late summer. Evaluate the volume of standing summer pastures and plan grazing events to

reduce the volume. If needed, slash or mulch to remove excess pasture prior to planting in autumn • soil type. Ryegrass prefers clay to clay loam soils with a soil pH of 5.3 (CaCl test); growth and yield will be

reduced if below this. If below pH 4.8, lime should be applied. Oats is more tolerant of lower pH and will handle lighter soils better than ryegrass. In sandier soils, moisture may slow post-grazing recovery

• planting times. Optimal air temperature to sow annual ryegrass and oats into a seedbed is 24°C maximum/19°C minimum. But to sow into an existing summer grass pasture is a minimum of 15°C. It is a compromise between a higher temperature which favours germination of ryegrass and oats, and a lower temperature to keep summer grass growth in check. On average these temperatures start about the first week of March on the lower North Coast and the last week of March on the mid and far North Coast. Delay sowing to later in frost-free areas near the coast, as summer grass continues to grow later. Sow ryegrass into setaria and Rhodes grass one to two weeks later than kikuyu, as they are more competitive late into autumn. Late sowings have the same outlay to sow but have lower total yield and fewer grazes, so each kilogram of feed produced costs more

• planting method. The most common pre-sowing preparation in kikuyu, paspalum and setaria is to graze, mulch or slash hard (to below two centimetres of stubble height with some soil exposed). Ryegrass seed is then drilled or broadcast. Being a larger seed, it is preferable to drill oats. Alternatively, glyphosate (450 g/l) at 300–500 ml/ha can be used for suppression of kikuyu and setaria. But repeated use will reduce their persistence and lead to replacement by couch. Glyphosate at very low rates (100 ml/ha) will suppress kikuyu growth for about one week and this rate does not affect its persistence. Too much mulch residue may restrict light, smother the emerging seedlings or cause seeds to aerial root in the mulch, dry out and die.

Grazing managementRyegrass is best grazed at the three-leaf stage. Early ryegrass sowings risk summer grass shading the new seedlings. Graze lightly every 10–14 days, to keep summer pasture suppressed. This will not hurt ryegrass.

Oats grazing can start when there is enough root development to ensure plants will not be pulled out. This is about 25 cm of growth for upright types and 10–15 cm for prostrate varieties. For quick recovery, do not graze oats too low. Where possible, only graze down to the height of the lowest stem node; about 12–15 cm above ground level.

To get the best use, rotational or strip grazing with a back fence will allow ryegrass or oats to recover for the next grazing. Do not allow the herd in to just walk all over the paddock as cattle may trample feed or overgraze until the fodder is eaten out. Nitrogen application after grazing will improve both quality and quantity of feed at the next grazing. Do not overdo fertiliser application as this can trigger problems such as nitrate, grass tetany or milk fever. (see section 8.57.1) These issues should not be viewed as reasons not to sow these valuable winter forages.

See: Managing short term ryegrass in the subtropical dairy region factsheet at: North Coast Local Land Services Resources webpage (NCLLS).

See: Over-sowing summer grass pasture with annual ryegrass on North Coast farms factsheet at: North Coast Local Land Services Resources webpage (NCLLS).

6.6.2 Summer forages – millet and sorghum

The most common summer forages sown by beef producers on the North Coast are millet and forage sorghum. Teff grass may be particularly useful as summer feed for those properties affected by pasture dieback. Seek agronomy advice. (see section 5.11.7) The acreages sown to forage legumes lab lab, cow peas and soybeans are increasing. The reasons for growing are:

• grazing – they create an opportunity to carry higher stock numbers on quality feed for short periods, such as finishing weaners for the autumn sales

• on-farm conserved hay or silage – a very economical means of filling the winter gap (see section 5.11.11)• control of summer weeds and undesirable or low-quality grasses (see section 6.3.5)

https://northcoast.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/723641/nclls-factsheet-managing-ryegrass-in-dairy-web.pdf

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• control of broadleaf weeds and provide summer feed on those holdings affected by pasture dieback (see section 5.11.7)

• part of a planned paddock renovation.

MilletThe two main varieties are Shirorie and Siberian. Shirorie provides quick feed in the late spring to early summer. Siberian millet grows later into summer and has more grazing opportunities if correctly managed.

Millet can be sown earlier than sorghum, as soon as soil temperatures at 9 am are 14°C. If sown too early it will run to head and loose quality. It germinates best with good soil contact. Direct drilling (rather than cultivation) gives the best establishment results and more ability to graze if the season turns wet.

First grazing is when plants are well anchored; about 20–30 cm high or four to six weeks post germination. Grazing must be managed, ideally with strip grazing. Once cattle remove the growing point the plants will not recover. Overgrazing or set stocking will result in millet providing only one grazing event, which is not cost effective. Millet will tolerate waterlogging for short periods reasonably well but bogging of soil by cattle will reduce recovery potential.

Millet performs best if adequately fertilised. As with many grasses and forages, excessive nitrogen fertiliser can result in nitrate poisoning. (see section 8.57.1) Photosensitisation can occur if cattle graze millet for several months, but this is not practised on the North Coast and so is not a problem. (see section 8.52) Millet does not have issues with cyanide (prussic acid).

Forage sorghum and sorghum x sudan hybridsThese are renowned for very high forage yields, carrying high stock numbers with multiple grazing events well into the season and for producing quality hay and silage. (see section 6.7.4 and section 6.7.5) Correct management is needed to achieve these goals.

Sorghum is best planted with a seed drill. Direct drilling is preferable to cultivation, which can become boggy in a wet season and reduces the grazing window. Sow when soil temperature is above 18°C.

Quality for most varieties is highest at approximately 100 cm. With sweet sorghum cultivars, sugars reach a peak at a taller and later stage. Potential risks at this stage of growth include nitrate and cyanide. (see section 8.57.10) As plants mature and seed the quality declines significantly to the point of straw value. This will produce poor cattle performance and hay or silage of low nutritive value. Sorghum in head also carries a risk of grain poisoning (see section 8.29) and ergot toxicity. (see section 8.57.10) Keeping sorghum growth fresh is achieved by staggered sowings, strip grazing and harvesting for hay or silage before it gets away.

See: Forage sorghum and millet (DPI 2004) at: Forage and fodder crops webpage (DPI).

6.7 Supplementary feeds Simply put, a balanced cattle diet has three parts—energy, protein and fibre. Efficient production relies on having all three available at all times of year, at the rates needed for any given age of stock. This requires anticipating when the expected seasonal gaps in paddock feed occur and identifying what components of a balanced diet are missing at these times. This is explored further in section 5.11.9.

North Coast beef production is pasture based and is our most cost-effective means of feeding cattle. To improve the efficiency of this and to balance nutrition throughout the year requires a step-by-step approach:

1. good species and pasture management (see section 6.3, section 6.4 and section 6.5)2. fodder crops, if the country has at least some arable land (see section 6.6)1. hay or silage conserved on-farm, which is cheaper than purchased (see section 6.7.4 and section 6.7.5)2. purchased supplementary feeds.

Unfortunately, some producers take step four before the others and buy feed at a time when it is in short supply, of low quality and expensive. Or just put out a ‘mineral block’.

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Consider what class of cattle and why they are being fed. This can range from maintenance feeding for survival of cows, to production feeding of young cattle. (see section 5.11.9)

Before purchasing any supplementary feeds, consider the residue risks and on-farm quality assurance aspects. (see section 3.4.2)

“North Coast Local Land Services has Agriculture Advice Officers experienced and trained in husbandry, agronomy and supplementary feeding.”

6.7.1 Protein meals

If standing feed of low quality (tall, dry mature tropical pastures in winter) then protein supplementation will increase pasture intake and utilisation. Protein meals largely bypass the rumen, so protein supplement cattle directly. Cottonseed meal is the most popular protein supplement, but soybean meal, copra meal and sunflower meal are alternatives, depending on availability and price.

Recommended feeding rates for protein meals, assuming adequate dry standing pasture is available, are as follows:

• weaners — up to 1 kg/head/day as fed • yearlings — 1–1.5 kg/head/day as fed • dry cattle — up to 2 kg/head/day as fed • lactating cows — up to 2.5 kg/head/day as fed.

These rates are calculated daily but fed twice weekly. They are mentioned as a guide. Variations in feeding levels may be required as seasonal conditions change.

Protein blocks are convenient for feeding small amounts of protein. However, cattle will struggle to consume enough at the rates recommended above. Some producers prefer to make their own protein blocks, for recipes See: Making your own protein blocks for cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

When there is inadequate pasture or the energy level of pasture is very low, for example during winter on dry frosted native grasses or setaria, then energy supplementation is also needed. This can be given as molasses or grains.

6.7.2 Molasses and molasses based mixes

Cattle are adapted to eating poor quality fibre, which is why the broad Bos (cattle) group has been able to colonise the globe, from the deserts of Africa to the highlands of the Himalayas. Their adaptability is due to microbial flora in the rumen.

Their utilisation of fibre can be increased even further by providing a protein, a non-protein nitrogen and an energy source to cattle that are on high fibre, low energy and low protein pasture, such as dry standing winter grass. This has several positive effects:

• provides a nitrogen and energy source for the rumen microbes to better manufacture microbial protein, increasing protein available for the cattle

• provides an energy source directly for cattle• provides a rumen by-pass protein that goes directly to the cattle• improves digestibility which means that every mouthful of grass is better utilised• increases rumen turnaround time, which means more mouthfuls of grass (increased intake).

For these reasons, molasses is best fed as a fortified mix which combines the benefits of molasses (energy), urea (to feed the rumen flora) and protein meal (to feed the animal). It is more expensive, but far more effective than molasses alone in improving utilisation of dry feed, maintaining animal condition and production. Several

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companies on the North Coast have commercially available fortified molasses mixes. Feed rates depend on the availability of dry standing grasses.

Molasses is probably the cheapest energy supplement on the North Coast, but it has limited availability. It is most economical if purchased in bulk. It can be labour intensive to feed out.

If mixing urea, it is vital that it is mixed thoroughly with no lumps as even small amounts of urea can be highly toxic. This should be done with a mixer head on a battery drill or chainsaw. Use prilled urea rather than granular. Start at one per cent and work up to a maximum of three per cent over two to three weeks. If urea-molasses mixes get wet the urea can separate out and be a poisoning risk. (see section 8.55.2)

Molasses is high in sulphur, so sulphur supplements, including sulphur blocks should not be given when feeding molasses. Molasses should not be fed when cattle are grazing brassicas, which are rich in sulphur. (see section 6.8.5, section 8.57.4 and section 8.58)

Molasses is naturally low in phosphorus and phosphorus deficiency can be seen on the North Coast when cattle are grazing dry standing feed for prolonged periods. This is also the time when molasses is used. Therefore, include phosphorus if feeding molasses for long periods. Use mono and dicalcium phosphate additives. Never use superphosphate, as it is a residue risk for cadmium. (see section 6.8.2 and section 3.4.2)

See: Fortified molasses mixes for cattle and urea roller drum mixes for cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

6.7.3 Grains and commercial rations

Grains and commercial grain-based rations (pellets or meals) are readily available options. They provide both protein and energy and are easy to store and feed out, but are usually more expensive than fortified molasses supplements. Some commercial feeds also have fibre included, but the roughage benefit is less due to the shorter fibre length. To compare the relative cost. See: Feed cost calculator (DPI).

Economics of grain feedingCattle are brilliant at substituting feed. As soon as grain is introduced they favour it for palatability and ease of access and reduce their pasture intake. Careful management of the amount of grain fed is required to balance intakes of pasture and grain. The aim is to have grain to supplement and balance paddock feed, rather than replace it, which can be a fine line. In a pasture-based system, high level feeding grain-based supplements above 5 kg/head/day is seldom economical. See: Feed cost calculator at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI). For rates of feeding, See: Supplementary feeding of cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

Full hand feedingGrains, pellets or meals are normally fed as a supplement to existing pasture. But there are situations in which the need for full hand feeding may arise:

• during drought when little effective paddock feed remains• at the break of a drought or dry period when there is a green drought and only a short green pick• to allow pastures to re-establish after either of the two above• as an opportunity to finish weaners or grower cattle.

General principles of grain full hand feeding:

• for a healthy rumen, at least 20 per cent of intake should be fibre (hay, silage or standing paddock feed).• whole grain oats can be fed. Any other cereal grain should be cracked or rolled to reduce wastage,

otherwise 20 per cent of the grain will not be digested• use self-feeders, this enables sufficient quantities of grain to be available while protecting it from the

weather. Ensure it has a working adjustable flow control to regulate the of flow of grain• cattle eat in several ‘shifts’ through the day, so provided the feeder always has grain in it, space per head is

seldom an issue. The shyer feeders tend to wait until the feeder is free before attempting to eat• aim for minimum feeder eating space per head of: calves and weaners 100–150 mm, yearlings 150– 250

mm, adults more than 300 mm

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• feeding mixed classes of cattle runs the risk of social stress, bullying and variable intake. Dominant cattle may overeat and be at risk of problems and bully shy cattle causing poor growth rates

• cattle of similar age, size and condition have similar nutritional requirements and amounts of grain. Draft cattle into management groups according to age and class, for example weaners, yearling steers, first-calf heifers, cows and calves.

Introducing full hand feedingIntroduce grains gradually over a period of about 10 days. Once established, don’t make sudden changes.

Day Amount of hay Cereal grain (kg/head/day) as fed for cattle1 To requirements 0.52–3 To requirements 0.5–1.03–4 Decrease hay 1.0–1.55 on Decrease hay to no less

than 20 %Increase by 0.5 kg/head/day until desired feeding level is reached; maximum 80%

Biosecurity risksWeed seeds can be a contaminant of grain. See: Look out for new weeds in fodder (DPI 2021) at: Weeds website (NSW DPI). Grain can also be a residue risk if stored in contaminated sites, such as old treated silos. (see section 3.4.2)

Potential animal health risks of grain based rations:• grain poisoning (see section 8.29) and the related condition grain bloat (see section 8.8)• gastric ulceration (see section 8.29)• laminitis (founder) (see section 8.37)• blackleg and pulpy kidney, (see section 8.6 and section 8.60) vaccinate with five-in-one if this has not been

done in the previous three months• grain scour.

See: Full hand feeding of cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

Manufactured cattle dietsPellets and meals have the same basic rules for feeding as grain. Read product labels for recommended feeding levels. Some are a complete ration and contain fibre, but finely ground fibre has low roughage value. Check whether it has monensin, a rumen modifier to reduce the risk of acidosis.

See: Understanding stock feed product labels (LLS 2018) at: North Coast Local Land Services resources webpage (NCLLS).

See: Feeding pelleted rations at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

*biosecurity risk* Never allow cattle to access chicken or pig feed that contain restricted animal material (meat meal). This will be on the label. (see section 8.43) Pig feed also contains high levels of copper that can be toxic to cattle. (see section 6.9.1)

6.7.4 Hay

Hay is dried pasture grass, forage or legume. Because the moisture content is low, it will last a long time until needed, if kept dry and free of vermin. Hay can be highly variable in quality, depending on the plant source. Cut at the desired stage before or just at flowering, the energy and protein levels can match the needs of most cattle (except young calves) without further supplement. Cut at a mature stage at late flowering or seed set, it is likely to be more straw than hay; a fibre source only. Hay is either from fodder conserved on-farm or introduced. It may be



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in small bales, large rounds or large squares.

Hay has traditionally been fed out during the winter and spring months to supplement when pasture may be in short supply when all components of a diet—energy, protein and fibre are lacking. Also during dry periods, droughts and green droughts (short green pick the only feed). It is also used as a roughage source in opportunity feedlots with young cattle.

EconomicsCompared with grains, hay can be an expensive energy source. Large amounts are consumed, so significant costs can be involved if having to purchase hay or silage, particularly if transported over long distances. On a nutrient content basis, it is lower than grain and concentrates and it can be more expensive to store and feed out. However, hay may be the only option if there is little remaining pasture and available roughage is a problem. This is termed ‘replacement feeding’.

Conserving surplus pasture or forages as hay or silage for feeding out when needed is more economical than buying in supplement when prices are high. It also means having a product of known quality (particularly if it is feed tested), rather than of poor quality because that is all that is available. There is a strong case for growing a high yielding summer crop, such as a forage maize or sorghum and having it cut by a contractor, specifically for on farm use when it is needed in winter. Alternatively, if the property lacks suitable arable country, buying hay direct at the peak of the season, when prices are low and there is a product is likely to be of higher quality, then storing it for later use.

Precautions when feeding hayWhen hay is used to supplement paddock feed, watch that cattle do not substitute hay for existing pasture and become ‘welfare dependant’, hanging around the feeder rather than going out and grazing.

Check that the quality of hay is suitable for the class of stock. Better quality hay is needed for young cattle. Coarse hay, cut when the plant is seeding, may be useful to provide roughage when feeding concentrates such as grain or pellets, but should not be used as the sole feed for any class of cattle.

Consider biosecurity risks. Ensure that the hay is not a source of weed seeds. See: Look out for new weeds in fodder (DPI 2021) at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI). Check that it does not contain poisonous plants such as fireweed because the toxins are not lost in the drying process. Cattle usually preferentially graze around fireweed growing in the paddock but are unable to when it is in hay.

Hay trampled into mud and manure around round bale feeders is a potential source of flood mud scours. (see section 8.26) Unlike silage, hay is not a risk for botulism.

Hay netting and twine are potential sources of foreign bodies (cattle do eat them) and should be removed and disposed of when feeding out. (see section 8.28)

See: Round bale self-feeders for cattle at: Cattle yards and equipment webpage (DPI).

See: Silage and hay webpage at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

6.7.5 Silage

Silage is pasture or forage that is cut and processed with a much higher water content than hay. It then undergoes fermentation in conditions of low oxygen to produce a product that is preserved, sweet and acidic. This is achieved in either bales wrapped in plastic to exclude air or packed in pits and covered.

Silage quality determines the potential live weight gain. The quality of the end product is driven by the parent material used. Appropriate ensilaging process is essential to maximise animal intakes and growth rates and reduce the risk of spoilage and disease. A silage inoculum is recommended to improve the ensilaging process. Shorter chop length will improve silage preservation and will usually improve animal intakes and production, particularly in young animals.

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supplement or replace available pasture. Typically, it is used to:

• help finish weaners or yearlings to meet market specifications• improve the condition of heifers pre-joining• supplementary ‘gap’ feeding of cattle during times of feed shortage, typically the late winter and early

spring period• replacement feeding during times of no effective pasture such as drought.

Principles of feeding silageSilage can be fed ad lib to cattle. Like hay and other supplements, be careful that cattle do not become dependent and fail to utilise existing pasture.

Round bale silage is the most common form of silage fed to beef cattle on the North Coast. Wastage can be high if not fed in hay/silage rings. Due to the quantities consumed and the high-water content, silage is expensive to transport long distances due to its high moisture content.

Animal health precautionsVaccinate against botulism before feeding silage, losses can potentially be high. The botulism bacteria proliferate if silage fails to reach the desired pH (not acidic enough). The final pH of silage is determined by the sugar content of the material. More mature grasses and legume fodders are generally lower in sugars, so their silage has a higher pH (not as acidic). (see section 8.9) Listeria can also be a risk with silage feeding. (see section 8.40)

Be sure to remove plastic and wrap when feeding out (see section 8.28) and dispose of wisely.

See: Silage and hay webpage at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

See: Successful silage topfodder silage manual at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Kikuyu silage (LLS 2021) at: Local Land Services website (LLS).

Silage vs hayIt is important to understand that silage cannot be directly compared to hay, particularly by weight.

Even though silage bales may be the same physical size as a hay bale, they are significantly heavier. But this does not mean they contain more feed.

Silage bales are heavier because they are made by conserving forage material that contains more moisture than material that has dried longer for hay production. Silage is lower in dry matter than hay. Typically, baled silage is material containing 45–60 per cent dry matter, meaning 40–55 per cent of the weight is moisture. Hay on the other hand typically contains 88–90 per cent dry matter meaning only 10–12 per cent of the weight is moisture.

So, if a 1.2 metre (4 x 4 foot) silage bale weighs 600 kg and is 45 per cent dry matter (600 x 45 %) there is only 270 kg of dry matter (feed) available in the bale. The same size hay bale may only weigh 300 kg but is 90 per cent dry matter and so contains the same amount of feed; 270 kg of dry matter (feed).

This is very important for calculating feeding rates, also allow for the low dry matter level (i.e. high water content) in silage to avoid underfeeding cattle. Comparing the feeding rates:

• silage at 8 kg of dry matter ÷ 45 % dry matter = 17.7 kg of silage as fed• hay at 8 kg of dry matter ÷ 90 % dry matter = 8.8 kg of hay as fed (i.e. half the weight).

Haylage This is a hybrid hay and silage, made into wrapped round bales. Haylage is made from material that has been baled with a dry matter percentage higher than recommended for proper silage production, yet still to low (wet) for hay production. It often smells very sweet and is palatable to cattle. The nutritional value of haylage is no better or worse than hay or silage and depends on the parent forage and storage after baling. Because it has been wrapped in plastic it still poses the same risks as silage when feeding to cattle, such as botulism. (see section 8.9)


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6.7.6 White cottonseed

Whole or white cottonseed is a source of both protein and energy and is usually purchased in bulk. It is bulky, so transport costs are high to the North Coast and storage and handling can be a problem. An adequate fibre source is essential. It is used when a paddock has more than 1,200 kg DM/ha of pasture. If not, then hay also needs to be fed. Rates for adult cattle are up to 2.5 kg/head/day, fed twice weekly. Rates should not exceed 30 per cent of dry matter intake. It is not suitable for calves under four months of age, as it may contain gossypol which is toxic to calves.

See: White cottonseed - a supplementary feed for beef cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

6.7.7 Palm kernel expeller meal (PKE)

This is a by-product of extraction of palm oil from palm kernels from South East Asia. In cooperative trials with North Coast Local Land Services, excellent growth rates have been observed in grower cattle on winter ryegrass, supplemented with PKE and hay. While cattle in the same season struggled to maintain on poor quality winter pasture.

The energy levels are good at 11 mg/ kg ME. It is safe to feed; acidosis risk is low because the energy is not from starch, but from oil, fibre and protein. Protein levels at 15 per cent crude protein are equivalent to grain. It is ground fine so the high fibre content is not effective as fibre, so should be fed with a long fibre such as hay.

PKE purchased in bulk is reasonably priced. It can be broken down into tonne bags, so make enquiries locally. It may be more economical to share a load with another producer. It stores well if it is kept dry. The product is fed out into troughs or tubs. When cattle are introduced to PKE for the first time it is wise to mix 50/50 with grain for the first week to get used to the taste. Cattle self-limit intake because of low palatability.

6.7.8 Lick blocks

Protein and energy lick blocks are a convenient means of supplementing protein and energy at low levels. Cattle cannot eat sufficient quantity to supplement at high levels. Lick blocks can be used as a means of delivering non-protein nitrogen (urea), trace elements such as copper and minerals such as sulphur.

See: Making your own protein blocks for cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

6.7.9 Unusual feeds and by-products

*residue and animal health risks* During prolonged dry times, when the above supplements are unavailable or very expensive, unconventional feedstuffs may be explored. These can be useful, but some may have animal health, nutritional problems or residue risks. In the past there have been unexpected residues in beef from chemicals used in crops, resulting in substantial financial losses to cattle producers and to the beef industry. (see section 3.4) Some unusual feeds may also not meet ruminant feeding bans. In particular, baker’s waste which may contain meat product. Poultry manure is a risk for both ruminant feed ban and for botulism and is now illegal to feed to cattle. (see section 8.43 and section 8.9)

Energy and protein:• brewers grain is a by-product of beer. Because it has a high moisture content (only 26 per cent DM) and is

perishable it is usually not carried long distances. Crude protein at 20 per cent is good and energy at 9.5 mg/kg DM

• Dried Distillers Grain (DDG) is a by-product of the ethanol industry and has similar nutrient to brewers’

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed/white-cottonseed

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed/making-protein-blocks-for-cattle

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grain, depending on the product fermented. It has a much higher DM. Both have the potential for grain poisoning (see section 8.29)

• baker’s waste carries the risk of grain poisoning. (see section 8.29) If any plastic is not removed, there is a risk of obstruction. (see section 8.28) If any meat is present, such as in meat pies or cheese and bacon rolls, these fail to meet ruminant feed bans (see section 8.43)

• mill run is a flour by-product that contains bran, pollard and wheat germ. The energy and protein are moderately low and variable and fibre high. It is dusty and has the potential to cause coughing and aspiration pneumonia. It is not recommended as stand-alone and use should be restricted to being incorporated with other grains in a mixer

• for other grain products and by-products See: Feed cost calculator webpage (DPI)• whole potatoes and turnips can be a choking risk. (see section 8.16)

Fibre sources:• sugar cane tops are available for some producers in the northern rivers. Tops are fibre only and bulky,

so expensive to transport long distances See: Cane tops as cattle fodder and Reducing residue risks when feeding sugar cane products at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI)

• frosted sugar cane is more nutritious and palatable as it contains more cane• onions may also be a choke risk. They are toxic to cattle when fed at rates over 1.5 kg per head, causing

anaemia and redwater• the cabbage family fed in large quantities can also be toxic causing goitre nitrate and poor growth rates.

(see section 6.9.5 and section 8.57.5) They can also cause a non-infectious, toxic pneumonia seven to 10 days after eating (see section 8.57.4) See: Animal health surveillance 2007/2 (DPI 2007)

• avocado fruit and pulp can also be toxic, but this appears to be variable (see section 8.57.1)• sweet potatoes are normally fine, but if mouldy can cause a toxic pneumonia in cattle• watermelon and other high water / low dry matter foods are unsuitable because cattle cannot physically

eat enough to supply energy needs• other fruit by-products, such as grape marc, apple pulp, citrus peel may be not available on the North

Coast, except in the far south See: Feed cost calculator webpage (DPI)• cotton trash has restrictions due to residue potential and is too bulky to transport to the North Coast.

See: Livestock Production Assurance webpage (Integrity Systems).

See: Alternative roughage feeds and dangers in feeding waste material to livestock at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

6.8 Minerals “Correcting protein and energy is the most important task when addressing nutritional deficiencies. A common mistake is to attempt to address nutrition problems by concentrating on trace elements only, such as selenium or copper, without first checking that protein and energy levels are adequate and in balance with fibre. Another mistake is to put out a ‘block’ during a feed shortage and nothing else. This is akin to putting salt on the table without a meal. First, ensure that protein and energy levels are appropriate for the feed on hand, then address minerals and trace elements.”

Definitions:• mineral refers to those elements that are required by the animal in significant amounts in the diet. The

levels in a ration or mix are usually expressed as a percentage. For example calcium, phosphorus, sodium and sulphur

• trace elements refers to elements that are required in only very minute (trace) amounts in the diet. Requirements are expressed in mg/kg (which is the same as parts per million). For example copper, selenium and zinc

• vitamins are complex molecules that are essential for body function.




http://archive.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/195650/ahs-07-2.pdf


https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/livestock-product-assurance/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/92708/alternative-roughage-feeds.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/92708/alternative-roughage-feeds.pdf

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All are important for a balanced diet. There are dangers in considering minerals and trace elements singly because they interact with each other and the level of one may influence the level of others. There needs to be a natural balance. Because of the complexities, simply including one into the system, may either be unnecessary or do more harm than good. Beware of feeding just one in significant amounts as this can upset the balance. Excess sulphur supplementation is a common mistake on the North Coast. Sulphur is an antagonist to selenium. Calcium and phosphorus need to be in the correct ratio. Molybdenum is strongly antagonistic to copper. If mineral deficiency is suspected, consult a professional.

Typically, minerals and trace elements in grazing animals reflect the levels in soil and pasture. Fortunately, in most situations, these are in balance in the soils and feed. There are some notable exceptions, and these are explored in the sections below. Hay and grains sourced from another area are likely to have a different mineral make up than those grown locally (particularly if grown on a different soil type). Feeding these may mask and indeed correct any on-farm deficiencies. Manufactured feeds are balanced for minerals and trace elements. Generally, no further mineral or trace element supplementation is required when these are fed.

See: Assessing stock feed additives and mineral supplements (DPI 2009) at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

6.8.1 Calcium

In cattle on the North Coast calcium imbalances are confined to:

• cattle fed grain without calcium added. Grains are notoriously low in calcium and have an unbalanced calcium to phosphorus ratio. To correct this, stock lime is included in grain-based rations, at the rate of around one per cent

• cattle grazing high oxalate feeds, such as setaria. Oxalate binds calcium in the blood (see section 8.57.2) • milk fever is not a calcium deficiency, rather it is an inability of the freshly calved cow to mobilise body

calcium reserves. (see section 8.48)

For calcium and phosphorus to metabolise in an animal’s body it requires vitamin D. (see section 6.10.4)

6.8.2 Phosphorus

Most North Coast soils are low in phosphorous as evidenced by pasture response to phosphate fertilisers. In some areas the soils are so phosphorus deficient that signs of deficiency and bone chewing can occur.

Phosphorus deficiency is seen in these areas when cattle are grazing dry grass for a prolonged period. This is also the time when molasses may be fed, which is naturally low in phosphorus. Phosphorus is a vital component of bones. The most common signs of phosphorus deficiency are an arched back, shifting lameness and swelling of the joints. Stunted growth and poor fertility may also be seen. Cattle with phosphorus deficiency often develop ‘pica’, a desire to chew objects not normally considered food. Bone chewing from phosphorus deficiency is a cause of botulism. (see section 8.9)

Silage and oats are naturally low in phosphorus, while most oilseed meals (cottonseed, sunflower) are good sources of phosphorus.

To correct and prevent phosphorus deficiency when cattle are at risk, use monocalcium and dicalcium phosphate feed additives (usually in molasses or a loose mix), there are several on the market.

Superphosphate fertiliser is the most widely used method of correcting low phosphorus in the soil and improving pasture production. It must never be used as a cattle supplement, as superphosphate is a residue risk for cadmium. (see section 3.4.2)


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6.8.3 Magnesium

Hypomagnesaemia or grass tetany on the North Coast is a much less important disease than it is in southern NSW. There is significant interplay between dietary magnesium, potassium and sodium to trigger grass tetany. (see section 8.30)

6.8.4 Sodium (salt)

It seems paradoxical that some pastures on the North Coast, which are so close to the sea could be low in sodium. However, this is the case with kikuyu, which is naturally low in sodium. As mentioned above, low sodium is one trigger for grass tetany.

Cattle, like all herbivores, have a sodium appetite and will seek out salt if it is low in the feed. That is why cattle make use of lick blocks. High levels of salt can also be used to limit the intake of a supplement, block or lick, as cattle will reduce their intake when their sodium appetite is satisfied.

Sodium, potassium and chlorine are kept within strict limits in the bloodstream. However, when there is rapid depletion of these electrolytes cattle quickly become lethargic and depressed. This occurs with calf scours. (see section 8.14)

6.8.5 Sulphur

Sulphur is an essential element and together with nitrogen, is used for rumen microbes to produce protein. Sulphur should be considered when using urea when cattle are on dry grasses, as these are low in sulphur. But, if the urea is mixed with molasses, additional sulphur should not be used because molasses is naturally high in sulphur.

Sulphur supplementation is important when feeding forage sorghum or grain sorghum stubbles. It helps the liver to breakdown any cyanide. (see section 8.57.3)

Care should be taken with sulphur supplementation. Some producers use high (e.g. 12 per cent) sulphur blocks for paralysis tick control in late winter and spring. There is anecdotal, but not as yet scientific, support for this. If sulphur is used for this purpose, ensure that it is only short-term during the paralysis tick season. Long-term use of high sulphur blocks can create nutritional imbalance and can be detrimental. Excess sulphur supplementation can induce polio (polioencephalomalacia) in calves. (see section 8.58) Brassicas are high in sulphur and can also trigger polio, so sulphur should not be given when grazing brassicas.

Sulphur is also an antagonist to selenium and copper, elements that are naturally low on many North Coast soils.

See: Mineral content of common ruminant stockfeeds, crops and pastures (DPI 2017) Costs and nutritive value at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

6.9 Trace elements

6.9.1 Copper

Inadequate copper is quite common on the North Coast, as many soils are low in available copper. Copper availability is strongly affected by soil iron, molybdenum and sulphur. The high iron content of basalt soils binds copper. The use of Mo Super (molybdenum–superphosphate mix) to establish legumes has induced copper

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/nutrition/costs-and-nutritive-value/mineral-content-ruminant-stockfeeds

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/nutrition/costs-and-nutritive-value/mineral-content-ruminant-stockfeeds

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deficiency. See: Characteristics of North Coast soils factsheet (LLS 2020) at: North Coast Local Land Services Resources webpage (NCLLS).

Ill-thrift, anaemia and scouring are the main signs of copper deficiency. A lightening of the coat is a useful indicator as red cattle become orange and black cattle have an orange tinge to the coat. Young cattle in the lean winter months are the most common at risk group for copper deficiency.

Have a veterinarian sample for blood copper levels before considering copper supplementation. Copper levels can vary according to the season and existing copper reserves in the liver. A positive response in growth performance and coat colour will confirm response to supplementation.

The most common methods of copper supplementation are:

• injectable copper—historically, copper glycinate has been used, however, this product can cause severe tissue reactions in cattle and sometimes collapse and death

• injectable aqueous chelated copper is a safer alternative• copper capsules given orally that are slow release for 12 months• copper-containing licks, feed additives or supplementary feeds.

*work health safety risk* Accidental self-inoculation with copper glyicinate may require surgery and can be life threatening, avoid eye splash.

High iron levels in some North Coast soils bind copper in the gut, resulting in reduced copper available from dietary copper. Injectable copper avoids this problem because it by-passes the gut. Copper levels in bluestone water trough blocks used for algae control may be too low to have benefit in providing copper.

Care should be exercised when supplementing with copper. Although not as common as it is in sheep, copper toxicity can occur with excess dietary copper. Particularly when grazing plants that can cause liver damage, such as fireweed. Manufactured pig feed must not be fed to cattle. It contains high levels of copper that can be toxic to sheep, goats and sometimes cattle. It may also contain restricted animal material such as meat meal. (see section 8.43)

6.9.2 Selenium

Selenium interacts with vitamin E and has vital functions in detoxification, the immune system’s resistance todisease, and reproduction. Low selenium soils are often acid and in high rainfall areas. Sulphur is an antagonist to Selenium. High sulphur in the diet from sulphur blocks, molasses or brassica fodder crops can reduce Selenium.

Selenium is attributed to having a role in ill thrift, mastitis, retained placenta, poor reproductive performance and perhaps lameness. Many producers note a productive response and reduced incidence of these problems with selenium supplementation. These are probably best termed ‘selenium responsive conditions’ rather than true deficiency. White muscle disease from selenium deficiency experienced on some very deficient tableland soils, is not seen on the North Coast.

Blood tests may help establish whether cattle would benefit from selenium. Selenium supplementation can be toxic if levels are already high; there is a narrow margin of safety with selenium. Seasonal variation occurs, similar to copper, with lowest levels in the autumn/winter. But the ultimate test is the response to supplementation in a control vs treated trial.

In beef cattle there are a number of ways of providing selenium supplementation:

• long-acting injections of selenium last for up to 12 months, are easy to administer but may cause tissue reactions if given into the muscle. Medium-term injections last for three to four months

• pour-on products are easy to administer but short acting • oral pellets provide slow-release selenium • oral products are short-acting, selenium is also included with some oral internal parasite drenches• selenium-containing licks, feed additives or supplementary feeds• selenium fertiliser to increase the pasture level. Whole areas have to be treated.

*work health safety risk* Follow precautions when handling. Selenium products can be toxic.

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1270525/5-North-Coast-Soils_FINAL.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1270525/5-North-Coast-Soils_FINAL.pdf

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6.9.3 Iron

Iron is essential for many functions in the body, particularly the formation of red blood cells.

Many soils on the North Coast are naturally very high in iron. Iron is the reason why red soil is red. High iron levels in soil can interfere with the uptake of other elements, notably copper.

There are a few situations however where iron is important.

Calves fed on a milk only diet for too long can become anaemic as milk contains very little iron. This is part of the reason that veal from milk fed calves is pale. The introduction of hay and grain-based supplements prevents this problem.

When cattle loose red blood cells they become anaemic, this is seen in a number of common diseases on the North Coast such as coccidiosis in calves (see section 8.17), theileria (see section 8.68) and tick fever (see section 8.70). Iron supplementation in the recovery from these conditions may play a role.

6.9.4 Cobalt

Cobalt is essential for the formation of vitamin B12, needed for red cell formation. Cobalt deficient areas are not known on the North Coast, as they are in parts of nearby tablelands. But it is possible that some of the more western parts of the North Coast Local Land Services district have cobalt deficient soils.

The most notable signs are ill thrift, anaemia and pica (eating of unusual materials, such as soil or bark chewing). Prevention is by cobalt containing feed additives.

6.9.5 Iodine

Iodine is essential for proper function of the thyroid gland which regulates metabolic rate. Soils in some parts of the North Coast have low iodine levels. But true iodine deficiency (goitre) is not a problem in cattle on the North Coast. Cattle iodine requirements increase when grazing on plants in the cabbage family, such as brassicas. These contain an inhibitor called goitrogens (goitre, gen = to create). Goitre can occur on cattle fed for sustained periods on the forage crop brassicas or if fed large amounts of the cabbage family. (see section 6.7.9 and section 8.57.4)

6.10 VitaminsIn the pasture-based production systems on the North Coast vitamin supplementation of cattle is not normally required. There are a few notable exceptions and they are explored in this section. Some producers fall into the trap of using routine vitamin supplementation or injections in the belief that cattle will perform better. The key to a sound diet are the three nutrition pillars of energy, protein and fibre, all in balance.

6.10.1 Vitamin A

Vitamin A is made in the body from carotenes found in green plants. Long term storage occurs in the liver. So one would not expect deficiency of vitamin A to occur in a pasture based system. Vitamin A deficiency occurs when cattle are on grain and no green feed in the diet for long periods, for example over six months in a prolonged

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drought. Fortunately, this is an uncommon event on the North Coast. It also happens with cattle are on long term grain feeding in feedlots. Signs include night blindness, ill-thrift and susceptibility to heat stress. Even small amounts of green pick at these times will top up vitamin A levels and help prevent problems. Vitamin A by injection, available as a combined vitamin A, D and E, is used to treat or prevent.

6.10.2 Vitamin B

This is a group of water-soluble vitamins, which means that they are not stored in the body and so are needed every day. B vitamins are manufactured by the rumen flora, so cattle have an abundance and supplementation is not required. However, when the rumen flora becomes imbalanced, thiamine (vitamin B1) can be used up by the flora rather than manufactured by the rumen flora. This can occur when young cattle are grain fed, or there is a high level of sulphur in the diet. This is called polio and manifests as sudden onset of neurological signs in young cattle. If treated early responds to vitamin B1 injection. (see section 8.58)

6.10.3 Vitamin C

Unlike humans (and also apes and guinea pigs), cattle do not require Vitamin C. Vitamin C injection is sometimes used by veterinarians as a diuretic (increase urine output) to quickly clear toxins in the blood stream.

6.10.4 Vitamin D

The role of vitamin D function in the body is to support calcium and phosphorus in bone deposition. Deficiency is seen as rickets. As in humans, vitamin D is produced by the body in response to exposure to sunlight. In prolonged overcast conditions in winter (particularly in southern area) sheep and possibly cattle on fodder oats or grains can develop rickets. It is not seen on the North Coast and supplementation is not required.

The rickets seen in cattle is from phosphorus deficiency in prolonged dry seasons and is best treated and prevented using phosphorus supplementation. (see section 6.8.2)

6.10.5 Vitamin E

Vitamin E works with selenium in the body and has several roles. Supplementation is not required in cattle that are grass fed. In those areas in which selenium is low or marginal, supplementation should be by selenium, rather than by vitamin E. (see section 6.9.2)

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7. Animal problems - signs and common causesHow to use this sectionUse this section of the book to ask yourself “I am seeing this sign of disease...What could it be?”

Cattle can have many different signs of disease. This chapter lists the more common or important signs. For each sign, the more common conditions on the North Coast are given. These are cross referenced in the book to other sections, where they are explored in more depth. There are many other signs and possibilities than those listed that are not common and are beyond the scope of this book.

The list also includes the serious exotic (not found in Australia) or notifiable diseases that should be considered. These are highlighted, See: Notifiable pests and diseases of animals in NSW (DPI 2020). To report a disease of concern, contact your North Coast Local Land Services district veterinarian or the Emergency Animal Disease hotline on 1800 675 888.

For users of the book who have downloaded a PDF copy of the book from the Local Land Services website, internal cross references are given by simply clicking on the link to go to that page. For those using the printed book the section number is given.

This information provided is a guide for producers. Veterinary assistance is needed for sick cattle or stock deaths to determine the cause and appropriate action. Early diagnosis, before a problem becomes significant, is always important. Keep diary records of any deaths or significant animal health issues, it helps to build a picture over time of the health of the herd and how to best manage it. For tips and training on how best to do this, See: Keep watch, module 6.3 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

Useful resourcesSee: Beef cattle health and disease webpage (DPI).

See: Veterinary handbook for cattle, sheep and goats (Livecorp, MLA 2020). Written for live export, but has good lists.

See: Merck Veterinary manual (Merck Manuals).

7.1 Abortion, pregnancy failure, premature calves and stillbirthsThe term abortion in cattle means loss of the developing calf during pregnancy. Abortions can occur at any stage of pregnancy and can have many causes. If this occurs early in pregnancy, it will be difficult to distinguish from infertility (failure to conceive). The normal background abortion rate in North Coast beef cattle is less than one per cent. Many abortions go unnoticed because the foetuses are not found or they occur early in pregnancy. From time-to-time outbreaks of abortion (abortion storms) occur in a herd and can cause significant losses.

A large study of more than 700 cases of abortion on the North Coast found causes fell evenly into three groups:

1. neospora is the most common cause and responsible for about one-third and occuring as an abortion storm or as significant infertility, with fewer calves born (see section 8.50)

2. another third is from other infectious causes, all which can occur as abortion storms such as pestivirus (see section 8.51), and vibriosis (see section 8.75). Both are preventable by vaccination. Leptospirosis is now less common, primarily because of widespread vaccination (see section 8.38). This third also includes infections from other less common causes and usually individual cow abortions, such as listeriosis (see section 8.40) and fungal abortion

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/notifiable-animal-diseases-nsw

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/herd-health-and-welfare/3-keep-watch/

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/herd-health-and-welfare/3-keep-watch/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease

http://www.veterinaryhandbook.com.au/

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/

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3. the remaining third have no infectious cause, but rather are caused by metabolic or hormone problems, uterine inertia, congenital defects and separated placenta.

“Prior to the 1970’s brucellosis was the major cause of abortion in cattle (and a significant infection in people). A nation-wide program eradicated this disease and it is now exotic (no longer occurs in Australia). NSW DPI and Local Lands Services (then Pastures Protection Boards) played the key role in achieving this in NSW.”

Abortions may also be in response to any condition that causes a fever, all of which are important diseases, such as:

• tick fever *notifiable*often as an outbreak and cows are usually sick or die (see section 8.70)• theileria in recently introduced cows in late pregnancy (see section 8.68)• three day sickness (see section 8.69)• salmonella. (see section 8.64)

It is important to find the cause of abortion, particularly if more than one cow is affected. Many of the infective causes are preventable or can be treated. Contact a veterinarian.

A foetus for post-mortem is the best way to diagnose the cause of the abortion, however, they are not always available or fresh. Blood samples of affected cows and others in the mob may also be useful for diagnosis.

*work health safety* Aborted calves and foetal fluids may expose the handler to several diseases transmissible from cattle to humans (zoonoses). This includes Q fever and leptospirosis. Wear a mask and gloves if assisting a calving or handling an aborted foetus. If there is the potential that assisting a calving could occur in the future, speak to a general medical practitioner about Q fever vaccination. To reduce the risk of leptospirosis, vaccination of cattle is recommended. (see section 4.1)

See: Diseases causing reproductive losses in breeding cattle (DPI 2005) at: Beef cattle health and disease webpage (DPI).

