Becoming a Teacher by Frances Fuller & Oliver Bown (1975)

CHAPTER II

Becoming a Teacher*

FRANCES F. FULLER AND OLIVER H. BOWN

Introduction

The empirical literature yields a disturbing conclusion about the experience of learning to teach. Becoming a teacher is complex, stressful, intimate, and largely covert, but in accomplishing this demanding task teachers do not feel helped by teacher education. What laymen, legislators, and education students have been claim­ing for decades may be true: teacher education is orthogonal to the teacher.

In this chapter both the context of learning to teach and the teacher's perceptions of that task will be discussed, as both are important to an understanding of the experieRce of becoming a teacher. First, the context will be briefly examined: the peer con­text and some characteristics of teachers in preparation; the teacher educator context and some characteristics of teachers of teachers; the client context-parents, pupils, and institutional clients of teachers; and the research context. Second, the discussion will turn to the experience of becoming a teacher: early experiences, motiva­tions for entering teaching, developmental tasks and concerns, and processes of change during preservice and early in-service experi­ence.

The emphasis will be upon empirical evidence whenever that is available, using as a principal source a review of some three hun-

• The research upon which this chapter is largely based was supported in part by the U.S. Office of Education, Contract no. OE 6-Io-IoS and the Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, University of Texas.

The authors wish to achnowledge the contributions of Brad Manning and Beulah Nawlove and the assistance of Susan Madden, Donna Buntain, and Gerald W eiskott.

BECOMING A TEACHER

dred studies.1 Relatively little systematic work has been done, how­ever, and some reports are suspect because teachers are loathe to report their feelings. Iannaccone describes a student teacher who could not produce a half-page diary daily because she thought she was not supposed to report feelings like "horror" at the procedures used by her supervising teacher. When you cannot say what is on your mind, it is hard to say anything at alP

The task of exploring the teacher's life space is impeded also by lack of standard terminology, defective instrumentation, and limited conceptualization. The life space of the teacher is prob­ably a multidimensional space, but few points in it have been lo­cated, labeled, and related. Consequently, the nomological net de­scribed here will have many holes.

Nevertheless, an understanding of the teacher's life space can give teacher educators access to the motivation of prospective teachers. It can also contribute to the research enterprise. The re­search question is not, "Does teacher education do any good?" but· rather, "What kinds of interventions by what kinds of interveners in what contexts elicit what responses from which subjects?" Speci­fication of subject variables is crucial when, as in education, inter­ventions which contribute to particular goals for particular learners need to be identified. It appears that few teacher education inter­ventions do that now. Perhaps most important to the education of pupils is the potential contribution of an understanding of the teacher's life space. If we understand that life space, we may learn to help the teacher change it for the pupil's benefit. Teachers are metaphors, not merely models. They are parts which stand for wholes, symbols which stand for realities, texts which are reified. The teacher's most important role may be as a metaphor for hu­manity-or inhumanity. What the teacher is, as a person, may represent, for good or evil, educated people, virtue, life beyond the barrio, or one's own future grown-up self.

1. Frances F. Fuller, "The Experience of Teacher Education: An Empirical Review and Conceptualization," (Austin, Texas: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, University of Texas, 1974).

2. Laurence Iannaccone, "Student Teaching: A Transitional Stage in the Making of a Teacher," Theory into Practice 2 (April 1¢3): 73-81.

FULLER AND BOWN

The Personal Context of Becoming a Teacher Many aspects of the context of becoming a teacher are dis­

cussed in other chapters of this book: the history of teacher edu­cation and its institutions, its roots, knowledge bases, problems, and procedures. Here we will look briefly only at the personal context of teacher education, the people who directly impinge upon the neophyte: peers, teacher educators, and clients.

THE TEACHER/TEACHER CONTEXT: TEACHER I ~

TEACHER 2 ~ TEACHER 3 A rose is a rose is a rose is a rose, but not so for teachers.

Teaching is a "mixed bag," and teachers are a heterogeneous lot. At first glance teachers seem homogeneous, fitting a traditional

image: hard-working, kindly, and altruistic but less bright, more conforming, less competitive, and even less intellectually active than other professional persons. However, teachers are changing. The new teacher is younger and less experienced, but better quali­fied. Still typically a female, more and more of her colleagues are males. She has higher economic status, and is now more likely to come from a professional family background and to have an ad­vanced degree. She expresses more commitment to teaching and is more likely to teach continuously with no breaks in service. She is geographically more mobile and is less likely to identify with her community or to live within the boundaries of the school sys­tem. This broad characterization, however, covers a multitude of group and individual differences.

Males and females. In the past, career patterns of men and women were different, and the processes of becoming a teacher and remaining a teacher were different for men and women. How­ever, these differences have decreased as women have become better qualified and are more likely to teach continuously. Now there may be three distinct sex/age groups among teachers. Older fe­male teachers comprise one group. They have higher social-class origins but less preparation, less commitment, and more interrupted service than older men, even though they are improving their cre­dentials and those entering teaching are better qualified. Younger male and female teachers comprise a second group. They have

28 BECOMING A TEACHER

higher social-class origins, better preparation, and more commit­ment than teachers in the past. Older males, including the adminis­trators to whom young teachers report, comprise a third group. They have lower social-class origins than the other two groups, less commitment to teaching per se, and are likely to have entered the profession to become administrators rather than to remain teachers.

All in all, differences may now be sharpest not between males and females but between younger teachers (male and female) and male administrators. Older female teachers may function as a sort of bridge between administrators and young teachers. This may be one reason why, as we shall see later, young teachers look to older teachers for assistance, rather than to supervisors.

Levels and specializations. Teachers