7.2 Anaemia (pale gums)The term anaemia means low numbers of red cells in the blood. In cattle it is seen as pale white to membranes of the soft tissue around the eyes, unpigmented gums and unpigmented muzzle. The colour in healthy cattle is pink, the same as in humans.

Anaemia from reduced red blood cell production:• undernutrition (see section 8.73)• copper deficiency (see section 6.9.1)• liver fluke infection (see section 8.41)• bracken fern poisoning (see section 8.56.5)• chronic (long term) liver disease for example from fireweed poisoning. (see section 8.56.6)

Anaemia from increased red blood cell breakdown (haemolysis): • tick fever *notifiable* (see section 8.70)• theileria in local bred calves and introduced adult cattle (see section 8.68)• leptospirosis in calves (uncommon). (see section 8.38)

Anaemia from red blood cell loss: • heavy bush tick or cattle tick *notifiable* burdens (see section 8.71)• barbers pole worm in cattle under two years of age (see section 8.78.2)• blood loss from bleeding. (see section 7.3 below)

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/general/reproductive

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/general/reproductive

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7.3 Bleeding (haemorrhage)Bleeding or haemorrhage is loss of blood. Loss of blood can lead to anaemia. (see section 7.2) It is important to distinguish bleeding from anaemia.

Causes of bleeding:• trauma and injuries (see section 8.72)• failure of the blood to clot, such as bracken fern poisoning (see section 8.56.5) or snakebite

(see section 8.65)• toxic, physical or infectious damage to the skin or internal organs (many causes).

The signs and cause of haemorrhage depend on the part of the body which is bleeding.

Bleeding from the skin:• bracken fern poisoning (see section 8.56.5)• dog attack (see section 8.23)• trauma and injuries. (see section 8.72)

Bleeding into the muscle and deep tissues:• blackleg, (see section 8.6)• dog attack (see section 8.23)• trauma and injuries. (see section 8.72)

Bleeding into the gastrointestinal tract:• bracken fern poisoning (see section 8.56.5)• coccidiosis in young cattle (see section 8.17)• colic (abdominal pain) and straining (see section 7.6)• gastrointestinal tract torsion (see section 8.28)• salmonella (see section 8.64)• stomach ulcers, from grain poisoning (see section 8.29)• mucosal disease form of pestivirus (see section 8.51)• arsenic poisoning (see section 8.55.3)• black bean poisoning (see section 8.56.3)• survivors of mother of millions poisoning (see section 8.56.9)• blackleg, usually in cattle under two years of age, bleeding usually seen after death (see section 8.6)• anthrax, of concern if cattle recently introduced from western areas. (see section 8.4) *notifiable*

Crow pick after death can be confused with bleeding from the rear end.

Nature of the faeces will depend on the site of the tract affected:

• very low in the bowel, the blood will be red and on the outside of the faecal mass• in the large bowel, there will be red blood throughout the faecal mass• from high in the small intestine or stomach the faeces will be black (also called malena) because the blood

has been digested.

Bleeding from the nose:• bracken fern poisoning (see section 8.56.5)• blackleg, usually is blood-tinged foam, in cattle under two years of age (see section 8.6)• anthrax, of concern if cattle were recently introduced from western areas. (see section 8.4) *notifiable*

Crow pick after death can be confused with bleeding from the nose.

Haemorrhage in the urineSee section 7.19

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7.4 Bloating (swollen abdomen)The site of the swelling will help determine the cause of a swollen abdomen. Left and right are as viewed from rear, not from the front.

High on the left-hand sideSwelling on left side of animal from excess gas in the rumen (paunch). It will feel and sound like a drum or balloon. Causes include:

• gaseous or frothy bloat is the most common cause (see section 8.8)• oxalate poisoning (usually from setaria) due to the inability to expel gas when the rumen is paralysed

(see section 8.57.2)• a choke obstruction in the food pipe and unable to expel gas. (see section 8.16)

Low on the left-hand sideThis is from fluid or food build-up in the rumen or fourth stomach. Causes include:

• kikuyu poisoning and may also have nervous signs (see section 8.57.6)• foreign body in the rumen, for example silage wrap or hair balls (see section 8.28)• displaced abomasum (fourth stomach), more common in grain-fed cattle (see section 8.28)• overfeeding in calves. (see section 5.11.6)

Low on both sides of the abdomenThis is from free fluid build-up in the abdominal cavity (water belly or ascites). Will feel like fluid when touched and be accompanied by bottle jaw. Causes include:

• low blood protein — seen with worms (see section 8.78), liver fluke (see section 8.41), chronic liver disease, for example fireweed poisoning, (see section 8.56.6), undernutrition (see section 8.73) *animal welfare* and bovine Johne’s disease (see section 8.10)

• congestive heart failure, usually from hardware disease (see section 8.31) also from avocado poisoning (see section 8.56.2) *notifiable*

• hydrops — an abnormal build-up of fluid in the uterus in late pregnancy. (see section 5.9.4)

Low on right-hand sideThis is either from the intestines or the uterus. Causes include:

• late pregnancy (normal)• some gastrointestinal obstruction or torsions (see section 8.28)• large hernias.

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7.5 Bottle jawThe term bottle jaw is used to describe swelling under the jaw between the lower jaw bones. Bottle jaw from fluid build-up is soft and pendulous. This may be accompanied by swelling under the skin of the brisket and swelling of the lower abdomen. (see section 7.4 above)

From low blood protein

Most causes of bottle jaw are from low blood protein from:

• insufficient protein made in the liver as seen with liver fluke (see section 8.41) or chronic liver disease, for example fireweed poisoning (see section 8.56.6)

• protein loss from the gut as seen with worms (see section 8.78)• protein not being absorbed from the gut as seen with bovine Johne’s disease (see section 8.10)

*notifiable*• insufficient protein in the diet as seen in undernutrition, such as poverty lump (see section 8.73) *animal

welfare*• low blood protein as seen with worms (see section 8.78), liver fluke (see section 8.41), chronic liver

disease, for example fireweed poisoning (see section 8.56.6) or undernutrition. (see section 8.73)

From congestive heart failureAgain there will be fluid under the skin, often from the jaw to the brisket, causes include:

• hardware disease (see section 8.31)• avocado poisoning. (see section 8.56.2)

From physical causes of jaw swellingSwelling will feel firm. Causes include:

• injuries from drenching guns or ingesting sharp foreign bodies such as grass seeds• tooth root abscesses• firmness of the base of the tongue is usually from wooden tongue (see section 8.77)• firmness of the jaw is usually lumpy jaw. (see section 8.42)

7.6 Colic (abdominal pain) and strainingThe term colic means abdominal pain. Signs of colic in cattle include teeth grinding, groaning, restlessness, kicking at flanks and straining. Cattle in pain do not often call out. Being a herbivore, it is natural for cattle not to vocalise when in pain, as this attracts predators.

The term straining is when cattle have repeated unproductive attempts of what appears to be urination or defaecation. It is usually a sign of lower abdomen pain. Causes include:

In calves in the first month of lifeUsually from scours:

• colibacillosis, E.coli (see section 8.18)• rotavirus (see section 8.63)• cryptosporidium. (see section 8.20)

In calves from one month to weaningUsually from scours:

• cooperia, small intestinal worm (see section 8.78.1)

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• coccidiosis. (see section 8.17)

In adult cattleCan strain for a range of reasons as well as scours:

• prolapse of the vagina in late pregnancy (see section 8.59)• normal birth; should calve within an hour of start of straining (see section 8.22)• difficult birth; dystocia (see section 8.22) or abortion (see section 7.1)• prolapse of the vagina or uterus immediately after calving pregnancy (see section 8.59)• retained afterbirth or retained membranes from after calving or abortion (see section 8.61)• bladder stones — urolithiasis (see section 8.7)• urinary tract infection — pyelonephritis (see section 8.74)• any cause of scours — diarrhoea (see section 7.21)• constipation (see section 7.7)• hardware disease from pain (see section 8.31)• gastrointestinal tract obstruction, impaction or torsion, causing pain. (see section 8.28)

7.7 ConstipationThe term constipation refers to signs of cattle passing little or no faeces or hard dry faeces, often covered in mucous. This may occur with:

• any condition which causes cattle to go off their food, this is the most common cause• dehydration• gastrointestinal tract obstruction, impaction or torsion. (see section 8.28)

Constipation is treated by addressing the underlying cause — seek veterinary attention. Impactions may sometimes be relieved by administering oral paraffin oil.

7.8 DeathsDefining the terms used in this book for course of disease.

Terms like acute, chronic, found dead, sudden death and others are abound in veterinary texts. In this book the terms are used when:

• found dead — cattle are found dead without signs of ill health being seen, so the cattle could have been sick for almost any length of time. If cattle are seen infrequently, for example weekly, then deaths should be considered found dead

• sudden death — death within 24 hours of the cattle first showing signs of illness• acute — sickness for over 24 hours and up to a week • chronic — sickness for more than a week.

Deaths in calvesThis group of conditions occur between birth and weaning. Sometimes the cause is obvious however, in more extensively run holdings the problem may not be noticed until marking or weaning and may be confused with fertility problems (less calves born).

The most common causes of calf deaths on the North Coast are:

• paralysis tick, particularly in spelled paddocks or scrub country (see section 8.71.2)• dog attack, from wild dogs or straying domestic dogs (see section 8.23)• mismothering, particularly from problems at or soon after calving or cows with poor milk supply

(see section 5.9.6 and section 5.6.1)

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• calf scours (see section 7.21 and section 8.14)• worms, in particular cooperia (small intestinal worm) (see section 8.78.1)• navel ill (see section 8.49)• blackleg, usually in calves over three months of age (see section 8.6)• pneumonia (see section 8.54)• coccidiosis (see section 8.17)• theileria. (see section 8.68)

A poor immune system from lack of colostrum (see section 5.6.1) or from pestivirus infection (see section 8.51) should always be considered with infectious disease problems in calves.

Deaths in weaners and yearlingsWeaning can be a stressful event and can place calves at risk of a wide variety of disease conditions. (see section 5.7) Weaners are naïve and away from their mothers for the first time. They are often in a new environment with a range of new diseases, pastures and poisonous plants.

Consider:

• plant poisonings (see section 8.56), including bracken fern (see section 8.56.5)• blackleg (see section 8.6)• pneumonia (see section 8.54)• coccidiosis (see section 8.17)• worms, in particular cooperia and haemonchus (barbers pole worm) (see section 8.78)• paralysis tick (see section 8.71.2)• dog attack, although less of a risk compared to young calves (see section 8.23)• grain poisoning, if on grain. (see section 8.29)

Deaths in adult cattleThere are too many causes of individual, one-off deaths in adult cattle to list. However, there are only a small number of common or serious conditions on the North Coast that can cause sickness and deaths in a significant number of adult cattle, these include:

• tick fever *notifiable* (see section 8.70)• flood mud scours, during the cooler months (see section 8.26)• plant poisonings, particularly in recently introduced cattle (see section 8.56)• botulism (see section 8.9)• theileria in adult cattle, particularly cows in late pregnancy, recently introduced from the west or far

south. (see section 8.68)

7.9 Downer cattle (recumbency)The term downer refers to cattle that are down on their brisket or side and unable to rise. It may be from paralysis, from infectious causes, from injury or muscle soreness or just weakness from another disease process. The age of the cattle and the presenting signs may give some clues to the cause.

Downer in young calves:• rapid loss of body fat and hypothermia from failure to suckle (see section 5.6.1)• weakness from fluid and electrolyte loss with scours (see section 8.14)• paralysis tick (see section 8.71.2)• dog attack (see section 8.23)• navel ill. (see section 8.49)

Downer in weaners and yearlings:• three day sickness (see section 8.69)• paralysis tick (see section 8.71.2)

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• fluid and electrolyte loss from scouring due to worms (see section 8.78.1), stomach fluke (see section 8.66) or coccidiosis. (see section 8.17)

Downer in late pregnancy:• impending calving• difficult birth (see section 8.22)• pregnancy toxaemia, in overweight cows or undernutrition. (see section 8.36)

Downer after calving:• calving injury, calving paralysis (see section 8.22), metritis (infected uterus, see section 8.47)• milk fever (see section 8.48)• ketosis (see section 8.36)• mastitis. (see section 8.46)

Downer at any age:• from weight loss and weakness with undernutrition (see section 8.73) *animal welfare*• trauma and injuries, including from joining or bullying (see section 8.72)• lameness including footrot (see section 8.37)• botulism (see section 8.9)• paspalum ergot poisoning (see section 8.57.7)• oxalate poisoning, including if on setaria (see section 8.57.2)• grain poisoning, if on grain. (see section 8.29)

Treatment of downer cattleFind and treat the cause and general nursing until they recover. Cattle are heavy animals, so once they are down secondary problems such as nerve, muscle or ligament damage, interference with circulation, weight loss or just plain lack of energy can result in them staying down.

If cattle have gone down because of undernutrition and loss of muscle mass, it is nearly impossible for them to regain sufficient muscle mass and energy while they are down to ever get on their feet again. Cattle in this situation should be humanely destroyed as soon as they down. (see section 3.3.5)

General nursing of the ‘downer cow’:• establish the cause and treat early and appropriately• protect from the elements — sun, cold, wind and rain• use a lifting device or, at the very least, turn the cow twice a day• anti-inflammatory drugs, speak with a veterinarian• calcium / glucose -containing injections (four-in-one, calcigol) given under the skin prior to lifting may help• ensure that the cow is in the sitting-up position and not lying on her side• provide fresh food and water.

Cows with a reasonable outlookAre those that:

• are bright, aware of their surroundings, are eating and drinking• are able to stay upright on their brisket without support• have some movement in their back legs and hold them in a normal position• attempt to use the back legs when hoisted.

Cows that do not have a good outlookCow with these signs should be humanely destroyed: (see section 3.3.5) *animal welfare*

• in poor body condition before going down (see section 8.73) • loose significant condition while down• are not alert and are disinterested in food or water, even after calcium injection• are unable to support themselves upright on their brisket and go down on their side, particularly if their

head is downhill

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• have limited movement or only ‘creep’ attempts• hold their back legs in an abnormal position (the ‘splits’, straight out the front or straight out the back).

7.10 Drooling *exotic disease alert*

Drooling can be from reluctance to eat from pain in the mouth, paralysis of the tongue, inability to swallow or from a high temperature. (see section 7.12) A range of important and exotic diseases may present with signs of drooling, so it is very important to have cattle with these signs investigated by a veterinarian. The term exotic refers to those diseases that occur overseas and are not in our country, but should they ever occur in Australia need to be acted on immediately. (see section 3.2.3)

Painful conditions of the mouth or tongue:• foot-and-mouth disease (and some other exotic viruses) cause blisters of tongue or mouth *exotic*

(see section 8.27)• mucosal disease, a form of pestivirus which causes ulcers in the mouth (see section 8.51)• calf diphtheria causes foul smelling white change to mouth (see section 8.13)• bovine papular stomatosis, causes ulcers of mouth, lips and muzzle of young cattle. (see section 8.11)

Inability to swallow:• choke which physically stops saliva being swallowed (see section 8.16)• botulism which can cause paralysis of the tongue (see section 8.9)• wooden tongue, which causes loss of use of the tongue (see section 8.77)• lumpy jaw can make it painful or physically obstruct swallowing. (see section 8.42)

7.11 Eye conditions and blindnessBlindness in one or both eyes with obvious changesSuch as red or opaque eyes, tears running down the face:

• pinkeye, the most common cause in younger cattle (see section 8.53)• foreign bodies such as grass seed, particularly foxtail• cancer eye in older cattle (see section 8.15)• photosensitisation, there will be sunburn to at least some of the skin or the muzzle (see section 8.52)• infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR). (see section 8.35)

Cattle with eyes that look normal but do not respondThis indicates the brain is likely to be affected. Causes include:

• lead poisoning in younger cattle (see section 8.55.1) *residues*• meningitis in calves — usually from navel ill (see section 8.49)• polio in calves (see section 8.58)• ketosis in cows soon after calving and pregnancy toxaemia in late pregnancy. (see section 8.36)

Skin conditions around the eye:• ringworm in young cattle (see section 8.62)• warts in young cattle (see section 8.76)• mange. (see section 8.44)

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7.12 Fever, high temperatureHigh body temperature is above 40°C. However, what appears to be a raised temperature may just be from the heat of exertion in being mustered, especially on a warm day. So it is a good idea to check the temperature of a couple of other cattle in the yards as well. Fevered cattle will be 1–1.5°C above their mates.

Signs of a raised body temperature include seeking shade, standing in water, nasal discharge, salivation, rapid breathing and mouth breath. For more details on signs and treatment. (see section 8.32)

Causes include:• heat stress from high environmental temperature / lack of shade (see section 8.32)• downer cattle in the sun, as are unable to seek shade or dissipate heat (see section 7.9)• fever from infections• some poisonings.

Fever from infections:• tick fever *notifiable* (see section 8.70)• three day sickness (see section 8.69)• flood mud scours (see section 8.26)• pneumonia (see section 8.54)• theileria. (see section 8.68)

Some poisonings:• grain poisoning (see section 8.29)• photosensitisation, (see section 8.52) particularly red lantana poisoning (see section 8.56.13)• paspalum ergot poisoning. (see section 8.57.7)

7.13 Ill thrift, underweightIll thrift refers to weight loss without diarrhoea. When most of the mob are affected it is likely to be nutrition, worms or liver fluke related. Ill thrift is more common in cattle on poor quality, low productivity grasses. (see section 6.3.5) In individual cattle it is more likely to be disease related.

Ill thrift in calves:• insufficient milk from the mother is the most common cause. This forces the calf to graze at an age when

the rumen is not fully developed. Calves need more protein and energy than is found in pasture alone.• grazing at an early age is also a risk of worm burdens at an age when their immune system is not yet able

to cope (see section 8.78)• poor immunity from insufficient colostrum, usually in individual calves (see section 5.6.1)• pestivirus and the diseases that the virus triggers, usually in individual calves. (see section 8.51)

Ill thrift in weaners and yearlings:• undernutrition — inadequate energy and protein on low quality winter pasture is the most common cause

(see section 5.11.11 and section 8.73) *animal welfare*• undernutrition can be complicated by copper or selenium deficiencies (see section 6.9)• cooperia worm causing ill thrift, with or without scouring (see section 8.78.1)• barbers pole worm causes weight loss and anaemia without diarrhoea (see section 8.78.2)• heavy bush tick burdens, usually with anaemia. (see section 8.71.1)

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Ill thrift in adult cattle:• undernutrition from poor quality pasture is the most common cause (see section 5.11.11 and section 8.73)• cows during late winter / spring with the demands of a calf afoot (see section 5.9.1) *animal welfare*• mineral deficiencies, in particular phosphorus in some areas (see section 6.8)• trace elements such as copper or selenium deficiencies (see section 6.9)• liver fluke (see section 8.41)• loose or worn incisor teeth is an important cause in individual aged cows. Check the teeth before anything

else in a mature cow losing weight. Mouthing once a year is an important strategy (see section 5.2)• type II brown stomach worm (ostertagia) is a common cause of ill thrift in individual cows.

(see section 8.78.3)

7.14 Infertility and reduced fertilityThe main income for most beef breeding herds is from the sale of weaned calves so any reduction in the number of calves has a direct impact on the profitability of a herd. Less calves born can be from reduced cow fertility or abortion, pregnancy testing is needed to distinguish between the two. Or it can be from bull problems.

“Reduced fertility is a common and widespread problem on the North Coast. The number one cause is nutrition.”

Cow problemsA reduction in calves born involving a significant number of cows:

• reduced cycling due to nutritional stress prior to joining (see section 5.9)• abortion and pregnancy failure (see section 7.1)• premature calves and stillbirths (see section 7.1)• deaths of young calves can be confused with infertility. (see section 7.8)

Infertility in individual cows These do not have a great impact on the total number of calves born. Cows affected with these conditions can be identified at pregnancy testing and culled. Examples include:

• freemartinism. A female calf born with a male twin are infertile for life. Most have obvious external abnormalities

• acquired damage or scarring of the reproductive tract from past difficult births (see section 8.22)• metritis, an infection of the uterus (see section 8.47)• cystic ovaries, where the cow appears to have either no heat or she appears to be in a permanent heat.

Bull problemsAny problem involving the bull can have catastrophic consequences for the herd. Bulls are a big investment and so it is important to have an annual veterinary check-up prior to joining. In summary problems include:

• reduced semen quality• reduced ability to serve• reduced desire to serve (lack of libido)• vibriosis. (see section 8.75)

These are explored in more detail in (see section 5.8.3).

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7.15 Jaundice (the yellows)The term jaundice is the yellowing of the tissues and is most noticeable in the eyes and unpigmented gums. There are two reasons why cattle may have jaundice.

Jaundice from a build-up bileThis is seen with liver disease, from:

• red lantana poisoning is the most common cause of jaundice on the North Coast (see section 8.56.13)• fireweed poisoning (see section 8.56.6)• poison peach poisoning (see section 8.56.12)• green cestrum poisoning (see section 8.56.8)• occasionally seen with liver fluke. (see section 8.41)

Jaundice from the rapid breakdown of red blood cells (haemolysis) This is seen in:

• tick fever *notifiable* (see section 8.70)• theileria in cows introduced from the west or far south (see section 5.11.3 and section 8.68)• rarely with leptospirosis in calves (see section 8.38), copper poisoning (see section 6.9.1) or red-bellied

black snake bite. (see section 8.65)

7.16 Lameness or unusual gaitConditions that cause an unusual gait are cross referenced to the appropriate section. Cattle that are lame are usually bright, alert and normal in the eyes and have full control over their walking. Unusual gait can be the result of a condition of the nervous system (brain or spinal cord) or diseases that affect the body as a whole.

The following is a list of more common causes for lameness. For further information see section 8.37.

Foot problems causing lameness:• footrot • strawberry footrot• interdigital scald• conditions of the sole such as bruising, injuries, foreign bodies and abscesses• hoof wall conditions such as deformities, cracks, separation and wall abscess• interdigital fibromas (corns)• founder from grain poisoning. (see section 8.29)

Upper limb (above the foot) problems causing lameness:• arthritis• locking knee cap (stringhalt)• dislocated joints, muscle, ligament or tendon damage, bone fractures.

Conditions that may resemble lameness include:• staggers or lack of control of the limbs, usually the hind limbs, also called ataxia• knuckling over at the fetlock or dragging the feet • difficulty walking because of weakness or illness (cattle will have other signs).

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Causes of staggers include:• cattle weak from undernutrition (section 8.73) *animal welfare*• plant poisonings such as zamia (see section 8.56.15) and grass tree (see section 8.56.7)• pastures for example kikuyu poisoning, paspalum ergot, nitrate poisoning (see section 8.57)• chemical poisonings such as urea, organophosphate, arsenic and lead (see section 8.55)• grain poisoning (see section 8.29)• diseases including botulism (see section 8.9), blackleg (see section 8.6) and polio. (see section 8.58)

Knuckling or dragging both hind feet:• spinal injury from being ridden by other cattle• nerve injury from calving• plant poisonings such as zamia (see section 8.56.15) and grass tree. (see section 8.56.7)

Knuckling of one hind foot:• nerve damage after being down for several days (see section 7.9)• trauma and injuries (see section 8.72)• injections given into the back rump affecting the sciatic nerve. (see section 9.3)

Knuckling in front feet:• knuckling over in calves at birth can be seen and often rights itself after several weeks• in adults is seen in one foot and is usually due to nerve or muscle injury.

7.17 Nervous signs - tremors, seizures, abnormal behaviour and staggersBroad range of signs:

• blindness (see section 7.11)• head pressing or 'star gazing’ (head back) — lead poisoning (see section 8.55.1) polio (see section 8.58)• circling, or head tilt — listeriosis (see section 8.40) or ear infection from grass seed• staggers or knuckling (see section 7.16)• high stepping gait — paspalum ergot, (see section 8.57.7) or hoya vine• muscle tremors, stiffness — tick fever, (see section 8.70) *notifiable* grass tetany, (see section

8.30) paspalum ergot, (see section 8.57.7) ketosis, (see section 8.36) organophosphate poisoning (see section 8.55.4) and tetanus (see section 8.67)

• aggression from pain — trauma, (see section 8.72) burns and photosensitisation (see section 8.52)• aggression from brain involvement — tick fever (see section 8.70) and paspalum ergot (see section 8.57.7)• dullness / depression — can be many causes• seizures, convulsions or paddling — can be just before death with many conditions such as lead poisoning

(see section 8.55.1) and polio (see section 8.58)• flaccid paralysis (floppy) — paralysis tick, (see section 8.71.2) botulism (see section 8.9) and milk fever

(see section 8.48)• often die on fence lines or in unusual places because they are blind or have abnormal behaviour.

Newborn calves:• genetic malformations and congenital problems (see section 8.19)• pestivirus (see section 8.51)• akabane (see section 8.2)• lack of oxygen from a difficult birth. Signs include failure to suckle, depressed, bloodshot eyes, swollen

extremities. (see section 8.22)

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Young cattle and weaners:• lead poisoning; blindness, head pressing, aimless, convulsions and death (see section 8.55.1) *residues*• meningitis from navel ill (see section 8.49)• coccidiosis nervous form (see section 8.17)• polio (see section 8.58)• paralysis tick, presenting as flaccid (floppy) paralysis, in late winter/spring. (see section 8.71.2)

Adult cattle:• mad cow disease, always report adult cattle with nervous signs — a subsidy is available for investigations

into eligible cattle aged over 30 months of age (see section 8.43) *exotic disease alert*• tick fever (see section 8.70) *notifiable disease*• botulism, presents as flaccid (floppy) paralysis (see section 8.9)• listeriosis (see section 8.40)• grass tetany. (see section 8.30)

In cows before or soon after calving:• milk fever, presents as flaccid (floppy) paralysis, soon after calving (see section 8.48)• ketosis and pregnancy toxaemia. (see section 8.36)

On lush pasture or fodder crop:• nitrate on lush ryegrass, oats, brassicas or sorghum (see section 8.57.1)• polio on brassicas (see section 8.58)• kikuyu poisoning (see section 8.57.6)• grass tetany (see section 8.30)• paspalum ergot (see section 8.57.7)• pulpy kidney. (see section 8.60)

On blocks, loose mix or molasses:• urea poisoning (see section 8.55.2)• polio. (see section 8.58)

On silage:• listeriosis (see section 8.40)• botulism. (see section 8.9)

On grain:• grain poisoning (see section 8.29)• pulpy kidney. (see section 8.60)

Access to old sheds, old houses, dips or dumps (think chemical poisonings):• lead poisoning (see section 8.55.1) *residues*• organophosphate poisoning (see section 8.55.4)• arsenic. (see section 8.55.3)

Access to scrub (think plant poisonings):• red lantana (see section 8.56.13)• acute liver toxicity from fireweed, cestrum, poison peach or fireweed poisoning (see section 8.56)• zamia (see section 8.56.15) and grass tree (see section 8.56.7)• hoya vine.

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7.18 Overweight and obesityCauses:

• excess food intake, in particular excess grain or high nutrient supplements• cows that are barren or have missed having a calf in the previous season• bulls are reared on grain diets or in show condition or excess intake outside the working season.

Overweight cattle are more prone to:• heat stress (see section 8.32) particularly if coupled with vitamin A deficiency from long term grain feeding

or lack of green feed in prolonged drought feeding (see section 6.10.1)• lameness, particularly feet problems in the fore (which bear more weight than the hid feet).

Replacement heifer weaners:• If they become too fat at puberty, future milk production is affected as the laying down of fat in the udder

affects the development of the milk secreting tissue.

Cows: • reduced fertility and difficulties getting back in calf (see section 7.14 and section 5.9.3)• ketosis and pregnancy toxaemia (see section 8.36)• difficulties calving due to excess channel fat and ‘fat lazy calvers’, which also involves low blood calcium

and poor uterine contraction (see section 8.22)• milk fever. (see section 8.48)

Bulls:• overweight from supplements – give time to settle into paddock conditions before joining

(see section 5.8.2)• long term overweight bulls are more prone to lameness, particularly arthritis in the hind feet.

(see section 8.5)

7.19 Redwater (blood-coloured urine)The term redwater means red or brown urine. Urine is red from blood, the products of red cells rupturing in the body or from pigments in the urine.

*notifiable disease alert* Redwater on the North Coast should always be notified to a veterinarian to check for tick fever. (see section 8.70)

Other causes of redwater include:• chronic bracken fern poisoning from tumours in the bladder (see section 8.56.5)• thieleria, in a small percentage of affected cattle (see section 8.68)• urinary tract infection — pyelonephritis (see section 8.74)• bladder stones — urolithiasis (see section 8.7)• some septicaemias (blood poisoning)• occasionally after calving• grazing brassicas (see section 8.57.4) or feeding any of the cabbage family in excess (see section 6.7.9)• leptospirosis in calves, which is now a rare condition (see section 8.38)• cattle fed onions (see section 6.7.9)• snake bite. (see section 8.65)

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7.20 Respiratory signsUpper respiratory signs:

• discharge from the nose, not to be confused with drooling, which is from the mouth (see section 7.10)• discharge from both eyes• may have a light short cough or a snore.

Causes:• three day sickness; nasal discharge (see section 8.69)• early pneumonia (see section 8.54)• infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (see section 8.35)• heat stress (see section 8.32)• calf diphtheria (see section 8.13)• fever / high temperature (see section 7.12)• early pinkeye, with eye discharge. (see section 8.53)

Lower respiratory signs:• breathing difficulty, particularly on exercise and lethargy• breathing sounds coarse and increased• deep cough.

Causes:• pneumonia, (see section 8.54) including from Mannheimia haemolytica (MH) (see section 8.45) or

histophilus (see section 8.33)• lungworm (see section 8.78.4)• heat stress (see section 8.32)• hardware disease. (see section 8.31)

7.21 Scours (diarrhoea) The term scours means diarrhoea, resulting in faeces that is more loose and watery than normal and is passed more frequently. There may or may not be a difference in colour or smell from normal. It is important to determine the cause as treatments differ for each cause. This is usually undertaken by laboratory tests on faecal samples.

Scours in calvesCalf scours is a very common problem in beef calves and often occur as an outbreak. Causes include:

• colibacillosis (E. coli), is the most a common cause of scours and deaths in calves in the first week of life, often from lack of colostrum (see section 8.18)

• nutritional scours (white scours), often in years when cows have good milk supply • coccidiosis (blood scours) from as early as three weeks of age (see section 8.17)• rotavirus, scours but usually few deaths in the second week of life (see section 8.63)• salmonella (blood scours) from one week of age (see section 8.64)• cryptosporidium occurs from one to four weeks of age. (see section 8.20)

For more detail and treatment refer to section 8.14

Scours in weaners and yearlingsAs calves age, bacterial scours become less of a problem and worms become the main cause. The most common causes of diarrhoea and weight loss in weaners and yearlings on the North Coast are:

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• cooperia (small intestinal worm) and less commonly type one ostertagia (brown stomach worm), causing a watery green and sometimes foul-smelling scour, weight loss and if severe enough, death (see section 8.78.1)

• coccidiosis, which causes blood or black scour, straining and sometimes death (see section 8.17)• stomach fluke, particularly on low-lying and lower river country during the cooler months, causing a

watery green scour, dramatic weight loss and sometimes death (see section 8.66)• copper deficiency, with associated change in coat colour and ill thrift. (see section 6.9.1)

Scours in adult cattleUnlike scours in calves and weaners, scouring in adults usually presents as an individual animal problem rather than as a group. Exceptions to this are flood mud scours and nutritional scours from green feed or grain.

The most common cause of scours in adult cattle on the North Coast are:

• type two ostertagia (brown stomach worm), is the most common cause of scours in individual adult cattle and is usually secondary to old age, undernutrition or other problems (see section 8.78.3)

• nutritional scours, transient when moving onto green feed, not usually associated with weight loss• flood mud scours, acute onset of scour, sudden death or wasting in the winter and spring months, often as

an outbreak, with several cattle (see section 8.26)• bovine Johne’s disease, chronic scour and wasting in individual cattle (see section 8.10)• salmonella, usually in individual cattle (see section 8.64)• inadequate copper, selenium or cobalt can cause scours and well as ill thrift. (see section 6.9)

Some plant poisonings can cause scours:

• low grade nitrate toxicity on oats, ryegrass and forages (see section 8.57.1)• black bean seeds (see section 8.56.3)• fireweed can cause weight loss and death. (see section 8.56.6)

Several other poisonings may also have signs of scouring:

• grain poisoning, scour will have an acidic smell (see section 8.29)• organophosphate (see section 8.55.4)• arsenic will be a black or blood scour. (see section 8.55.3)

7.22 Skin signsThe skin is the largest organ in the body. Because it is the first and often the only part of the body we see, skin problems are more noticeable than other conditions.

Some skin disorders are superficial and cause cosmetic problems only. Others, like warts and ringworm, are unsightly and can cause loss of value at the saleyards or restrict entry into shows. Parasites like ticks, buffalo fly and lice can cause appreciable downgrading of hide value at the abattoir. Some other conditions, like vetch poisoning and some cases of photosensitisation and extensive dermatophilus, can be life-threatening. Lumpy skin disease is a debilitating disease which is exotic to Australia.

Lumps and bumps:• lumpy skin disease See: Lumpy skin disease at: Animal Health Australia website (AHA) *exotic*• warts (see section 8.76)• allergies including to buffalo fly (see section 8.3)• tick attachment sites (see section 8.71)• reaction at injection sites (see section 9.3)• abscesses (see section 8.1)• demodectic mange. (see section 8.44)

https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/Lumpy-Skin-Disease.pdf

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Matted hair:• lumpy skin disease See: Lumpy skin disease at: Animal Health Australia website (AHA) *exotic*.• dermatophilus. (see section 8.21)

Itchy skin disorders: • lice (see section 8.39)• buffalo fly allergy (see section 8.12)• allergies (see section 8.3)• woolly pod vetch poisoning (see section 8.57.11)• chorioptic mange. (see section 8.44)

Hair loss:• lice (see section 8.39)• buffalo fly allergy (see section 8.12)• ringworm (see section 8.62)• photosensitisation (see section 8.52)• dermatophilus in calves (see section 8.21)• allergies (see section 8.3)• urine scald in females due to urinary tract infection (see section 8.74)• faecal scald under the tail in scours (see section 7.21)• faecal and urine scald in downer cattle. (see section 7.9)

Photosensitisation — sunburn: (see section 8.52)

• red lantana poisoning (see section 8.56.13)• on green feed and fodder crops, such as lucerne, clovers, oats, ryegrass, brassicas and sorghum

(see section 8.57)• smartweed. (see section 8.56.14)

7.23 Urinary tract signsConditions of the urinary tract are seen as:

• frequent urination, often with only small amounts of urine• dribbling urine• straining to urinate and arched back• there may be a foul smell to the urine, or sometimes flecks of blood.

Causes include:• crystals in the kidney from oxalate poisoning on lush setaria (see section 8.57.2)• urinary tract infection (see section 8.74)• bladder stones. (see section 8.7)

https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/Lumpy-Skin-Disease.pdf

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8. Disease problems (in alphabetical order)This section describes the more common diseases found in cattle on the North Coast. It also includes some other significant diseases which have the potential to impact cattle markets or are exotic (do not occur in Australia). This is not intended to be a comprehensive list. Information provided is of a general nature and is not intended to replace the diagnosis, treatment or advice provided by your veterinarian.

If unsure of what a condition of concern may be, check the signs observed against the possibilities in section 7. Links are provided for further information.

Useful references

See: Cattle Health and Disease webpage (DPI).

See: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd). This website was created and is managed by Local Land Services district veterinarians as a resource for private veterinarians and livestock producers.

See: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

See: Animal health and welfare webpage (MLA).

See: Veterinary Handbook for Cattle, Sheep & Goats website (Livecorp, MLA 2020). Written for live export, but most of the information applies to on-farm.

See: Priority List of Endemic Diseases for the Red Meat Industries (GHD & MLA 2015). An excellent overview of the significant diseases of beef cattle in Australia, their priority and cost to the industry.

8.1 Abscesses and swellingsAbscesses are pus which is separated from normal tissue by a capsule of fibrous tissue. They occur in cattle of any age.

Situations when it can occur:• contaminated needles when injecting medication or vaccines, particularly if cattle are wet when injected• penetrating foreign bodies, such as grass seeds or thorns, including in the mouth• in lymph glands from infection nearby in the body• occasionally from dog attack.

Signs Abscesses under the skin are seen as swellings that develop over days or weeks. These may rupture to the surface. But with abscess deep in the muscle or internally the animal may be sick or there may be no signs. These may not be noticed until the animal is sent to the abattoir. (see section 3.5.1 and section 10.1)

Similar signs may be seen with:

• wooden tongue (see section 8.77)• swollen head lymph glands with cancer eye, even if cancer in eye is still small (see section 8.15)• swellings at injection sites can be a reaction with some vaccines, particularly oil-based products

(see section 10.2.1)• reactions to copper glycinate injection can be quite severe. (see section 6.9.1)

For treatment, consult your private veterinarian. Lancing and antibiotics may be required.


http://www.flockandherd.net.au/


https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/

http://www.veterinaryhandbook.com.au/

https://www.ghd.com/en/projects/priority-list-of-endemic-diseases-for-the-red-meat-industries.aspx

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*work health safety risk* Care should be exercised when injecting cattle, including with some vaccines and copper glycinate, as accidental self-inoculation can cause severe reactions in humans.

See: Abscess at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.2 Akabane disease“For more than 30 years Local Land Services district veterinarians have undertaken monthly monitoring for akabane and other insect-transmitted diseases as part of a national program. As well as adding to our knowledge of these diseases, this monitoring is an important part of Australia meeting international trade requirements. The monitoring is also an early warning system to detect incursions of new viruses into Australia.”

Akabane disease is a viral disease carried by biting midges. When a non-pregnant cow or heifer is infected there is no apparent sickness and she develops strong immunity. However, heifers or cows exposed to the virus for the first time during early pregnancy may abort or give birth to malformed calves.

The spread of the virus is closely monitored. For more than 30 years, district veterinarians have carried out monthly monitoring for akabane and other insect transmitted diseases as part of a national program. On the North Coast midge activity and infection with akabane is regular each summer with the vast majority of young heifers exposed to the virus in the first year of life and therefore immune by the time of joining.

Situations when it can occurAkabane disease is seen on the North Coast when naïve female cattle are introduced from virus free areas such as Victoria or western NSW and experience their first contact with the virus during early pregnancy. (see section 5.11.2). In fringe areas for the virus, such as the northern tablelands and slopes and on the south coast, virus transmission is much more irregular and these regions may experience outbreaks every decade or so.

SignsThe effect of the virus depends on the age of the developing foetus when infected:

• 30–105 days pregnancy, the cow may abort or may go to full term with damage to the calf’s brain. The calf may show an unusually domed forehead and it may stand and appear dopey or blind. It may not be able to see the cow, find the teat or suck

• 105–150 days, produces deformity in the limbs and joints, making them bent and stiff. This is called arthrogryposis or ‘curly calves’. These deformities are likely to cause calving problems.

TreatmentNo treatment is available.

PreventionIf introducing female breeders from southern and inland regions do so at a young age, so that they experience a North Coast summer and akabane exposure before joining. (see section 5.11.3) No vaccine is currently commercially available.

See: National arbovirus monitoring program webpage (AHA).


https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/maintaining-access-to-arbovirus-sensitive-markets/

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8.3 AllergiesSkin allergic reactions may be generalised (all over the body also called hives) or localised.

Affected cattle with a generalised skin allergy will have focal swellings on the skin (wheals) and sometimes swelling of the face and eyelids. Intense itching can cause secondary skin damage.

Situations when it can occur:• in the warm months, the most common cause is buffalo fly in those individual cattle allergic to their bites

They start as raised 10 mm lumps. When cattle rub they may develop large ulcers. (see section 8.12)• in the colder months, lice infection is also a common reason why cattle rub (see section 8.39)• chorioptic mange is less common and usually is seen on the tail base, but may spread to the heels, the

udder of cows and the scrotum of bulls (see section 8.44)• grazing woolly pod vetch can cause a severe generalised allergy and intense itching can cause secondary

skin damage. The condition may be severe enough to kill cattle. (see section 8.57.11)

Localised allergic reactions can be seen in individual cattle from reactions to paralysis tick attachment sites, (see section 8.71.2) or stings from bees or wasps. These may be life threatening if the swelling is in or near the throat. Reactions may also occur from copper glycinate injections. (see section 6.9.1)

Treatment of allergies is usually focused on addressing the underlying cause, so it is important to seek veterinary advice.

8.4 Anthrax *notifiable* *zoonosis*Anthrax is an important disease that does not occur on the North Coast. This information is for those who plan to introduce cattle or sheep from western areas. Cattle from these areas are also at risk of several other problems. (see section 5.11.3)

Situations when it can occurAnthrax is confined to the ‘anthrax belt’ which extends from south-west Queensland, down through Moree, Narrabri, Hay and into western Victoria. These all have alkaline soils that favour the survival of the anthrax spore. There is a risk that cases outside of the belt can occur in cattle have been recently transported from these districts. The incubation period of anthrax is short, so if deaths were to occur in introduced cattle it would be within days of arrival.

SignsAnthrax causes sudden death, that is death within hours of first signs. There will be blood from the mouth, nose and anus after death. Blood fails to clot.


• blackleg is a common disease on the North Coast and has some features in common with anthrax. Like blackleg, anthrax is a clostridial disease that occurs from grazing paddocks contaminated with the spore and quickly causes a septicaemia and death (see section 8.6)

• bracken fern poisoning causes haemorrhages and is common on the North Coast (see section 8.56.5)• crow pick after death from any cause.

*notifiable disease* *zoonosis risk* Because anthrax is a notifiable disease and has the potential to infect humans (zoonosis) any deaths in recently introduced cattle from risk areas should be notified immediately to the district veterinarian or the Emergency Animal Disease Hotline on 1800 675 888.

PreventionAn anthrax vaccine is available for use in the anthrax prone areas and its use is regulated by NSW DPI.

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From historical North Coast Local Land Services disease records it is known that early in the 20th century, multiple cases of anthrax were seen on the North Coast. Most of these were from feeding contaminated imported bone meal (this is now banned), for phosphorus deficiency, (see section 6.8.2) but some were from introduced sheep. Because of the acidic soils on the North Coast it is very unlikely that soil contamination from these past anthrax cases has persisted.

For further information and a map of districts in which anthrax may occur, See: Anthrax at: Key emergency animal diseases webpage (DPI). For human health information, See: Anthrax information for contacts – farms and similar settings at: Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health).

8.5 ArthritisThe term arthritis means inflammation of the joints. Being an enclosed space, any inflammation or swelling in the joints results in marked pain and lameness. Arthritis may have infectious or non-infectious causes.

Infectious arthritis or joint ill in calvesThis is a common condition in calves in the second month of life. One or more joints are swollen and painful. Bacteria is the most common cause, usually picked up through the navel. Treatment is with antibiotics and not always successful. Prevention is by calving into paddocks with good ground cover. (see section 8.49)

Non-infectious arthritis in adult cattle

Causes:• cattle with straight hind leg conformation have undue stress on their joints and are predisposed to

degenerative joint disease • bulls are particularly prone due to the weight that they bear when serving• overweight cattle are more prone, including bulls reared on high grain diets (see section 7.18)• trauma from a penetrating wound, such as hoof damage from a nail or sharp gravel • trauma from slipping on smooth or muddy surfaces• phosphorus deficiency can cause arthritis and is seen in phosphorus deficient areas, particularly when

grazing dry feed for prolonged periods. (see section 6.8.2)

TreatmentLittle can be done for animals suffering from non-infectious causes of arthritis. Pain from arthritis may be temporarily relieved with drugs in valuable individuals but this is rarely desirable. Prevention is most important.

Prevention:• identify and address underlying cause• do not buy bulls with poor conformation, this is heritable and bulls contribute 50 per cent of the genetics

of replacement females (see section 5.8.1)• look for slip points; exit of the crush and in the force yard (see section 5.3.3)• have an all-weather, well drained surface to yards, but avoid using gravel that is sharp • phosphorus deficiency can be addressed by mono and dicalcium phosphate supplements.

(see section 6.8.2)

See: Arthritis in large animals at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals)



https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/anthrax-contacts.aspx

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/anthrax-contacts.aspx

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/musculoskeletal-system/arthropathies-in-large-animals/arthritis-in-large-animals

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8.6 Blackleg Blackleg is a rapidly fatal bacterial infection of the muscle that occurs as outbreaks in young cattle. Unfortunately, blackleg is the most common cause of death in calves and weaners on the North Coast.

Situations when it can occur: • are not vaccinated with five-in-one, or only the first vaccine given several months before• on good pasture, fodder crop or grain, usually during damp, humid weather• may be a recent history of earth moving or flood, which has exposed the spore• are usually young cattle between four months and two years of age• less commonly in calves from two months of age and occasionally in mature cattle • the fastest growing, best conditioned animals are more likely to be affected.

Signs:• blackleg is usually an outbreak involving several head in a short period of time• the duration of signs is only a few hours, so are often just found dead• lameness and swelling in one limb, cattle become quiet and then go down and die soon after• the bodies of cattle go off quickly and often there is white foam from the nose which can be blood stained• one limb may be swollen and there will be a crackly feel over the affected muscle• the most common sites are the rump, loin or shoulder, these are typical sites of bruising when young

cattle play• when cut, the muscle is dark, has a distinctive sweet smell and lots of gas bubbles.


• bracken fern poisoning, which is also very common in young cattle on the North Coast. This usually occurs as an outbreak and blood will be seen from the nose or anus or black faeces (see section 8.56.5)

• green cestrum poisoning is often seen in young cattle and can result in an outbreak of deaths (see section 8.56.8)

• mother of millions poisoning results in the sudden death of significant numbers of usually young cattle. Cattle may have blood from the anus or black faeces (see section 8.56.9)

• bloat on prone pastures, such as clover or lucerne (see section 8.8)• pulpy kidney, which results in the deaths of unvaccinated weaners or yearlings on good feed. Carcases go

off quickly (see section 8.60)• anthrax results in deaths in the days after arrival from the western ‘anthrax belt’. Signs are sudden death

in several cattle, blood from nose and carcases go off quickly. (see section 8.4, above) *notifiable disease*

Life cycle and spreadThe dormant spore is found in the soil. Properties with a past history of infection have high levels of spore. The spore lasts decades, so there may be no living memory of past deaths. Spores may wash down with a flood or be unearthed with soil movement. When ingested, the spore passes through the intestinal wall and spreads via the blood to muscle tissue. There it lies dormant, as it cannot grow in the presence of oxygen. When the muscle is bruised the bacteria in the muscle multiply and release toxins. Bruising can occur from yarding, young cattle riding each other or ‘play’ fighting. This progresses to a local gas gangrene and quickly spreads through the body, causing death.

The carcasses of cattle which die with blackleg have many millions of spores which can then lie dormant in the soil for many years and so should be deep buried or burnt.

TreatmentIf individuals are identified early, treatment with penicillin at high doses, consult a veterinarian. However, in most situations the cattle are simply found dead.

PreventionBlackleg vaccination is strongly recommended for all cattle in all herds on the North Coast. Vaccinate as calves—

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two doses, four to six weeks apart and then give annual boosters. Do not assume that introduced cattle are vaccinated. There are a number of five-in-one vaccines available, as well in combination with other vaccines. (see section 10.2.1)

See: Blackleg in cattle at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.7 Bladder stones (urolithiasis)Steers may develop stones or calculi in the bladder or sheath if given high grain diets. These stones can cause the bladder to rupture due to urine build-up.

SignsRestlessness and discomfort are seen and the animal will make frequent attempts to urinate. Urine may dribble from the urethra if it is not totally blocked. Often after the bladder or urethra ruptures, the animal seems a bit improved but quickly gets worse and dies of toxaemia. Treatment is not usually economic.


• oxalate poisoning, particularly on setaria (see section 8.57.2)• urinary tract infection or pyelonephritis. (see section 8.74)

So speak with your veterinarian.

Ensuring the diet is balanced will help limit this problem (particularly calcium : phosphorous ratios). Access to adequate water and dietary additives, such as salt and ammonium chloride, may be necessary.

See: Urolithiasis at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.8 BloatBloat occurs from gas or foam produced in the rumen, which results in rapid swelling of the abdomen and often death. Because it is feed related, bloat tends to occur as outbreaks, with several cattle affected on the property.

Situations when it can occur:• years when there are pastures abundant in clover, often following a winter with little grass cover — clover

likes the light (see section 8.57.5)• lush kikuyu• cattle on grain self-feeders that are near empty and have a build-up of fines, particularly if off grain for

several hours, such as for yarding. (see section 8.29)

SignsSudden onset of swelling of the abdomen high on the left hand side. Deaths from bloat can be quite quick as they are caused by asphyxiation (compression of the lungs by the expanding rumen) and compression of the blood supply (again by the expanding rumen).


• obstruction from a foreign body, such as a bush lemon, choko or mango (see section 8.16)• torsion of the fourth stomach or displaced abomasum (see section 8.28)• acute oxalate poisoning, particularly on setaria — bloat is from the dramatic fall in blood calcium which

paralyses the rumen muscles (see section 8.57.2)• kikuyu poisoning — distension of the rumen is with fluid, rather than gas. (see section 8.57.6)

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/blackleg-cattle

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/urinary-system/noninfectious-diseases-of-the-urinary-system-in-large-animals/urolithiasis-in-ruminants

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TreatmentModerate cases can be effectively treated with a dose of surfactant, 350 ml bloat oil or if unavailable 100–200 ml of either vegetable or paraffin oil. Surfactants act by breaking down the foam and can be delivered by drench or stomach tube. Beware of stomach tubing as a dose of surfactant to the lungs instead of the stomach can kill an animal.

Severe cases must be treated immediately. If a veterinarian cannot arrive quickly, the swelling must be relieved with a sharp trocar or other sharp instrument to relieve pressure. Veterinary follow-up is necessary to minimise complications and to provide antibiotics.

PreventionThe risk of frothy bloat can be reduced by the following:

• do not improve the entire pasture but leave some rough fodder around the outside• do not graze hungry stock on bloaty pasture, feed hay or dry feed to achieve gut fill first• give access in the afternoon rather than in the morning• strip graze for short periods to limit intake • suspect pasture can be sprayed with bloat oil (according to manufacturer’s directions)• medicate animals to reduce the risk of bloat. These include bloat blocks, medicated water, feed

supplement containing monensin or rumen capsules.

The risk of grain bloat can be minimised by ensuring that cattle do not have access to fines when the bins are near empty. This is particularly important if they have been off grain for several hours, such as for yarding.

See: Bloat in cattle and sheep (DPI 2014) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.9 BotulismOn the North Coast botulism is a significant cause of death, particularly in the winter months. It is one of the few diseases that can cause deaths in a large number of adult cattle. (see section 7.8) Nationally it is ranked in the top 10 causes of economic loss to beef producers. See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015). Cattle with botulism are not the cause of the botulism in humans, which is from eating poorly made processed foods.

Life cycleBotulism is a food or water poisoning. The botulism bacteria multiply in decomposing animal and vegetable matter in the absence of oxygen and produce a powerful toxin. When ingested the toxin is absorbed into the blood and quickly binds to the nerve endings, interfering with muscle contraction.

Situations when it can occur:• decaying animal or plant material in water sources are the most common form (see section 6.2.1)• silage feeding from silage that has not achieved a low pH — often large numbers are affected

(see section 6.7.5)• bone chewing in phosphorus-deficient soils (see section 6.8.2)• dead birds which have drowned in water troughs or molasses tubs• poultry manure application to pasture, drift from nearby poultry manure application, access to poultry

manure dumps or run off from poultry pens. These situations may also not meet ruminant feeding ban requirements. (see section 8.43)

Those properties that have had a past history of botulism are at highest risk.

SignsBotulism is a highly fatal flaccid (floppy) paralysis. The toxin affects the spinal nerves that control muscles. When first affected, cattle may drool saliva, their tongues may hang out and they may have a stiff gait when walking.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/111411/Bloat-in-cattle-and-sheep.pdf



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They deteriorate and are soon unable to stand or rise. Often the condition is first noticed when cattle go down with their heads twisted back on their flank.

As the condition worsens, the muscles controlling breathing are affected and respiration becomes more laboured. Most cases die within one to two days from respiratory failure. A small proportion of cattle may be down for up to five days. Recovery is uncommon. Length of time and chances of recovery are likely to be related to the amount of toxin ingested.


• milk fever, this occurs soon after calving (see section 8.48)• acute oxalate poisoning, particularly on setaria. (see section 8.57.2)

TreatmentThere is no specific treatment. General nursing for cattle while they are down, (see section 7.9) or humane destruction. (see section 3.3.5)

DiagnosisThe diagnosis of botulism is based on the typical clinical signs and by your veterinarian eliminating other possible causes. There are no typical changes at post-mortem. A test is available for tissues and suspect material. However, because cattle are very sensitive to botulism, the amount of toxin required to cause clinical signs can be so minute that it may not be detectable on tests. So a negative test can be meaningless.

PreventionVaccination is strongly recommended for all cattle herds on the North Coast. Botulism is a common disease and the vaccine is cheap and effective. (see section 10.2.1) Vaccination schedule varies with the product, see label.

To prevent bone chewing, supplement with phosphorus, which has been practiced in those areas on the North Coast for more than 100 years. (see section 6.8.2) Check water supplies and molasses tubs regularly for dead animals.

See: Botulism in cattle (DPI 2007) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.10 Bovine Johne’s disease (BJD) *notifiable*Johne’s disease is a chronic wasting disease caused by bacteria Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis.

Nationally BJD is considered one of the more important diseases of cattle; See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

Cases of BJD are uncommon in beef herds on the North Coast. BJD is more common in dairy herds than in beef herds because the stocking rates are higher and calves may be exposed to a higher level of faeces from adult cattle. Beef herds with dairy origins or herds adjoining dairy farms, are at higher risk.

BJD in cattle is caused by a different strain of bacteria from the disease in sheep and the strains rarely cross-infect, so the diseases in cattle and sheep are regarded as separate diseases.

Life cycleBJD is spread by oral contact with the soil contaminated with the faeces of infected cattle. The Johne’s bacteria is very hardy and can survive up to 12 months on the ground. Young calves are highly susceptible to infection but are more susceptible up until 18 months of age. Cattle over 18 months of age are considered more resistant to picking up infection.

Cattle with a strong immune system are more resistant to picking up the infection, hence the age influence. Also a healthy immune system is important in holding the development of disease in an infected animal. For this reason, cattle with signs of infection are only a small proportion of cattle that actually have the infection in their intestines.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/botulism



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Those cattle that have the infection but show no signs of disease can still shed the bacteria in their faeces and are called carriers.

Stress from nutrition or from other infections can weaken the immune system and trigger a carrier to express signs of the disease.

The disease is spread within a herd from animal to animal through faeces, this can be at suckling from faecal contamination on the teat or from ingestion of soil contaminated with the BJD bacteria. Although oral infection is the main method of BJD spread, calves can also be infected in the womb and from milk from infected cows.

Spread between herds is from an infected carrier animal. This may be from purchases or strays. Carriers often have no clinical signs but may succumb to the infection at a later date. Transmission through the spread of soil via flooding is less common but can be an issue on floodplains and irrigation areas. The spread by contaminated vehicles or people are regarded as possible, but much less likely.

SignsThe Johne’s bacteria usually remain dormant in the animal’s body for at least 18 months and to up to several years. Some cattle eventually succumb to the disease (clinical). Other cattle remain free of signs (sub-clinical).

Sub-clinical stage: Many cattle infected with BJD never show signs of the disease, they are sold or culled for other reasons and so may not be in the herd long enough to express the disease.

Spreader or shedder stage: Those cattle with infection in the intestines can at some point (in the disease process) shed the bacteria in their faeces. The cattle are called ‘shedders’.

Clinical stage: If the infection progress and the bowel lining is damaged sufficiently the animal will scour and lose weight. They maintain a good appetite, but the weight loss and diarrhoea progress to be so severe that the animals eventually die after three to six months. These cattle are called ‘clinicals’. BJD spreads slowly within a herd, so very few clinical cases may be seen.

*notifiable disease* If you see these signs it is important to notify your district veterinarian. Bovine Johne’s Disease is a notifiable disease.


• type two ostertagia (brown stomach worm) (see section 8.78.3)• flood mud scours (yersinia) however, the clinical course is shorter. (see section 8.26)

DiagnosisClinical cases are diagnosed with blood, confirmatory faecal tests and on tissue samples at slaughter.

Shedders are detected by faecal culture. In the past this has been time consuming taking three to four months. DNA technology has reduced this time.

Sub-clinical cattle that have not started shedding are far more difficult to diagnose, requiring slaughter and collection of bowel tissues to determine whether BJD was present.

TreatmentThere is no effective treatment for BJD cases.

EradicationWhen considering control or eradication the key points are:

• BJD bacteria can survive on the ground for up to 12 months• cattle over 18 months of age are considered resistant to infection• infected cattle do not shed BJD bacteria in their dung till at least two years of age.

Where infection is detected in introduced cattle, eradication is usually straight forward if stock that were under 18 months of age at any time from the date of introduction to 12 months after the infected cow left the property, are culled for slaughter.

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However, where infection is detected or suspected in home-bred stock, eradication is more difficult because many more cattle may be involved. The most reliable method of eradication in these herds is destocking. After the infected herd has been removed, the property needs at least 12 months for the infection on the ground to die out. During this time, short-term rotation of trade stock may occur on the property. Yearling cattle can be grazed for no more than 12 months and then sent for slaughter. At the end of the 12-month destocking period, and removal of any remaining trade stock, the property is considered clean and restocking can commence.

In some situations, BJD eradication can be attempted by a test and cull program. However, the blood tests are poor at finding infected animals so at least three clean herd tests at two-year intervals are needed as well as management changes to stop calves becoming infected.

PreventionCattle owners can minimise the risk of introducing BJD by only introducing stock from low-risk sources and by minimising straying of cattle on to the property. If sending cattle less than 18 months old to agistment or lease paddocks, restrict any contact with cattle whose BJD status is unknown.

A series of articles on BJD is found at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd). See: Johne’s disease in cattle webpage (AHA). See: Johne’s disease in cattle at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

Industry BJD programs and biosecurityIndustry funding for BJD ceased in mid-2016. At this time quarantine no longer applied to herds affected by BJD. Since October 2017 on-farm biosecurity plans are a requirement under the livestock production assurance program. (see section 3.2.1) Johne’s disease is embedded in this program. It is the responsibility of vendors to declare any BJD testing and history of cases in the past five years on a national cattle health declaration. As part their on-farm biosecurity plans, cattle buyers are also encouraged to purchase cattle with a National Cattle Health Declaration. See: National Cattle Health Declaration (Farm Biosecurity 2018).

A risk profiling tool for Johne’s disease is available, called the Johne’s Beef Assurance Score (J-BAS). See: Johne’s beef assurance score (AHA 2020). See: Livestock production assurance guidebook (LPA 2019).

8.11 Bovine papular stomatitis This is a mild and self-limiting viral infection in young cattle. It causes small lumps (called papules) which mature to ulcers in the mouth and on the lips and muzzle. The ulcers are shallow, about 15 mm wide and surrounded by a round, red rim. The lesions can often be confused with exotic diseases.


• foot-and-mouth disease (see section 8.27) and rinderpest *exotic diseases*• the mucosal disease form of pestivirus. (see section 8.51)

If you suspect bovine papular stomatitis it is important to contact your veterinarian to have it confirmed and to exclude the possibility of other, more important conditions.

See: Bovine papular stomatitis and pseudocowpox in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.12 Buffalo flyBuffalo flies are a cattle-biting fly that occur during the warmer months and cause nuisance, allergies, sores and loss of production through less time grazing. The cost of treatment for buffalo fly is also a significant part of a cattle producer’s annual animal health budget (see section 10.3). Buffalo fly is ranked the third most important disease for the Australian beef industry. See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat Industries (GHD & MLA 2015).


https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/johnes-disease/

https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/johnes-disease/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/bjd


https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/J-BAS.pdf

https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/J-BAS.pdf


https://www.msdvetmanual.com/integumentary-system/pox-diseases/bovine-papular-stomatitis



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They entered Australia from Asia in the mid 1800’s and have steadily moved south. They were first detected on the North Coast in the late 1970s. They are now firmly established on the North Coast and occasionally detected in areas such as the western slopes.

Life cycle and spreadThe buffalo fly is a small, dark grey fly about half the size of the common housefly. Like a flying fox, when resting and feeding it has its head facing downwards. It has a short piercing mouthpiece adapted for blood sucking. The adult fly spends most of its life on a beast, only leaving to lay eggs in fresh dung.

While on a beast it is very mobile, moving over the body and between animals. Eggs are laid in fresh dung and hatch and emerge as adults within nine to 11 days. The flies are sensitive to cool weather and during winter are found in only a few areas, such as the Tweed coast. In milder conditions however, significant populations may survive over winter and rapidly build up in spring. Climate prediction models suggest that buffalo fly may eventually spread as far south as Sydney.

Spread between herds is easy as the flies can travel 10 km in search of a host. Movement of infested stock is also responsible for the spread of the fly.

SignsThe buffalo fly feeds on blood. It bites the animal’s skin then sucks blood from the damaged area. When present in sufficient numbers, buffalo flies can cause severe irritation and rubbing, with raw, bleeding areas around the eye and on the neck. Apart from the obvious distress suffered by the animal, there will be loss of productivity.

Some animals are allergic to the fly bite, even with low fly numbers. These are seen as raised lumps called wheals in the early stages. This progresses to sores when cattle rub.

Some individual cattle carry higher fly burdens. Bulls are often found to have the heaviest fly burdens.

TreatmentNon-chemical approaches to fly control

Non-chemical options can reduce the fly numbers at best and are not likely to achieve the same level of control as chemical options. However, with the emergence of chemical resistance the use of non-chemical options needs to be considered more closely. Either used with chemicals or in fringe areas for fly as a stand-alone. For example, non-chemical at the beginning and end of the season and chemical options at the peak of the fly season.

Non-chemical approaches include:

• cull animals that appear to be allergic to the flies• dung beetles can assist in buffalo fly control by burying dung pats. If dung beetles are not active on your

property, consider introducing some. Summer-active beetles are more likely to have an impact on buffalo fly than winter-active species. They are also great for soil health (see section 8.24)

• buffalo fly traps may be of use on farms where cattle are able to pass through the trap on a regular basis See: Industry evaluation and use of the buffalo fly tunnel trap final report (MLA 2006)

• a fly repellent product has a label claim for aid in fly control. It contains essential oils and is applied by back-rubber.

Chemical options

There are currently three chemical group options; synthetic pyrethroids (SPs), organophosphates (OPs) and macrocyclic lactones (MLs).

There are four application methods: pour-ons, sprays, ear tags and back rubbers.

Principles of treatment:• use only chemicals registered for the purpose and as per the label — never off-label or ‘home remedies’• observe safety, withholding periods and export slaughter intervals• start treating only when fly numbers are significant (>200) or if cattle start to develop skin lesions• where possible coordinate treatments with neighbours to maximise the geographical are covered• rotate the chemical groups. This means changing the chemical group each year and even within a year

https://www.mla.com.au/contentassets/5398c13604c74808afa6299c0f0b8874/nbp.322_final_report.pdf

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• if using ear tags, consider a rotation system of one year using ML tags, then one year using OP tags, then one year combined SP/ ML tags. Don’t use tags of the same group for more than one year

• change groups within a season. Recommended example; start the season with an SP spray, then apply tags the combined SP/ML tag late December. Then finish the season after the tags are removed with an ML pour-on

• capitalise on the ML by giving it at the time when treatment for worms, lice or ticks would be undertaken• cattle back-rubbers are convenient because the cattle treat themselves. The rubs are slung between posts

or trees. Have it hung on a slight angle and at the right height for both adult cattle and calves. When first used, cattle may need to be held in a small paddock with the rub to learn to use it.

Consider the advantages and disadvantages of application methods:

Deciding the best chemical application method

Applicationmethod

Chemical Group Advantages Disadvantages

Ear tag OP, SP and MLCombined SP/ML

Effective for up to 16 weeks if no resistance

Usually only need one application per season

Nil withholding period and ESI for most tags (check the label)

Labour intensive to apply

Cost of tags

Tags should be removed at the end of the registered use period

Tags should be removed before slaughter

Not removing tags may promote resistance

Spray OP / SP combined Relatively cheap if don’t include labour

Treatments can include tick and lice control

Multiple treatments required throughout season due to short duration of effect

Up to 21 day ESI

Chemicals must be mixed and applied correctly

Pour-on ML, SP Easy to apply

Some products treat other parasites e.g. worms, ticks and lice

Macrocyclic lactones (MLs) are good to finish the season on to help avoid chemical resistance

Long ESI for some products

Repeated treatments required if the sole treatment

Cost

Back-rubbers OP Low cost

Cattle treat themselves

No control over dose per animal

Cattle need to learn to use

10 day ESI

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Chemical resistanceBuffalo fly are an obligate cattle parasite and have no other hosts. So as with other obligate parasites, such as cattle tick, there is strong selection pressure for chemical resistance. Resistance is emerging as a major problem for cattle producers, particularly against the SPs in the northern rivers. Resistance should be suspected if the chemical fails to achieve the label claim for length of activity. If this is the case contact the company concerned or speak with a North Coast Local Land Services district veterinarian. Strategies are being developed to tackle resistance including combination products, that contain more than one chemical group. This includes a combined SP/ML ear tag due for release in late 2021, which appears to overcome the problem of emerging SP resistance. Finishing the fly season with an alternative treatment (see above) reduces the chance of resistant flies overwintering for the next fly season.

See: Buffalo flies and their control at: Health and disease webpage (DPI). See: The Cattle Parasite Atlas (MLA 2005).

See: Recommendations for integrated buffalo fly control (MLA 2011). See: Flyboss webpage at: ParaBoss website.

8.13 Calf diphtheriaThis is a bacterial infection of the upper throat or the mouth of calves and weaners. It is caused by the same bacteria that can cause foot infection in cattle. Affected calves drool, mouth breath, cough, have difficulty swallowing and foul-smelling breath. They lose condition and may die. These signs can be seen with several exotic diseases, so it is important to contact your veterinarian.

Treatment early in the disease with antibiotics is usually successful. Consult your veterinarian. Like any infection in young cattle, immune suppression from pestivirus may be the trigger for this disease and a pestivirus test should be done. (see section 8.51)

See: Calf diphtheria in Hereford calves article at: Flock and Herd webpage (Flock and Herd).

8.14 Calf scours Scours in the first month of life are more common in intensively reared calves. They can be infectious or dietary in origin.

Infectious causes:• E.coli is a common cause of scours in calves in the first month of life, particularly in the first week. It is

often secondary to other causes of scours (see section 8.18)• rotavirus (see section 8.63)• cryptosporidium (see section 8.20)• salmonella (see section 8.64)• coccidiosis from as early as three to four weeks of age. (see section 8.17)

Dietary scours in calves on their mothers is usually when cows have plenty of milk in a good season. In poddy calves it is from overfeeding or mixing calf milk replacer too dilute.

Situations when it can occur:• insufficient colostrum and therefore little passive immunity• immune suppression from pestivirus infection (see section 8.51)• in intensively reared calves due to poor hygiene or feeding techniques (see section 5.11.6)• calves congregating on contaminated areas of the paddock, such as cattle camps• calves of low birth weight or on cows with poor milk supply• calves on cows with an oversupply of milk when feed conditions are good, in the case of nutritional scours.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/110915/buffalo-flies-and-their-control.pdf

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/cattle-parasite-atlas/

https://publications.mla.com.au/login/eaccess?elink=GaSQUNSLcJsLsDrpSKSK

https://www.paraboss.com.au/flyboss.php


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SignsRapid onset of watery scour. Calves have limited fat reserves, so can run out of energy quickly, particularly if of low weight, on cows with insufficient milk and in cold weather. Damage to the bowel lining causes loss of vital salts and fluids, resulting in weakness, dehydration and shock.

TreatmentIt is important to identify the cause early in an outbreak so that specific treatment and prevention can be given. However, general treatments are the same, regardless of the cause.

Replacing water and electrolytes lost from the body is the first and most important task in scour treatment. Use commercial electrolyte replacers.

“Most calves with scours would be between seven to 10 per cent dehydrated. To rehydrate requires replacing at least that amount in fluids. For a 30 kg calf, that equates to two to three litres a day. (30 kg x 7 % = 2 litres, 30 kg x 10 % = 3 litres). This is best given in three or four doses. Because salts are lost as well as water, this is best given as a balanced electrolyte solution.”

For bucket reared calves, take off milk for the first 24 hours then alternate electrolyte with milk on the next day and return to full milk on the third day. Milk should not be fed within one hour of electrolytes.

Calves on cows are more difficult to manage. Mildly affected cases can be given electrolytes while left on the cow but most cases should be removed from the cow for 24 hours, given electrolytes and then returned to the cow before she is too engorged.

General nursing support, artificial warmth and shelter from the weather are critical. Calves with scours have poor circulation, low energy reserves and are unable to maintain their body temperature. Most cases of scours respond well to electrolytes and nursing, so antibiotics are not needed. Specific treatments are available for cryptosporidium and coccidiosis. Probiotics to assist in re-establishment of a normal gut flora may be of benefit.

PreventionIn hand reared calves or poddies:

• ensure calves receive colostrum as it contains antibodies that protect against gut pathogens. At least two litres is needed within 12 hours of birth. Colostrum can be stored frozen for up to 12 months. Thaw slowly

• clean calf feeders, buckets, feed troughs and pens regularly• operate on an ‘all in all out’ basis between groups. Clean all pens once the shed or yards are empty• rodent control, especially to prevent salmonella• ensure water supply is clean, particularly to prevent salmonella and cryptosporidium• ensure calf milk replacer is made at the recommended strength• do not overfeed and do not feed too frequently.

There are vaccines against e. coli and salmonella. Breeders are vaccinated prior to calving and the immunity is passed to the calf in the colostrum.


See: Diarrhea in neonatal ruminants at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.15 Cancer eyeThe disease was common in Herefords in the past. Stud and commercial breeders should be proud of the way selective breeding has greatly reduced the incidence in recent years. Abattoir statistics confirm that the condition is now at a very low level. Hooded and pigmented eyes and eyelids are less susceptible to cancer. These are genetically related and highly heritable. Other white faced cattle, including Friesians, are also susceptible.


https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/intestinal-diseases-in-ruminants/diarrhea-in-neonatal-ruminants

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SignsCancer eye occurs on the eyeball, lid or third eyelid. The cancer is usually slow growing, small and wart-like to start with. It then grows in size and may spread to the lymph glands of the jaw and elsewhere in the body. There seems to be an inverse relationship between cancer growth in the eye and spread. Those that are locally fast growing are often slow to spread to the body. Whereas those that seem to be small, can in fact spread early through the body.

*animal welfare*

To prevent animal welfare problems, take the following action with cancer eye affected cattle:

• do not leave cows with cancer eye to rear another calf, this is a significant animal welfare issue — act early• send direct to the abattoir — not to the saleyards • only send early cases as holding and testing suspect carcasses only to have them condemned, costs the

meatworks and the producer money — even small cancer in the eye may already have spread, so check glands below the ear for lumps

• cattle with cancer eyes that are weeping, bleeding or smell are not fit to load, (see section 3.7.2) these should be humanely destroyed on far (see section 3.3.5)

• contact the abattoir or your veterinarian if unsure.

Treatment:• cull at early stage — this a heritable condition, so if breeders are treated, their calves should not be kept • surgical treatment — early detection increases success. Veterinarians may scrape or freeze small tumours• in advanced cases, eye removal is an option. However, cattle blind in one eye can become a *work health

safety issue* to the producer and staff at the abattoir. They tend to circle in the yards (with the good eye on the rail and not the handler), taking the other cattle with them.

PreventionSelect for pigmented, hooded eyelids and pigmented eyeballs. Cull susceptible cattle with unpigmented, prominent eyes. Do not breed replacements from affected or surgically treated cows.

See: Cancer eye in cattle (DPI 2015) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

See: Is the animal fit to load? (MLA 2019).

8.16 ChokeCattle are notorious for attempting to swallow objects that are too large. For this reason, oesophageal foreign bodies are common in cattle. Each winter on the North Coast, cattle are treated for bush lemons caught in the throat. Other causes of obstructions include other citrus, mangoes, chokos, corn cobs and items of garbage. (see section 8.56.1)

As cattle are then unable to swallow saliva, it tends to hang like thick strings from their mouth, they quickly become dehydrated and run into electrolyte imbalance if they are unable to swallow saliva. As a result, they quickly become weak and stagger. If gas cannot pass, then they bloat. Contact your veterinarian for treatment as soon as possible.

To reduce the risk of choke, do not allow cattle access to house yards or home orchards. There is also the risk of residues and poisoning. (see section 3.4.1 and section 8.56)

See: Esophageal obstruction in large animals at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/584226/cancer-eye-in-cattle.pdf


https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/diseases-of-the-esophagus-in-large-animals/esophageal-obstruction-in-large-animals

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8.17 Coccidiosis (black or blood scours)This is the main common cause of black or blood scours in calves aged one to four months on the North Coast. It can also be seen in weaners and rarely yearling cattle.

The protozoa which causes the disease is produced in high numbers in affected calves, causing heavy contamination of the soil in yards and paddocks, particularly on cattle camps.

Situations when it can occur:• mild moist conditions when there are young calves grazing and there is a high stock density • poddy calves reared in small yards• overstocking with high pasture contamination and short pasture from overgrazing• effective high stock density when cattle congregate in damp gullies on short pasture species such as couch

for the green pick, even in drier times, also calf nurseries on cattle camps• when management practices encourage cattle to congregate, for example near a gateway in anticipation

of the daily movement onto forage and short pasture near handfeeding sites.

SignsAffected calves have dark or black faeces and are often seen with their tails held up and straining to pass faeces. The straining can be severe enough to cause rectal prolapse. The hair under the tail may be scalded. Diarrhoea may not always be seen, but dark faeces, blood clots and casts in the dung are common.

Occasionally coccidiosis can affect the brain causing nervous coccidiosis, in which calves become depressed, tremor, have convulsions and die.


• salmonella (see section 8.64)• bracken fern poisoning (see section 8.56.5)• arsenic poisoning (see section 8.55.3)• survivors of mother of millions poisoning. (see section 8.56.9)

Treatment:• toltrazuril (Baycox®) as a single oral drench is the preferred treatment• sulphonamide antibiotics are also effective, but have the potential to cause residues• sick calves may require oral electrolytes to correct dehydration. Because calves become anaemic with

coccidiosis, supplementary feeding of concentrates and an iron supplement help in recovery• treatment of nervous coccidiosis is unrewarding.

PreventionIn the face of an outbreak treat all calves three to eight weeks of age with toltrazuril (Baycox®) as a single oral drench. Because of pasture contamination, it is wise to change paddocks. Give thought as to the source of the contamination, see above, and employ strategies to prevent future outbreaks.

See: Coccidiosis webpage (MLA).

See: The Cattle Parasite Atlas (MLA 2005).

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/coccidiosis/


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8.18 Colibacillosis (E. coli)E. coli is a broad group of closely related bacteria and are common in the environment. Some strains are particularly infectious for cattle and cause a range of diseases. Other strains are known to cause disease in humans.

E. coli calf scoursThis is the most common infectious cause of calf scours in the first few days of life. Affected calves have a foul smelling, yellow to white diarrhoea are very sick and can die quickly. It is common with insufficient colostrum or failure to suckle in the first 12 hours of life. (see section 5.6.1) Treatment with electrolytes, warmth and nursing needs to be quick and aggressive to save these calves. (see section 8.14)

*work health safety risk* Some strains of E. coli have the potential to infect humans so wear gloves and wash hands when handling calves with scours. (see section 4.1)

Other E. coli related problems:• diarrhoea in the second month of life• complications after recovery from diarrhoea such as joint-ill (see section 8.49) or pneumonia

(see section 8.54)• mastitis in cows, known as environmental mastitis — this is more common in wet seasons from mud

contamination of the udder (see section 8.46)• E.coli (coliforms) can be a common contaminant of water supply and counts are a measure of water

quality. (see section 6.2.1)

A vaccine is available and used in specialist calf rearing operations or herds that have probelms with E. coli scours and deaths. The mothers of the calves are vaccinated before calving to protect the calves.

See: Colisepticemia and diarrhea in neonatal ruminants at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).


8.19 Congenital diseasesCongenital diseases are those that exist at the time of birth. The signs or symptoms may be present at birth, or not be evident until later in life

Congenital conditions may be from:• infections during pregnancy, such as akabane disease, pestivirus and neospora (see section 8.2,

section 8.51 and section 8.50)• genetic (inherited) disorders, some breeds or lines are predisposed — tests are now available for many

inherited diseases, See: Genetic testing webpage (DPI)• hormonal, such as freemartins (females with a male twin)• chance abnormalities during pregnancy, such as hernias or heart defects• chemical.

Signs depend on the condition: • abortion, stillborn or death soon after birth (see section 7.1)• others do not express until later in life function (e.g. mannosidosis)• some involve only a part of the body, e.g. locking kneecap in stringhalt. (see section 8.37)

If you suspect a congenital problem, seek veterinary assistance. It is important if the problem is genetic or infectious origin.

See: Congenital and inherited anomalies at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/about-us/services/laboratory-services/veterinary/genetic-testing


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8.20 CryptosporidiumThis protozoa infection is a common cause of diarrhoea in calves in the first month of life.

Situations when it can occur:• contamination of calves drinking water• calves congregated in a small area, such as poddy reared and examples in coccidiosis (see section 8.17)• with or following rotavirus infection.

SignsCalves become weak and dehydrated. The scour is pasty through to watery, and yellow to grey.


• colibacillosis (E. coli) (see section 8.18)• rotavirus. (see section 8.63)

TreatmentA specific treatment for cryptosporidium is available, halofuginone (Halocur ®), available only through your veterinarian. Before use, it is essential to have had the disease confirmed by your veterinarian. It should be given within the first 24 hours of signs. As with other causes of scours, fluid and electrolytes to correct dehydration, warmth and general nursing are critical. (see section 8.14)

PreventionIn the event of a confirmed cryptospiridium outbreak, remove at risk calves from where they are, preferably to an alternative water source. Treat all future newborn calves with halofuginone as long as a risk of infection continues to exist. Hygiene in the calf rearing area is critical.

*work health safety risk*

The disease is a zoonosis and can cause diarrhoea in people. The most common source in humans (as with calves) is contaminated water. However, infected calves are a risk, particularly to in-contact children. Routinely wash hands after handling calves. Wear gloves when handling calves with scours. Do not allow children around scouring calves. (see section 4.1.5) See: Cryptosporidiosis fact sheet (NSW Health 2012).

See: Cryptosporidium calf diarrhoea transmission risk to humans at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).

8.21 Dermatophilus (‘dermo’ or rain scald)Situations when it can occur This skin infection is seen in cattle in humid, moist conditions. The bacteria invade the skin when it is wet for long periods or damaged by ticks or flies. Young cattle are the most susceptible.

SignsThe affected hair coat has a matted, tufted, ‘dried paint brush’ appearance. Dermo is mainly seen along the backline and around the mouth. It is not itchy. In severe cases dermo can cause the skin to be scalded over a large area and in severe cases calves become debilitated and can die. Occasionally the infection is restricted to the back of the heels.

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/cryptosporidiosis.aspx

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/index.html

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Similar signs can be seen with:

• photosensitisation, which is also is more common in wet, overcast conditions (see section 8.52)• chemical scald, e.g. pour-on products applied when hot after left in the sun• lumpy skin disease. *exotic*

TreatmentContact your veterinarian as calves with extensive dermo may require fluids, nursing and prolonged treatment with antibiotics. These severe cases are often immune suppressed, for example from pestivirus, so check if infected. (see section 8.51) Isolation of affected cattle will help prevent the spread, particularly when it is wet. Control ticks and flies if these appear to be involved.

*possible zoonosis* Dermatophilus is uncommon in people, but infected calves could be a risk. Wash hands after handling. (see section 4.1)

See: Dermatophilosis at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.22 Difficult birth (dystocia)Signs of calvingIn a normal calving, just prior to giving birth the cow will bag up and the area around the vulva will soften and swell. There is usually a clear mucoid discharge from the vulva. She will tend to be restless and separate herself from the rest of the herd. Most calves are born front feet first. Calves that are coming backwards have the hind legs protrude through the vulva. When the hind legs of a calf coming backwards are still inside the womb facing forwards the birth is termed a breech.

Signs of dystociaLook out for restlessness with an elevated tail and/or marked straining for one hour with no progress. Visible feet or a waterbag but little progress after one hour.

It is important to contact a veterinarian as soon as possible. Delay may mean not only the loss of the calf, but the cow as well.

TreatmentIf you plan to assist a cow in trouble calving do not persist for more than 10 minutes. Applying excessive force may get the calf locked in the pelvis or cause severe trauma. Call your veterinarian. The longer the delay in calving the less the likelihood of a successful outcome.

When the calf is too large for the birth canal (foetal oversize) it is unlikely that the problem can be solved without veterinary assistance. In some cases, a caesarean may be required.

If the calf is dead, an embryotomy may be required. The calf is cut up while still inside the cow into removable pieces. Call your veterinarian.

Cows that have abortion, premature calving, difficult birth, caesarean, embryotomy or retained membranes are likely to have reduced fertility and consideration should be given to culling rather than re-joining. If they are retained, they should be veterinary checked before joining.

*work health safety risk* Assisted calvings can be messy and in the rush to assist a cow wearing gloves and a mask may be overlooked. Foetal fluids may expose the handler to several diseases transmissible from cattle to humans (zoonoses). This includes Q fever and leptospirosis. If there is the potential that assisting a calving could occur in the future, speak to a general medical practitioner about Q fever vaccination. To reduce the risk of leptospirosis, vaccination of cattle is recommended. (see section 4.1)

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/integumentary-system/dermatophilosis/dermatophilosis-in-animals

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Induced calvingWhen cows are overdue, there are problems calving in the mob, or are in calf to a bull that produces big calves, it is wise to seek veterinary advice. An induced calving may be required. The closer to the expected calving date, the better the chance of a healthy live calf. If the service date is known, cows should preferably be in the last week. If not known, the degree of vulval softening and udder development are a guide.

Retained placentas are common and the colostrum may not be of good quality. Induced premature calves are slower to stand, are poor suckers and are more prone to infections.

Prevention of dystocia:• joining heifers with smaller breed bulls — select bulls that have Estimated Breeding Values (EBVs) for low

birth weight calves• delay heifer joining until the heifers are large enough — two thirds of mature body weight is a good guide.

There is the temptation to join heifers early to rebuild a herd quicker See: Calving two year old heifers to rebuild herds (DPI 2020) at: Husbandry webpage (DPI)

• keeping heifers and cows in good condition during pregnancy and on a rising plane of nutrition. It is important that they are not overweight or underweight

• keep records of joining dates, if possible.

See: Dystocia management at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.23 Dog attackDog attack and paralysis tick are the most common causes of calf deaths on the North Coast. The range for wild dogs appears to be increasing. There are several reasons for this, including increased cover due to forestry plantations, tree crops and land infested with tree weeds such as camphor laurel and privet.

Wild dogs also carry neospora (see section 8.50) and hydatids (see section 8.34), both significant diseases of cattle on the North Coast. They also threaten native wildlife, compete with native carnivores such as quolls and kill domestic dogs and cats.

Signs of the presence of wild dogsWatch for these signs, particularly at calving time:

• increased restlessness and flightiness of cattle, wallabies and kangaroos• wild dogs howling• farm dogs barking at night• mismothering of calves• cattle bellowing at night• wild dog tracks and scats.

North Coast Local Land Services assist landholders with wild dog control, run training courses, develop management plans and monitor wild dog activity. (see section 2.9) See: Pest animal management and North Coast Regional Strategic Pest Animal Plan at: Pests, weeds and diseases webpage (LLS).

Uncontrolled domestic dogs are also a cause of dog attack; particularly close to urban areas. See: Responsible pet ownership webpage (Office of Local Government).

For treatment of dog attack, consult a veterinarian. (see section 8.23)

See: Wild dog biology and distribution and Wild Dog Management Strategy (DPI 2017) at: Pest animals in NSW webpage (DPI).

See: National Wild Dog Action Plan website (National Wild Dog Action Plan).

See: Wild dogs at: Environment Energy and Science website (NSW Government).



https://www.msdvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition/management-of-reproduction-cattle/dystocia-management

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/820802/north-coast-regional-pest-plan.pdf

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/820802/north-coast-regional-pest-plan.pdf

https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/public/dogs-cats/responsible-pet-ownership/

https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/public/dogs-cats/responsible-pet-ownership/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/445234/NSW-Wild-Dog-Management-Strategy-2017-2021.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/445234/NSW-Wild-Dog-Management-Strategy-2017-2021.pdf

https://wilddogplan.org.au/

https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/pest-animals-and-weeds/pest-animals/wild-dogs

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8.24 Dung beetlesDung beetles have adapted to be very specific for the species of faeces that they feed on. Australia was without ruminants such as cattle before the arrival of European settlers. And so it lacked the dung beetles that were found elsewhere in the world where cattle are found.

The introduction of dung beetles has greatly assisted the control of nuisance flies and buffalo fly. Because they bury faeces, they also aid to reduce the availability of worm larvae. They also have great benefits to the soil and to the environment generally.

A wide variety of dung beetle species have been intentionally released in Australia to match our wide range of climates. This includes several which have become well established on the North Coast. New species have been recently introduced into Australia to extend the seasonal and climatic range. Known as ‘spring active’ one of these may suit parts of the North Coast.

Populations do vary from area to area and with seasons. Prolonged dry periods can impact on populations. It is not hard to learn how to check for dung beetle activity on farm. Local Landcare groups and Local Land Services have been active in encouraging landholders to assess populations and if necessary, 0introduce dung beetles.

Some drenches and external parasite treatments can impact on dung beetle populations. Some have a dung beetle friendly claim, so check the label and product information.

Assessing existing populations and establishing new species is an expensive and specialised task. For information, possible funding and dung beetles suppliers, contact your local Landcare group. See: Landcare NSW website (Landcare NSW).

See: Dung beetles - working for you (DPI 2007) at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

8.25 Enzootic Bovine Leucosis (EBL)This virus of cattle occasionally causes solid tumours or leukaemia. The importance of the virus is that it became a marketing issue for the dairy industry and the subject of an eradication program.

“North Coast Local Land Services in co-operation with the dairy industry had an intense and successful program to eradicate EBL from all dairy herds on the North Coast in the 1990’s. The district started with the highest prevalence in the state and was the first to complete the program. This gave our local producers a market access advantage.”

There is a risk that a low prevalence reservoir of the virus may still be present in beef cattle.

To prevent the reintroduction of enzootic bovine leucosis into the dairy industry, it is important that any beef cattle that are introduced into dairy herds be tested negative for evidence of the virus. The test used is an ELISA test which can be conducted on blood or milk samples.

See: Enzootic bovine leucosis (DPI 2017) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/establishment-mgmt/soils-fertilisers-manures/dung-beetles

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/viral-diseases/enzootic-bovine-leucosis

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8.26 Flood mud scours (yersinia, yersiniosis)Flood mud scours is a severe and often fatal scour caused by the bacteria Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. It is one of the few diseases that can cause sickness and death in large numbers of adult cattle. (see section 7.8)

Situations when it can occur Flood mud scours is seen during the winter and early spring months on the North Coast. Because the disease is driven by seasonal and paddock conditions, it tends to occur as outbreaks and can cause significant losses in affected herds. Some years are particularly bad for the disease with a significant number of properties in a district affected.

The Yersinia bacteria require cool temperatures and mud on dry feed, so it is usually seen on low-lying or poorly drained pastures, commonly after flooding (hence the name). Cases also occur as lagoons and dams dry out in winter and cattle enter the mud to feed. However, the disease can also occur on high ground, particularly when hay around self-feeders is contaminated with mud from cattle feeding.

The disease occurs primarily in adult cattle, however weaners and yearlings can also be affected. There is often significant stress on the affected animals, both physiological (lactation, pregnancy) and environmental (wet weather, wind). The disease affects all breeds, but Brahmans and their crosses appear to be more susceptible.

SignsFlood mud scours often occurs as an outbreak, involving several cattle in a herd. Neighbouring properties and others in the immediate district may experience similar pastoral conditions and also have outbreaks. Many affected cattle may be found dead. If seen early, cattle will be depressed, not eating, drooling saliva and have high temperatures. They then develop a watery, smelly scour occasionally tinged with white casts or blood. Some cattle may linger for a week and have a profuse watery scour and dramatic weight loss.


• other causes deaths in adult cattle; (see section 7.8) such as tick fever, (see section 8.70) botulism, (see section 8.9) plant poisonings (see section 8.56) and nitrate poisoning (see section 8.57.1)

• other causes of scours in adult cattle. (see section 7.21) In particular; salmonella (see section 8.64) and type two ostertagia (brown stomach worm). (see section 8.78.3)

TreatmentConsult a veterinarian as outbreaks can develop quickly. Best results are achieved if treatment is given early using broad-spectrum antibiotics. It is also import to exclude other causes. Supportive therapy such as electrolytes, antidiarrheal preparations and vitamin injections may also be helpful.

PreventionIn the event of a flood mud scours outbreak, move the cattle to a fresh paddock. However, this may be difficult as farms with the disease often have no dry areas during the risk period. Careful observation is essential to ensure early treatment of any suspicious cases. If hay around feeders is the problem, remove spilt hay and move the hay ring to a fresh site. See: Yersiniosis in cattle article at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).


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8.27 Foot-and-mouth disease *exotic*Foot-and-mouth disease is exotic, that means that the disease is not in Australia. Of all the diseases that Australia is free of, foot-and-mouth disease poses the greatest threat to our livestock industries and exports. An outbreak would be devastating to our economy and to the livelihoods of livestock producers. It could take considerable time, money and heartache to eradicate should it occur.

Be on the lookout and report cases of drooling, fever or lameness involving numbers of cattle. In particular, look for blisters or ulcers in the mouth, teats or feet. Contact your North Coast Local Land Services district veterinarian or the Emergency Disease Hotline on 1800 675 888. Do not feel as though you are an alarmist. There are several other diseases that can resemble foot-and-mouth disease. Negative results from examinations are important; they demonstrate to our trading partners that Australia is active in looking for this disease.

Minimise the risk and play your part. Never feed meat, meat products or any food that has been in contact with meat to pigs. See: Swill feeding (DPI 2019) at Key emergency animal diseases webpage (DPI). Ensure that overseas visitors who have returned from overseas in the past week do not have contact with livestock (unless it was a foot-and-mouth disease free country). In particular, ensure that their shoes are cleaned. Have an on-farm biosecurity plan. (see section 3.2.1)

See: Emergency animal disease webpage (AHA).

See: Foot and mouth disease at: Key emergency animal diseases webpage (DPI).

8.28 Gastrointestinal obstructionForeign matter and some feeds have the potential to cause an obstruction.

Sites of obstruction include:• oesophagus (food pipe) — obstructions with fruit such as bush lemons, mangoes or chokos can cause

choke (see section 8.16 and section 8.56.5)• rumen (paunch) — indigestible material can form large twisted balls or mats in the rumen or sometimes

the abomasum (fourth stomach). Affected cattle eat scant amounts and lose weight This may be from: rubbish: such as cloth, silage wrap and baling twine. It is surprising what cattle will eat if given

the chance. Pet cattle are particularly prone as they tend to be more inquisitive and hang around dwellings

feed: the long stems of kikuyu in the late autumn or winter or blady grass hair: calves that have the vice of licking themselves and each other can develop hair balls. Lack of

adequate fibre in the diet may be responsible for this (see section 6.2.4)• omasum (bible) — very dry feed, such as setaria or blady grass in winter, can impact between the leaves

of the omasum. This is also known as ‘dry bible’• intestine — some fibrous feeds, particularly onion grass, can become matted together into a hard ball

which may lodge in the intestine.

Torsions can also cause obstructions. Sites are the abomasum (fourth stomach) or intestines. They are caused from an overactive gut from grain feeding and any cause of scours including overfeeding milk to calves.

Signs• with oesophageal choke cattle drool (see section 7.10)• cattle with obstruction are off their food, pass small amounts of faeces and waste away• with torsion cattle have colic signs, (see sectoion7.6) quickly go into shock and die.

TreatmentConsult your veterinarian. Two litres of vegetable oil or paraffin oil may relieve an obstruction if it is small enough to pass. Torsions can be life threatening and surgical intervention may be required if the animal is to be saved.See: Overview of acute intestinal obstructions in large animals at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/163414/Swill-feeding.pdf

https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/eadra/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/seasonal-pests-and-diseases/other-high-risk-pests-and-diseases/foot-and-mouth-disease

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/acute-intestinal-obstructions-in-large-animals/acute-intestinal-obstructions-in-large-animals

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8.29 Grain poisoning (acidosis)Acidosis is from the sudden introduction of readily fermentable carbohydrate sources. This can cause the rumen to become far more acidic (pH less than 5.5). Normal rumen (paunch) pH is neutral to slightly acid (pH 6.5–7).

Low rumen pH can cause:• a change in the rumen microbes and the rumen stops working causing indigestion• damage to the rumen wall. This draws water out of the blood into the rumen causing dehydration,

electrolyte (salt) imbalance and diarrhoea — cattle are very sick and can quickly die• the rumen damage may allow bacteria to enter the bloodstream, this can result in septicaemia, with acute

fever. The bacteria can shower the liver and other organs causing abscesses in the liver• secondary chronic fungal infections of the rumen wall may also occur• inflammation of the feet, such as laminitis or founder (see section 8.37)• ulcers in the abomasum (fourth stomach), causing bleeding into the tract• grain bloat. (see section 8.8)

Situations when it can occur:• feeding excess supplements; grains and commercial rations (see section 6.7.3)• excess fines (flour or grain dust) when self-feeder bins are almost empty• feeding unusual feeds or by-products bakers waste or fruit (see section 6.7.9)• accidental access to grains, such as cattle breaking into a shed• when cattle have access to a fodder crop that is in head, such as sorghum or when introduced to stubble

after harvest.

Signs:• the signs seen depend on the amount of acid produced and rumen wall damage• mildly affected animals may only show dullness and stop eating and have watery acidic diarrhoea• more severely affected animals may show colic (abdominal pain), dehydration and scouring and may go

into shock and die quickly — the faeces are foamy and have a ‘raw dough' smell• cattle with laminitis are acutely lame and sore in all four feet• cattle with gastric ulcers will have black faeces and anaemia (pale gums)• liver abscesses (sawdust liver) are a cause of offal condemnations at the abattoir (see section 3.5.1)• cattle with grain bloat die quickly — the carcase is very bloated and there may be air under the skin.

Treatment:• if no signs are yet apparent, cattle should be removed from the carbohydrate source and offered hay only

and access to water• if cattle are showing signs seek immediate veterinary attention. Extreme cases may require surgery to

empty and wash out the rumen and the administration of intravenous fluids, but their outlook is poor• chronic fungal rumen infections cause relapses and their outlook is poor• if they are lame, seek veterinary care, anti-inflammatory drugs and other treatments may be required• treatment of grain bloat is the same as for bloat, (see section 8.8) but most cases are found dead.

Prevention:• ensure stock access to grain is controlled, particularly during introduction — provide a fibre source if there

is little in the paddock • avoid sudden access to grain, even if they are accustomed to it • beware of a build-up of grain fines particularly as self-feeders get low• ensure cattle do not have accidental access to grain storage areas• grazing management of forage sorghums to ensure that they do not go to head• stubble-fed animals should be introduced to some grain before entry onto stubble paddocks.

For a complete ration feeding, such as lot feeding, grain content in the diet should be increased gradually while at the same time gradually reducing fibre. (see section 6.7.3) Monitor stock closely during this time, if diarrhoea is noticed in a number of animals the fibre content of the diet should be increased.

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Feed additives may be included in rations with a high grain content. These include buffers (for example bi-carb of soda, sodium bentonite, lime) or the antimicrobial monensin.

See: Grain poisoning of cattle and sheep at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Grain overload in ruminants at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.30 Grass tetany (hypomagnesaemia)A sudden drop in blood magnesium levels causes grass tetany or hypomagnesaemia. It is one of the most important diseases in southern NSW, but is not as common on the North Coast.

Situations when it can occur:• in the cooler, higher elevation areas• on lush winter feed particularly ryegrass or oats, which are high in potassium — there is a strong

association of grass tetany with use of high rates of potassium and nitrogen fertilizers• on lush pastures with little or no legume component (legumes are naturally high in magnesium)• on moving from grazing ryegrass to kikuyu in the spring months — kikuyu is very low in sodium which can

induce the low blood magnesium of grass tetany.

Hypomagnesaemia is also seen in recently transported cattle from electrolyte imbalance, when it is called transit tetany or travel sickness.

SignsIn the early stages affected cattle have the staggers. They soon go down with nervous signs such as muscle twitches, over reaction to sound or touch, wild look to eyes and aggression. This is similar to the cramps associated with low magnesium in athletes. Signs can progress to convulsions and death soon after.


• paspalum ergot (see section 8.57.7)• ketosis / pregnancy toxaemia in the month after or sometimes before calving (see section 8.36)• red lantana poisoning, also have sunburn (see section 8.56.13)• tick fever. (see section 8.70)

TreatmentConsult your veterinarian. If treated early with calcium-magnesium injection the response is usually quick. It is preferable to give in the vein, slowly. Relapses may occur and repeat treatments are required.

PreventionIf grass tetany becomes an ongoing problem, supplementation with magnesium is required. CausMag (magnesium oxide) can be used on hay. Some producers have had good results with oral magnesium bullets. Magnesium is also available in lick blocks (with a high level of Mg) and there are several home recipes available for loose mixes.

See: Grass tetany in cattle (DPI 2009) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.31 Hardware disease (wire disease)Situations when it can occurAs ruminants, cattle have the ability to adapt to a wide range of often low nutritive value forage. Cattle seem to eat a variety of foreign bodies such as sticks, ropes, bags, wire, nails etc. They also actively seek out minerals

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed/grain-poisoning-cattle-sheep

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/diseases-of-the-ruminant-forestomach/grain-overload-in-ruminants

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/general/grass-tetany-cattle

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found in some soils and in ash. When burnt, steel belted tyres or timber with nails or wire are a common source of sharp short metal pieces. (For environmental reasons car tyres should not be burnt). Cattle can also pick up wire from tyres cut in half and used as feed troughs.

SignsSharp objects can pierce the second stomach (reticulum) wall and move forwards through the diaphragm, into the chest cavity and pierce the heart sac or heart causing heart failure. These cattle often have bottle jaw and swelling of the sternum, an enlarged jugular vein, weight loss, cough and tire easily when moved.

Some cattle die from perforation of the second stomach leading to peritonitis (infection of the abdominal cavity). This may be seen as swelling of the belly with fluid or just sudden death. In others, adhesions form from the leakage, which localise the damage and form abscesses, ill thrift or be picked up at inspection at the abattoir.

Similar signs of bottle jaw and weight loss may be seen with:

• liver fluke (see section 8.41)• brown stomach worm (see section 8.78.3)• undernutrition (see section 8.73)• bovine Johnes’s disease. (see section 8.10) *notifiable*

TreatmentTreatment is usually futile. Methods of treatment used include confinement on a raised ramp, intensive antibiotic course, magnets given orally and surgical removal of the foreign body.

Prevention:• when working remove all small sharp objects such as nails or short pieces of wire• fence off or bury dumps• bury or remove ash from fire that may contain metal.

See: Traumatic reticuloperitonitis at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.32 Heat stressHeat stress causes production loss through reduced grazing. The impact of this on the north coast should not be underestimated. In extreme cases heat stress can result in deaths.

Situations when it can occur:• weather conditions when there is a combination of high temperature, high humidity and little wind• cattle factors such as dark coat, heavy condition — bulls are more prone to heat stress• body condition — overweight cattle are more prone (see section 7.18)• diet — feeding high grain or concentrate diets• cattle with vitamin A deficiency are more prone — this occurs with long term absence of green feed, for

example with prolonged drought feeding and long term feedlotting (see section 6.10.1)• paddock factors such as lack of shade and limited access to water• mustering and yarding in hot weather particularly if there is no shade or water in the yards• diseases that cause a high temperature or fever (see section 7.12)• recumbency, being down for any reason, particularly in the sun or if surrounded by a bed of straw

(see section 7.9)• cattle with paralysis, may be unable to move into the shade or dissipate heat by increasing breathing rate

e.g. from paralysis tick or botulism (see section 8.71.2 and section 8.9)• cattle with increased muscle activity, aggression or excitement, e.g. with grass tetany or paspalum ergot

(see section 8.30 and section 8.57.7)• photosensitisation, particularly from red lantana. (see section 8.52 and section 8.56.13)

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/diseases-of-the-ruminant-forestomach/traumatic-reticuloperitonitis

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Signs, in order of increasing severity of the heat load:• alignment of the body with the sun• seeking shade, even from other cattle• refusal to lie down• reduced food intake• crowding over the water trough and splashing the body or walking into dams• agitation and restlessness• reduced rumination (cud chewing) or none at all• open-mouth breathing or panting and excessive salivation• staggers, collapse, convulsions, coma.

TreatmentCattle that are severely heat stressed can quickly go into shock and die. Prompt action is needed to save and treat any underlying condition, so consult your veterinarian. While waiting, wet the animal down and offer water.

PreventionAddress the underlying cause. Cattle that are down should have temporary shade erected to protect from the elements. Beware of straw as bedding in hot weather as this can prevent downer cattle from dissipating body heat.

Provision of shade trees in all paddocks is an important means of reducing the chances of heat stress. Until the trees are established, consider gateways to access those paddocks with shade or constructed shelters. Plan to have water points close to shade, where possible.

See: Beating heat stress in dairy grazing at: Fodder production and animal nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Supplementary salt for heat-stressed cows at: Fodder production and animal nutrition webpage (DPI).

See: Heat stress and nutrition (Qld Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2014).

8.33 Histophilus (Haemophilus)This is an infection with the bacteria Histophilus somni. It causes a rapid build-up of fluid in the chest cavity, septicaemia, pneumonia or heart failure, so signs are usually sudden onset.

Situations when it can occur:• histophilus can cause heavy losses in young cattle that are congregated for grain feeding• immune suppression from environmental stressors or from pestivirus infection. (see section 8.54 and

section 8.51)

SignsMost cattle have an acute onset of fever with a short duration of respiratory signs. Some cattle are just found dead. If they live long enough they have signs of pneumonia or joint swelling.


• Mannheimia haemolytica (MH) (see section 8.45)• Other causes of lower respiratory signs.( see sections 7.20)

TreatmentIt is important to have the disease confirmed early in an outbreak as the disease responds to prompt treatment with antibiotics. Consult your veterinarian. Regular inspection of cattle to identify, treat and isolate is important.

See: Investigating risk factors for two histophilus outbreaks in grass-fed cattle at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/dairy/feedbase-and-nutrition

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/dairy/feedbase-and-nutrition

https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/agriculture/animals/dairy/nutrition-lactating-cows/heat-stress-nutrition



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8.34 Hydatid diseaseHydatid disease is a significant cause of economic loss to the North Coast beef industry, through condemnations of liver and other offal at abattoirs and reduced productivity. Most of the loss to beef producers is unseen, through reduced performance. Cattle occasionally have infections heavy enough to cause disease.

Hydatids is a very important zoonosis, with people being infected from farm dogs.

Research has also found that hydatid infection is a significant disease in the brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata), which is classified endangered status in NSW.

Life cycle and spreadLike most tapeworms, hydatid disease has a two-stage lifecycle, with a final and an intermediate host.

Final hosts have the hydatid tapeworm live in the intestine such as dogs and to a lesser extent foxes. Wild dogs are more likely to be infected than domestic dogs and also carry far higher tapeworm burdens. The eggs, which are shed in the faeces of dogs remain viable in the environment for up to two years and are infective to intermediate hosts.

Intermediate host species include sheep, goats, cattle, wallabies, kangaroos and humans. In these species cysts are formed in internal organs.

The main lifecycle for hydatids on the North Coast is a wildlife cycle with wild dogs the main final host and wallabies and kangaroos the main intermediate hosts.

SignsMost cattle with hydatids do not have signs. However, if there is heavy pick up of hydatid eggs on pasture or if these cysts rupture, multiple cysts are spread through the body, like a cancer. A heavy hydatid infection can cause sickness and death in cattle, with signs depending on the organ affected. For example, pneumonia in the lungs, liver failure if in the liver or heart failure if in the heart.

ControlControl of hydatid disease in cattle focuses on wild dog control. Wild dogs also impact cattle, through predation (see section 8.23) and neospora, which is the most common form of infectious abortion in cattle on the North Coast (see section 8.50). A vaccine for hydatids in cattle is currently being researched.

“In recent years Charles Sturt University with support from North Coast Local Land Services conducted research into the impact of hydatids in cattle on the North Coast. The largest hydatid research of its type undertaken in Australia, it found significant production losses to beef producers and economic impacts to the meatworks through offal condemnations. North Coast Local Land Services are also currently supporting research into the prevalence of hydatids in wild dogs. The key to reducing hydatid infection is wild dog control. North Coast Local Land Services have staff skilled in this field to train and support local landholders”.


To reduce risk of you and your family becoming infected with hydatids, always wash your hands after handling dogs, particularly before eating. Treat farm dogs every three months for hydatid tapeworms. Keep dogs restrained to reduce risk of their access to dead wallabies or kangaroos. And ensure that dogs do not have access to the offal from home killed meat (particularly from sheep and goats).

See: Hydatids - you, too, can be affected and Hydatids - the basics at: Zoonoses webpage (DPI).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/109986/hydatids-you-too-can-be-affected.pdf

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8.35 Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR)IBR is a common, though usually a mild, upper respiratory viral infection of young cattle. In the grazing situation it can pass through the herd unnoticed. Its importance lies in being a trigger for more serious respiratory infectious agents that cause pneumonia, such as Mannheimia haemolytica (MH). (see section 8.45) However, IBR can sometimes be an important infection on its own.

Situations when it can occurIBR virus is highly contagious and can spread very quickly through a group of young cattle, particularly when they are in close confines, such as a calf shed. They are also more at risk when they have their heads together in creep feeders and self-feeders. Like many diseases, immune suppression from stress or pestivirus (see section 8.51) can make calves more susceptible. IBR is also a problem when weaners that are naïve are mixed with other young cattle. This can occur in the saleyards, after buying in a group of mixed weaners and in feedlots.

SignsMild cases have a watery nose and eyes and may be off feed. More severe cases can have a fever, cough, mouth breath and conjunctivitis.


• three day sickness — nasal discharge and fever in the summer and autumn months and at older age (see section 8.69)

• calf diphtheria — mouth breathing and cough, usually in very young calves (see section 8.13)• mannheimia haemolytica (MH) — more severe, mouth breathing and cough (see section 8.45)• pink eye — restricted to the eyes causing conjunctivitis. (see section 8.53)

TreatmentMost cases do not need treatment. More severe cases may need antibiotics to prevent MH or other secondary infections. In an outbreak situation, such as a calf shed, isolate affected calves in a separate air space.

PreventionA vaccine is available, both as a stand-alone intra-nasal vaccine (available through veterinarians only) or combined with MH. It is used with intensive rearing of calves, on induction into a lot-feeding situation or fattening introduced weaners. (see section 5.11.12) However, it is more effective if given on the property of origin, if there is an agreed arrangement with the breeding herd supplying the weaners.

See: Beef cattle vaccines (DPI 2007) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.36 Ketosis and pregnancy toxaemiaThis is a metabolic disorder of cattle. It is caused by persistent low glucose in the blood, which causes cattle to quickly mobilise fat reserves, resulting in raised ketones in the blood. If ketones are at a high enough level, they are toxic and cause nervous signs.

Situations in which it can occur:• in very thin cattle — starvation ketosis (see section 8.73)• in overweight cows in late pregnancy — fat cow syndrome or pregnancy toxaemia (see section 7.18)• in the weeks after calving — ketosis from difficulties with the cow’s energy metabolism switching over

to meet the demands of lactation (in a similar way to milk fever), this is more common in cows that have dairy breed ancestry


https://www.msdvetmanual.com/respiratory-system/respiratory-diseases-of-cattle/viral-respiratory-tract-infections-in-cattle

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• ketosis secondary to any problem in early lactation which causes loss of appetite, for example mastitis or metritis. (see section 8.46 and section 8.47)

Signs:• weight loss with depression, loss of appetite and weight and have an acetone (ketone) smell on the breath • other cows have muscle tremor and nervous signs such as aggression, high stepping or compulsive

chewing or licking.


• paspalum ergot (see section 8.57.7)• grass tetany (see section 8.30)• tick fever. (see section 8.70)

TreatmentConsult your veterinarian. Prompt treatment is needed with propylene glycol orally or with calcium–magnesium infusion (this contains glucose) into the vein or under the skin. Both products are available through rural stores or your veterinarian.

See: Pregnancy toxaemia in beef cattle (DPI 2015) in Reproductive diseases at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

See: Overview of ketosis in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.37 Lameness Lame cattle spend less time grazing and so are less productive. Lame cows are less likely to hold their condition in a dry time and therefore less likely to get back in calf. In bulls, lameness is a significant cause of reduced ability to serve and is a major reason for culling.

There are many causes of lameness in beef cattle, so it is wise to consult with your veterinarian. Most are in the feet, particularly in higher rainfall areas such as the North Coast.

Tips for reducing the level of lameness in a herd:• footrot from mud, from accessing water from creeks or dams. Provision of troughs can be the single most

effective management tool to reduce the prevalence of lameness• ensure cattle have a sound substrate in the yards and in gateways to prevent slipping and injury,

particularly at critical points such as the force yard and exit from the crush• avoid gravel that has sharp edges which can penetrate the soft skin between the claws• select sound bulls that have good conformation, to help improve their longevity and reduce lameness in

their offspring. Remember that bulls contribute 50 per cent of the genetics of replacement heifers• caution with grain feeding to reduce the likelihood of laminitis. (see section 5.11.9 and section 6.7.3)

See: Overview of lameness in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

*animal welfare* Cattle that are unable to bear weight on all four feet are unfit to be trucked to a sale yard or abattoir until the problem is resolved. (see section 3.7.2)

Foot problems

“Most lameness problems are in the feet and inspection should always start there.”

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/103845/Pregnancy-toxaemia-in-beef-cattle.pdf

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/metabolic-disorders/ketosis-in-cattle/overview-of-ketosis-in-cattle

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/musculoskeletal-system/lameness-in-cattle/overview-of-lameness-in-cattle

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The foot is a confined space. It is bound by the hoof and sole externally and by bone within. Any pressure on the tissues within the foot from swelling will result in acute pain. This pain will be intensified by the pressure of weight bearing. So cattle at rest will tend to hold the affected foot off the ground. Cattle will try to take weight off the foot when walking by throwing the head up, in the case of a front foot, or by a shortened step, in the case of a sore hind foot.

Act early and contact your veterinarian. Examination, any corrective trimming or drainage of abscesses are a specialist task requiring good restraint, the correct tools and sometimes a sedation or a local anaesthetic.

The various conditions have different causes and have different treatments (see below). It is important to detect and treat early as these conditions can progress to long term and hard to treat conditions such as, overgrown claws, abscesses and even arthritis. This may require expensive surgery, aggressive therapy or culling.

Some of the more common types of foot problems are:

Footrot Prolonged wet conditions can cause scald skin between the digits which may cause a fissure (crack) allowing soil-borne bacteria to invade the soft tissues of the foot. Penetrating wounds or injury are other means of entry.

This infection causes a sudden and severe lameness from the pain, usually in one foot. The claws appear to be wider apart and the skin above the claw (coronet) is swollen. On lifting the foot there is a foul smell, and a crack or ulcer may be seen. The outer claw of the hind feet is the most common site. Affected cattle may be fevered and lose their appetite. Unless treated, the infection may move up the foot into the joints causing arthritis.

Injectable antibiotics are the best treatment, such as a single dose of long-acting penicillin. If the infection is deeper, a longer course of antibiotics may be needed. Seek veterinary advice.

Strawberry footrot (heel warts)This is an infection of the heels, at the back and bottom of the foot. In the early stages it is red, moist and swollen (hence the name strawberry footrot). If left untreated the heels can become wart-like or even hairy (heel warts or hairy footwart). Pain in the heel will cause cattle to attempt to walk on the toe.

Treatment of the early strawberry form is with footrot spray. However, the chronic wart form may require surgery to remove and antibiotics.

Interdigital scald (interdigital dermatitis)This is a superficial infection of the skin between the claws caused by prolonged exposure to wet conditions and mud. Cattle have only mild pain (footsore) with minimal lameness. On inspection the interdigital skin has a water-affected look and a foul smell. One or more feet may be affected. Unlike footrot there is no swelling.

Even though scald itself is a mild disease, detection and treatment early is important as scald may to progress to footrot or strawberry footrot. Because the infection is superficial, injectable antibiotics are not effective. Topical treatments are needed; footrot spray or 10 per cent bluestone footbaths.

Conditions of the sole — bruising, injuries, foreign bodies and abscessesThe hooves of cattle bear a lot of weight and sharp rough objects can bruise the sole, or even pierce it, particularly if the feet are already soft from mud. Cattle that walk on sharp stones or spend a lot of time on concrete are often affected. This can result in haemorrhage into the sole (sole bruise or sole ulcer) or in localised infection of the sole (sole abscess).

Hoof wall conditions — deformities, cracks, separation and wall abscessOvergrown or malformed hooves can cause lameness because of the abnormal way weight is borne. They can be the result of a chronic ongoing lameness from another cause so it is important that lameness is treated early. They can also be the result of poor conformation, either too much angle in the pastern or too straight in the leg. Corrective trimming should relieve the problem, at least in the short term.

Cattle sometimes develop cracks in the hoof wall as a result of the hoof being overgrown, deformed or too dry. Cracks can introduce infection into the sensitive area of the hoof and produce an abscess.

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Damage to the outer part of the sole can cause separation of the outer wall of the hoof (akin to a lifting fingernail), in which dirt can pack. This is known as white line disease and can lead to an abscess under the hoof wall. It is more common in the outer claw.

The veterinarian will usually open the crack to stop the crack spreading further. Antibiotics are usually prescribed. In serious or long-standing cases infection may spread to the joint causing arthritis, and more aggressive is treatment needed.

Interdigital fibromas (corns)With age, cattle may develop fibrous tissue growths between the hooves, often at the front of the foot. If large enough and come in contact with the ground, corns can result in lameness. Often more than one foot is affected. Affected claws may be trimmed around small corns to relieve the pressure. Larger fibromas may need to be cut out surgically. See your veterinarian. There is some evidence that the condition is inherited, so avoid purchasing bulls with a family history of corns.

Laminitis (founder)This is from toxins in the bloodstream, often secondary to grain poisoning (see section 8.29). It is mainly seen in cattle on high grain diets in feedlots. Laminitis is sometimes after infections such as pneumonia.

All four feet are affected and cattle stand with feet wide apart. They tend to lie down to avoid constant weight bearing. When walking they tend to be stiff and have an arched back. Severely affected cattle require treatment with anti-inflammatory drugs. Consult your veterinarian. Taking off grain and feeding roughage will resolve milder cases.

If cases are seen it is a sign that prevention is needed; this is by ensuring cattle are introduced to grain gradually and that additives are included in the ration. Feedlot rations often have additives to the diet to lessen the risk of laminitis occurring. Cattle on high grain diets require a lot of care and it is advisable to discuss the issue with your professional advisor.

Upper limb problems

Arthritis The main upper limb problems in cattle are degenerative arthritis of the hip, stifle and hock joints, especially in those cattle with straight leg conformation. Arthritis is a major cause of bulls being culled before their time, so be careful not to buy bulls that are too straight in the hind.

Arthritis of the joints of the feet is usually the result of untreated footrot or abscesses of the sole or wall of the foot.

Septic arthritis is seen in calves following bacterial infection of the navel. (see section 8.58 and section 8.49)

Locking kneecap (‘stringhalt’, patella luxation)A condition seen in adults in which one or both hind legs will lock in extension when the animal starts to move. This is due to the kneecap slipping off the groove at the end of the thigh bone (femur). Cattle then have to shake the leg to try to release it. In some cases, a clicking sound will be heard. It may be mild with infrequent locking or it may be almost continuous. The condition is most commonly seen in cattle with Brahman content and is thought to be hereditary. For this reason, affected stock should not be used for breeding. The condition can be treated by veterinarians surgically by snipping a small ligament in the knee.

See: Stringhalt in cattle webpage (Australian Brahman Breeders’ Association Ltd).

Fractures and dislocationsOther upper limb problems include fractures and dislocations, these are usually from trauma. Affected cattle should be destroyed on-farm and not sent to a saleyards or abattoir.See: Overview of lameness in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

http://www.brahman.com.au/technical_information/general/stringhaltInCattle.html

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/musculoskeletal-system/lameness-in-cattle/overview-of-lameness-in-cattle

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8.38 LeptospirosisThis is an infectious disease that causes abortions, stillbirths and loss of milk production in cattle. It is not as common as it was several years ago, fewer pigs are run on cattle properties and vaccination is widely adopted. Leptospirosis is also a zoonosis, meaning that humans can catch the disease from animals.

Two closely related serovars (types) of Leptospirosis are responsible for disease in cattle; L. pomona and L. hardjo. Hardjo is cattle to cattle spread whereas pomona is primarily associated with pigs.

Life cycle and SpreadThe organism may be shed in the urine of infected animals for many months after infection. It can survive in the environment for prolonged periods if conditions are suitable, such as when it is warm and wet, or when the soil is waterlogged. Leptospirosis infects many tissues, especially the kidneys and reproductive tract.


Leptospirosis in humans causes a serious flu-like disease which may be life-threatening. Most cases of leptospirosis in humans are not from cattle. However, minimise the risk and avoid urine splashes, cover any skin wounds with waterproof dressings when in contact with cattle urine or placental fluids. Vaccinating cattle against leptospirosis greatly reduces urine shedding in cattle and therefore reduces the risk to people. There is no human vaccine available.

Milk may be contaminated, so all fresh milk for human consumption should be heat treated to kill the organism. (see section 4.1)

SignsLeptospirosis can cause several syndromes:

• abortion or the birth of weak or stillborn calves (see section 7.1)• fever, mastitis and drop in milk production in cows (see section 8.46)• fever, kidney damage, red water (red urine) and death in calves. (see section 7.19)

Treatment is with antibiotics. Seek veterinary advice for confirmation of the disease and treatment.

PreventionVaccination is recommended for all breeding females and bulls as part of a routine program. Vaccination greatly reduces the risk of the disease in cattle and in those people handling cattle. The program is:

• two doses of vaccine, four to six weeks apart, with the second dose at least two weeks prior to joining. Then annual boosters pre-joining

• new introductions into the breeding herd, including bulls, replacement heifers and purchased cows should be vaccinated twice, four to six weeks apart

• available as leptospirosis only or as a combined 7 in 1 vaccine, which includes 5 in 1 vaccine.

See: Leptospirosis in cattle herds (DPI 2007) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

For the disease in humans, See: Leptospirosis factsheet at: Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/leptospirosis-cattle-herds

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/leptospirosis.aspx

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8.39 LiceLice are important because they cause irritation or anaemia. Lice are often present on cattle all year round but only become a problem in winter and spring when cooler conditions and a thicker winter coat allow numbers to increase.

SignsThe two types of lice in cattle cause different signs:

• biting lice — cause irritation resulting in hair loss, damage to hides, trees and infrastructure. Time spent rubbing is less time grazing. Lousy cattle look scruffy and may have patches of hair loss and sores from rubbing. Hair on fence posts and bark rubbed off trees are tell-tale signs of rubbing

• sucking lice —suck blood and can cause anaemia.


• bark chewing is usually due to lack of fibre in the diet, when on grain or when there is a short green pick. (see section 6.2.4) Look at the trees, it is not difficult to tell the difference between rubbing and chewing

• lice infestations are in winter at the same time as the feed gap, liver fluke, worms and bush tick. Any one or all of these may be contributing to anaemia and ill-thrift at the same time.

TreatmentLice are spread by direct contact between cattle, so with clean musters and a re-treatment program eradication is possible. Ensure that all cattle in the mob are treated (check the label as some products cannot be used on calves). Lice and eggs only survive for a few days off cattle and cannot live on any other animals. Often lice are not seen as a problem until they are in high numbers during winter, if so, treat then. However, it is preferable to treat early in the autumn season to prevent lice numbers building up during the cooler months and so help prevent the problem.

Many producers do not specifically treat for lice. This is because many products that are active against lice are also used for other parasites. So when treating for ticks, buffalo fly and even worms (in the case of MLs) cattle may also treated for lice at the same time.

Chemicals for lice control include synthetic pyrethroids (SPs), organophosphates (OPs), macrocyclic lactones (MLs) and Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs). Application techniques include pour-ons, sprays and injectable.

See: Cattle lice (DPI 2015) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

See: Liceboss webpage at: ParaBoss website.

See: Lice webpage (MLA). See: The Cattle Parasite Atlas (MLA 2005).

8.40 ListeriosisThis is a bacterial infection that is an uncommon and sporadic infection of the brain and can cause abortion and stillbirth. It is associated with feeding silage that has not achieved the desired acidity, as can botulism, which is a far greater risk. (see section 8.9)

Listeriosis is a rare disease in humans and is from eating poorly made processed foods. The Listeria bacteria can be shed in milk, but is killed by pasteurisation. Listeria is one of the risks from drinking raw unpasteurised milk. *zoonosis risk* (see section 4.1)

Life cycle and spreadThe Listeria bacteria can occur in silage and sometimes other feed. The route of infection is inhalation through the nose, then spreads to the brain causing focal small abscesses, usually only affecting the one side of the brain.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/104066/Cattle-lice.pdf

https://www.paraboss.com.au/liceboss.php

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/lice/


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SignsAffected cattle can show a range of nervous signs, reflecting the part of the brain affected. These may include loss of appetite, inability to eat, head tilt, walking in circles, depression, bellowing or mania. Listeriosis is also a sporadic cause of abortion and stillbirth (see section 7.1)

TreatmentAntibiotics may be successful early in the disease, so consult your veterinarian. Being a nervous disorder of cattle it is important to exclude mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy or BSE). Financial incentives are available for investigations. (see section 8.43)

See: Overview of listeriosis at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

See: Listeriosis factsheet at: Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health 2012).

8.41 Liver flukeThe cost to the local industry through loss of production, treatment costs and condemnations at the abattoirs makes liver fluke one of the most significant cattle diseases on the North Coast, particularly the far North Coast.

DistributionThe areas affected in the North Coast vary from town to town. The Lismore district has high fluke problems, Casino moderate, while in Grafton it occurs in restricted localities and in the Kempsey district it is quite uncommon.

Infection may also vary paddock to paddock. Whole farms may be affected if poorly drained or only small areas may be affected (for example soaks or springs). The severity of infection depends on the stocking rate and feed availability, as well as snail numbers and contamination in the previous six to 12 months.

Infection also varies with season. Most build up in fluke numbers occur during wet years however, pick up is often high in dry times when cattle may preferentially graze wet soaks for a green pick.

Life cycle and spreadAdult liver fluke are leaf-shaped flatworms about 30 mm long. They live in the bile ducts of the liver and lay eggs that are passed in the faeces. The egg hatch and swim until they find a specific snail species (known as Lymnea). In the snails they multiply into large numbers before leaving the snails and attaching themselves to pasture as tiny cysts. When eaten by cattle the cysts hatch then the immature fluke migrate through the body and the liver. Their digestive enzymes destroy liver tissue, which turns to tough scar tissue. After three months they enter the bile ducts and mature into adults. These live many years if cattle are not treated and lay large numbers of eggs.

Liver fluke snails prefer slow moving (not stagnant) bodies of water e.g. soaks, springs and shallow creeks. Liver fluke snails DO NOT live in troughs. The snails found in water troughs are a different species and do not carry liver fluke. The snail which carries liver fluke has a very high reproductive rate in wet conditions. When soaks dry up the snails hibernate in the mud, and the young fluke within the snail survives with them. When the season breaks, the snails emerge and pasture contamination resumes.

So the fluke has three opportunities to multiply in the one life cycle, each with enormous capacity; in the liver, in the snail and multiplication of the snails themselves. This is why under the right conditions infection rates and damage to the liver can be so great.

*disease risk* In rare cases humans have been infected with liver fluke. This has been from harvesting and consuming raw water plants such as water cress, contaminated with the fluke cysts. Infection in people is not from handling cattle.

Signs Liver fluke cause poor growth rates, weight loss, anaemia, protein loss (seen as bottle jaw) and in severe cases death. Diarrhoea is not a feature of liver fluke infection. Liver fluke is responsible for the high rate of condemned

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/listeriosis/listeriosis-in-animals

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/listeriosis.aspx

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livers in North Coast cattle. Liver Fluke is the single biggest cause of abattoir offal condemnations and a huge cause of loss to the North Coast beef industry.

Black disease is a clostridial disease that occurs when the liver is damaged by migrating liver fluke and is prevented with five in one vaccination. It is a rare disease on the North Coast in cattle.


• type two ostertagia in adult cattle, but this also causes a scour (see section 8.78.3)• undernutrition (see section 8.73)• copper deficiency (see section 6.9.1)• bovine Johne’s disease. (see section 8.10)

Confirming infectionLiver fluke treatments are expensive and a significant part of the animal health budget. The three most expensive problems with liver fluke treatments are:

• not treating — leading to loss of production• treating when liver fluke is not present on farm — wasted cost of treatment• not treating with an effective chemical or not at the appropriate time — wasted cost of treatment and

production loss.

The first step in any control program is to confirm the presence of infection on farm. The small cost of testing is money well spent, given the huge dollars at stake. The most reliable test that gives the most information is blood test for antibodies. This is a valuable tool and will show exposure to liver fluke in the past five months, even if the cattle were treated recently. Liver fluke eggs in faeces are irregular, so faecal checks need to be interpreted with caution. Information on liver fluke condemnation at export abattoirs is available — this is only of use if the cattle have spent their whole lives on farm and does not give an indication of when infection occurred. (see section 10.1)

Treatment and controlNon-chemical options:

• drain or fence off high-risk areas• some holdings have isolated snail-prone areas — drainage to reduce the snail population or fencing to

prevent access may be practical on these holdings.

Chemical

Adult cattle have some exposure related resistance to liver fluke. The treatments should be to all stock over six months of age (younger if early weaned or if calves have access to soaks). The number and timing of liver fluke drenches can vary from farm to farm depending on the risk:

• April–May: The most important drench for all properties with liver fluke. Use a drench that kills immature and adult fluke at this time

• August: On properties with high or moderate levels of liver fluke. A drench that kills adult fluke (and not immatures) can be used at this time. Use an alternative chemical as a rotation to the autumn treatment

• December–January: Is only warranted for properties that have very heavy liver fluke infection and past history of problems at this time.

Note that many fluke products on the market now also treat for worms, so that the program should be integrated with worm control. (see section 10.2.2)

“Triclabendazole has been the mainstay for liver fluke control for many years. Fluke resistance to this chemical is emerging as a problem. Research by Charles Sturt University, supported by North Coast Local Land Services found evidence that resistance is developing on the North Coast. It is important to develop sound drench practices and rotation with alternative chemicals to defer this problem for as long as possible.”

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Chemicals registered for liver fluke control

Fluke type Chemical MethodImmature and mature fluke Triclabendazole–oxfendazole

combination (also worms)Oral

Clorsulon–nitroxynil combination InjectionClorsulon–nitroxynil combined with ML for worms

Injection

Mature fluke Triclabendazole OralTriclabendazole combined with ML worm drench

Pour-on

Clorsulon combined with ML worm drench

Injection

Albendazole (also worms) OralOxyclozanide combined with levamisole Oral

See: Liver fluke: a review (DPI 2017) and Liver fluke disease in sheep and cattle (DPI 2017) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

See: Wormboss webpage at: ParaBoss website.

See: Liver fluke: an essay (Boray J.C.2010). See: The Cattle Parasite Atlas (MLA 2005).

8.42 Lumpy jaw (actino)This is a bone infection caused by the bacteria Actinomyces This is a similar infection to wooden tongue but the swelling is hard and involves the jawbone. The bacteria enter through penetrating grass seeds or sharp feed or from erupting mature teeth.

TreatmentBecause it involves bone tissue treatment is difficult. Antibiotics may provide temporary improvement but rarely achieve a cure. Affected cattle are unlikely to be accepted by the abattoirs and should be destroyed humanely on farm. (see section 3.3.5)

See: Lumpy jaw and wooden tongue in cattle at: Beef cattle health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.43 Mad cow disease (BSE) *exotic*Mad cow disease has not and does not occur in Australia. It is an exotic disease. It is now a rare condition that occurs in some overseas countries.

SurveillanceAs an exporter of beef, it is important that Australia demonstrates to our trading partners that we have an active surveillance program in place to justify our claim for freedom from this disease. To this end, the Australian government will pay producers to have cattle that meet the following criteria investigated:

• are 30 months of age or more• do not respond to treatment• display one or more of the following behavioural changes or nervous signs.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/114691/liver-fluke-disease-in-sheep-and-cattle.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/114691/liver-fluke-disease-in-sheep-and-cattle.pdf

https://www.paraboss.com.au/wormboss.php

https://wormmailinthecloud.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/love-s-20130809-drench-resistance-and-beef-cattle-in-australia-graham-centre-wagga.pdf


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/lumpy-jaw-wooden-tongue

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Behavioural changesBehavioural changes include apprehension, changes in herd social order, excessive nose or flank licking, excitability, frenzy, head rubbing or pressing, head shyness, hesitation at doors, gates or barriers, persistent kicking when milked, teeth grinding.

Nervous signsNervous signs include abnormal ear position or head carriage, altered consciousness, staggers, blindness, circling, falling, fetlock knuckling, increased or decreased sensitivity to sound and touch, near death without evidence of infection or trauma, paralysis, recumbency (down and unable to rise), tremor.

If you ever have cattle that may meet these criteria contact a Local Land Services district veterinarian or private veterinarian. See: TSE freedom assurance project (DPI 2019) and Feed controls: stopping BSE (mad cow disease) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

Ruminant feed bans *legal requirement*

To ensure cattle, sheep, goat and deer (ruminants) are not at risk of eating feedstuffs that have the potential to cause mad cow disease and related conditions there is a nationwide ban on feeding any meat meal or meat-containing product to these species. Check the label of stock feed before feeding out. Poultry and pig feed may contain meat meal and should not be fed to ruminants. Cattle, sheep, goats or deer with access to areas where pigs or poultry are fed may be at risk. See: Feed controls: stopping BSE (mad cow disease) (DPI 2019) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

If poultry manure is applied to pasture, ensure that the withhold period of three weeks is observed. Cattle should not have access to poultry manure dump sites. See: Best practice guidelines for using poultry litter on pastures (DPI 2011) at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI). There is also the risk of botulism with chicken litter. (see section 8.9)

8.44 MangeMange is infection with mites, which are minute parasites which are distant relatives of ticks.

Chorioptic mange is the most common in cattle. The mite lives on the skin surface and initiates an allergic skin reaction, which causes cattle to rub. Signs are scurf and thickening of affected skin. The most common site is the tail base, but mange may spread to the heels, udder of cows, scrotum of bulls and along the backline.

Demodectic mange mites are very common in cattle and live in hair follicles. However, only a small proportion of cattle show signs. These are small nodules in the skin about one centimetre wide over the back, brisket and flank. They are not itchy.

An examination under the microscope is needed to confirm mange. Consult your veterinarian.

Treatment for both types of mange is with any of the macrocyclic lactones (ML) cattle drenches.

See: Mange in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

See: Liceboss webpage at: ParaBoss website.





https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/140359/Best-practice-guidelines-for-using-poultry-litter-on-pastures.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/140359/Best-practice-guidelines-for-using-poultry-litter-on-pastures.pdf

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/integumentary-system/mange/mange-in-cattle

https://www.paraboss.com.au/liceboss.php

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8.45 Mannheimia haemolytica (MH, pasteurella)MH is the most common cause of respiratory disease, pneumonia and death in cattle and is a disease of concern in feedlots.

Situations when it can occur:• immune suppression and triggers• feedlots and cattle on grain self-feeders• in recently introduced weaners or yearlings for fattening• in intensively reared calves (see section 5.11.6)• occasionally calves on their mothers.

Spread and life cycleMH is a common bacteria that lives in the nose of cattle without causing any signs. Certain triggers can cause MH to move into the lower respiratory tract and cause pneumonia. Because cattle may share the same triggers MH can affect a significant proportion of the herd.

Triggers include:• in calves from a compromised immune system from insufficient colostrum or pestivirus (see section 5.6.1

and section 8.51)• in calf sheds high ammonia from poor air quality (see section 5.11.6)• in recently introduced or mixed cattle — the stresses of yarding, dipping, transport, (hence the name

shipping fever) and the social stress of mixing mobs all impact the immune system• upper respiratory viruses such as infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBR). (see section 8.35)

Signs:Cattle show signs of pneumonia including:

• fever, eye and nose discharge• depressed, drooped ears and heads, away from other cattle• rapid shallow breathing or difficulty breathing with head extended• coughing. (see section 8.54)


• other causes of respiratory illness such as histophilus, (see section 8.33) and IBR (see section 8.35)• three day sickness — nasal discharge, fever and being away from others in the summer and autumn

months (see section 8.69)• calf diphtheria — mouth breathing, cough and bad breath, usually in very young calves. (see section 8.13)

TreatmentEarly and prompt use of antibiotics and anti-inflammatories, so consult your veterinarian. Isolate affected cattle.

PreventionIdentify and address the triggers.

MH vaccination is available as either as a stand-alone vaccine or with IBR. Vaccination is used for intensively reared calves and herds with a history of pneumonia in young cattle. Calves of vaccinated dams; vaccinate from six to eight weeks of age, otherwise vaccinate calves from four weeks age.

It is also used for young cattle in a feedlot or fattening situation. Preferably vaccinate before movement or alternatively on induction. (see section 5.11.12)


See: Bacterial pneumonia in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/general/beefcattle-vaccines

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/respiratory-system/respiratory-diseases-of-cattle/bacterial-pneumonia-in-cattle

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8.46 Mastitis (infection of the udder)Mastitis is not as common a problem in beef cows compared with dairy cows.

Signs A range of bacteria can cause mastitis and the severity varies. Mild forms may cause heat and pain in one or more quarters and the cow does not allow the calf to feed. This may require removing the calf and rearing it. (see section 5.6.1) The most serious type is so-called ‘black mastitis’, seen soon after calving. It is a gangrene that starts in the udder and death can occur quickly. Even in cases that recover the infected quarter is permanently lost.

TreatmentContact your veterinarian as soon as recognised to confirm the cause of the mastitis and the appropriate treatment. Antibiotics, either intramammary or by injection are used. With acute and black mastitis other supporting treatments may be required.

See: Mastitis in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.47 Metritis (infection of the uterus)Situations in which it can occur:

• within a month of calving or abortion (see section 7.1)• from retained membranes (see section 8.61)• damage to the birth canal from a difficult calving (see section 8.22)• after a prolapse (see section 8.59)• a complication of vibriosis. (see section 8.75)

Signs range from mild with infertility to low grade vaginal discharge to severe with cows that are fevered and sick.

TreatmentTreatment early with antibiotics is more likely to be successful than delaying treatment. Intrauterine and injectable preparations are used. Recovered cows may be infertile so should be considered for culling. Consult with your veterinarian.

See: Metritis and endometritis in large animals at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.48 Milk fever (hypocalcaemia)Milk fever is caused by low blood calcium in the blood. Calcium is required for muscle contraction and is maintained within a very narrow range in the blood by specific hormones. Milk fever occurs when this mechanism fails.

Situations when it can occur:• supplements high in calcium in the weeks before calving can trigger milk fever, as the body becomes used

to calcium provided in the diet and ‘switches off’ drawing any calcium from bones. When milk supply kicks in soon after calving, the body cannot respond quickly enough to recruit calcium from the bones

• milk fever is most commonly seen in high milk producing cows in the first three days after calving• it is more common in dairy cows (especially Jerseys) and in beef cows with dairy infusion• cows on their third or more calving are more prone

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/metritis-in-large-animals/metritis-and-endometritis-in-large-animals

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• overweight cows are more prone• there is a strong association with high potassium in pasture, typically in fertilised ryegrass• grazing setaria, which contains oxalates that bind calcium thus making it unavailable, are more prone to

milk fever. (see section 8.57.2)

Signs:• cows are found down typically in the first three days after calving. Most are in the first 24 hours, but

occasionally up to 10 days• blood calcium is essential for muscle contraction, so affected cows have flaccid paralysis (floppy muscles)• they are usually on their brisket and often have their head tucked into their side• they appear tired and weak with slow breathing and will feel cold• as they deteriorate, they go onto their side, are unresponsive and then go into a coma.


• calving injury, calving paralysis and other causes of downer cows (see section 7.9)• post calving mastitis, (see section 8.46) and metritis an infection of the uterus (see section 8.47)• oxalate toxicity, particularly from setaria. (see section 8.57.2)

TreatmentIt is important to treat early. If uncertain how to treat, contact your veterinarian immediately.

Calcium borogluconate injection (available as bags of four-in-one, which look like a drip bag) is the recommended treatment and readily available at most rural outlets. These normally give a rapid response and get the cow up and walking.

Give the calcium very slowly into the jugular vein over at least 10 minutes or it can affect the heart. If unsure how to find the vein, then it should be given under the skin.

Prevention:• recognise and address the risk factors that predispose to milk fever (as above)• cows that have had milk fever are more likely to have it at future calvings• avoid high calcium supplements in the weeks before calving as they reduce the cow’s ability to draw on

their own calcium reserves in bone when needed. If calcium supplementation is used to prevent, give just 24 hours before calving and again immediately after calving

• ensure that potassium fertilizer applications to ryegrass are not excessive.

See: Parturient paresis in cows at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.49 Navel ill Contamination of the navel soon after birth can lead to an abscess of the umbilicus (navel ill). From there, bacteria can enter the blood stream, causing:

• septicaemia and death• swollen infected joints (joint ill) in the second month of life (see section 8.5)• internal abscesses (see section 8.1)• meningitis, nervous signs and deaths in young calves from the bacteria in the bloodstream lodging on

the surface of the brain. Signs at this age can be confused with polio (see section 8.58) and with lead poisoning, (see section 8.55.1) so seek veterinary advice

• heart valve complications from bacteria in the bloodstream lodging at this site.

Treatment Treatment of joint ill and navel ill with antibiotics needs to be very early if it is to be successful. Treatment of meningitis and heart valve complications is fruitless.

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/metabolic-disorders/disorders-of-calcium-metabolism/parturient-paresis-in-cows

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PreventionNavel ill is more common when cows calve in paddocks with little grass cover, as contamination of the navel with dirt is more likely. If calving down in a calving paddock, allow this to grass up well ahead of calving. In dry years, calve in the paddock with the best grass cover.

8.50 Neospora abortion (protozoan abortion)Neospora is the most commonly diagnosed infectious cause of abortion in beef cattle on the North Coast. It is caused by an infectious microscopic protozoa called Neospora caninum.

Life cycle and spreadThe life cycle involves a carnivorous host (dogs and probably foxes) and a herbivore host (cattle). Dogs can carry Neospora in their gut and contaminate pasture with their faeces. Cattle then become infected when they graze the pasture contaminated with dog faeces and develop cysts in tissues, including the foetus. Dogs are infected by eating tissues containing the cysts, such as aborted and dead calves.

Infection passes from an infected cow to the unborn calf. If this calf survives the pregnancy it can also carry the Neospora cysts in its tissues. Infection can lie dormant in a cow for many years and probably for life. Once infection has been introduced into a herd, these infected cows can maintain Neospora in the herd without the need for a carnivore host. Neospora can also be introduced into a herd with cows that are already infected.

Signs:• abortion, often affecting several cows in the herd. The Neospora organism crosses the placenta and infects

vital organs of the foetus• some calves can also be born alive and die soon after birth, sometimes with nervous signs • other calves suffer no ill effects and later in life can then infect their progeny when they get pregnant.

Similar signs of abortion storms may be seen with:

• pestivirus (see section 8.51)• leptospirosis (see section 8.38)• theileria in recently introduced pregnant cows (see section 8.68)• tick fever *notifiable* (see section 8.70)• other causes. (see section 7.1)

TreatmentThere is no recommended treatment for infected cows.

Prevention:• wild dog and fox control (see section 8.23)• where possible deny farm dog access to placentas at calving• infected cows can be identified by a blood test but is of limited value for predicting outcomes at future

pregnancies.

A vaccine is being trialled overseas and may eventually be available here.

See: Neospora caninum infection in cattle (DPI 2004): at Health and disease webpage (DPI).

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/musculoskeletal-system/arthropathies-in-large-animals/arthritis-in-large-animals


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8.51 Pestivirus (bovine virus diarrhoea virus)Pestivirus infection is a significant cause of economic loss. Nationally, pestivirus is estimated to cost the beef cattle industry over $100 million and is ranked the second most important disease after cattle tick.

See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

Signs. Reproductive lossesIf cattle are exposed to pestivirus for the first time during pregnancy, significant losses can result. Signs depend on the age of the foetus.

A foetus exposed to the disease in the first third of pregnancy may be resorbed, aborted, stillborn, malformed or undeveloped. Resorption and abortion will be seen as returns to service after a variable interval. Those calves which survive to term become lifetime carriers of the virus (called PIs for ‘persistently infected’).

A foetus exposed to the disease in mid pregnancy can be malformed and may survive to term.

A foetus exposed to the disease in late pregnancy usually develops into a normal calf which has immunity to the virus.

Signs. Persistently infected (PIs)Most PIs have a poor immune system and succumb to a wide range of diseases and die in the first year or two of life. Usually from pneumonia, worms or scours. Some develop a syndrome with mouth ulceration and scouring called mucosal disease. A small percentage of PIs will grow and appear normal but are lifelong carriers and spread the virus in whatever unfortunate herd they end up in. One PI in a lot feeding or purchased mixed mob for fattening situation can be a headache to trigger MH pneumonia and other diseases. One PI in contact with heifers or cows at joining can trigger a reproductive failure event as described above.

Signs. Transiently infected (TIs)Cattle exposed to pestivirus at any time after birth show few signs and are likely to go unnoticed. After a few weeks they no longer have the infection. However, the virus is a powerful immune suppressant. So in the weeks after infection these TI cattle (especially calves and weaners) are susceptible to a textbook list of infections; particularly intestinal and respiratory. They are also spreaders of the virus for this short time. Because of the immune suppression and variety of diseases it triggers, pestivirus is often not recognised or other conditions are blamed.

SpreadAlmost any form of close contact can spread the virus, including yarding, shared water and feed troughs and even via the bull. Infection usually enters a herd in purchased or straying cattle, but it can be spread by over the fence contact. Saleyards have the potential to be a potent means of spread in young cattle. Every calf that a PI cow produces will also be a PI. Rare ways are by sheep, pigs and goats, rectal examination and contaminated needles.

“Pestivirus is arguably the most important disease of cattle on the North Coast. Research conducted by North Coast Local Land Services confirmed about 80 per cent of beef herds have the infection, with variable levels of infection within herds. An estimated one per cent of cattle in these herds are PIs. Positive herds experience ongoing higher levels of problems from other diseases due to immune suppression, which is often not recognised. Negative herds can experience dramatic reproductive losses when they are exposed. The answer for both negative and positive herds is the same — vaccinate.”

TreatmentTreat to control signs of secondary disease in transiently infected calves, such as for scouring or respiratory signs. Treatment of persistently infected cattle is futile as the disease in them is incurable.


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PreventionBecause of the importance of this virus to North Coast beef producers and the cost benefit, vaccination for pestivirus is considered an essential program. (see section 10.2.1) Vaccination will not cure PIs, but it will greatly reduce their impact by protecting the cattle that PIs come in contact with. Recommended programs:

• breeding females and bulls — two doses at least four weeks apart, with the second dose two to four weeks prior to joining. Annual boosters two to four weeks prior to joining

• alternatively, ‘heifer only’ program — vaccinate heifers and introduced replacement females only, twice prior to entering the breeding herd. Bulls as above. Consult your veterinarian for a risk assessment

• fattening stock — vaccinate on introduction or preferably buy already vaccinated stock. For weaners that are retained for fattening vaccinate at weaning

• sale weaners, in preparation for backgrounding or feedlots. Talk with buyers — vaccination before movement is the preferred option to cover the at risk spread period

• sale breeders – vaccinate prior to sale as a means of value adding. This can then be included on the National Cattle Health Declaration. (see section 3.7.4)

Testing to identify PIs is either by tail hair, ear notch or blood. It is now a requirement for many shows. It is strongly recommended for all bulls before purchase. It is also used to check whether pestivirus is responsible for disease problems in calves.

Blood testing for antibody to demonstrate past exposure to pestivirus is used in surveys, for infertility and abortion investigations and to monitor immunity in herds.

Eradication is possible but is costly and involves full herd testing. It is also risky. If the virus is reintroduced into a naïve herd (which can happen easily), this could trigger a costly outbreak of the disease.

A series of pesitivirus case studies is found at: See: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd) and search under bovine viral diarrhoea virus. See also: Bovine pestivirus infection (DPI 2008) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.52 Photosensitisation (sunburn)The term photosensitisation means increased sensitivity of the skin to sunlight, resulting in sunburn. This is a common condition on the North Coast and red lantana is the major cause. Milder signs of photosensitisation can also be seen on several forage and pasture species.

Photosensitisation is caused by the reaction of sunlight with photosensitive chemicals which have accumulated in the skin. The energy given off from this reaction causes damage to cells and results in the typical appearance of severely sunburnt skin.

There are two types of photosensitisations — secondary and primary. These are described separately because they have different signs and outcomes.

Secondary photosensitisation

The body normally produces small amounts of photosensitive chemicals each day and the liver quickly break them down into safe by-products. Some plants directly damage the liver by impairing its ability to break down photosensitive toxins or by blocking the bile ducts. These by-products quickly accumulate in the skin, causing jaundice and photosensitisation. Due to the liver damage affected animals can become very sick and die.

On the North Coast red lantana is the main cause. (see section 8.56.13) Less commonly it can be seen with smartweeds (see section 8.56.14) and blue-green algae poisoning. (see section 8.56.4)

It can also occur on forage panics and millets, but this takes months of exposure on paddocks dominated by these species. These are short-term forages sown to fill the gap before summer grasses come in at the start of the growing season (see section 6.7.2), so this problem is not seen on the North Coast. It should not be seen as a reason to not sow these valuable species. Occasionally photosensitisation occurs from major bile duct obstruction with liver fluke. (see section 8.41)


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/viral-diseases/bovine-pestivirus-infection

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SignsEarly on, affected cattle show discomfort including restlessness, head shaking, ear flicking, tail flicking, licking their nose, kicking at their flanks or teats and seeking shade. Lighter skinned areas, particularly around the nose, eyelids, ears and teats, swell and start to ooze and form large scabs. Large areas of skin may be affected.

Severely affected animals are in pain and may be reluctant to move or may become aggressive. Lactating cows can dry up or not allow suckling because of sore teats. Due to the liver damage, they are also jaundiced (the yellows) and can die.

Primary photosensitisation

This form of photosensitisation is much milder than is seen with primary. It is a sunburn and cattle are usually not that sick. Calves can be affected through the chemicals passed in the milk. In fact, the calf may be affected without any signs in the cow.

Chlorophyll is found in all plants and is broken down to photosensitive pigments in the rumen, which are absorbed into the blood and can accumulate in the skin. These pigments can reach high levels in some forages, particularly with young, lush growth during periods of overcast weather. Because plants grow through this stage, it is not a problem that keeps going.

This can occur with a wide range of forage species including oats, barley, ryegrass, brassicas and sorghum. And on the legumes, lucerne and clovers. Also, with some weeds including bishop’s weed. So, finding the plant that is responsible can sometimes be difficult.

Treatment (primary and secondary)Consult your veterinarian. Affected cattle should be protected from sunlight. Emollient creams are valuable for sore teats. Antihistamines, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and cortisone injections have been used to relieve the discomfort and hasten recovery.

PreventionIf at all possible, move the rest of the mob to alternative grazing. Have an active program to control red lantana. Avoid allowing cattle access to red lantana, particularly if cattle are recently introduced.

See: Photosensitisation in stock (DPI 2007) in Poisonings and other problems at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

8.53 Pinkeye (blight)Pinkeye is an infection of the surface of the eye and the conjunctiva (whites of the eye), usually of young cattle. It is an important animal welfare issue. A significant proportion of young cattle in a herd can be affected. Pinkeye can cause significant economic loss through cost and time to treat, reduced weight gains, reduced sale value and loss of timely market opportunities. Nationally it is considered one of the more important diseases of young cattle. See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

Spread Superficial abrasion or irritation to the surface of the eye allows bacteria to invade and start the disease process. The bacteria moraxella bovis is believed to be the main cause. Spread is by flies, dust, long grass and close contact, such as at self-feeders. Pinkeye is often seasonal, with some years being much worse than others.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/111157/photosensitisation-in-stock.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/111157/photosensitisation-in-stock.pdf


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Signs:• eyes are initially weepy, painful and inflamed and irritated by light• as pinkeye progresses, the eye can become cloudy or even creamy yellow and may ulcerate • weeping decreases as the eye heals, which may take several weeks• eyes that ulcerate have white scars that remain, these may interfere with vision • some eyes rupture, often as a result of trauma, resulting in permanent blindness• the discomfort and blindness reduces grazing and growth rates in young cattle• while blind, calves may injure themselves or even die by misadventure.


• infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) can resemble early pinkeye (see section 8.35)• lead poisoning — cattle are often blind, but the eyes are clear. (see section 8.55.1)

Treatment Act early, don’t underestimate the impact of pinkeye, it can affect a significant number of cattle in the herd and is a welfare issue:

• be cautious when mustering and yarding cattle as it may further spread the problem • where possible isolate affected calves for treatment and to minimise risk of accidental trauma• affected calves still on the mothers are best in a small, shady paddock or yard that is free of hazards• control of flies to reduce the rate of spread• veterinarians may inject antibiotic and anti-inflammatory into the conjunctiva• antibiotic creams applied direct to the eye every 48 hours are effective — powders and sprays are less

effective• covering the eye with a glue-on patch can help protect from trauma and reduce risk of spread• if the eye abscesses or ruptures a veterinarian may remove the eye.

*animal welfare*

Cattle with active pinkeye infection should not be transported to the saleyards or to an abattoir. It is a welfare issue for infected cattle and only spreads the infection to others. (see section 3.7.2)

*work health safety*

Blind cattle are also a work health and safety issue for producers and for saleyards and abattoir staff. Cattle blind in one eye tend to circle in one direction in the yards, with the good eye facing the rails, so cannot see the handler in the yards.

PreventionHave a proactive approach to nuisance fly and buffalo fly control. A vaccine is available and covers the main bacteria responsible for pinkeye, moraxella bovis, but does not cover all causes. Bos indicus breeds and their crosses are less susceptible to the disease. Cattle with pigment around the eye or a hooded eye are also less susceptible.

See: Pinkeye in cattle (DPI 2007) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.54 Pneumonia Along with scours, respiratory infections are the most common problem in calves. The incidence can be very high in housed calves. Occasionally outbreaks of pneumonia can also occur in calves at foot on pasture. It can be significant in weaners retained or introduced for fattening. In the feedlot situation, pneumonia ranks as the number one health problem. Mature cattle can also suffer pneumonia, but it is not as common.

Non-infections pneumonia is much less common and is from toxins such as mouldy sweet potatoes fed to cattle and sometimes sudden access to brassicas or large amounts of cabbage fed to cattle. (see section 6.7.9 and section 8.57.4)

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/pinkeye-cattle

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Causes of infectious pneumonia:• triggers predispose cattle to infection, particularly young cattle• mannheimia haemolytica pneumonia (MH) (see section 8.45)• lungworm (see section 8.78.4)• calf diphtheria (see section 8.13)• histophilus. (see section 8.33)

Non-infectious pneumoniaThese are much less common and are from toxins such as mouldy sweet potatoes fed to cattle and sometimes sudden access to brassicas or large amounts of cabbage fed to cattle. (see section 6.7.9 and section 8.57.4)

Triggers for pneumoniaReduced or compromised immune system

In young calves — failure to receive full feed of colostrum in the first 12 hours. This may be from failure to suckle in the case of a weak calf from a difficult birth, insufficient colostrum by the cow or colostrum that is of poor quality. When a calving is assisted or the calving has been too long always check that the calf can suckle.

Pre-weaning age — calves undernourished from poor milk supply of their mothers, particularly in drought years. Unless precautions are taken, early weaning has the same effect. This checks their growth and weakens the immune system.

Introduced weaners and yearlings — particularly mixed origin from the saleyards, have several stress challenges to their immune system. Mixing of mobs upsets the social hierarchy and is a major stressor as this is re-established. Many are straight off their mothers, have been transported at least twice, perhaps been through a plunge dip and are exposed to a new array of pathogens and feeds.

Infectious agents - Pestivirus is a powerful immune suppressing virus and is unfortunately common on the North Coast. When young cattle become infected, their immune system is poor for several weeks. (see section 8.51)

Several upper respiratory viruses can trigger pneumonia, the most common being infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus. (see section 8.35)

For calves reared in sheds

Poor air quality is a major trigger of pneumonia in calf sheds. This is usually due inadequate ventilation and poor hygiene leading to a build-up of ammonia which damages the lining of the airways. Causes can include chilling when on kept on concrete, poor quality milk replacer or feeding hygiene.

SpreadWhat sometimes appears as spread, is actually young cattle experiencing the same triggers.

Infectious agents spread more readily when calves have less social distancing and their noses in close contact. This can occur when housed, during yard weaning or in the paddock when on creep or self-feeders.

SignsInitially they have watery eyes and nose, drooped ears, off-colour and separated from the rest of the mob. These signs progress to thick nasal discharge, increased breathing rate, coughing, failure to drink, lethargy, difficulty breathing and exercise intolerance. If the pneumonia is severe enough, deaths can occur.

Chronic cases from severe lung damage have weight loss, ill-thrift and failure to thrive. Severe lung damage such as collapse, adhesions, abscess and scarring are common outcomes of pneumonia. Increased condemnation of lungs at the abattoir can occur. Feedback from the abattoir can be a useful tool to establish how much pneumonia is in the herd, particularly in young cattle on feed for fattening. (see section 10.1)

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TreatmentIt is important to act early, so consult with your veterinarian. Antibiotics and anti-inflammatories are needed early in the disease and should be continued for at least three days. Separate affected stock from healthy ones if possible. If significant lung damage has occurred, their outlook is not good.

PreventionIdentify the triggers and explore ways of reducing their impact.

In calves that are shed or yard reared: Ensure that calves have had adequate colostrum. Address ventilation. Wood shavings or sawdust absorbs the nitrogen in urine and reduces ammonia and provides insulation against chilling. With ongoing problems in calves, consider vaccination of the breeders for MH. If the calves are introduced consider pestivirus, MH and IBR vaccination on arrival.

In paddock reared calves on cows: Ensure calves born from a prolonged or assisted calving are suckling and receive sufficient colostrum. Keep any eye on the body condition of cows in the lead up to calving and in early lactation. Vaccination of the breeding herd for pestivirus will greatly reduce the impact of this powerful immune suppressing virus and has benefits for the breeding performance. Watch for respiratory spread if calves are on creep or self-feeders.

In weaner cattle introduced for fattening or backgrounding: Consider vaccination for pestivirus, MH and IBR on arrival as part of induction. Know your breeder who supplies the weaners, it is even better to have these vaccinations done on the property of origin. Speak with your veterinarian about a vaccination program.

See: Bacterial pneumonia in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.55 Poisonings — chemicalsSituations when it can occur There is the potential for chemicals in the environment where cattle are grazed. Chemicals such as lead, arsenic and organochlorines (OCs) can sometimes cause death. On some properties, chemicals such as organochlorines may be present at very low levels in the soil. These persistent chemicals are not high enough to cause disease but may accumulate in the tissues to sufficient level to be picked up at the abattoir. (see section 3.4) In many cases stockowners are unaware of their existence as the contamination occurred years before from a previous owner and are still present in the soil.

Burning waste can be potential risk and cattle are attracted to eating ash. In particular for arsenic poisoning (from treated timber), for lead (from old paint and flashing) and for hardware disease (from wire or nails or from car tyres).

Some are deposited illegally when people dump rubbish on properties or on roadsides.

Cattle are inquisitive and will eat car batteries, sump oil and plastic. Farm dumps are a potential source of poisons, rubbish that can cause impaction (see section 8.28) and hardware disease. (see section 8.31) Rubbish dumps on farms should be fenced off to prevent stock access. Sometimes roadside waste or illegally dumped rubbish may be the source.

Cattle may gain access to chemicals in sheds. Sometimes poisoning can occur through accidental overdose of chemicals used on stock. Out of date chemicals can also cause poisoning, particularly the organophosphate group. It is vital to ensure that all chemicals are securely locked in sheds and that label directions are followed fully when using any farm chemicals.

See: Waste website (EPA).

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/respiratory-system/respiratory-diseases-of-cattle/bacterial-pneumonia-in-cattle


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8.55.1 Lead poisoning *residues*

Situations when it can occurCases are more common in young cattle as they are more inquisitive and are more susceptible to lead poisoning. Batteries, old sump oil, sump oil treated timber, lead-based paint and window putty on old farm buildings are the most common sources. If old timber painted with lead is burnt, the lead is not destroyed by burning. Cattle are attracted to eat the ash and poisoning can result.

SignsLead poisoning occasionally occurs in cattle. Most cases show nervous signs for less than a day before death, with convulsions, blindness, tremor and mania. Or they are just found dead. Smaller doses of lead show signs for several days, such as blindness, dullness, staggering, diarrhoea, loss of appetite and abdominal pain (grinding of teeth and kicking at flank).

*notify* If these signs are seen contact a veterinarian immediately. An early diagnosis and identifying the source is important to prevent further cases. Lead also has trade implications, both for the property concerned and for the beef industry.

If the amount of lead consumed is not high enough to cause signs, residues accumulate in the tissues. For this reason, herds with lead poisoning are quarantined and tested to determine if there are residues present in the herd. Because tissue lead residues can be very slow to deplete, the quarantine may need to last for several years.

Similar signs may be seen with meningitis (see section 8.49), tetanus (see section 8.67) and polio. (see section 8.58)

TreatmentMost affected stock will die. There is a specific antidote to lead, however, this is not used in cattle.

Prevention:• due to the quarantine and market implications of residues, be sure to embed lead prevention in the on-

farm biosecurity plan (see section 3.2.1)• don’t leave sources of lead such as old paints, batteries and sump oil anywhere near stock• fence off old buildings and bury any ash from burnt timber.

See: Lead poisoning in livestock (DPI 2017) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.55.2 Urea poisoning

Situations when it can occurUrea is commonly used to provide a source of nitrogen in cattle supplementary feeding programs, as well as being a fertiliser. Urea is highly poisonous, even in small amounts. Poisoning can occur from incorrectly mixed supplements. If used in molasses, it should be introduced slowly over two to three weeks starting at one per cent to a maximum of three per cent (and no more than 60 g/head/day). Use urea prills and mix thoroughly and carefully with a mixing attachment to a drill or chainsaw. Pooling of rainwater on the top of urea-containing lick blocks or cattle swallowing whole chunks from the remains of lick blocks can also cause poisoning. Cattle eating urea-containing fertiliser is another cause.

SignsUrea releases ammonia in the rumen, this is absorbed and poisoned stock can die within 30 minutes of ingestion. Because cattle die quickly from urea poisoning, they are often found dead. Typical signs are increased respiration rate and salivating, followed by bellowing, teeth grinding, shivering, uncoordinated drunken appearance, aggression, breathing difficulties and convulsions.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/general/lead-poisoning-in-livestock

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TreatmentAs the poisoning is rapid, most cattle die before treatment can be given. Give four to six litres of vinegar if available as soon as possible (be careful not to have any go down the wrong way into the airways) and call your veterinarian immediately.

PreventionCover or remove urea blocks in wet weather. Remove blocks that are nearly finished. Ensure that urea is well mixed into molasses, if in doubt purchasing premixed urea / molasses mix is a safer option. Do not allow cattle access to areas such as sheds where urea is stored. (see section 6.7.2)

See: Fortified molasses mixes for cattle and urea roller drum mixes for cattle at: Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI).

8.55.3 Arsenic poisoning

Situations when it can occurCopper Chrome Arsenate (CCA)–treated timber also contains arsenic and is widely used in building situations for preserving timber. Arsenic is not biodegradable and will not break down even when burnt. The ash from burnt CCA–treated timber is a source of arsenic poisoning in cattle. Cattle are attracted to ash and will readily eat arsenic. Arsenic compounds were widely used in the past, mainly for cattle tick control but also as weedicides. These have not been used for many years and so poisoning from these sources is now uncommon.

SignsArsenic is a highly fatal poison. Affected cattle will often be found dead a short time after ingesting the arsenic. It causes damage to the circulation of the vital organs and haemorrhage into the gastrointestinal tract. If seen alive they will have severe abdominal pain, be tucked up and have dark diarrhoea. This quickly leads to convulsions and death. Less severe cases linger for a few days, stagger, scour and have stupor.

Similar signs of blood or black scour may be seen with:

• salmonellosis (see section 8.64)• bracken fern poisoning (see section 8.56.5)• coccidiosis. (see section 8.17)

TreatmentMost cases are found dead. The outlook for affected cattle is very poor, and only mild cases may benefit from veterinary treatment. Contact your veterinarian immediately.

PreventionDo not burn CCA–treated timber and deny cattle access to where timber was burnt in the past. Beware that the soil around sites of old banana packing sheds and dip sheds may have arsenic residues.

See: Arsenic and DDT residues at cattle dip yards (DPI 2017) at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

8.55.4 Organophosphate poisoning

Organophosphate (OP) chemicals are widely used in agriculture for treating lice and buffalo fly infestations in stock and for insect problems in horticulture.



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/chemicals/animal-chemicals/cattle-dip-yards

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Situations when it can occur:• overdose — particularly toward end of tank, if not mixed well active will float as an oil layer on top• storage — some organophosphate chemicals become far more toxic when they break down and cattle are

poisoned when an out-of-date chemical is used (particularly if it was stored under hot conditions)• when OP treatments are given at the same time as other chemicals — always check before using any

chemical on an animal already treated with OPs and read the label or seek professional advice.

SignsOrganophosphate poisoned cattle show bellowing, slobbering, contracted pupils, diarrhoea, weakness and incoordination within a short period. Signs can occur very soon after overdose and many affected cattle die.

TreatmentContact your veterinarian as soon as possible to confirm the poisoning and to commence treatment. An atropine injection is a highly effective antidote. Any remaining chemical in the gut can be bound by an absorbent such as activated charcoal or bentonite.

The dose for activated charcoal is 500 g per 100 kg body weight given orally as a slurry with two to four litres of water. Bentonite is much cheaper and more readily available than activated charcoal, but is more difficult to use. The dose rate is 500 g per 100 kg body weight. This should be dissolved in water first, and, because it is thick, about 10 litres of water is needed per 500 g bentonite (50 litres of mix for a 500 kg cow). The bentonite slurry is given by stomach tube.

See: Spray sense leaflet series at: Agricultural chemicals webpage (DPI).

8.56 Poisonings — plantsPlant poisonings are a significant problem on the North Coast and each year many cattle die as a result of plant poisoning. Together with malnutrition, internal and external parasites and blackleg, they are a major cause of sickness and death in cattle on the North Coast.

It is important to recognise the toxic plants on your property and the dangers that some feeds and fodder crops may pose.

Situations when plant poisonings can occur:• in late winter and spring when cattle are short of feed• introduced stock that are naïve to the area, particularly inquisitive calves • hungry stock (for example after yarding or trucking), or sudden change in feed or routine• some toxic plants are more palatable when flowering or about to flower• when cattle have uncontrolled access to scrub• access to gardens, orchards, vegetable gardens or garden waste. (see section 8.56.1)

Time from eating to death vary according to the plant. These include:

• acute poisoning — eating the plant one day leads to death within hours or overnight, such as oleander, mother of millions, green cestrum

• delay onset from eating until signs, for example bracken fern• chronic poisonings — long-term exposure is usually needed for disease, such as liver fibrosis with

fireweed.

Acute plant poisonings often involve numbers of cattle, sometimes large numbers. Cattle watch each other eat and learn from each other, so many may take to eating a plant that they have previously ignored or not experienced.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/chemicals/spray-sense-leaflet-series

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TreatmentIf you suspect a plant poisoning move the cattle off the suspected plant, fodder crop or pasture. If cattle with signs are able to walk, keep them under observation in yards. Feed hay and make sure water is available.

Treatment is dependent on the poisoning and for some there is no treatment. With acute poisonings there may be some toxin remaining in the gut that can be bound using an absorbent such as bentonite or activated charcoal. See organophosphate poisoning (above) for dose rate and directions for use.

PreventionKnow the toxic plants on your property and in your area. Regularly check paddocks, particularly along creek banks and the margins of scrub for the presence of known poisonous plants and any new or unknown plant.

Introduce new stock to paddocks known to be clean, as new cattle tend to be most inquisitive whereas home-bred stock will usually know to avoid grazing certain plants.

Contact a North Coast Local Land Services district veterinarian about which plants are the most common causes of stock poisoning in your district as there is considerable variation in types of poisonous plants between localities and even between farms.

See: Australia’s poisonous plants, fungi and cyanobacteria (R.A. McKenzie 2012). For further information on plants, including their locations in NSW, See: Plantnet NSW flora online (Royal Sydney Botanical Gardens).

See: Important poisonous vascular plants of Australia at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

Weeds*biosecurity duty* Under the Biosecurity Act, all plants are regulated with a general biosecurity duty to prevent, eliminate or minimise any biosecurity risk they may pose. For some plants that are serious weeds this duty may be more specific. For example, exclusion zones under the act place a duty on landholders to eradicate a plant and keep land free of the plant.

See: Weeds of the North Coast of NSW: A guide to identification and control (2021) at: North Coast Local Land

Services website (NCLLS).

See: Weeds resources webpage (Rous County Council).

See: North Coast Weeds Advisory Committee webpage.

See: Weedwise NSW website (DPI).

8.56.1 Home garden, vegetable and orchard poisonings and hazards

Deny cattle access to gardens and house yards, ornamentals can be toxic:

• bryophyllum or kalanchoe succulents contain a heart toxin (see section 8.56.9)• various cestrum species contain a liver toxin (see section 8.56.8)• many of the pigface succulent group are high in oxalates (see section 8.57.2)• trad (wandering jew) is a common garden weed that is high in nitrates (see section 8.57.1)• many species of zamia palm (cycads) planted in gardens are all are toxic (see section 8.56.15)• ensure that cattle do not have access to prunings as some plants are more attractive to cattle as they wilt

(see section 8.56.11)• access around houses and sheds is also a risk for residues (see section 3.4.1)• lawn clippings can be a risk for organochlorine residues. (see section 3.4.1)

There are many garden plants that can be toxic, for a list; See: Poisonous houseplants and ornamentals table at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

Home vegetable gardens and vegetable waste can be toxic to cattle. Particularly when fed in quantity, such as supermarket waste:

https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/5758191

https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/veterinary/toxicology/poisonous-plants/important-poisonous-plants-of-australia

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/articles,-plans-and-publications/weeds-of-the-north-coast-of-nsw

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/articles,-plans-and-publications/weeds-of-the-north-coast-of-nsw

https://rous.nsw.gov.au/weed-resources

http://northcoastweeds.org.au/

https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/



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• the cabbage family contain several different toxins for cattle (see section 6.7.9 and section 8.57.4)• onions can also be toxic as well as a choke hazard to cattle (see section 8.16)• sweet potatoes can go mouldy quickly and cause a toxic pneumonia in cattle.

Deny cattle access to home orchards:

• avocado leaves contain a heart toxin (see section 8.56.2)• passionfruit leaves contain cardiac glycoside (see section 8.56.9 and section 8.56.11)• stone fruit leaves contain cyanide (see section 8.57.3)• chokos, bush lemons and other citrus and mangoes are a choke risk. (see section 8.16)

Sweet potatoes can go mouldy quickly and cause a toxic pneumonia in cattle. (see section 8.45)

8.56.2 Avocado poisoning

Avocado (Persea americana)

Avocado production is an important and growing industry on the North Coast. They are also a common tree for the home garden. However, all parts of the tree are toxic to grazing animals, particularly to goats and horses, but also cattle.

Situations when poisoning occurs:• as with most poisonings cattle that have no previous exposure are most at risk• grazing access to abandoned commercial avocado orchards • intentional or accidental access to avocado trees in home gardens• waste avocado fruit or pulp fed as an alternative feed source in droughts.

SignsThe toxin causes congestive heart failure. The heart rate of affected stock falls and fluid builds up under the skin and in the lungs.

TreatmentRemove cattle from the paddock, some animals will recover, but there is no specific treatment. Consult your veterinarian.

See: Avocado at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/toxicology/food-hazards/avocado-toxicosis-in-animals

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8.56.3 Black bean poisoning

Black bean (Castonospermum australe)

Black bean is a large native rainforest tree usually found near water or in rainforest areas. Black bean seeds fall in large numbers from April to June and the ripe seeds contain a toxin that irritates the gastrointestinal tract. The seeds are toxic in small amounts to humans. However, large quantity of ripe seeds are needed to kill cattle. The rule of thumb is one bucket can kill a weaner and two buckets for an adult. Some cattle seem to develop a taste for the seeds.

Signs:• green or black scour from bowel haemorrhage• frequent urination• inexperienced young cattle that eat the seed can die suddenly.

Treatment and control:• seek veterinary attention, rehydration and absorbent may help (bentonite or activated charcoal)• move cattle away from trees, fence waterways where black bean grow• removing black bean trees is not usually an option because they are native and grow in environmentally

sensitive area such as near water and in rainforest.



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8.56.4 Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) poisoning

Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) bloom

Situations when poisoning can occurBlooms can grow on the surfaces of creeks and dams during the summer and autumn if conditions are dry and nutrient levels in water are high. The algal blooms look like green paint slick and are capable of causing sudden cattle death from liver failure. Keep cattle away from suspect water.

Water testing can be done to test for presence of the algae.

Signs:• sudden death (may be as quick as one hour after drinking) preceded by weakness, muscle tremors,

shortness of breath, paddling, coma and death• other cattle may take longer to die and are found sick with abdominal pain (colic), diarrhoea, jaundice and

photosensitisation.

Treatment and control:• move cattle off, there is no treatment for sick cattle• spraying to kill the algae is counterproductive, as the toxin is released as it dies• algal blooms may be controlled by clearing the water using alum (100 kg/megalitre) or gypsum (50 kg/

megalitre).

The North Coast Regional Algal Coordinating Committee covers the same area as the North Coast Local Land Services and has a media advisory role. For up-to-date information, risk of algae blooms and control. See: Algae information webpage at: Water NSW website (Water NSW). See: Algae webpage at: Water Quality webpage (NSW DPI).

See Blue-green algae poisoning in cattle at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).

https://www.waternsw.com.au/water-quality/algae

https://www.waternsw.com.au/water-quality/algae

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/water/quality/pubs-and-info/blue-green-algae

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/water/quality/pubs-and-info/blue-green-algae


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8.56.5 Bracken fern poisoning

Bracken fern poisoning is a very common plant poisoning on the North Coast.

Situations when poisoning can occurCattle may eat the new fronds which emerge after slashing, fire or in the spring. This is often at a time when green feed is in short supply in the spring months. Following a very hot fire, bracken fern may be the first and only plant to regrow (the rhizomes are underground and survive the fire). At other times when pasture is lush, cattle may graze the mature fronds for fibre. Inexperienced weaners and introduced cattle are the most susceptible. Rock fern (Cheilanthes sieberi subsp. sieberi) causes the same problem, but is much less common.

Bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum)

SignsTwo very distinct types of poisoning are seen in cattle. The most common form is from a toxin in bracken fern which damages the bone marrow cells causing a leukaemia-like condition. This often occurs as an outbreak in young stock several weeks after grazing ferns. Deaths result from bleeding from almost anywhere in the body as the blood does not clot properly due to depletion of blood platelets. The white cell count is also low, so secondary infections are common.

The other form of bracken fern poisoning is bladder tumours in older cattle. The signs of this are red urine and anaemia (very pale gums). This takes many years to develop and is seen as a single animal problem in old cows.

Treatment and controlIf deaths occur, remove young stock from access to bracken. However, because of the time-lag from eating to signs, deaths may continue for several weeks.

Strategies to control bracken include pasture improvement and spraying with metsulfuron.

Avoid putting cattle on to graze fresh growth after slashing or burning.

See: Bracken fern (DPI 2010).

See: Acute bracken toxicity in beef cattle at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/316261/Bracken-fern.pdf

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/acute-bracken-toxicity.html

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8.56.6 Fireweed poisoning

Fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis)

Situations when poisoning can occurFireweed is a common weed, but cases of poisoning are not common. Most cases are associated with slashing because the cattle are less able to discriminate against the fireweed when the fresh regrowth is mixed with grasses. Fireweed is still toxic when dry and caution should be exercised to see that it is not included when making hay or silage.

*work health safety* Never burn pulled fireweed as the smoke is a toxic hazard to people.

SignsChronic syndrome

Chronic poisoning is the most common form. Long-term grazing of fireweed causes accumulative damage to the liver:

• being chronic, deaths are often sporadic rather than being a cluster of cases• ill thrift, scour and strain, fade away and die• some cattle may have nervous signs due to toxins that are not removed by the liver.

The acute syndrome is seen in two situations:

1. sudden onset of signs in cattle that have chronic liver damage from grazing fireweed in the past and are then moved onto lush grass

2. acute liver damage after short-term exposure, particularly in young, naïve and recently introduced cattle.

These cattle are jaundiced, may have photosensitisation and die quickly. Because this form is acute, there may be a cluster of cases.

Treatment and control:• control should be aimed at fireweed control; seek agronomic advice on chemical and non-chemical

options• avoid overgrazing, particularly during autumn and winter, and maintain a vigorous, dense pasture to

outcompete fireweed• use rotational grazing rather than continuous stocking• over-sow pastures in autumn with a winter-active fodder such as ryegrass (see section 6.5)• minimise the risk of cattle eating the fireweed. Do not use slashing as a means of controlling fireweed

as cattle may find it harder to discriminate when grazing. For the same reason beware of fireweed when making hay or silage

• be wary of inexperienced young or recently introduced stock moving onto fireweed.

See: Fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis) at: Weedwise NSW webpage (DPI).

https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/Details/53

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8.56.7 Grass tree poisoning

Grass tree (Xanthorrhoea spp)

Situations when poisoning can occurThe flower stem is the most toxic part of the grass tree. Leaves are not normally eaten as they are very coarse, but cattle may eat the fresh new growth after a fire, when little else is available. There is a lag for up to three months after eating to signs.

Signs:• incoordination in the hindquarter, sideways lurching and fall easily — nickname for the disease is

“wumps”, for the sound that cattle make when they fall over when mustered• have difficulty rising, weight loss and dribble urine• signs of zamia can be similar — grass tree cases recover, generally zamia poisoned cattle do not.

TreatmentLeave affected individuals in a safe place. Most cases of grass tree poisoning will recover in about two to three weeks.

ControlMove the cattle out of the paddocks when grass trees have fresh growth after a fire of when in flower.



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8.56.8 Green cestrum and Night-blooming jasmine poisoning

Green cestrum is a very toxic weed that causes death by liver damage. As little as three kilograms will kill adult cattle. Cestrum is invasive and prefers shady watercourses. It is a shrub with clusters of yellow flowers, followed by black berries.

Night-blooming jasmine, a closely related cestrum which is just as toxic. The flower is similar, but it has white berries. It is becoming a common weed on scrub soils along the coast, particularly under fruiting trees, such as figs. There are several other cestrum species and their cultivars, including red cestrum (Cestrum elegans), grown as ornamental shrubs. All should be considered to have the potential for becoming garden escapes and toxic to livestock.

Green cestrum Cestrum parqui (left) and Night-blooming jasmine Cestrum nocturnum (right

Situations when poisoning can occurDeaths usually occur after rain or recent introduction to the plant, even in cattle that have been in the paddock for some time.

Signs:• cattle are usually found dead as the duration of signs is brief, so sick cattle are rarely seen• if seen sick, scour which may contain blood, be weak and not eating, abdominal pain (colic), teeth

grinding, kicking at flanks• nervous signs of depression or mania, staggers, convulsions, paralysis and coma.

Treatment and control:• there is no treatment for sick cattle• do not tolerate any level of infestation — start an active campaign to control and maintain the program

long term as reinfestation is common as fruit is carried by birds• the plant is more palatable and still toxic after leaves have wilted from spraying or cutting, so remove

cattle from paddock until leaves have fallen and broken down.

*work health safety* All parts of the plant are poisonous to people, especially the berries that may be attractive to children. Wear gloves when handling the plant.

*biosecurity duty* Most of the North Coast is an exclusion zone for green cestrum under the Biosecurity Act. This places a duty on landholders to eradicate green cestrum and keep land free of the plant.

See: Green cestrum (DPI 2008).

See: Green cestrum (cestrum parqui) at: Weedwise NSW webpage (DPI).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/235408/Green-cestrum.pdf

https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/WeedImages/Details/444?NoWeeds=8

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8.56.9 Mother of millions poisoningMother of millions is a very toxic plant that causes death by heart failure and irritates the bowels. The plant is capable of killing large numbers of cattle in a short timeframe. Do not tolerate any level of infestation. As little as two to three kilograms can kill adult cattle. It is a succulent plant with clusters of red flowers in June, July and August. There are several forms and hybrids that are garden escapes. The group of plants to which mother of millions belongs are called bryophyllum or kalanchoes and many are grown in gardens. There are a variety of leaf forms and all have a similar flower, but not all are red. All are toxic.

Oleander, passionfruit leaves, white cotton and red- headed cotton also contain a similar toxin.

Situations when poisoning can occurPoisoning usually occurs when the plant is in flower. A much higher level of toxin is found in the flower heads, and these are also more attractive to cattle. Poisoning with the garden species can occur when cattle have access to gardens or garden waste.

Signs:• sudden death from heart attack• survivors or those that have eaten less may have black or blood-stained diarrhoea for several days.

TreatmentCattle are usually found dead, often in significant numbers. Absorbents such as activated charcoal or bentonite may help those with the scour.

Prevention:• do not tolerate any level of infestation, start an active campaign to control. The tiny plant leaflets float, so

it can be reintroduced with floods• keep cattle out of house gardens and never allow access to garden waste.

Mother of millions - every little leaf grows Mother of millions examples of other leaf forms

See: Mother of millions (bryophyllum species) at: Weedwise NSW webpage (DPI).

Mother of millions flower

https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/MotherOfMillions

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8.56.10 Noogoora burr poisoningSituations when poisoning can occurOnly the seeds and the first seed leaves after germination contain a liver toxin. Mature leaves are not toxic. Seed can be washed downstream and poisonings occur after mass germination of seeds on creek flats after rain in spring to early summer. As little as two kilograms can be toxic to young cattle.

Signs:• cattle are usually found dead as the duration of signs is brief, so sick cattle are rarely seen• if seen sick, may have scour, be weak and not eating• abdominal pain (colic), teeth grinding, kicking at flanks• nervous signs of depression or mania, staggers, convulsions, paralysis and coma.

Treatment and controlLook for evidence of seedlings after rainfall events. Spray any infestations.

*biosecurity duty* Noogoora burr is a declared pest in Western Australia and all cattle moved to that state must be free of the burr on their coat.

Noogoora burr

Noogoora burr seedlings

Images courtesy: Weedwise NSW webpage (DPI)

See: Weedwise NSW webpage (DPI).


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8.56.11 Oleander and Yellow oleander poisoning

Nerium oleander (left) and Yellow oleander Cascabela thevetia (right)

An ornamental, flowering plant offering attractive blossoms in hues of white, red and pink. A related oleander with yellow flowers is also toxic. All parts of the plant are toxic and contain cardiac glycosides which damage the heart. Oleander has a similar toxin to mother of millions. (see section 8.56.9) Both wild passionfruit and domestic passionfruit vines also contain cardiac glycosides. Red-headed cotton bush and white cotton bush also have a similar toxin, but poisoning by these is very rare. Infestation of these two species is a sign of overgrazing.

Situations when poisoning can occurWilted prunings account for most deaths, they are more palatable when the glycoside breaks down to release glucose. As little as five to 20 leaves will kill adult cattle.

Signs:• sudden death from heart attack• survivors or those that have eaten less may have black or blood-stained diarrhoea for several days.

TreatmentThere is no specific treatment for sick cattle.

Prevention:• do not tolerate any oleander in areas that cattle may have access to• never leave Oleander prunings in a paddock.

*work health safety* All parts of oleander are dangerous to humans and all domestic species, even in small amounts. Wear protective clothing if handling. The smoke from burning is also toxic. Never pick as a cut flower.



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8.56.12 Poison peach poisoning

Poison peach (Trema tomentosa var. aspera)

Poison peach is a common, widespread native rainforest pioneer species.

Situations when poisoning can occur:• cattle grazing near scrub, particularly if recently introduced or when the trees have fallen• poison peach is common near the edges of scrub and under fruiting trees such as figs• seed germinates after recent fire or soil disturbance, often in large numbers.

Look for evidence that stock have browsed the plant, but note that wallabies and kangaroos may browse the plant without apparent effects. Also individual plants vary greatly in toxin content.

Signs are of acute liver toxicity:• sudden death — found dead• if alive may have abdominal pain with signs of colic, kicking at flanks and teeth grinding• may be jaundiced (yellows)• depression or mania, staggers, convulsions, paralysis, coma.

Treatment and control:• there is no treatment for sick cattle• fence off rainforest areas• control of poison peach in those areas that cattle have access to — this need to be ongoing as the seed is

carried by birds.



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8.56.13 Red lantana poisoning

Non-toxic Pink lantana on left, toxic Red lantana (Lantana camara) on right

Red lantana is an introduced garden escape that is well established from Port Macquarie north to Grafton, but is spreading north into the Casino and Lismore districts. In these areas, red lantana is the most common plant poisoning in cattle. Red lantana prefers damp conditions. The pink strain is not toxic, has a lighter green leaf and grows in drier areas.

Situations when poisoning can occurAs with many poisonous plants, introduced cattle are more likely to be affected.

Signs:• photosensitisation (sunburn) and jaundice (yellows)• reddening, inflammation, swelling and crusting of unpigmented white skin, including muzzle, ears, eyelids,

teats and vulva• cattle stop eating and drinking, become dehydrated and avoid sunlight• anxious and aggressive from the pain of the sunburn and colic• kick at flanks and teats, flick ears, tails swish and teeth grind• as signs progress the become depressed and weak and significant numbers can die.

Treatment: • for mild cases, move away from the plant, provide shade and have access to water • drench an absorbent to help bind the toxin, such as bentonite or activated charcoal — but these cattle are

in pain and handling can cause more pain and distress• more severe cases require veterinary attention• anti-inflammatory drugs will reduce pain and swelling.

*biosecurity duty* Under the Biosecurity Act red lantana has a prohibition on dealings, which means that it must not be imported into NSW or sold.


See: Lantana (DPI 2008).


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/256472/Lantana.pdf

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8.56.14 Smartweed poisoning

There are several species on the North Coast and all are found in wet, swampy areas. Smartweeds are usually not toxic. Cases are believed to occur from as yet unidentified seasonal factors, possibly a fungus on the smartweed.

Signs Signs are similar to red lantana but usually not as severe; photosensitisation and sometimes liver failure and death.

Two Smartweed species (Persicaria spp.) found on the North Coast

Treatment Anti-inflammatory drugs and shade. (see section 8.52)

Control is difficult, because cases are unpredictable. If signs are seen then move cattle off smartweed areas, if alternative grazing is available.

See: Smartweed (Persicaria spp.) poisoning in cattle at: Flock and Herd webpage (Flock and Herd).

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/smartweed-poisoning-cattle.html

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8.56.15 Zamia palm (cycad) poisoning

Zamia palm or cycad (Cycas spp.)

There are several native species that are sometimes seen as thick stands, particularly on sandy soils. A wide variety of species are grown in gardens.

Situations when poisoning can occur:• the seeds and young fronds appear to be quite palatable and are readily eaten, especially when other feed

is scarce — these are also the most toxic parts of the plant • the plants may all flush with new growth simultaneously after a fire or change in season• cases have been seen when cattle have accessed house gardens.

SignsSigns occur after eating for generally more than 14 days. The toxin damages the spinal cord and liver.

Damage to the spinal cord, leading to loose condition in hindquarters, stiff high step in hind, which progresses to a stagger, dragging the hind feet, fall and unable to rise. Signs are similar to grass tree, but unlike grass tree, affected cattle do not recover.

The toxin also damages the liver causing jaundice, diarrhoea and death.

Treatment and control:• affected individuals do not recover and should be humanely destroyed (see section 3.3.5)• move the cattle out of the paddock away from the plant.

See: Burrawong palm hepatopathy in cattle at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).


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8.57 Poisoning — pastures and foragesToxicity from pastures and fodder crops is not common (otherwise they would not be grown for cattle to eat). When they occur, this ‘friendly fire’ can be very frustrating. Time, energy and money spent on pasture improvement and sowing forages are done with intentions of improving cattle productivity. It is important to be aware of the problems, when they occur and strategies to minimise the risk.

Syndromes that can occur:• Nitrate poisoning• Oxalate poisoning• Cyanide poisoning• Frothy bloat can be seen on cattle grazing clover, lucerne, lush kikuyu and sometimes other lush grasses.

(see section 8.8)• Glass tetany can by seen on lush pasture, ryeglass and on moving to kikuyu in the spring months after a

winter of grazing ryegrass. (see section 8.30)

Other conditions are listed by species of pasture and forage.

Situations when poisoning can occurUsually there are environmental factors involved. For this reason, significant numbers of cattle may be affected. Also, the pasture or fodder crop may be the dominant or only feed available. Situations include:

• hungry stock or sudden change in diet or routine, e.g. access in the morning without any gut fill on alternative feed, cattle with no recent experience of grazing

• young, lush, actively growing pasture or fodder crop, particularly if fertilised (this is also the preferred grazing stage)

• with paspalum ergot, it is when the plant has seed heads infected with the ergot• when the plant is grazed — nitrate and kikuyu toxicity• in the case of nitrate, grass tetany or cyanide-prone feed, when there is overcast damp weather• with nitrate or cyanide can also occur when the plant is wilted from moisture stress or frost.

TreatmentIf poisoning is suspected move the cattle off the fodder crop or pasture. If cattle with signs are able to walk, keep them under observation in yards. Feed hay and make sure water is available. For some poisonings such as nitrate, cyanide and gassy bloat, there are specific antidotes.

*work health safety* Take care when handling. Cattle with some poisonings can be unpredictable and aggressive, particularly if they are struggling to breath (nitrate and cyanide), are in pain (red lantana) or have neurological signs (grass tetany and paspalum staggers).

PreventionIntroduce cattle gradually onto lush feed or fodder crops. In the afternoon, when they already have a belly full of food is better than in the morning when they are hungry.

Be aware of the risk factors. Consult a veterinarian; there may be reports of other cases in the area. Plant tissue tests are available for nitrate and cyanide.

8.57.1 Nitrate poisoning

This is usually from ryegrass but also on forage oats, sorghum, forage maize and brassicas. Several weeds also have nitrate potential, such as variegated thistle, amaranth, mallow, trad (wandering jew) and liverseed grass.

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Situations when poisoning can occur:• plants accumulate nitrate when soil nitrate is high, either from nitrogen fertiliser or sudden release of

nitrogen in soil from breakdown of dead roots or after the break of a drought or following a soybean crop• weeds (those mentioned above) and grasses in and around cattle yards can be a potent source, as the soil

in these areas can be very high in nitrogen and cattle may have no alternative feed• plants are lush, from irrigation or rain• after cloudy, wet or cold days because nitrate accumulates in the plant at these times• when cattle are hungry• on first grazing and in the early morning; nitrate levels are highest at this time of day• when grazed low; nitrate levels are higher in the lower stem than in the leaves• can also be seen when the plant is wilted from spraying (variegated thistle), moisture stress or frost.

As the plant matures and the rumen flora adapt the risk becomes lower.

SignsDeath is usually after three to four hours after grazing because it takes this long for the nitrate to convert to the toxic form (nitrite) in the rumen and for signs to occur, such as:

• forced, difficult and rapid breathing, muscle tremors, paddling, coma• blood is dark chocolate coloured and slow to clot • low doses of nitrate can cause scouring• surviving cows may abort because the foetus has died• there is the potential for significant numbers of cattle to be affected if all cattle are exposed.

TreatmentThere is an antidote, but generally not enough time to treat. Also because it is not registered, cattle treated with this antidote cannot enter the food chain.

Control:• control grazing access on first graze to allow cattle and the rumen flora to adapt• limit intake initially to no more than one hour• delay access to later in the day, when it is safer (nitrate levels are highest in the early morning) and when

cattle already have gut fill• graze lightly so that the lower stem is not eaten (stems are higher in nitrate than leaf)• speak with a veterinarian regarding tests available for nitrate levels in plant tissue.

See: Nitrate and nitrite poisoning in livestock (DPI 2018) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.57.2 Oxalate poisoning

Oxalate can be found in high levels in several tropical grass species, in particular setaria, but also pangola, barnyard grass and others. Oxalate is also high in the weeds dock and sorrel, oxalis, amaranth and in various succulents (including pigface). Several succulent species high in oxalates are grown in gardens.

Most oxalate poisonings on the North Coast are from setaria. This is a preferred pasture species with the potential for high productivity. If managed correctly the risk can be greatly reduced.

Situations when poisoning can occur:• the rumen flora adapt to breaking down oxalate to harmless compounds, however this adaption takes

several days and is lost when cattle are off setaria for 10 to 14 days• when oxalate is highest and feed intakes of setaria also high when it is short and lush, particularly when

fertilised (this is also the preferred grazing stage when it is most nutritious)• access to the weed species (above), when cattle are hungry and have no alternative feed, such as in and

around cattle yards.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/sheep/health/other/nitrate-nitrite-poisoning

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SignsTwo forms of poisoning are seen in cattle:

1. Oxalate binds to blood calcium causing a sudden drop in blood calcium, producing signs similar to milk fever. (see section 8.48) The onset is soon after introduction onto setaria. Affected cattle have muscles that are flaccid (floppy), they become bloated (as the rumen muscles have poor contraction) and go down, typically on their brisket, with head to one side. This progresses to coma and death

2. The calcium oxalate crystals are insoluble and damage the body’s filter, the kidney. This causes sickness and death from kidney failure. This can take up to a week after reintroduction onto setaria. Damage to the kidneys is permanent and crystal damage can accumulate over time. Cattle succumb when kidney damage passes the threshold.

In horses the calcium binding of oxalate in setaria results in chronic calcium deficiency rickets known as ‘big head’. This form is not seen in cattle.

TreatmentThe low blood calcium responds to milk fever treatment (calcium borogluconate) and correcting bloat if present. There is no practical treatment for the kidney failure form.

ControlCaution with rotational grazing. The rule of thumb is, if cattle have not grazed setaria in the past 10–14 days then the rumen flora will need to time readapt. Reintroduce cattle gradually by increasing the time spent grazing each day for the first few days.

If deaths have occurred in a mob due to oxalate, consideration should be given to culling the rest of the group or moving them to pastures without setaria. The damage to the kidneys does not heal and so is accumulative. Exposure to oxalate at a later date could result in further damage to the kidneys and result in more cases.

See: Setaria for coastal pastures at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

See: Oxalate poisoning in a beef herd grazing Setaria sphacelata - a case report at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).

8.57.3 Cyanide poisoning

Cyanide (prussic acid) poisoningCyanide is released when compounds called cyanogenic (cyanide, genic = making) glycosides in the leaf are broken down by the rumen flora. On the North Coast this can occur with:

• perennial sorghum and Johnson grass have become weeds of wasteland, drains and roadsides on the North Coast. They have high cyanide risk and are attractive to cattle when young and regrowth after slashing

• forage sorghums have improved greatly in recent years with development of varieties much lower in toxin• grain sorghum is not widely grown on the coast. Grazing stubble regrowth is a risk, again new cultivars

have been selected for lower levels of toxin• young leaves of stone fruit such as peaches and nectarines are high in toxin.

Situations when poisoning can occurAre when there are higher levels of toxin in the leaf:

• in the early stages of growth of forage sorghums, less than 500 mm high• lush growth after nitrogen fertiliser• fresh shoot on grain sorghum stubbles• in plants stressed from dry conditions, waterlogging, frost, disease or insect damage• in the morning, when toxin levels are higher and cattle are more hungry• access to drains and roadsides where wild sorghum or Johnson grass are growing.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/species-varieties/pf/factsheets/setaria-for-coastal-pastures

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/oxalate-poisoning.html

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/oxalate-poisoning.html

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SignsCyanide is released soon after the leaf is eaten, and the onset is within an hour of grazing. Cyanide interferes with the ability of tissues to use oxygen (similar to nitrate / nitrite), so the duration of signs can be very short:

• affected cattle are normally found dead• blood is bright red• if cattle are seen sick they have shortness of breath, gum colour is blue (cyanosed), staggering, twitching,

collapse and die• cyanide levels remain in the carcase after death — never feed meat from suspect cases to farm dogs (it is

a good policy never to feed meat to dogs from any animal that has died, regardless of the cause).

TreatmentThere is an antidote, but time is too short.

Control:• do not graze cattle on stressed plants or when plants or new shoots of forage sorghum are less than 75 cm• graze in the afternoon after alternative feed in the morning• do not feed to hungry animals, graze on sorghum after gut fill• provide a sulphur supplement when grazing sorghum (it greatly helps the liver to break down any cyanide) • do not make hay or silage from sorghum at the young stage considered unsafe to graze, wait until it has

grown out of that stage — cyanide remains after it is cut • cattle should not be given access to orchards or house yards (see section 8.56.1)• eradicate wild sorghum on roadsides and drains. Do not graze cattle on these areas, particularly after it is

slashed.

8.57.4 Brassicas

Brassicas can be a valuable winter fodder crop to help fill the winter feed gap, particularly in a mix with ryegrass. They are in the cabbage / turnip family. Signs vary depending on the syndrome.

Syndromes that can occur:• nitrate poisoning (see section 8.57.1)• polio (polioencephalomalacia) from the high sulphur content in all the cabbage family which includes

brassicas — sulphur is the reason why cooked cabbage smells (see section 8.58)• photosensitisation, this is ‘primary’ — from plant pigments and not from liver damage (see section 8.52)• interference with thyroid function, producing a type of goitre, with signs of poor weight gain and neck

swelling — new varieties are selected for lower levels this toxin, but cabbage fed to cattle can have high levels (see section 6.9.5 and section 6.7.8)

• a non-infectious toxic pneumonia can also occur in cattle seven to 10 days after consuming large amounts of the cabbage family, including brassicas — this is not common (see section 6.7.9) See: Animal Health Surveillance 2007/2 (DPI 2007)

• red pigmentation of urine and anaemia, which may be confused with redwater (see section 7.19)• meat taint.

Grazing strategies to reduce these problems:

• introduce cattle gradually over at least a week to give the rumen flora the chance to adapt. It also cattle time to adjust to the taste. Start with a few hours and then increase time on brassicas each day

• have a mixed forage usually with ryegrass, rather than a pure stand, with no more than 40 per cent brassicas, this is the main way that it is grown

• do not sulphur supplement when grazing brassicas• brassicas are highly digestible and low in fibre, so provide a fibre source for best performance



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• because brassicas are readily digested, do not put hungry cattle onto brassicas; ensure are full first• graze at the correct stage of growth for that variety• provide fresh water at all times• remove from brassicas a week before slaughter to avoid meat taint• feed other plants in the cabbage family, such as market waste cabbage leaves, in small quantities and with

caution.

See: Forage brassica agfacts at: Forage and fodder crops webpage (DPI).

8.57.5 Clovers and lucerne

Lush growth of these can cause frothy bloat due to foaming agents in feed which prevent the normal belching of gas.

Clover is the most common cause of bloat on the North Coast. In most years it is a safe feed. However, in favourable seasons when it is lush, it can be bloat prone. These are years with a moist spring, after a dry winter with scant ground cover (clover performs best without competition and shade, which is why it does well with regular mowing). Cases typically occur when cattle have sudden access to lush clover, particularly of an early morning.

Lucerne can be very prone for bloat. Only isolated areas are suited to growing lucerne, usually alluvial soils. Most soils on the North Coast are acidic, which are not favourable for growing this plant.

For further details on bloat treatment and control. (see section 8.8) See: Bloat in Cattle and Sheep (DPI 2014) at: Health and Disease webpage (DPI).

Lucerne can also cause photosensitisation. (see section 8.52)

8.57.6 Kikuyu poisoning

Kikuyu is a nutritious, productive and normally safe pasture found throughout the North Coast and is a preferred pasture species. (see section 6.3) However, on rare occasions a syndrome called kikuyu poisoning can cause heavy losses in cattle. The cause and circumstances for the syndrome are still being established. But it is suspected to be from a fungus, but not the same fungus that causes kikuyu yellows.

Situations when poisoning can occur:• poisoning is rare and unpredictable• cases occur with lush autumn growth after a dry summer, particularly if fertilised• when it is grazed low as the stem appears to be more toxic• more cases are experienced in the lower North Coast and Hunter than in the far North Coast.

Signs:• often significant numbers of cattle are affected• clinical course is short, so may be found dead and bloated with a rumen very full of fluid and large

amounts of green fluid from the nose and mouth • if seen sick cattle will have a bloated look low on the left side due to excess fluid, not gas• the lining of the omasum (third stomach) is affected, causing it to fail to perform its normal job of

absorbing water, this causes the fluid build-up in the rumen• cattle drool saliva, sham (pretend) drink, putting mouth in the water but not actually drinking• they become dehydrated with sunken eyes• abdominal pain (colic), grind teeth, kick and look at their flank• have either a scour or not pass faeces• they develop staggers (unsteady gait), muscle tremors and go down• increased breathing rate, from pressure of the full rumen on the lungs.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/forage-fodder/crops/forage-brassicas



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TreatmentIf these signs are seen contact your veterinarian immediately to confirm the diagnosis. Move the cattle out of the paddock. If removed from kikuyu early in the course of the disease, some affected cattle may recover. There is no known specific treatment.

PreventionThe period of risk seems to be for up to three weeks. Slash low to remove the stem and rest to allow fresh growth. Before grazing the kikuyu again ensure cattle have had their fill first on other pasture, hay or silage and not to graze the kikuyu low to avoid eating stems. Affected pasture seems to be less palatable, so remove cattle if they are reluctant to graze it.

Kikuyu can also cause gassy bloat when it is lush, but this is a separate condition. (see section 8.8)

Cattle moving off ryegrass in the spring onto kikuyu are susceptible to grass tetany. (see section 8.30)


8.57.7 Paspalum ergot poisoning

Paspalum ergot infected seed head

Common paspalum is considered a good quality productive cattle feed and a desirable pasture species. (see section 6.3.3) The seed heads can produce a sweet honeydew which is the substrate for growth of the ergot fungus Claviceps paspali. Affected seeds are swollen and orange or black in colour. Ergot problems can also occur on water couch (also a paspalum species), which is a desired pasture for floodplains and wet pasture systems. (see section 5.11.14) Ergotism is not a problem on the two less desired paspalum grasses — giant paspalum and broadleaf paspalum. (see section 6.3.5)

Situations when poisoning can occurIn some years common paspalum can become the dominant pasture species, particularly with summer rain after a prolonged dry period. If this is followed by a humid autumn, there can be heavy ergot infestation of the seed heads and large numbers of cattle throughout the district can be affected.


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Signs:• signs are worse and are brought on if the cattle are handled or moved• fine muscle tremor, stagger, high step gait and head nod• they may have an exaggerated response to any noise or disturbance and can become aggressive• if left alone the signs are less and most will recover if not severely affected• may die from misadventure such as falling into water or in a gully• some cattle become recumbent and do not get back up (see section 7.9)• some cattle have a recurrence of signs, which may be due to an appetite for the seed heads.

Treatment and control:• slowly move affected cattle off paspalum to a safe place, such as yards or a small paddock, to recover• high slash ‘top’ to remove the seed heads, but leave as much leaf as possible• frequent, rotational graze if possible to reduce seed head production• monitor paspalum for the presence of ergot.

*work health safety* Some cattle with paspalum staggers can become aggressive.

See: Paspalum staggers (Nervous Ergotism) in steers at: Flock and Herd webpage (Flock and Herd).

8.57.8 Ryegrass and oats

Annual ryegrass and oats are valuable, safe and nutritious winter forages for filling the winter feed gap. All cattle producers on the North Coast with country suited to growing ryegrass or oats should do so to supplement cattle over winter. Even if only small areas that can be managed for more valued stock.

Occasionally problems can be seen on ryegrass or oats, but these can largely be prevented. These issues should not be a reason not to sow these forages. Rather be aware and adopt strategies to prevent any problems. Signs vary depending on the syndrome.

Syndromes that can occur:• nitrate / nitrite poisoning (see section 8.57.1)• grass tetany, particularly from high rates of nitrogen and potassium, or when on ryegrass for the winter

then moved to kikuyu in the spring (see section 8.30)• milk fever, from high potassium fertiliser use (see section 8.48)• photosensitisation from plant pigments, not common or life threatening (see section 8.52)• dietary scours, but this does not seem to affect performance.

Situations when poisoning can occur:• when lush, particularly if nitrogen and potassium fertilised heavily • wet, cloudy wet weather• when overgrazed, so that stem is eaten, rather than just the leaves.

See: Cereals for grazing (DPI 2009) at: Forage and fodder crops webpage (DPI).

See: Nitrate and nitrite poisoning in livestock (DPI 2018) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.57.9 Setaria (Setaria sphacelata)

Setaria is one the is one the most desirable pastures on the North Coast and capable of high levels of productivity if managed correctly. (see section 6.3) Setaria has high levels of oxalate, which is broken down by the rumen flora. This ability is lost when cattle have been off setaria for 10 to 14 days. A sudden return to setaria can result in toxicity, particularly if it is lush. Managed correctly the risk of oxalate toxicity on setaria can be greatly reduced.

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/paspalum-staggers.html

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/forage-fodder

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/general/nitrate-nitrite-poisoning

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See: Setaria for coastal pastures at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).

For details on oxalate, see section 8.57.2 above. For setaria management and nutrition, see section 6.3.3.

8.57.10 Sorghum

Forage sorghums and sudan hybrids are valuable and productive summer forages, producing good quantities of feed for grazing, hay and silage production. The regrowth on grain sorghum stubble value adds to the grain crop. Signs vary depending on the syndrome.

Syndromes that can occur:• nitrate/nitrite, particularly fresh young growth and if fertilised (see section 8.57.1)• cyanide poisoning — in the past sorghum had a bad name because of cyanide, but new cultivars have

been selected for much lower levels and nitrate is now considered more of a risk (see section 8.57.3)• photosensitisation (primary), as with many plants, but is not life threatening (see section 8.52)• ergot in the seed head caused by a fungus claviceps Africana — this causes an increase in body

temperature, lameness and death• grain poisoning is also a risk if sorghum is allowed to go head. (see section 8.29)

The risks of these problems are not reduced if the forage concerned is used for hay or silage.

8.57.11 Woolly pod vetch (Vicia villosa var. Namoi)This winter legume was more widely grown on the North Coast in the 1970s and 80s. Most of the vetch sown now and growing on roadsides is a similar looking legume called common vetch which is not known to cause problems.

Situations when poisoning can occur:• late spring when vetch is in flower and when it is more than half the available pasture feed• on the second or third graze, it has an allergic response so the first graze is the primer for the immune

system.

SignsToxicity is a severe generalised body allergy in sensitised cattle. It affects not only the skin, but the major internal organs. This is seen as:

• outbreaks follow a consistent pattern, with five to seven per cent of the mob affected• skin is red and itchy and resembles photosensitisation • fever, stop eating and may be aggressive• about two-thirds of cattle with signs will die.

Treatment is unrewarding because of internal organ involvement in affected cattle.

Control:• if grown in a pasture; ensure that it remains under 50 per cent of the available feed• in an outbreak limit grazing access, particularly if woolly pod vetch is flowering and the dominant species.

See: Namoi woolly pod vetch at: Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI).



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8.58 Polio (polioencephalomalacia, PEM)Polio in cattle is in no way related to polio in humans — just the name is the same.

Polio is a brain disorder mainly seen in young cattle six to 12 months old and is due to acute thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. Ample thiamine is produced by the rumen flora. However certain triggers cause imbalances in the flora that causes thiamine to be used up rapidly and not produced. As thiamine is water soluble and needed daily, onsets of signs occurs soon after levels are depleted.

Situations when it can occur:• high grain diets, recent diet change • excess sulphur supplement (see section 6.8.5) or high sulphur feeds like brassica forages and molasses.

SignsBecause thiamine is needed for brain function the signs are nervous, such as staggers, tremors, blindness, head pressing, head thrown back (star-gazing), convulsions and death. The age of cattle affected and signs are very similar to lead poisoning. (see section 8.55.1)

Treatment Early treatment with thiamine injection usually results in rapid recovery. Contact a veterinarian immediately.

See: Overview of polioencephalomalacia at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.59 ProlapseA prolapse is where either of the back passages (uterus, vagina or rectum) are turned inside out and protrude from the animal’s rear. It is often initiated by straining. As the tissue is exposed to the air it dries out and becomes painful, which causes the animal to strain more and so begins a vicious cycle. The different prolapses are:

1. Vaginal prolapse

These can occur before and after calving. They are quite common, especially in Bos indicus cattle due to their loose conformation around the back passage. They are more common in mature cattle than heifers. Prolapse of the vagina is more common in overweight cattle and is seen more in some seasons than others.

TreatmentIf it is only mild and comes and goes, no treatment should be required. Keep an eye on the cow until calving to ensure that it doesn’t get worse. If the cow is straining, the prolapse stays out, is more than fist size or looks dry then is important to contact your veterinarian as the tissues are in danger of infection. It is advisable to cull these cows as the condition is likely to recur in future pregnancies.

2. Uterine prolapse

Prolapses just after calving can involve the entire uterus and need immediate veterinary attention. These are an emergency and cows quickly go into shock. Contact a veterinarian immediately.

TreatmentThis is a veterinary procedure. While waiting for the veterinarian to arrive, the cow should be quietly yarded, avoiding any running which could result in severe haemorrhage. If a delay is anticipated, the veterinarian may

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/nervous-system/polioencephalomalacia/polioencephalomalacia-in-ruminants

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request sugar sprinkled on the womb to absorb moisture reducing the size before treatment. A truss made of hessian bags can be used to keep the womb out of the dirt. The veterinarian will return the prolapse and may stitch the vulva closed till the uterus shrinks back to normal size and help stop the cow pushing the womb out again. Antibiotics are usually prescribed. Consider culling the cow and not keeping for future pregnancies. If the cow is already in shock and the decision is not to treat, the cow must be humanely destroyed immediately. (see section 3.3.5)

See: Overview of uterine prolapse and eversion at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

3. Rectal prolapse

This is usually from straining associated with diarrhoea, particularly from coccidiosis in young cattle. (see section 8.17) It may also occur at calving. The tissue swells initially and is red, but soon dries and turns dark. Contact a veterinarian immediately. Once the tissue has dried out or died the outlook is not good.

See: Rectal prolapse in animals at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.60 Pulpy kidney (enterotoxaemia)Pulpy kidney is a disease of young growing cattle in good condition.

Situations when it can occur:• in weaners and yearlings• recent introduction onto rich, lush pasture such as forage oats, ryegrass or lucerne• feeding concentrates such as feedlot rations.

Dietary change favours the growth of the bacteria, which multiply in the intestines and produce toxins. The toxins are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and are so potent they can kill an animal within five to six hours. If seen alive, they may have convulsions, kick at their flanks or froth at the mouth. Animals are usually found dead and bloated on their side. There is no treatment.

PreventionVaccinate with five-in-one. Under high challenge, such as grain feeding or grazing lush pastures or forage crops, boosters need to be every three months. The rule of thumb is if young cattle are moving onto lush feed or grain and have not had a five-in-one booster in the past three months, then give them a booster vaccination.

See: Enterotoxaemia in cattle (DPI 2007) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.61 Retained afterbirth During pregnancy, the foetal membranes (placenta) provide the necessary nourishment to the developing calf. They are attached to the inside wall of the uterus by cotyledons (buttons) which are rich in blood vessels and are where nutrient exchange happens. These normally come away at birth. If cows fail to release the membranes by about 24 hours after calving, they are said to be retained. For the buttons to then release and the membranes come away requires the buttons to lyse (rot). This takes about four days. In this time bacteria can ascend into the uterus and multiply rapidly.

Situations when it can occur:• cows that have a difficult birth (see section 8.22), abort (see section 7.1) or are induced to calve early• poor uterine contractions from obesity (see section 7.18) or from low calcium (milk fever)

(see section 8.48)

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/uterine-prolapse-and-eversion/uterine-prolapse-and-eversion-in-animals

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/diseases-of-the-rectum-and-anus/rectal-prolapse-in-animals

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/enterotoxaemia-cattle

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• prolonged dry periods, possibly associated with the low vitamin A or E levels that occur when on dry feed and grain for long periods (see section 6.10)

• low selenium levels are thought to be associated with higher-than-normal rates. (see section 6.9.2)

SignsMany cows with retained membranes do not show any signs of illness and expel the membranes by themselves within five to 10 days. However, some can develop an infection in the uterus (metritis). (see section 8.47) This may progress to blood poisoning.

Recovered cows are more likely to have reduced fertility at future joinings.

TreatmentTrim membranes at the level of the vulva a few days after calving. Do not attempt to remove the membranes within four days of calving. By then the attachments should have lysed and the membranes come away without damage. Gentle pressure may be applied to see if the membranes will come away easily. Do not use force as this may cause tearing of the uterus and haemorrhage. Observe the cow daily for signs of sickness. If she appears ill, contact a veterinarian.

Prevention:• address any underlying factors, otherwise little can be done to prevent retained afterbirth in the herd • observe cows after calving to ensure that the cows have passed the afterbirth, particularly those at risk• cull those cows with retained membranes at last calving • pregnancy testing each year by a veterinarian and culling of empty cows to improve general herd fertility.

See: Retained retal membranes in cows at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.62 Ringworm (dermatomycosis)Ringworm is a fungal infection and is very common in young cattle. It may reduce options for sale or showing. It also has the potential to infect people. Ringworm is highly contagious between calves and is spread by close contact and equipment, such as self-feeders and grooming brushes. It is more prevalent in hot humid weather. Ringworm also has the potential to infect people. *zoonosis risk*

SignsAffected calves have thick raised circular areas of hair loss anywhere on the body, but usually around the eyes. Unlike lice, ringworm is not particularly itchy.

Treatment Treatment is not usually warranted. Most calves will self-cure in about two months. Topical antifungals are not economically viable to use in cattle, are very time consuming as require repeated treatments and many are not registered for use in cattle. There is also the risk of infection in the handler.

Isolation of affected individuals will help stop the spread. For show cattle, any equipment used for clipping or grooming should be disinfected as the ringworm spore survives a long time.

Calves with extensive ringworm, particularly if it persists, may have a suppressed immune system and should be tested for pestivirus. (see section 8.51)

See: Dermatophytosis in cattle at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

A scoring system for grading ringworm is in development. See: Meat and Livestock Association website (MLA).

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/retained-fetal-membranes-in-large-animals/retained-fetal-membranes-in-large-animals

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/integumentary-system/dermatophytosis/dermatophytosis-in-cattle

https://www.mla.com.au/

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8.63 RotavirusRotavirus and E. coli are the most common cause of scours in young calves in the first two weeks of life. Rotavirus scour is of sudden onset, watery, often white or yellow and sometimes frothy. It is usually not fatal, but can predispose to cryptosporidium or E. coli scours, which are more serious.

TreatmentBeing a virus, there is no specific treatment and antibiotics are of little value. Treatment is based on replacing lost fluids and electrolytes and general nursing. (see section 8.14)

PreventionA combined vaccine which includes rotavirus and E. coli, is available. Cows are vaccinated to protect their calves through the colostrum. Used in herds with an ongoing problem. Speak with a veterinarian.

See: Diarrhea in neonatal ruminants at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.64 Salmonella (salmonellosis)Salmonella is a cause of acute fever and blood or black scours in calves and adult cattle. In calves most cases of blood scours are due to coccidiosis. (see section 8.17)

There are several types of Salmonella. Some live in the intestine of normal cattle and only become a problem when the immune system is depressed from insufficient colostrum, stress, transport or other diseases. Others are spread in the faeces of wild birds or rodents. Self-feeders can attract birds and rats and be a source of infection. Chicken litter on pasture can also be a source — this can also be a prohibited feed issue. (see section 8.43)

*zoonosis risk* All strains of Salmonella are infectious to humans. Wear gloves when handling cattle with diarrhoea. (see section 4.1.4)

SignsAffected cattle often have high temperatures and can die quickly from septicaemia, dehydration and electrolyte imbalance. In pregnant cows the fever may be high enough to cause abortion. Diagnosis of salmonella is by culture of the faeces.

Similar signs may be seen with blood or black scour:

• bracken fern poisoning (see section 8.56.5)• coccidiosis (see section 8.17)• arsenic poisoning. (see section 8.55.3)

Similar signs may be seen with scour and weight loss without blood:

• flood mud scours (see section 8.26)• brown stomach worm (see section 8.78.3)• bovine Johne’s disease. (see section 8.10) *notifiable disease*

Seek veterinary advice, testing is needed to exclude other diseases and confirm salmonella.

Treatment:• correction of fluid imbalance• general nursing• appropriate antibiotic therapy.


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PreventionA vaccine is available for herds that have ongoing problems with salmonella and on the advice from your veterinarian. The cows are vaccinated pre-calving and the immunity passed through the colostrum to calves.

See: Salmonellosis in animals at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.65 SnakebiteMany sudden deaths in cattle are falsely blamed on snakebites. Unlike with farm dogs, snakebite in cattle is rare. However, deaths from eastern brown, red-bellied black and tiger snakebites have been recorded in cattle. Of these, eastern brown snake is the most common. The signs of snakebite are quite variable depending on the snake species and the dose of venom.

Laboured breathing, bloody urine, weakness, paralysis and slobbering are some of the typical signs. In many cases cattle are found dead. Often there is failure of the blood to clot. Antivenom is not economical to use in cattle.

Because many deaths attributed to snakes are usually another cause (and sometimes an important and preventable condition), have deaths investigated by a veterinarian. (see section 7.8)

8.66 Stomach fluke (paramphistomes)Stomach fluke are very widespread, as evidenced by faecal egg count monitoring. But problems are largely restricted to floodplains. Cattle less than 18 months of age are the most susceptible and disease is rarely seen in adult cattle.

Most problems are seen during winter and early spring, following autumn rains.

Life cycle and spreadStomach fluke require specific snail as intermediate hosts. These are different species of snail than the liver fluke snail and are found in a much wider range of habitats. The snails are small (about the size of a large grain of sand) and difficult to find. Snail and stomach fluke numbers build up with extended periods of waterlogging.

SignsImmature stomach fluke cause damage as they feed in the small intestine. With low numbers, ill thrift and poor weight gains result but with larger numbers, diarrhoea, wasting and bottle jaw occurs. Emaciation, dehydration and death are common in severe cases.

As they mature, stomach fluke move up the gastrointestinal tract to the first and second stomach. Light to moderate burdens of adult stomach fluke are considered harmless. Very heavy burdens of adults, sometimes seen in the lower Clarence and lower Richmond, can cause ill-thrift. Adults stomach fluke initiate immunity which limits reinfection in the small intestine. Cattle develop immunity after exposure.


• cooperia (small intestinal worm) the most common cause of scours in cattle less than two years of age, particularly in the cooler months (see section 8.78.1)

• coccidiosis, usually in calves under six months of age (see section 8.17)• copper deficiency, in winter and with associated change in coat colour and ill thrift. (see section 6.9.1)

DiagnosisThe presence of stomach fluke eggs on a faecal egg count does not confirm disease. This is because it is the immature fluke that cause disease. In fact, if eggs are found, it is an indication NOT to treat. The adult fluke help

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maintain cattle immunity to further infection. Confirming the disease relies on the signs, past history of the property and response to treatment. At post mortem, immature fluke will be found in large numbers.

Treatment and preventionOn properties prone to stomach fluke problems, avoid grazing young cattle on wet pastures during high-risk periods (winter and early spring). As most cases are seen on the floodplain, this is not always feasible.

Seek veterinary advice before treating. There are currently no products registered for control of stomach fluke. Your veterinarian should be contacted for advice on possible treatments for animals affected by stomach fluke. The product that is given can cause scouring and sometimes death in poor cattle. So it is important to have on a rising plane of nutrition before treating.

See: Stomach fluke (paramphistomes) in ruminants (DPI 2007) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.67 TetanusTetanus can affect cattle of any age, but only occurs sporadically. It is not as common as blackleg. The cause is a clostridial bacteria that grows deep in tissue. The tetanus spore enters the body by penetrating wounds, during calving or surgery such as castration or dehorning. The bacteria then multiply, producing a toxin that affects the nervous system.

SignsMuscular stiffness and spasm (tetany) lockjaw, an arched back, a cocked tail, convulsions and a sleepy third eyelid. Eventually an animal may go down and die of asphyxiation.

Similar signs may be seen with grass tetany (see section 8.30) and ketosis (see section 8.36).

If treated early some animals may recover with veterinary treatment with antibiotics, muscle relaxants and antitoxin. But this is rarely undertaken. Prevention is the best approach. Five-in-one vaccination is very effective in preventing tetanus. (see section 10.2.1)

See: Clostridial diseases in cattle (DPI 2007) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.68 Theileria Theileria is an emerging disease on the North Coast, with more cases being seen each year. It is caused by a group of theileria strains referred to as the ‘theileria orientalis group’. There are other strains of Theileria, which occur in Africa and some other countries that do not occur in Australia and are *exotic diseases*

The disease is seen at two very distinct ages — in adult cattle, and in calves six to 16 weeks of age:

• theileria in adult cattle is seen in cattle introduced to the North Coast from western or southern areas, particularly if they are in late pregnancy. If these cattle have not been previously exposed to the theileria parasite they will be naïve to the disease. Exposure to bush ticks and the theileria parasite often occurs soon after arrival. The disease has an incubation period of five to six weeks and so signs are seen from this time

• theileria in calves is being seen increasingly in locally born calves five to 16 weeks of age. Particularly British breeds. The reasons why some calves develop disease and others do not is still not fully understood.

Theileria is now considered an expensive and important disease to the Australian beef industry and its range and importance is increasing. See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/110103/stomach-fluke-paramphistomes-in-ruminants.pdf

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/111163/clostridial-diseases-in-cattle.pdf


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Theileria are protozoan blood parasites carried by ticks. When a tick feeds on cattle, the parasite passes into their bloodstream and then into their red blood cells. Once this occurs, it causes cell destruction and the subsequent signs that are seen in the disease reflect the extreme anaemia that occurs.

SignsIn adults introduced to the North Coast, signs are seen from five weeks after arrival. Signs include anaemia (pale gums), jaundice (yellows), dramatic drop in milk production, reduced and often depraved appetite, sometimes red stained urine (but this is not as common as it is with tick fever). Affected cattle are lethargic and exercise intolerant and fall to the back of the herd. This may progress to heavy breathing, collapse and even sudden death. Cows in late pregnancy are more prone and show signs of abortions, stillbirths and high mortality rates. Cows that survive have a long convalescence.

Calves with theileria are very anaemic (white gums), may be jaundiced (yellows), are weak, often have a depraved appetite (particularly for soil and mud) and usually die.


• tick fever — anaemia, jaundice and sometimes aggression and redwater in adult cattle, but not in young calves *notifiable* (see section 8.70)

• red lantana poisoning — jaundice and aggression in recently introduced cattle. (see section 8.56.13)

TreatmentThere is currently no registered treatment. Because they are struggling for breath, they can collapse when moved, so are best left alone in the paddock and not yarded. Veterinarians have drugs to help support cattle with mild signs of theileria. Severely affected cattle do not respond to treatment, but blood transfusion has been used with success to save valuable cattle. Because almost every bush tick carries theileria and bush ticks are so common, treatment for ticks may only defer the onset of signs.

*work health safety* Affected cattle have shortness of breath and can become aggressive.

PreventionThere is currently no vaccine available for theileria. The main recommendations for prevention are:

Theileria in adult cattle: • assess the risk and decide if you should or should not introduce cattle from southern and western areas.

These cattle are likely to be naïve and so are susceptible to infection when they arrive on the North Coast • the risk of cattle sourced from fringe districts is more difficult to establish; some herds may be naïve and

others previously exposed. These are areas like the south coast and northern tablelands• consult with veterinarians from the district you plan to buy from to find out whether cattle from that area

are likely to be immune to theileria (see section 5.11.3)• avoid movement of females in late pregnancy and adult bulls from theileria free areas to the North Coast,

they are at greatest risk of severe disease and death. If cattle are to be moved from these areas, then weaners or yearlings are the safest option

• brahmans and their crosses appear to be at lower risk of the disease.

Theileria in locally bred British breed calvesThere have been producer trials of treatment given at two to five weeks of age to prevent expression of theileria disease in calves. As yet there is still no recognised, registered prevention. Consult your veterinarian.

See: Bovine anaemia caused by theileria orientalis group (DPI 2011) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

See: Bovine anaemia due to theileria orientalis in home bred beef calves and Benign theileriosis on the Mid North Coast article articles at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).

See: Tickboss webpage at: ParaBoss website.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/404679/Bovine-anaemia-caused-by-Theileria-orientalis-group-Primefact-1110.pdf

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/bovine-anaemia-beef-calves.html

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/bovine-anaemia-beef-calves.html

https://www.paraboss.com.au/tickboss.php

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8.69 Three day sickness (bovine ephemeral fever)This is a significant disease on the North Coast. Nationally three day sickness is in the top 10 most important diseases for the beef industry. See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

Three day sickness is a viral disease seen as regional outbreaks of fever and muscle soreness in cattle. It is spread by mosquitoes and possibly midges and so occurs in the summer and autumn when conditions are favourable. Outbreaks on the North Coast are often from Queensland and reflect the seasonal movements of insects. The level of infection varies from year to year. It may be widespread affecting many cattle. In other seasons there are no or few cases or it is patchy and whole areas may remain unaffected which allows a build-up in the number of at-risk cattle.

Calves from three months of age, weaners and yearlings are the group most at risk. If there were few or no cases in the previous year or two, then disease may be seen in two- and three-year-old. Naïve cattle sourced from areas in which the disease rarely occurs are susceptible at any age.

Signs:• most cattle recover within three days without any complications, however the severity and duration of

signs can vary• fever over 40.0°C, seek shade, drool and are lame, stiff or reluctant to move from muscle and joint pain• bulls may be infertile for three to six months from the fever• bulls and heavy cattle tend to be worse affected and more at risk to go down and stay down for longer • some cattle that are down develop secondary problems, (see section 7.9) this can lead to long term

complications and bulls may never serve again• there are strains of the three day virus that cause damage to the spinal cord causing permanent paralysis.

Some cattle die from complications of being down, misadventure or heat stress.

Cattle with three day sickness or have recently recovered, should not be sent to saleyards or an abattoir. There may be residual muscle and ligament damage that could result in carcass downgrade. (see section 3.5.1). Three day sickness can be blamed for several other conditions that have similar signs. It is important that these are excluded, as some of these diseases are notifiable, exotic or can cause significant losses.


• foot and mouth disease, which causes fever and drooling — three day sickness is the disease on the North Coast that most closely resembles foot and mouth disease *exotic* (see section 8.27)

• tick fever, which causes a fever and can result in significant number of deaths *notifiable*• other conditions causing high temperature notably heat stress (see section 7.12)• botulism, which can cause weakness and recumbency and can also cause significant losses• blackleg in the early stages; muscle soreness and fever. (see section 8.6)

TreatmentThere are strong animal welfare and production reasons to treat infected animals. Anti-inflammatory drugs reduce the fever, pain and stiffness. Thus hasten recovery and reduce the risk of going down. Treated cattle are more inclined to continue grazing and have less set back. Consult a veterinarian. Cattle that go down should always have water and shade to prevent heat stress and dehydration. (see section 7.9)

PreventionCattle from southern and inland regions are unlikely to have immunity to three day sickness. (see section 5.11.3) If bulls are sourced from these regions vaccination is recommended. It is a live virus vaccine and only available from veterinarians. Two vaccinations are administered two to four weeks apart initially in spring before the summer–autumn risk period. Consult with a veterinarian if annual boosters are needed. See: Bovine ephemeral fever: three day sickness (DPI 2016) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

See: Flyboss webpage at: ParaBoss website


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/679106/bovine-ephemeral-fever-three-day-sickness.pdf

https://www.paraboss.com.au/flyboss.php

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8.70 Tick fever (redwater) *notifiable*Tick fever is the name given to diseases caused by any one of three blood protozoal parasites: Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina, Anaplasma margale. All three are transmitted by cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus).

Tick fever is considered one of the more important diseases of cattle, See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

The cattle tick control program has protected the North Coast from the devastating effects of tick fever and cattle tick for decades. Historically, before this program, tick fever caused significant losses. North Coast cattle are at risk as they have no immunity to tick fever. The infected regions of Queensland are to the immediate north and vigilance is needed to prevent incursion of both cattle tick and tick fever. For these reasons both are *notifiable* in NSW.

Life cycle and spreadBabesia bovis is the more common cause of outbreaks and serious of the three. The following describes its life cycle.

An outbreak of B.bovis tick fever requires several events lining up. Cattle in tick infected areas such as south east Queensland can be tick fever carriers. When carrier cattle are introduced into a North Coast herd of naïve cattle spread does not occur until there is a cattle tick infestation.

A small percentage of cattle that survive tick fever infection become carriers of B.bovis. These carrier cattle are the main means of introducing the organism onto a property, even if the cattle are free of cattle tick at the time of movement. This is usually by introducing cattle sourced from tick infected areas in Queensland. Less commonly, by strays or purchased local cattle. The organisms lie dormant in carrier cattle and do not spread until cattle tick infestations occurs. Direct animal to animal spread does not occur with Babesia as they require cattle tick to spread.

A small proportion of cattle tick that have fed on carrier cattle can then transmit tick fever. When a female tick is infected with tick fever, every egg that she lays (all 4,000 or so) will have the organism. When these eggs hatch the larvae are in a small area (or nest) on the pasture. The unfortunate cattle that frequent this area pick up the larvae. After an incubation period of eight to 18 days, the cattle then show signs. If several cattle pick up larvae at the same time (often ‘mates’ that graze together), then they will show signs at almost the same time — this is an outbreak.

SignsSigns and the number of cattle affected are worse with B. bovis. The signs with the other strains are generally milder. Severity of signs also vary with the breed and age of cattle. Brahman cattle generally are less susceptible. Most cases are seen in adult cattle. B. bovis, is one of the few diseases on the North Coast that has the potential to cause sickness, abortion and death in significant numbers of adult cattle. (see section 7.8)

Signs include:• off by themselves, listless, slow to keep up with the mob• fever, drool and seek shade (see section 7.12)• anaemia (pale gums) (see section 7.2)• jaundice (yellows) (see section 7.15)• red urine, but not in all cases (see section 7.19) however, with anaplasma the urine is brown rather than

red• abortion sometimes in a significant number of cows (see section 7.1)• nervous signs, muscle tremor, depression or sometimes aggression (see section 7.17)• found dead (see section 7.8)• cattle tick may not be noticeable on the affected cattle, (one infected tick is enough to cause disease) with

an incubation period as short as eight days, the young ticks may be still too small to see.

*notifiable disease* If you see these signs it is important to notify your district veterinarian.



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TreatmentThere are specific drugs available from veterinarians for tick fever treatment and prevention in the event of an outbreak. Cattle tick control is also an important part of a tick fever treatment program. (see section 8.71.3)

PreventionTick fever requires cattle tick to spread. So the most effective tick fever prevention is ensuring that cattle are free of cattle tick and that ticks are eradicated when detected.

There is always a risk of a future tick fever outbreak if cattle are introduced from cattle tick affected areas.

In cattle tick areas of Queensland, a live vaccine is widely used to prevent tick fever. However, in cattle tick control areas such as the North Coast, attention is best focused on cattle tick eradication rather than vaccination. Vaccination should be seriously considered before moving cattle to tick infested areas in Queensland. Vaccination can also be used as a control strategy in those herds affected by tick fever infection.

See: Tick fever (DPI 2020) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

See: Tick fever in Australia (Business Queensland).


8.71 TicksThree species of ticks are problems for North Coast beef cattle.

Identifying ticks

Bush tick (Haemophysalis longicornis) Paralysis tick (Ixodes holocyclus) Cattle tick (Boophilus microplus)

Brown not engorged Grey not engorged Light brown not engorgedLegs:

red-brown First pair close to snout

Legs:

First and fourth pair brown Second and third pair pale First pair close to snout

Legs:

pale cream First pair well back from snout

Face round Face triangular Face broad at snoutSnout short Snout very long Snout short

Brochures to assist stockowners with tick identification are available from NSW Department of Primary Industries and North Coast Local Land Services offices.

See: Ticks webpage at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/parasitic-and-protozoal-diseases/ticks/tick-fever-technical-information-for-veterinarians

https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/livestock/cattle/managing-tick-fever/tick-fever


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/parasitic-and-protozoal-diseases/ticks


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8.71.1 Bush tick (bottle tick, haemophysalis)

Bush tick

The bush tick is the most common and can live on a wide variety of hosts including many native animals. They can be present in large numbers. Peak numbers are usually seen in spring and summer. Heavy burdens can case anaemia from blood sucking. They are also suspected to be the vector for theileria. (see section 8.68)

As a three host tick each stage is spent on a different animal. Bush ticks have only a short period of about one week on their host before they drop off and moult.

SignsBush ticks are bloodsuckers and when present in high numbers can cause anaemia, ill thrift and even death. Bush ticks are also suspected to be the vector of theileria. (see section 8.68)

ControlMost of their life is spent in the environment, making control difficult.

Selection for chemical resistance in bush tick is not high, most of the ticks are in the environment and have native animal hosts (which are not treated). All bush ticks in Australia are female, they reproduce in a novel way called parthenogenesis. So there is very little genetic diversity for selection for resistance.

Most of the treatments are the same as for paralysis tick control (see below).

8.71.2 Paralysis tick (dog tick, shell back tick, ixodes)

Paralysis tick

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Paralysis tick and dog attack are the most common causes of calf deaths on the North Coast.

The toxins in tick saliva and their potency vary between individual paralysis ticks. Even one tick can cause sickness and death in calves.

This native tick lives mainly on bandicoots and other marsupials but can attach to a variety of animals including dogs, cattle, birds and also people. Like the bush tick, the paralysis tick is a three-host tick and only spends about one week on each host. The majority of the tick’s life is spent on the ground. It can be present all-year-round but adults are most active from August to December. Paralysis ticks produce a nerve toxin in their saliva that is passed to the host during feeding. This toxin impairs normal muscle function, affects the heart and raises lung blood pressure.

SignsCalves will usually be found down or, if mildly affected, be staggering. As the toxin starts to affect the heart and breathing muscles, breathing becomes laboured and eventually the calf can die. Introduced animals are more at risk. Losses in older cattle are sometimes seen where high numbers of ticks are on the animal, the cattle are in poor condition or have not been previously exposed to paralysis ticks.

Treatment for calves affected with paralysisIf a calf is found down, examine and remove all paralysis ticks. They tend to burrow deeply into the skin. Look and feel over the whole body, in particular around the head, eyes, nose, in the ears and the soft skin under the legs and under the tail. Often only a single tick will be found. Remove the tick by grasping as close to the point of attachment as possible. Consult your veterinarian as treatment with tick antiserum is required to counteract the nerve toxin. Because ticks are often hard to find spray with a registered tick product (see below).

See: Paralysis ticks (DPI 2020) at: Beef cattle health and disease webpage (DPI).

Programs for control of bush tick and paralysis tick

ControlControl is difficult because of their life cycle:

• they are three-host ticks — they fall off their host to moult between all three stages and so have three different hosts during their life

• they are only attached on the animal for about one week• the major tick reservoir is out in the paddock and not on the cattle• each stage can survive up to nine months on the ground• there is a reservoir in native animal hosts• peak tick activity in late winter and spring coincides with calving time in most herds.

Integrated tick control, including non-chemical approachesThere are methods to help minimise tick problems, rather than total reliance on chemical control:

• calve in the cleanest paddocks and keep cows and calves there for first eight to 10 weeks of life• keep pastures open by mulching or slashing, but avoid having a heavy layer of mulch of dried grass, such

as setaria or blady grass, which is an ideal environment for ticks to survive• avoid high risk paddocks that are overgrown and have been free of cattle for over 12 months• clean out or fence off scrubby gullies where possible• use older cattle as ‘vacuum cleaners’ prior to putting cows and calves into the paddock• change to earlier calving date so calves are older at peak tick time• consider Bos indicus infusion, these are more resistant to ticks • ensure cattle are on good nutrition.

Chemical control:• treat early in the season before tick numbers build up• spray treatments for these are typically needed every 10 days, an ear tag is registered as an alternative.


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/parasitic-and-protozoal-diseases/ticks/paralysis-ticks


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Chemicals registered for bush tick and paralysis tick control

Chemical TreatmentAmitraz Spray every seven to 10 daysCypermethrin plus chlorfenvinphos Spray every 10 daysFlumethrin Spray every 10 daysZeta cypermethrin ear tags Aids in control up to 42 days (paralysis tick only)

At the time of writing, none of the pour-on or injectable �acrocyclic �actone (ML) parasite treatments were registered for bush tick and paralysis tick control.

All external parasite treatments for cattle are registered under the Poisons and Therapeutic Goods Act 1996. Under this legislation it is an offence to use a chemical for any reason other than on the label. Never use unregistered bush remedies in cattle, such as oil of turpentine. Never use chemicals that are only registered for other species, such as dogs. These uses are illegal and could create residue risks, exposing the user and whole industry to trade issues.

There are disadvantages associated with the use of sprays and dips including:

• slow and labour intensive• need to be done every 10 days; relatively short length of action, particularly when it rains after treatment• need special facilities such as spray facilities, races or plunge dips • cattle must be thoroughly saturated all over, with at least five litres per adult cattle• environmental issues with run-off• *work health and safety risk* for operators due to physical and chemical handling.

Read the label and record all treatments. Observe the withholding period and Export Slaughter Interval (ESI).

8.71.3 Cattle tick (boophilus) *notifiable*

Cattle tick

*notifiable* Cattle tick infestations are notifiable and should be reported immediately.

Cattle tick is ranked the most important disease for the Australian beef industry. Nationally estimated to cost the industry more than $160 million a year. See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

The NSW DPI cattle tick program has protected the North Coast from cattle tick for decades. Cattle ticks would be a far more serious problem in this region if allowed to establish and spread unchecked.

https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-1966-031



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Life cycle and spreadThe life cycle differs from bush ticks and paralysis ticks. Cattle tick are a one host tick, this means that all three stages of the tick (larvae, nymphs and adult) stay on the one animal between moults. From attachment to falling off is three weeks. Cattle, deer and water buffalo are the primary (that is the preferred) hosts. Horses, donkeys, alpaca, sheep and goats are secondary hosts, which means that they can carry small tick numbers. The larvae can survive on pasture for up to 9 months. Peak cattle tick activity is from April to June.

SignsThe ticks suck blood causing hide damage and ill thrift and even death in heavy infestations. They can also carry and spread all three strains of tick fever. (see section 8.67)

PreventionInclude cattle tick prevention in the on-farm biosecurity plan. (see section 3.2.1)

Cattle tick are common in south-east and coastal Queensland. Stock movements from cattle tick infected areas in Queensland into NSW are restricted. Ensure cattle purchased from Queensland tick infected areas have undergone the required cattle tick treatments and inspections before entry into NSW. And have the necessary certification and are declared at the border crossing. Secondary hosts can carry cattle tick, so be sure that they also meet the interstate crossing requirements.

Cattle purchased through local saleyards are dipped before movement. With cattle purchased direct from local holdings, ensure that they are treated for cattle tick on arrival.

Given their importance, make a habit of looking for cattle tick every time cattle are yarded. Particularly in autumn to early winter when numbers peak. Cattle ticks vary in size from pin head to pea size. They have preferred sites on cattle. These are in order: the area above the udder to under the tail, between the legs, on the neck and flank.

To reduce the risk from adjoining holdings, ensure that fences are maintained in a stock proof condition.

Treatment and control

Control and treatment of cattle tick infections are regulated by the NSW DPI cattle tick program. Inspection of cattle are carried out to ensure that eradication has been successful. Because they are one host ticks means less frequent treatments are effective, every 21 days.

See: Ticks webpage at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).


8.72 Trauma and injuriesTrauma or injury can be from a variety of sources including accidental injury, motor vehicle accidents, bullying from other cattle (see section 5.11.1 and section 5.3.1) or dog attack (see section 8.23). It is important to establish the cause as this will influence treatment and approaches to preventing further cases.

SignsThere may be obvious open wounds or the injury may be internal without a break to the skin. Affected cattle may be lame, separated from the rest of the mob or recumbent. There is often significant underlying tissue damage with dog bites. Bulls fighting with other bulls can sometimes result in major internal injury.

Treatment of woundsMinor injuries and wounds may need only cleaning and topical treatment. To clean an open wound remove dirt and debris with salty water (two teaspoons of salt in one litre of water) or dilute antiseptic, using cotton wool or as a spray. Repeat regularly to keep clean. Bandaging may be beneficial to keep wounds clean, depending on the site. Repel flies by spraying wound spray on the sound skin around the wound.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/parasitic-and-protozoal-diseases/ticks


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For larger wounds, consult a veterinarian. These may require stitching and antibiotics.

See: Initial wound management in animals at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.73 Undernutrition“Undernutrition is the single most important production problem on the North Coast. It is also the trigger for a wide range of cattle health and disease issues.”

Despite having a higher rainfall than other regions in the state, the North Coast rainfall pattern is summer and autumn dominant. Pastures are of low quality in the winter and spring, this is commonly referred to as the feed gap. Being unprepared can lead to undernutrition. Manage the feed gap, either by supplementary feeding or sown winter crops. (see section 5.11.11, section 6.6.1 and section 6.7)

*animal welfare* Allowing breeders to slip in condition below accepted standards is an animal welfare issue. It is also uneconomic. Cows in poor condition have less milk which impacts calf performance, weight and returns. Poor breeders are at risk of lower fertility, reducing income for the following year. (see section 5.9.2)

Aim to always keep cattle above the minimum body condition score of two. See: Body condition score for beef cattle (Future Beef).

Situations when it can occur:• failure to anticipate and address pasture feed shortages• long term overstocking• poor quality, low productivity grass species, such as broad-leaved paspalum, bahia and carpet grasses

(see section 6.3.5)• pasture recovery after natural disasters such as fire and flood• properties affected by pasture dieback• underlying disease and health issues, particularly worms and liver fluke.

Undernutrition and overgrazing are significant triggers for many health and disease problems:

• the most important cause of reduced fertility on the North Coast (see section 7.14)• immune suppression, increasing the risk and expression of a wide range of diseases, including bovine

Johne’s disease (see section 8.10) and type two ostertagia (see section 8.78.3)• lice — poor cattle carry more lice, which further impacts their condition (see section 8.39)• an increased pickup of worms (see section 10.2.2) and coccidia (see section 8.17), from increased faecal

contamination and reduced feed height• poor ground cover increases the opportunity for navel contamination of newborn (see section 8.49)• trace element deficiencies such as copper and phosphorus (see section 6.8 and section 6.9)• plant poisonings — hungry cattle eat plants that they would otherwise ignore (see section 8.56)• dry bible and impaction from consumption of high levels of fibre (see section 8.28)• consumption of sharp dry grass and grass seeds that can penetrate the mouth, causing abscess, wooden

tongue and lumpy jaw (see section 8.1, section 8.77 and section 8.42)• cattle more prone to access wet, boggy areas when paddock feed is short and have higher risk of being

bogged, liver fluke, stomach fluke, flood mud scours and botulism. (see section 8.41, section 8.66, section 8.26 and section 8.9)

See: Animal welfare during dry times at: Animal welfare webpage (DPI).

See: A national guide to describing and managing beef cattle in low body condition (MLA 2013).

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/emergency-medicine-and-critical-care/wound-management/initial-wound-management-in-animals



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/emergencies/droughthub_old/animal-welfare

https://www.mla.com.au/contentassets/044247bf904d4cd3a64b6e6c9032c043/b.aww.0207_final_report.pdf

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8.74 Urinary tract infection (pyelonephritis)Cattle can suffer from a urinary tract infection that involves the kidneys called pyelonephritis. It is usually seen in cows a month or so after calving. There may be carrier cows or bulls in the herd, so more than one cow can be affected. The symptoms seen include frequent attempts to urinate, dribble urine, constant tail swish and sometimes pass clots of blood or pus in the urine. Cows may also have signs of colic (gut pain) and with restlessness, arched back and kicking at their flanks. If early antibiotic treatment is given the cure rate is good, so see your veterinarian.

See: Bovine cystitis and pyelonephritis at: Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals).

8.75 Vibriosis (bovine venereal campylobacteriosis)Vibriosis is a sexually transmitted disease of cattle, which causes abortion and infertility. North Coast Local Land Services investigations and records show that vibriosis is the most important cause of reduced fertility next to malnutrition. Nationally, vibriosis is ranked high as a significant source of economic loss to beef producers. See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

It is caused by the bacterium campylobacter fetus. Bulls can carry the organism for years in their sheath and show no signs of disease. Vibriosis becomes apparent when bulls pass infection to females during mating.

SignsThe infection results in early death of the foetus, with cows returning at delayed and irregular intervals. Following several returns, most cows eventually fall pregnant, seen as a large number of late calves and empty cows. In time, most females develop immunity and fall pregnant at future matings, but some will be permanently infertile. In herds with established infection, heifers are more affected than cows and there is be a prolonged interval between calves.

The impacts of vibriosis tend to be additive to nutritional infertility, so effects are worse during or after a dry year. In herds infected for the first time, vibriosis is seen as a dramatic decline in calving rate and a high percentage of late calves across all ages of cattle. In particular herds with a short, restricted joining period.

Vibriosis is also known to cause abortion in cattle. See: Bovine vibriosis causing mid-term abortions in a beef herd at: Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd).

Treatment in infected herdsIf vibriosis is confirmed consult a veterinarian. Vibriosis vaccination is curative in most bulls. Give bulls two doses of vaccine, one month apart, with the last dose one month before joining. Antibiotic into the sheath at the second vaccination will lift the cure rate to almost 100 per cent in young bulls. Cure rates are significantly lower in older bulls and consideration should be given to culling these.

In females, vaccination will help to clear infection sooner and speed up the return to full fertility. Some will not respond, so all empty females should be culled at subsequent pregnancy testing. Give heifers two doses of vaccine, one month apart. Cows require only a single vaccination.

Prevention Vaccination is strongly recommended for all bulls. Introduced and straying bulls can introduce and spread the disease between properties. Buy vaccinated bulls or vaccinate on arrival. Ensure fencing is adequate and cooperate with your neighbour in an area-wide bull vaccination program. If all producers on the North Coast were to vaccinate their bulls, this disease would cease to be the problem that it is.

Give two doses, four to six weeks apart prior to their first joining and annual booster pre-joining each year.

See: Vibriosis of cattle (DPI 2007) at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

https://www.msdvetmanual.com/urinary-system/infectious-diseases-of-the-urinary-system-in-large-animals/bovine-cystitis-and-pyelonephritis


http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/bovine-vibriosis-abortions.html

http://www.flockandherd.net.au/cattle/reader/bovine-vibriosis-abortions.html

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/vibriosis-cattle

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8.76 Warts (papillomatosis)Warts are common in young cattle. They are unsightly and can result in reduced sale value. Warts usually cause no productive loss. However, very heavy infection around the eyes and mouth can interfere with eating. Genital warts of the end of the penis of young bulls can impact fertility through reduced ability to serve.

Warts are mainly on the mouth, around the eyes, head and neck. But they also occur around the tail, on the genitalia and between the toes. Teat warts can occur in cows of any age.

Warts are caused by a virus which is spread directly by animals rubbing against one another in yards and at self-feeders. Warts can also be spread indirectly by rubbing on posts, by biting flies and lice and by implements such as tattooing pliers and needles.

Usually, the warts heal quickly and of their own accord without treatment, but some may be damaged and become infected. Warts of the tissues of the eye and eyelid may progress to cancer eye. Once resolved, cattle have lifelong immunity. Warts in cattle are not infectious to humans.

Most warts disappear after four to six months without any need for treatment. If necessary, they can be removed surgically. Genital warts in young bulls may be able to be removed surgically if they are small, otherwise the bull should be culled.

Isolation of affected calves and disinfection of any grooming equipment will help prevent spread, particularly for show and stud animals. Treatment for flies and lice may also help limit the spread.

See: Warts on cattle webpage (Business Queensland).

8.77 Wooden tongue (actinobacillosis)This is a bacterial infection of the tongue and lymph nodes. The bacteria involved enter when the tongue is injured by rough, sharp fodder. It can also be spread from sharp edges on self-feeders. It is not a common condition on the North Coast.

The tongue and base of the tongue between the lower jaw bones is hard, swollen and painful. Affected animals find it difficult to eat or drink. The tongue may protrude, the cattle drool saliva and rapidly lose condition. The tongue swelling may be confused with bottle jaw and drooling is an important sign to be investigated by a veterinarian.

The most effective treatment is intravenous injections of sodium iodide and antibiotics and can result in a good recovery. Surgical draining and flushing of the lesions may aid recovery. Consult a veterinarian.

This infection is best avoided by not grazing livestock on coarse, prickly fodder. Isolate any affected cattle.

See: Lumpy jaw and wooden tongue in cattle at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).

8.78 WormsInternal parasites are a major source of economic loss in North Coast beef cattle. This cost is made up of production losses from the parasites affecting growth rate, health and reproduction, as well as costs involved in control. The total economic loss for the North Coast beef industry from internal parasites is estimated at over $10 million per annum. Nationally, internal parasites are in the top 10 most important diseases for the Australian beef industry.

See: Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015).

https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/livestock/animal-welfare/pests-diseases-disorders/warts-on-cattle

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/bacterial-diseases/lumpy-jaw-wooden-tongue


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Roundworms in cattle on the North Coast

Main Species: Common Name: Signs:

Cooperia Small intestinal worm Scouring and weight loss in cattle under 2 years old

Haemonchus Barbers pole worm Anaemia (pale gums) and weight loss in cattle under 2 years old

Ostertagia Scour and weight loss in individual adult cattle

Dicytocaulus Lungworm Deep cough and weight loss, usually in younger cattle

Minor species, generally are part of a mixed worm infection in younger cattle:

Oesophagostomum Nodule wormTrichostrongylus Stomach & intestinal hair wormsBunostomum Hook wormTrichuris Whip wormStrongyloides Thread wormToxocara Round wormNematodirus Thin necked intestinal worm

8.78.1 Cooperia (small intestinal worm)

This worm infection is the most common cause of scours in young cattle under two years of age. It is a significant problem when continuously stocked in a single paddock and when nutritionally stressed. The worm has a short life cycle and is a moderate egg layer, so contamination of paddocks can build up very quickly. This can occur in those parts of the paddock frequented by calves, such as cattle camps.

SignsProfuse, watery scour and rapid weight loss. Young cattle can produce large numbers of cooperia eggs in their faeces, so it is readily diagnosed by faecal tests.


• coccidiosis, but this is often with blood in the scour (see section 8.17)• cryptosporidium in calves (see section 8.20)• dietary scours, from excess grain or fresh feed, such as ryegrass (but usually do not have weight loss as

well).

TreatmentTreat the group with an oral benzimidazole (BZ) or levamisole drench. Cooperia is developing resistance to some chemicals in the macrocyclic lactone (ML) group. After drenching move to a fresh paddock. Supplement to help regain condition. With age and exposure, cattle develop immunity to cooperia.

Prevention and control See section 8.78.6, below.

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8.78.2 Haemonchus (barbers pole worm)

This is a tropical, summer rainfall area parasite and is well suited to the North Coast climate.

SignsThe signs of barbers pole worm infection are very different from other worm infections. It feeds on blood in the fourth stomach, causing weight loss, very pale gums (anaemia) and bottle jaw from protein loss. By itself It does not cause scouring. However, it often occurs as a mixed infection with cooperia and minor worm species, which do cause scouring. Weaners and yearlings are most commonly affected.


• liver fluke (see section 8.41), the two diseases look quite similar• undernutrition (see section 8.73)• bush tick burdens, often occurs together with undernutrition and worms (see section 8.71.1)• theileria in calves, but this is in younger calves at five to 16 weeks of age. (see section 8.68)

Like cooperia, barbers pole worm is a heavy egg layer and has a short lifecycle. Contamination can build up quickly on pasture, particularly in warm, moist conditions. Weaners that are continuously stocked are most at risk. Because it produces large numbers of eggs, infection is readily confirmed on faecal samples.

TreatmentTreat the mob with an oral BZ or levamisole. Drench resistance to some of the ML group is emerging as a problem with this worm. After drenching move cattle to a fresh paddock. Supplementation, particularly with protein is needed for the young cattle to regain condition.

Prevention and controlSee 8.78.6, below.

8.78.3 Ostertagia (brown stomach worm)

Life cycleBrown stomach worm behaves in two different ways:

• type one ostertagia has a direct life cycle, burrows into the fourth stomach wall and causes scouring and weight loss, typically in yearlings during the winter and spring months. It is often seen as part of a mixed worm burden in young cattle

• type two ostertagia occurs from an accumulation over time of larvae burrowed in the stomach wall that are inhibited from further development. This causes profuse diarrhoea and protein loss (seen as bottle jaw). Type two ostertagia is by far the most common worm problem in adult cattle on the North Coast.

Signs of type two ostertagiaIndividual adult cattle with a profuse, watery, often foul-smelling scour. Weight loss can continue for weeks to months and cattle can develop a bottle jaw from protein loss.

The accumulated ostertagia larvae in the wall of the fourth stomach, cause damage and interfere with digestion, particularly of protein. Typically, disease is seen in individual adult cattle stressed from other causes (see below) which results in them losing their acquired immunity to the parasite.

Triggers for type two ostertagia:• nutritional stress in a poor season, most often seen in winter• cows rearing a calf, particularly first calf heifers• stress of working in bulls, particularly young bulls

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• poor or worn teeth due to old age• an underlying disease problem.


• flood mud scours (see section 8.26)• undernutrition (see section 8.73)• bovine Johne’s disease (see section 8.10) *notifiable*• salmonella (see section 8.64)• liver fluke does not usually cause a scour but can cause bottle jaw. (see section 8.41)

Diagnosis and confirming infectionOstertagia is a poor egg layer and type two disease is from the immature worms, which are not yet egg laying. So faecal samples for worm egg counts are likely to show few or no eggs. Diagnosis often relies on response to treatment. Consult with your veterinarian.

“Worm egg counts on faecal samples are a reliable guide to worm levels in young cattle. Cooperia and haemonchus are the two main worms at this age and both species produce large numbers of eggs in faeces. However, the test is of little use in adult cattle, as ostertagia, the main worm in adult cattle, is an inconsistent and poor egg layer.”

TreatmentEither use an oral BZ or an injectable or pour-on ML. Unlike other worms, drenching is usually only needed for the individual cattle affected. However, if the cattle all share the same risk factors, such as nutritional stress, then treat the whole group.

Because affected cattle are back in condition and usually very low in protein, it is important to supplement with protein and energy as part of the recovery process. The underlying or associated trigger for the disease also needs to be determined and addressed.

Prevention and control(see 8.78.6 below).

8.78.4 Dictyocaulis (lungworm)

Lungworm disease is seen occasionally, usually in young cattle during the winter months on overstocked pastures. Adult cattle that are stressed and have no previous exposure can also be badly affected. For example, cattle introduced from low rainfall or drought affected areas.

Life cycle Lungworm has a more complex life cycle than gut worms. Adult lungworms are large (70–80 mm long) and live in the lower airways. Unlike other worms which lay eggs, the young are born as larvae (dictyocaulis viviparus; the Latin ‘viviparus’ means live birth) and work their way up the airways. This irritates the airways and causes cattle to cough and bring up the larvae. These larvae are then swallowed, pass through the gut and deposited on the pasture in the faeces. Diagnosis is by a special float technique for larvae, rather than a standard egg count.

SignsCattle have a deep chesty cough. Lungworm can lead to pneumonia and weight loss.

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• pneumonia, (see section 8.54), including MH pneumonia (see section 8.45)• inhalation of dust from fines in feed.

TreatmentMost worm drenches are effective, particularly the ML group. However, cattle can often get worse after drenching as the worms killed by the drench rot in the lower airways, so antibiotic cover may be needed. If lungworm is suspected, seek veterinary advice before treating.

See: Lungworms in cattle, sheep and goats (DPI 2017) at: Beef cattle health and disease webpage (DPI).

Infection with other species of wormsThe other species are less common on the North Coast. These include nodule worm, black scour worm, type one brown stomach worm and whipworm. They are usually seen as mixed infections in weaners and yearlings. Heavy infections will cause scouring and weight loss. Most burdens are light and can cause suboptimal growth. Nodule worm causes scars on the intestine and is a cause of condemnation of the offal at the abattoir. It is the only intestinal worm that leaves scars, so it is a useful indicator of past worm infection.

8.78.5 The where and when of worms

The general principles of worm infection are:

• worms are present in all areas of the North Coast• worm levels are related to stocking rate; the higher the stock density the greater the pasture

contamination with worm larvae• worm larvae pick-up is related to feed length, temperature and moisture — pick-up is highest with short

feed and mild, moist conditions• their effects are more pronounced during periods of poor nutrition• cattle in good condition have a better immune system and have more resilience to the effect of worms.

Even with average stocking rates, hot spots of heavy contamination with worm larvae can occur in certain areas:

• cattle yards• patches of green feed favoured during dry times• cattle on high ground during or after a flood• paddocks with tall grass like setaria, with cattle favouring small areas where the feed is short• calves remaining together in sheltered parts of a paddock or on cattle camps.

Usually, young cattle develop a good immunity to worms after exposure, however this is dependent on a good immune system and sound nutrition. This immunity can falter later in life, for example as first or second calf heifers around the time of calving. Or with older cattle that have underlying health problems.

The life cycle for most worms (except lungworm) is:• eggs on pasture hatch into larvae that crawl up the leaf and are eaten during grazing• the larvae attach to the gut wall before becoming adults and laying eggs to start the cycle again.

This whole cycle can take as little as three weeks, which allows rapid build-up of numbers of worms. During the cooler months the process takes longer. Brown stomach worm larvae can hibernate in the stomach wall for an extended period and re-emerge when conditions are more favourable.

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/parasitic-and-protozoal-diseases/lungworms

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8.78.6 Worm control principles and strategies

“Don’t wait till stock look ‘wormy’ before drenching. They will have already suffered a check in weight gain or weight loss. And there will be significant pasture contamination with larvae, sowing the seeds for further problems. With sound control measures such as good grazing practices, monitoring with faecal egg counts and timely drenching cattle will have more even growth rates and have improved production outcomes”.

“A trial conducted by North Coast Local Land Services and DPI in the spring of 2020 found that yearling steers with poorly controlled worms were 15kg lighter after 90 days, even when on a good plane of nutrition. The trial also found that compensatory growth (catch up) did not occur. Those that fell behind in weight, stayed behind. This had a significant impact on the profitability of these cattle”.

Prevention is the key word in worm control and can be achieved through:• sound and timely drench practices• good nutrition and body condition• limit pasture contamination through strategic drenching, sound stocking rates, pasture management (by

optimal feed height, pasture quality and pasture rotation) and recognising periods of high risk• provide the most susceptible stock (weaners) with pastures that have low levels of worm larvae • use of faecal worm egg counts in young cattle to monitor the performance of the program. (see section

10.1) See: D.I.Y. worm egg counting at: Beef cattle health and disease webpage (DPI).

Worm control principles:• young cattle under two years of age are the most susceptible, healthy cattle over this age have usually

developed some immunity to worm infections• early weaned or stressed calves may need treatment from four months of age as they graze earlier in life• weaners contaminate pastures because they have the highest burdens, they also pass more eggs in their

faeces — the greatest source of infection for weaners are themselves• bulls and first-calf heifers are the most susceptible groups of adult cattle• levels in cattle reflect larvae contamination on pasture• high stocking rates increase pasture contamination and the resulting short feed increases larvae pick up• larvae pick-up is highest in damp conditions, generally during the wetter in late summer and autumn • pick up is generally lower in dry times, but see above ‘hot spots’ for example cattle congregate on green

patches• healthy, well-grown cattle on sound nutrition have healthier immune systems, develop stronger immunity

and cope with worm burdens better• cattle under nutritional stress are more susceptible and when feed is short and worm larvae levels higher.

Grazing and management strategies for internal parasite controlIt is ideal for young cattle to be placed on paddocks with a low level of worm larvae contamination following drenching. This will slow the rate of worm reinfection. Strategies include:

• there is a strong association with stocking rate and internal parasite burdens. This is related to density of larvae on pasture, length of pasture (short pasture = higher pick-up), general body condition and resilience of the immune system

• rotational grazing encourages the more productive and nutritious pasture species• rotational grazing is aimed at phase two growth, producing higher feed than is seen with continuous

stocking• continuous stocking favours the short, more worm prone mat grasses such as couch, compressum and

bahai • forage crops have low worm potential. If the soil has been cultivated, then most worm larvae are buried.

Also they are higher growing (particularly the summer species) and are more nutritious• rotation between classes of stock can also have benefits. Older more worm resistant cattle ‘vacuum up’

larvae on pasture and produce much lower number of worm eggs, before it is then grazed by young cattle.

Because of the generally mild moist conditions on the North Coast compared to western areas, the high levels of

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/sheep/health/internal-parasites/d.i.y-worm-egg-counting

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larvae kill-off to produce low worm pasture cannot be achieved in all but the driest of seasons.

Also the long periods of time for pasture spelling for low worm pastures are not achievable or indeed desirable for best pasture management. The worm control benefits from rotational grazing relate to feed height and nutrition. (see section 6.4, section 6.5 and section 6.6)

Other non-chemical strategiesGenetic selection of cattle for tolerance to internal parasites. See: Genetic approach to internal parasite control in Australian cattle at: Animal health and welfare webpage (MLA).

Biological control, See: Managing internal parasites in organic livestock production systems (DPI 2014).

8.78.7 Drenches

"Trial work in 2020 and 2021 by North Coast Local Land Services and DPI found that both haemonchus and cooperia have significant resistance to some ML drenches, both for pour-ons and injectables. Of the ML group, moxidectin had the least sign of resistance. In order to reduce the risk of further drench resistance; the preferred treatment for cattle under two years of age are benzimidazole (BZ) or levamisole"

See: Drench resistant worms on the NSW North Coast at: North Coast Local Land Services website (NCLLS).

See: Drench resistant worms on the NSW North Coast at: Health and Disease webpage (DPI).

Reducing the risk of drench resistance:• worm drench resistance in cattle is an emerging and significant problem• resistance is most likely in high stocking rate situations, such as in calf-rearing paddocks• use non- chemical means of control to reduce reliance on frequent drenching• avoid using one drench group for long periods — cattle drenches can be grouped according to the type of

active ingredient in the product, see below• use effective drenches for the class of stock and worm species being targeted, see individual worm species

in above sections• avoid introducing resistance with purchased cattle; treat with a combination drench on arrival.

Combination drenches help delay the onset of drench resistance. They are also recommended as a quarantine drench for introduced stock. Check labels for drench compatibilities. Examples are:

• combined ML / levamisole • combined ML / BZ / levamisole• using an ML product at the same time as an oral BZ drench.

These should not be confused with worm and liver fluke combination drenches. (see section 8.41 and section 10.2.2)

Drenches registered for worm control

Drench class/type Treatment type ChemicalMacrocyclic lactones (MLs) Injectable and pour-on Abamectin, doramectin, eprinomectin,

ivermectin, moxidectinBenzimidazoles (BZs) Oral Albendazole, fenbendazole, oxfendazoleLevamisole Oral and pour-on Levamisole

(see section 10.2.2) See: Cattle worm control: the basics at: Health and disease webpage (DPI).


https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/reports/2013/genetic-approach-to-internal-parasite-control-in-australian-cattle/

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/reports/2013/genetic-approach-to-internal-parasite-control-in-australian-cattle/

https://archive.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/518191/Managing-internal-parasites-in-organic-livestock-production-systems.pdf


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/parasitic-and-protozoal-diseases/drench-resistant-worms-on-the-nsw-north-coast

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/146693/Cattle-worm-control-in-NSW.pdf

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/cattle-parasite-atlas///

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North Coast Local Land Services has district veterinarians and agricultural advisory officers to assist with developing sound worm control and grazing management programs.

Recommended programs for worms

Calves and cattle to two years of age:• barbers pole worm and cooperia are the two worms of concern and are heavy egg layers, these are best

treated with either an oral BZ or levamisole (and not an ML due to resistance)• age for first drench is determined by when calves start to graze significant pasture. Calves weaned early

need drenching earlier in life. If mothers have poor milk supply calves graze and pick up worms at a younger age when they are more susceptible to worms

• frequency of drenching is generally, every three to four months• faecal worm egg counts help fine tune timing (and are much cheaper than drenching when it is not

needed)• practice pasture rotation to lower the level of larvae pick up by calves• keep young cattle actively growing. Good condition and a healthy immune system are important.

Replacement heifers:• a pre-calving drench is important for two reasons. They become more susceptible to worms at this time

and to also reduce pasture contamination for their calves• use a BZ or ML. If this coincides with liver fluke treatment time use a combination worm / fluke drench.

Bulls:• the most susceptible class of adult cattle to worms, particularly to ostertagia. Drench pre-joining• use a BZ or ML. If coincides with liver fluke treatment time use a combination worm / fluke drench.

Adult cows:• generally, do not require drenching for worms as are more immune• stress from feed shortage, calving and feeding a calf lowers immunity. Individual cows may scour and lose

weight from ostertagia at this times; drench these individual cows if and when this occurs• drenching of all adult cows is only justified when all are exposed to a significant nutritional challenge such

as in a poor season, particularly if chasing a short green pick• ostertagia is the main worm species and is a very poor egg layer, so egg counts are of little use in adult

cattle• use a BZ or ML. If coincides with liver fluke treatment time use a combination worm / fluke drench.

Timing of drenches in a program:• liver fluke treatments are driven by the time of year and are set times in a calendar• worm treatments are driven by time of joining and calving and by age of cattle, so calendar will vary

accordingly• take into account management type and class of cattle; breeder vs fattening steers for example• time treatments and the product/s used to match other control programs such as ticks, flies and lice. This

is to both reduce the number of musters and treatments.

Putting this together may take a little shuffling to coincide treatments, but the time spent planning this will pay off. For programs that integrate worm control with liver fluke, stomach fluke and external parasite treatments. (see section 10.2.2)

See: Wormboss webpage at: ParaBoss website.


https://www.paraboss.com.au/wormboss.php


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9 Chemicals and treatments 9.1 Principles of chemical useA wide range of diseases, parasites and nutritional deficiencies are covered in this book. Fortunately for the vast majority of conditions, the means of treatment or prevention are available.

It is important to establish what is needed for your cattle and when. (see section 10) Over treating, inappropriate treatments or not treating can all be expensive mistakes or have poor animal welfare outcomes. Principles include:

• prioritise your treatments. Because budgets are limited it is important to prioritise just what is needed. To do this requires a knowledge of the important conditions in your area and for the class of cattle that you have. Seeking veterinary advice to draw up a preventative program is time well spent

• use at the appropriate time. This is usually just before the anticipated time when the condition is a problem. For example, pre-joining vibriosis boosters for bulls and paralysis tick treatments in spring. Develop a calendar (see section 10)

• don’t under-dose, this can make the treatment ineffective or lead to chemical resistance. This means weighing cattle, calculating weight based on size See: Beefspecs calculator (DPI, MLA, Beef CRC), or being a reasonable judge of weights. (Tip: watching cattle go over the scales at cattle sales is a good way to learn)

• don’t overdose — this is more expensive and may lead to toxicity• read the label, mix and apply as directed. If the label is not available, See: Australian Pesticides and

Veterinary Medicines Authority website (APVMA)• observe the withholding period and export slaughter interval See: Withholding periods and export

slaughter intervals at: Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority website (APVMA)• use before the expiry date. To minimise wastage, do the maths and buy what you need or are likely to use.• store as directed (see below).

See: Veterinary medicines at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

See: Spray sense leaflet series at: Animal chemicals webpage (DPI).

9.2 Types of chemicals and treatmentsA couple of definitions: treat means use to cure an existing problem, whereas prevent means use beforehand to stop or minimise the risk of a problem occurring.

Antibiotics:• use: to treat bacterial infections and specific anti-protozoal drugs for diseases such as coccidiosis and tick

fever• route: intramuscular injection (into the muscle), oral, topically, intra-mammary or intra-uterine• availability: most are only through your private veterinarian• storage: most require refrigeration.

Vaccines:• use: as a prevention; stimulate immunity to specific diseases• route: by subcutaneous (under the skin) injection or intranasal (IBR vaccine)• availability: most are over the counter available from rural stores or veterinarians. Three day sickness and

IBR vaccines are veterinarian only. Anthrax vaccine is controlled by government• storage: require refrigeration.

https://beefspecs.agriculture.nsw.gov.au/



https://apvma.gov.au/node/26531

https://apvma.gov.au/node/26531



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Internal parasite (worms and fluke) treatments:• use: preventative before clinical signs are seen or treatment in response to infection• route: oral drenches, pour-on and injections• availability: over the counter from rural stores• storage: cool, dark and dry, but not refrigerated.

External parasite pesticides (ticks, flies and lice):• use: preventative before clinical signs are seen or treatment in response to infection• route: pour-ons, sprays and injections• availability: over the counter from rural stores• storage: cool and dark, this is important as some, like organophosphates, can become toxic if allowed to

get hot• safety: pesticides must meet storage and safety requirements and chemical users training. (see section 9.5)

Macrocyclic lactones (MLs) treat both internal and external parasites

Anti-inflammatory and pain killers:• use: preventative for a painful procedure, for treatment to reduce fever and pain• route: injections, oral and topical• availability: most are veterinarian only, but a topical product is over the counter from rural stores• storage: as per label, most are keep cool, dark and dry but not refrigerated.

Hormones:• use: to induce abortion or calving or to help with retained membranes — others are growth promotants• route: injections or implants• availability: most are veterinarian only or through a reproductive specialist. Industry conditions apply to

the use of hormonal growth promotants• storage: see label for given product.

Nutritional supplements — vitamins and trace elements:• use: for treatment or prevention of diagnosed deficiency• route: injectable or oral• availability: over the counter from rural store• storage: vitamins, keep cool and dark or refrigerate. Trace elements do not need refrigeration.

Probiotics: • use: to re-establish gut flora in calves — there are special cattle strains available• route: oral• availability: over the counter from rural stores• storage: keep cool below 25°C (air-conditioning) or refrigeration will extend shelf life.

Antiseptics and disinfectants:• use: for cleaning skin, treating wounds (antiseptics) or cleaning equipment (disinfectants)• route: depends on product and use on broken on unbroken skin• availability: over the counter from rural stores• storage: room temperature.

Pest animal baits: • use: for wild dog, rabbit, rodent and pig control• availability: rodenticides are from rural stores. 1080 is restricted supply and use requires training • storage: as directed, pesticides must meet storage and safety requirements.

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9.3 Administration routes and techniques There are a wide range of ways that products are administered:

• subcutaneous injection (under the skin) — used for most vaccines. Ensure the needle is under the skin and not into the underlying muscle, ‘tent’ the skin and move the needle to and fro under the skin before injection (the end of the needle should have a free feel). Injection guns are now available that make this technique much easier and safer

• intranasal – a novel means of delivering vaccine, used for IBR vaccine• intramuscular injection — used for most injectable antibiotics. Apply high on the neck if possible, to

minimise carcase damage • pour-on — some ML drenches and external parasite treatments. Beware of using product that is hot from

the sun • sprays— used for some tick, lice and fly treatments. Ensure that the chemical is well mixed when diluting

and throughout application• back-rubber — used for some buffalo fly chemicals. Most cattle learn to self-apply chemical as required.

Ensure that both the drum and back-rubber are in the shade. Hot chemical can be more toxic and the oils may be a fire risk

• intra-mammary — antibiotic mastitis treatment and prevention for insertion into the teat canal.• intra-uterine — antibiotics for metritis (breeding bag infection)• oral — for some internal parasite and antibiotic products. Head control will help deliver the dose,

particularly in heavier cattle. Delivery by a standard drench gun or hook drench• ear tags — for buffalo fly and some paralysis tick prevention.


Some injectable products (particularly copper glycinate and some vaccines) can be dangerous if self-injected. Injectors with a guarded needle are available. Use gloves, eye protection and a mask to avoid skin contact and inhalation when mixing and using pour-ons and sprays. Watch for pinch points in hands when injecting, giving oral treatments or applying ear tags.


9.4 Avoiding residuesMany internal and external parasite products and antibiotics have both a withholding period and an export slaughter interval. Read the label. If these are not available, See: Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority website (APVMA).

9.5 Training and record keepingTo buy, transport, store and use many agricultural chemicals requires training. This can be done online or face to face. Record keeping is also an essential part of these requirements.

See: Chemical accreditation, AQF-3 webpage (Chemcert).

Training and record keeping is embedded in the on-farm biosecurity plan. (see section 3.2.1)

As part of the Livestock Production Assurance program, keep records of all animals treated, products, dates and doses. (see section 3.2.1)

https://www.safework.nsw.gov.au/



https://www.chemcert.com.au/

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10. Develop programs, budgets and calendarsNo business functions well without a plan and budget. This is true whether you have just purchased a property or the family have been on the land for generations. Every property and herd is unique in some way. Everyone has their own aspirations and life plans, time and money constraints. So it is important to consider the important issues to prepare a health and management program, calendar and budget for your property.

This chapter explores how to develop these plans. This includes the four big ticket animal health items on the North Coast: nutrition, vaccinations, internal parasites and external parasites. And also timing of routine management practices such as joining, feeding and weaning. It provides examples of sources of information and data to aid in preparing a program, and then how to bring these programs together into an annual calendar and budget.

10.1 Sources of information and resourcesRather than the expense of starting from scratch, re-inventing the wheel or learning from mistakes, identify resources to help clarify what is important and to assist in developing programs. These include general information, knowledge, records and research for the district and specific advice or results for the property.

General resources

Published information North Coast Local Land Services has a wide variety of resources (including this book) available from our offices and website. See: North Coast Local Land Services webpage. At each section of this book are resources and references for further information. This includes general information in texts and websites as well as factsheets on specific topics. There are also many specific references available online included in section 11.

Local knowledge and resourcesThere is an established pool of people who have experience in the local area. These include producers, producer organisations, farm consultants and rural store staff. North Coast Local Land Services has staff trained and experienced with a full range of land and livestock management issues. North Coast Local Land Services has regular field days and producer meetings, as well as webinars and podcasts on our website.

Local trials, research and surveillanceThe North Coast has a long history of research trials, including on pastures, feed quality, genetics, drench resistance and more. District veterinarians regularly undertake disease investigations, surveillance and monitoring. They also have an oversight on disease trends in their region and maintain disease records. Discussing these with Local Land Services staff is time well spent and can give you valuable information to develop plans for your property and herd


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Specific property information

Producer recordsBy keeping quality on-farm records of management practices such as animal husbandry, treatments and pastures enables producers to hone these practices more accurately and help prevents repeating costly mistakes. This may be as simple as a diary or as complex as a farm management and business plan. See: Record keeping and management planning at: Business management and market Information webpage (DPI).

Livestock Data Link – abattoir disease and defect feedback Knowing the information recorded at abattoirs offers an opportunity to improve on farm productivity. Livestock Data Link (LDL) is an online program where participating meat processors can share information with producers. It offers a standardised approach to data collection, so producers receive consistent information. LDL was developed as part of a large rural research and development project called Health for Wealth.

Examples of the conditions LDL report on include liver abscesses, liver fluke, hydatids and pneumonia. These can be hidden diseases that reduce the production potential without producing obvious signs in the herd. Having this information equips producers to adjust management practices to reduce their incidence and impacts. In time additional conditions are likely to be added. Not all processors have adopted the program, but this is expected to change. See: Livestock Data Link webpage (MLA).

Samples and testing by veterinarians Tests for can be done on your own stock to help develop plans and so that informed decisions can be made. For example, blood sampling for liver fluke or copper deficiency. Other tests can be considered as part of annual plan. For example, pregnancy testing, bull testing. Other examples of sampling are worm egg counts, soils, pastures, water or feeds.

Samples producers can takeAn increasing number of tests are now available for producers to take the samples and submit themselves. These come as test kits with instructions on how to sample and the laboratory details. It is wise to consult with your veterinarian or husbandry advisor beforehand to ensure correct sampling technique and the appropriate animals or material. Tests kits are available from your Local Land Services office. From time to time tests costs may be subsided, so seek advice before sampling. Test include:

• water analysis• soil analysis• feed analysis: pasture, grain, silage, hay• worm egg counts (faeces)• pestivirus (hair roots)• DNA for parentage, poll and horn gene and double muscling (ear punch or hair roots).

See: Laboratory services webpage (DPI).

See: D.I.Y. worm egg counting at: Beef cattle health and disease webpage (DPI).

10.2 Health, nutrition and management plans

10.2.1 Vaccination programs

About vaccinesVaccines stimulate immunity against infectious diseases. Vaccines may be live or killed. Killed vaccines (most

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/management/business-management/record-keeping-mgt

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/management/business-management/record-keeping-mgt

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/food-safety/livestock-data-link/


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/sheep/health/internal-parasites/d.i.y-worm-egg-counting

239


cattle vaccines) contain inactivated organisms or part of the toxin. Live vaccines have the organism modified (attenuated) so as to not cause disease, but still produce immunity. Examples are three day sickness and tick fever vaccines.

All vaccines have a limited life, particularly once opened so calculate how much you need to buy.

Timing of vaccines The aim for timing is before peak disease challenge. Examples include:

• in calves for blackleg • before moving onto green feed or grain for pulpy kidney• before entry to feedlot for MH pneumonia and pestivirus• before joining for seven-in-one, vibriosis and pestivirus• pre-calving boosters to boost colostrum antibody levels to protect calves for E coli.

Prioritise vaccinationsWhen considering what vaccination programs are appropriate for your herd, consider:

• recommendations by your veterinarian or animal health advisor• past history of the disease problem in your herd and in the area• management type such as stud herd, breeding, fattening, calf rearing, improved pasture vs unimproved• high-risk management practices for that disease e.g. silage feeding or poultry manure fertiliser for botulism• demonstrated cost–benefit of the use of the vaccine in your herd• personal such as budget and aversion to risk.

Experience on the North Coast divides vaccine programs into two groups, essential and as required.

Essential vaccination programsRecommended for all herds, these are for the more common diseases for which there are well established risk and cost benefit. For cattle in a given age group or risk category, as follows.

Calves (even if sold as weaners):

• five-in-one clostridial vaccine. Two doses, four to six weeks apart from two months of age, with boosters every 12 months.

Replacement heifers and breeding cows:

• seven-in-one clostridial and leptospirosis — two doses, four to six weeks apart prior to joining, with booster pre-joining every year

• pestivirus — same schedule as seven-in-one• botulism — schedule varies with product, see label.

Bulls are valuable cattle and have potential to spread disease in the herd. Recommended vaccinations:

• seven-in-one clostridial and leptospirosis vaccine — schedule as for females• pestivirus — schedule as for females seven-in-one• botulism• vibriosis• three day sickness, if sourced from an area in which this disease does not occur— give two doses two to

four weeks apart. Consult a veterinarian.

Young cattle before grain feeding or movement to feedlot:

• five-in-one clostridial vaccine to protect against pulpy kidney, booster if not vaccinated in previous three months

• pestivirus.

Before moving onto fodder crop, legume or improved pasture:

• five-in-one clostridial vaccine to protect against pulpy kidney, booster if not vaccinated in the past three months.

240

Before feeding silage or if poultry manure applied to pasture:

• botulism.

As required vaccination programsAs required are those vaccination programs recommended for herds with a history of the disease or at particular risk. Based on past experience for that management type, area or property or as recommended by a veterinarian.

Mannheimia haemolytica (MH) pneumonia vaccine. IBR intranasal vaccine. Combined MH / IBR vaccine. Recommended for:

• intensively reared calves and herds with a history of pneumonia in young cattle. Calves from vaccinated dams from six to eight weeks age, otherwise calves from four weeks age

• specified buyer requirement for young cattle before grain feeding or movement to feedlot, complete vaccination program a minimum of two weeks before movement or onto feed.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) vaccine. Recommended for:

• herds with a history of the E. coli scours and deaths in calves.

Salmonella vaccine. Recommended for:

• herds with a confirmed history of the disease.

Anthrax vaccine:

• only for use in cattle in or moving to anthrax-endemic areas, with NSW DPI approval.

Tick fever vaccine. Recommended for:

• before movement to cattle tick-infected areas of Queensland and Northern Territory — approval from DPI is no longer required and can be purchased directly from Qld Tick Fever Centre

• vaccination can also be used as a control strategy in those herds affected by tick fever infection.

For further information on the diseases and programs, (see the appropriate disease in section 8).


See: Cattle disease vaccines and strategies, module 6.02 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

10.2.2 Internal parasite (worms and fluke) programs

The cost of drenching for worms and fluke is a major part of an annual animal health budget. Before developing a program consider whether treatments are warranted, appropriate and timely:

• establish whether liver fluke is on farm• monitor worm burdens in cattle under two years old by using faecal egg counts• focus worm control on these three groups of cattle: those under two years of age, heifers at calving and

bulls• drenching of adult cows for worms should not routinely be required — this also greatly reduces costs • drenching for stomach fluke only warranted for cattle under two years on floodplain country• use the correct drenches to target the parasite/s concerned — not all worms are the same• time treatments before the anticipated time of year for a problem, rather than when signs appear.

Some products, called multiple actives and combination drenches treat for more than one parasite group. For example, many of the liver fluke treatments cover worms as well. And the ML group (e.g. ivermectin, moxidectin, abamectin and doramectin) treat for lice, flies as well as worms.

Adopt sound internal parasite control principles: (see section 8.78.6 and section 8.41)

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease/general/beefcattle-vaccines

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/herd-health-and-welfare/tool-62-cattle-disease-vaccines-and-strategies/

https://mbfp.mla.com.au/herd-health-and-welfare/tool-62-cattle-disease-vaccines-and-strategies/

241


• use multiple active treatments or combinations where possible • sound nutrition and good body condition minimise impact of internal parasites• use grazing and management as tools to reduce opportunities for high worm or fluke burdens.

Steps to achieve a program if liver fluke is on farm:1. treat for liver fluke in April. Use the combination oral product Flukazole C® (triclabendazole and

oxfendazole) to treat for worms at the same time.2. treat for liver fluke again in August. This time use a combination injectable clorsulon and ML product

(several on the market). These treat for worms as well and are a rotation to the April treatment.3. in cattle under two years of age give additional worm only treatments in November and February. Use a

BZ or levamisole drench (the worms Cooperia and barbers pole worm are more likely at this age).

If liver fluke is not present on farm, then the focus is on worms only. BZs and levamisole are the preferred drenches for cattle under two years of age. Use MLs for first calf heifers and bulls (for brown stomach worm). And only treat those individual cows that look poor or scoured, using an ML.

If on low lying floodplain country with a history of stomach fluke, then a different drench is required. As the only effective product is no longer registered for stomach fluke, speak with a veterinarian.

Details and rationale for these recommendations are for worms (see section 8.78), liver fluke (see section 8.41) and stomach fluke (see section 8.66).

Examples of internal parasite control programs

Example 1. A self-replacing, July calving herd Program timing is driven by liver fluke (if present), then worms:

• April–May: Liver fluke (for immature fluke) for all stock. Worm drench for weaners and yearlings. If heifers calve two months earlier than cows this is also a pre-calving worm drench for them

• August–September: Alternative fluke treatment (for mature fluke) to April drench for all stock except young calves. This is also pre-joining worm drench for bulls. And a worm drench for weaners and yearlings

• January –February: Weaner calves first worm drench (may need it earlier in a tough year), yearlings and heifers. Worm drench for bulls, especially if back in condition at end of joining.

Example 2. A fattening enterprise that introduces weaners or yearlings: • drench for worms and for liver fluke (if liver fluke suspected to be on the property of origin) on arrival.

Alternatively, liver fluke treatment at six weeks after arrival (if suspect that cattle are from low risk fluke area and your property has liver fluke)

• worm drench: generally, every four months. Faecal worm egg counts will help fine tune timing• keep cattle actively growing, with as few checks as possible.

10.2.3 External parasite (ticks, flies and lice) programs

External parasite control is a major cost in cattle enterprises on the North Coast and for many herds a significant part of their animal health budget. Chemical resistance is emerging as a major issue. Rationalising treatments reduces cost and minimises the opportunity for selection for resistance:

• non-chemical means of control• monitoring parasite presence and levels and treat only when necessary• timing treatments to cover more than one external and internal parasite• identify when parasites occur in the course of the year and develop a plan• biosecurity — keeping unwanted parasites off your property, particularly cattle tick.

242

When budgeting also consider:

• the relative costs of different treatments with the equipment on hand such as spray units or back-rubbers• the cost of labour, mustering and handling• buy only the amount chemical that can be used within the expiry date.

Non-chemical control:Paralysis and bush tick — calve in paddocks of lower risk, with less long grass and scrub and with less vectors (bandicoots, kangaroos and wallabies). Adjust calving date, so calves are heavier at the peak tick time of September. Brahmans and their crosses are less susceptible to tick.

Buffalo fly — cull those cattle that are allergic. Evaluate the dung beetle activity in cattle dung pats on a regular basis. Explore introducing new dung beetle species. Consider the use of buffalo fly traps.

MonitoringMost external parasites (with the exception of immature ticks and mites) can be seen with the naked eye, so monitor by visual appraisal. The need for treatment can then be assessed. This is particularly true for buffalo fly and lice. Treat lice early in the season, rather than wait until they are an issue. Make a point of inspecting for cattle tick whenever cattle are in the yards.

Chemical treatments:• time treatments to cover than one external parasite, this reduces handling and cost• most external parasite chemicals treat for a wide range of external parasites, however amitraz is only a

tick treatment and has no insecticidal activity• MLs have both worm and external parasite activity, to get the most value for money and time, treatment

with an ML will cover both parasite groups. However, note emerging worm resistance with many MLs. (see section 8.78.7)

Timing and planningExternal parasites are driven by the time of year and so treatment times are largely fixed on the calendar:

• cattle tick are more active January–June• paralysis tick and bush tick are more active July–December• lice are a winter time problem• buffalo fly activity depends on the area, but is during the warmer wetter months.

BiosecurityTreatment of all cattle at the time of introduction is important for those parasites that do not have a host other than cattle, such as worms, cattle tick, buffalo fly and lice. Know the source of cattle for cattle tick risk. (see section 5.11.2)

Keeping sound fences is also an important part of keeping cattle tick and many other diseases out.

For more detail see ticks (section 8.71), buffalo fly (section 8.12) and lice (section 8.39).

10.3 Develop a cattle health annual budgetPlanning an animal health program is the most important step to begin toward an animal health budget. Knowing what your stock need and when allows costing of a program.

Just what to budget for will vary for each individual depending on the class of cattle run, property location, seasonal conditions and cash flow. There are a variety of options to treat or prevent the main animal health issues on the North Coast, so it is important to identify products and techniques that suit.

The most expensive animal health programs are those that don’t work. This may be from production losses,

243


reduced weight gains, reduced meat quality, condemnations at the abattoir or from sickness and deaths.

The main reasons for treatment failures are:• incorrect identification of the issue and therefore use of the wrong product• under-dosing animals; not only will the product be ineffective but can also encourage chemical resistance • over-dosing or using more treatments than necessary, means spending more money than needed. It

may also be hazardous for the animal or increase the risk of residues. Estimating animal weights can be difficult. Watching the scales at cattle sales is a good way to learn. Calculate weight based on size See: Beefspecs calculator (DPI, MLA, Beef CRC)

• treatment at the wrong time.

For an effective animal health budget:• identify the health issues on the property (see above) • use the correct product for the problem, i.e. read the label and seek advice• sound chemical use practices, don’t over-dose or under-dose • use product within expiry date and correct storage, buy what is needed and when it is needed• take advantage of pack size — larger packs are cheaper per dose, consider sharing with a neighbour or

friend • check length of coverage, a product may be more expensive but offer longer protection, which may make

it more cost-effective, for example buffalo fly tags vs sprays• use products that treat for two or more problems, for example MLs for worms and external parasites.

Tips for animal health budget:• vaccinations — don’t skip the essentials, this is false economy. Five-in-one in young cattle. Seven-in-one,

botulism and pestivirus in females and bulls. Vibriosis and three day sickness for bulls• liver fluke — only drench for liver fluke if it is on the property. Check by blood test or livestock data link• worms — use the appropriate drench for the parasite. Most adult females in good condition do not need

drenching. Use grazing and management to reduce the frequency of drenching (see section 8.78.6)• buffalo fly — consider the most cost-effective means of reducing the impact• tick control— consider management and treatment options.

See: Business management at: Business management and market information webpage (DPI).


See: Setting directions module 1 at: More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA).

10.4 Develop a health and management calendarThis brings together all the plans and budgets for disease and parasite prevention and includes the more important management events.

Some treatment times will be fixed, for example external parasites and liver fluke. Others will be driven by joining and calving dates.

A restricted join to three or four months will streamline handling and treatments and lead to more efficient management. It also gives better economies of scale, particularly for pack sizes for perishable products like vaccine. It means fewer sleepless nights as the calving season is more concentrated. There are fewer musters and handling for vaccination, drenching and calf marking. Another advantage is having a line of weaners for sale, rather than in ones and twos.

The following July calving calendar provides an example of how this can look. Modify the dates with the calving time that you choose.

https://beefspecs.agriculture.nsw.gov.au/



https://mbfp.mla.com.au/setting-directions/

244

JAN

FEB

MAR

APR

MAY

JUN

JUL

AUG

SEP

OCT

NO

VDE

C

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lo fl

y tr

eatm

ent

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ch:

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e

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ove

buffa

lo fl

y ta

g

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are

for b

ull

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join

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3_Da

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s,

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io

boos

ters

.

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pu

t with

co

ws/

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cow

s/he

ifers

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itor f

or

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ws

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et 2

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r

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ders

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nd q

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ty o

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d

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or c

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ems,

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atta

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nd ti

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ow,

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r car

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ners

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lers

)

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ose)

3

mon

ths

of a

ge

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in-1

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ters

,

4-6

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ks la

ter

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k/de

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and

man

agem

ent

tag

245


JAN

FEB

MAR

APR

MAY

JUN

JUL

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OCT

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Heife

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(sec

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mm

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0.8

kg/d

ay

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(wor

ms/

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ct

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ents

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m te

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ch if

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d

Mon

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or

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0.7

kg/

day

246

11. Further information and referencesFurther reading listed alphabetically by document or webpage title. The full web address (URL) is provided for each item, these were correct at the time of printing but may change with time.

A national guide to describing and managing beef cattle in low body condition (MLA 2013): http://www.alpa.net.au/UserFiles/File/Documents/MLA%20Low%20Score%20cattle%20Sept%202013.pdf

Agricultural chemicals webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/chemicals

Agricultural water management webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/water

Algae webpage (DPI): https://www.industry.nsw.gov.au/water/science/surface-water/quality/algae

Animal chemicals webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/chemicals/animal-chemicals

Animal health and welfare webpage (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity

Animal Health Australia website (AHA): https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/

Animal health declarations webpage (FarmBiosecurity): https://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/toolkit/declarations-and-statements/

Animal health surveillance 2007/2 (DPI 2007): http://archive.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/195650/ahs-07-2.pdf

Animal welfare webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/animal-welfare

Apply for a permit webpage (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/i-want-to/apply-for-a-permit

Appraisal webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/appraisal

Assessing the economic cost of endemic disease on the profitability of Australian beef cattle and sheep producers (MLA 2006): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/reports/2007/assessing-the-economic-cost-of-endemic-disease-on-the-profitability-of-australian-beef-cattle-and-sheep-producers/

Australian animal welfare standards and guidelines webpage (AHA): http://www.animalwelfarestandards.net.au/

Australian Bovine Beef Language White Paper (MLA 2016): https://www.mla.com.au/Research-and-development/Search-RD-reports/RD-report-details/Market-Information/Australian-Beef-Language-White-Paper/3086

Australian Fodder Industry Association website (AFIA): https://www.afia.org.au/

Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority website (APVMA): https://apvma.gov.au/

Australia’s poisonous plants, fungi and cyanobacteria (R.A. McKenzie 2012): https://ebooks.publish.csiro.au/content/australias-poisonous-plants-fungi-and-cyanobacteria

Beef industry snapshot (Regional Development Northern Rivers NSW 2015): https://ncmc-co.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Beef-Industry-Snapshot-2015-4.pdf

Beefspecs calculator (DPI, MLA, Beef CRC): https://beefspecs.agriculture.nsw.gov.au/

Biocheck webpage (Australian Veterinary Association): https://www.ava.com.au/about-us/ava-groups/cattle/resources/schemes/biocheck/

Biosecurity and food safety webpage (NSW DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity

Biosecurity land manager webpage (Australian Government Biosecurity): https://www.biosecurity.gov.au/environment/land-manager

Body condition score for beef cattle (Future Beef): https://futurebeef.com.au/knowledge-centre/body-condition-score-for-beef-cattle/

Bracken fern (DPI 2010): http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/316261/Bracken-fern.pdf

http://www.alpa.net.au/UserFiles/File/Documents/MLA%20Low%20Score%20cattle%20Sept%202013.pdf

http://www.alpa.net.au/UserFiles/File/Documents/MLA%20Low%20Score%20cattle%20Sept%202013.pdf



https://www.industry.nsw.gov.au/water/science/surface-water/quality/algae




https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/






https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/i-want-to/apply-for-a-permit

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/appraisal


https://www.mla.com.au/Research-and-development/Search-RD-reports/RD-report-details/Market-Information/Australian-Beef-Language-White-Paper/3086

https://www.mla.com.au/Research-and-development/Search-RD-reports/RD-report-details/Market-Information/Australian-Beef-Language-White-Paper/3086

https://www.afia.org.au/


https://ebooks.publish.csiro.au/content/australias-poisonous-plants-fungi-and-cyanobacteria

https://ebooks.publish.csiro.au/content/australias-poisonous-plants-fungi-and-cyanobacteria










http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/316261/Bracken-fern.pdf

247


Breeding webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/breeding

Bullcheck (VBBSE) Scheme webpage (Australian Veterinary Association): https://www.ava.com.au/about-us/ava-groups/cattle/resources/schemes/bullcheck/

Business management and market information webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/management

Calf scours webpage (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/diseases/infectious/calf-scours/

Cattle Assessment Manual (MLA 2017): https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/prices--markets/documents/minlrs-information-brochures-etc/mla_cattle-assessment-manual_jan-2017.pdf

Centre for Invasive Species Solutions website (Centre for Invasive Species Solutions): https://invasives.com.au/

Centre for Rural and Remote Mental Health website (CRRMH): https://www.crrmh.com.au/

Characterisation of the socio-economic landscape of the North Coast region of NSW (EcoLogical, NCLLS 2015): http://northcoast.lls.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/564789/characterisation-of-the-socio-economic-landscape-of-the-north-coast-region-of-nsw.pdf

Chemical accreditation, AQF-3 webpage (Chemcert): https://www.chemcert.com.au/

Coccidiosis webpage (MLA) https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/coccidiosis/

Commodity Vendor Declaration (MLA 2014): https://www.mla.com.au/globalassets/mla-corporate/meat-safety-and-traceability/documents/commodity-vendor-declaration.pdf

Conditions of forest permit: grazing (Forestry Corporation 2019): https://www.forestrycorporation.com.au/about/permits2

Considerations before buying rural land (DPI 2018): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/lup/development-assessment2/precautions

Declarations and statements webpage (Farm Biosecurity): http://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/toolkit/declarations-and-statements/

Drought webpage (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/drought

Droughthub portal (NSW Government): https://droughthub.nsw.gov.au/

Earning community trust in agriculture webpage (Australian Government GRDC): https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grdc-update-papers/tab-content/grdc-update-papers/2019/02/earning-community-trust-in-agriculture

Emergency and biosecurity webpage (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/emergency-and-biosecurity

Key emergency animal diseases webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/your-role-in-biosecurity/veterinary-professionals/key-emergency-animal-diseases

Emergency and biosecurity webpage (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/emergency-and-biosecurity

Emergency management webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/climate-and-emergencies/emergency

Environment energy and science website (NSW Government): https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/

European Union cattle accreditation scheme webpage (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment): https://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/meat/elmer-3/eucas

Exporting organic and bio-dynamic products webpage (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment): http://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/organic-bio-dynamic

Factors affecting meat quality webpage (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/meat-standards-australia/factors-affecting-eating-quality/











https://www.crrmh.com.au/



https://www.chemcert.com.au/







http://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/toolkit/declarations-and-statements/

http://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/toolkit/declarations-and-statements/

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/drought












http://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/organic-bio-dynamic



248

Farm Biosecurity website (Farm Biosecurity): www.farmbiosecurity.com.au

Farm biosecurity plan webpage (AHA): https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/better-on-farm-biosecurity/

Farming webpage (Safework NSW): https://www.safework.nsw.gov.au/your-industry/agriculture,-forestry-and-fishing/farming

Feeding and nutrition webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/feed

FeedSafe Accredited Feed Manufacturer website (Stock Feed Manufacturers Council of Australia): https://www.sfmca.com.au/integrity-systems

Field crops and pastures webpage (DPI Tocal): https://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/publications/field-crops-and-pastures

Fire plan and prepare webpage (RFS): https://www.rfs.nsw.gov.au/plan-and-prepare

Flock and Herd website (Flock and Herd): http://www.flockandherd.net.au

Flood webpage (SES): https://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/disaster-tabs-header/flood

Floodplain grazing project webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/soils/ass/posters/floodplain-grazing-project

Fodder production and animal nutrition webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/dairy/feed

Fodder vendor declaration form (Australian Fodder Industry Association Ltd 2017): https://www.afia.org.au/files/2017Vendor_Declaration_Form.pdf

Forage and fodder crops webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/forage-fodder

Genetic testing webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/about-us/services/laboratory-services/veterinary/genetic-testing

Grazplan Decision Support Software for Agriculture (CSIRO): https://grazplan.csiro.au/

Green cestrum (DPI 2008): http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/235408/Green-cestrum.pdf

Growing, grazing and land webpage (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/growing,-grazing-and-land

Guide to managing risks in cattle handling (Safe Work Australia 2016): https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/guide-managing-risks-cattle-handling

Hand feeding cattle in drought (DPI 2016): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/climate-and-emergencies/droughthub/information-and-resources/hand-feeding-cattle-in-drought

Health and disease webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/health-and-disease

Heat stress and nutrition (Qld Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2014): https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/agriculture/animals/dairy/nutrition-lactating-cows/heat-stress-nutrition

Heritage NSW webpage (NSW Government): https://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au

Husbandry webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/husbandry

Improving the Australian Poll Gene Marker Test (MLA 2020): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/reports/2020/improving-the-australian-poll-gene-marker-test

Industry evaluation and use of the buffalo fly tunnel trap final report (MLA 2006): https://www.mla.com.au/contentassets/5398c13604c74808afa6299c0f0b8874/nbp.322_final_report.pdf

Integrity Systems website (Integrity Systems): https://www.integritysystems.com.au/

http://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au







https://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/publications/field-crops-and-pastures

https://www.rfs.nsw.gov.au/plan-and-prepare

http://www.flockandherd.net.au

https://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/disaster-tabs-header/flood



https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/dairy/feed

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/dairy/feed

https://afia.org.au/

https://afia.org.au/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/forage-fodder




http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/235408/Green-cestrum.pdf




https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/climate-and-emergencies/droughthub/information-and-resources/hand-feeding-cattle-in-drought

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/climate-and-emergencies/droughthub/information-and-resources/hand-feeding-cattle-in-drought







https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/reports/2020/improving-the-australian-poll-gene-marker-test

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/reports/2020/improving-the-australian-poll-gene-marker-test



https://www.integritysystems.com.au/

249


Interstate livestock movements webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/stock-movements

Is the animal fit to load? (MLA 2019): https://www.mla.com.au/fittoload

Johne’s beef assurance score (AHA 2020): https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/J-BAS.pdf

Johne’s disease in cattle webpage (AHA): https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/johnes-disease/

Key emergency animal diseases webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/your-role-in-biosecurity/veterinary-professionals/key-emergency-animal-diseases

Kikuyu poisoning in livestock (Western Australian Government): https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/livestock-biosecurity/kikuyu-poisoning-livestock

Laboratory Services webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/about-us/services/laboratory-services

Landcare NSW website (Landcare NSW): https://landcarensw.org.au/

Lantana (DPI 2008): http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/256472/Lantana.pdf

Lice webpage (MLA): http://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/lice/

Liver fluke: an essay (Boray, J.C. 2010): https://wormmailinthecloud.wordpress.com/2010/03/29/liver-fluke-an-essay-by-dr-joe-boray/

Livestock Data Link webpage (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/food-safety/livestock-data-link

Livestock health and production webpage (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/livestock-health-and-production

Livestock movements webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/stock-movements

Livestock movements: states and territory requirements webpage (AHA):https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/?s=livestock+movements

Livestock Production Assurance webpage (Integrity Systems): https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/livestock-product-assurance/

Living and working in rural areas handbook (DPI 2007): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/lup/living-and-working-in-rural-areas/living-and-working-in-rural-areas-handbook

Local Land Services website (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/

Managing farm businesses during drought webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/climate-and-emergencies/droughthub/information-and-resources

Managing internal parasites in organic livestock production systems (DPI 2014): https://archive.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/518191/Managing-internal-parasites-in-organic-livestock-production-systems.pdf

Meat and Livestock Association website (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/

Meat Standards Australia webpage (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/marketing-beef-and-lamb/meat-standards-australia/

Merck Veterinary Manual website (Merck Manuals): https://www.merckvetmanual.com/

More beef from pastures online manual webpage (MLA): https://mbfp.mla.com.au/

My fire plan website (NSW Government, RFS): https://www.myfireplan.com.au/

National Arbovirus Monitoring Program webpage (AHA): https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/what-we-do/disease-surveillance/national-arbovirus-monitoring-program/



https://www.mla.com.au/fittoload



https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/livestock-biosecurity/kikuyu-poisoning-livestock

https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/livestock-biosecurity/kikuyu-poisoning-livestock



http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/256472/Lantana.pdf

http://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/lice/

http://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/lice/

https://wormmailinthecloud.wordpress.com/2010/03/29/liver-fluke-an-essay-by-dr-joe-boray/

https://wormmailinthecloud.wordpress.com/2010/03/29/liver-fluke-an-essay-by-dr-joe-boray/








https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/climate-and-emergencies/droughthub/information-and-resources

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/climate-and-emergencies/droughthub/information-and-resources



https://www.mla.com.au/





https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/what-we-do/disease-surveillance/national-arbovirus-monitoring-program/

https://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/what-we-do/disease-surveillance/national-arbovirus-monitoring-program/

250

National Cattle Health Declaration (Farm Biosecurity 2018): https://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/NATIONAL-CATTLE-HEALTH-DECLARATION_nonfillable.pdf

National Livestock Identification Database Information website (NLIS): https://www.nlis.com.au/NLIS-Information/

National Livestock Identification System website (Integrity Systems): https://www.integritysystems.com.au/identification--traceability/national-livestock-identification-system/

National standard for organic and bio-dynamic produce (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment 2016): https://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/organic-bio-dynamic/national-standard

National Vendor Declarations webpage (Integrity Systems): https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/national-vendor-declaration-nvd/

National Wild Dog Action Plan website (National Wild Dog Action Plan): https://wilddogplan.org.au/

North Coast Local Land Services resources webpage (NCLLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/articles,-plans-and-publications

North Coast Local Land Services website (NCLLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast

North Coast Weeds Advisory Committee website: http://northcoastweeds.org.au/

NSW Department of Primary Industries website (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/

NSW Invasive Species Plan 2018 - 2021 (DPI 2018): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/strategy/strategies/nsw-invasive-species-plan-2018-2021

NSW Legislation website (NSW Government): https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/

NSW Mental Health line webpage (NSW Health): https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/mentalhealth/Pages/mental-health-line.aspx

NSW Rural and Remote Health Services webpage (Healthdirect): https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/new-south-wales-rural-and-remote-health-services

Nutrient requirements of domesticated ruminants (CSIRO 2007) ebook: https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/5688

ParaBoss website (ParaBoss): https://www.paraboss.com.au/

Pasture dieback webpage (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/Grazing-pasture-management/pasture-dieback/

Pasture Fed Cattle Assurance Scheme website (PCAS Pasturefed): http://www.pcaspasturefed.com.au/

Pastures and rangelands webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands

Pest animals in NSW webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/pest-animals-in-nsw

Pests, weeds and diseases webpage (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/pests,-weeds-and-diseases

Plantnet NSW flora online (Royal Sydney Botanical Gardens): https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/floraonline.htm

PREgCHECK (NCPD) Scheme webpage (Australian Veterinary Association): https://www.ava.com.au/about-us/ava-groups/cattle/resources/schemes/pregcheck/

Priority list of endemic diseases for the red meat industries (GHD & MLA 2015): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/search-rd-reports/final-report-details/Animal-Health-and-Biosecurity/Priority-list-of-endemic-diseases-for-the-red-meat-industries/2895

Property risk assessments webpage (LPA): https://www.integritysystems.com.au/on-farm-assurance/property-risk-assessments/

Prussic acid poisoning in livestock (DPI 2007): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/sheep/health/other/prussic-acid-poisoning



https://www.nlis.com.au/NLIS-Information/

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/identification--traceability/national-livestock-identification-system/

https://www.integritysystems.com.au/identification--traceability/national-livestock-identification-system/




https://wilddogplan.org.au/

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/articles,-plans-and-publications

https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/regions/north-coast/articles,-plans-and-publications


http://northcoastweeds.org.au/

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/



https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/



https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/5688



http://www.pcaspasturefed.com.au/


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/pest-animals-in-nsw




https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/search-rd-reports/final-report-details/Animal-Health-and-Biosecurity/Priority-list-of-endemic-diseases-for-the-red-meat-industries/2895





251


Raw milk advice to consumers (Food Authority NSW 2018): https://www.foodauthority.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/_Documents/foodsafetyandyou/raw-milk-advice.pdf

Recommendations for integrated buffalo fly control (MLA 2011): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/flies/

Recommended basic livestock handling webpage (Grandin T): http://www.grandin.com/behaviour/principles/principles.html

Responsible pet ownership webpage (Office of Local Government): https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/public/dogs-cats/responsible-pet-ownership

Selection for resistance to fungal diseases and other desirable traits in kikuyu grass (Cenchrus clandestinus) (Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales (2021) Vol. 9(1):60–69): https://www.tropicalgrasslands.info/index.php/tgft/article/view/815

Soils webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/soils

Stringhalt in cattle webpage (Australian Brahman Breeders’ Association Ltd): http://www.brahman.com.au/technical_information/general/stringhaltInCattle.html

Successful silage topfodder manual (DPI and Dairy Australia 2004): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/silage/silage/successful-silage

Swill feeding (DPI 2019): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/pigs/pig-nutrition/swill-feeding

The Australian poll gene marker test (CRC Beef): http://www.beefcrc.com/documents/publications/fact-sheets/FS01-TheAustralianPollGeneMarkerTest.pdf

The Cattle Parasite Atlas (MLA 2005): https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/Animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/Parasites/Cattle-parasite-atlas

Tick fever in Australia (Business Queensland): https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/livestock/cattle/managing-tick-fever/tick-fever

Tools and calculators webpage (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/extension-training-and-tools/tools-calculators/

Tropical forages website (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research): https://www.tropicalforages.info/text/intro/index.html

Veterinary handbook for cattle, sheep & goats website (Livecorp, MLA 2020): http://www.veterinaryhandbook.com.au

Warts on cattle webpage (Business Queensland): https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/livestock/animal-welfare/pests-diseases-disorders/warts-on-cattle

Waste webpage (Environmental Protection Authority): https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/waste

Water NSW website (Water NSW): https://www.waternsw.com.au/

Water Quality Australia (Australian Government): https://www.waterquality.gov.au/

Water quality webpage (NSW DPI): https://www.industry.nsw.gov.au/water/science/surface-water/quality

Water weeds in NSW webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/weed-categories/water-weeds/water-weeds

Weaning webpage (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/weaning

Weeds resources webpage (Rous County Council): https://rous.nsw.gov.au/weed-resources

Weeds website (NSW DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds

Weedwise NSW webpage (DPI): https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/



https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/flies/

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/parasites/identification/flies/



https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/public/dogs-cats/responsible-pet-ownership

https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/public/dogs-cats/responsible-pet-ownership






https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/silage/silage/successful-silage

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/silage/silage/successful-silage

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/pigs/pig-nutrition/swill-feeding



https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/Animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/Parasites/Cattle-parasite-atlas

https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/Animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/Parasites/Cattle-parasite-atlas






http://www.veterinaryhandbook.com.au

http://www.veterinaryhandbook.com.au




https://www.waternsw.com.au/

https://www.industry.nsw.gov.au/water/science/surface-water/quality




https://rous.nsw.gov.au/weed-resources



252

Welfarecheck webpage (Australian Veterinary Association): https://www.ava.com.au/about-us/ava-groups/cattle/resources/schemes/welfarecheck/

What we do webpage (LLS): https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/what-we-do

Wild Dog Management Strategy (DPI 2017): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/legislation/state-strategies/management-strategy

Yards and equipment webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/equip

Yard weaning methods for preparing feeder cattle (MLA): https://www.mla.com.au/weaning

Zoonoses: animal diseases transmissible to humans (DPI 2017): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/humans/general-information/zoonoses-transmission

Zoonoses webpage (DPI): https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/humans

Zoonoses webpage (NSW Health): https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/Pages/zoonoses.aspx




https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/legislation/state-strategies/management-strategy

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/legislation/state-strategies/management-strategy

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/animals-and-livestock/beef-cattle/equip


https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/humans/general-information/zoonoses-transmission

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/humans/general-information/zoonoses-transmission

https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/humans

https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/Pages/zoonoses.aspx

BEEF CATTLE HEALTH AND HUSBANDRYFOR THE NSW NORTH COAST

6th edition

Phil Kemsley, District Veterinarian LismoreNathan Jennings, Senior Land Services Officer (Agricultural Advice)

www.lls.nsw.gov.au

www.lls.nsw.gov.au

Beef cattle health and husbandry for the NSW

North Coast

6th edition

NCLSS_NC_BCHH-2021-COVER_Final.indd 1NCLSS_NC_BCHH-2021-COVER_Final.indd 1 18/08/2021 10:57:54 AM18/08/2021 10:57:54 AM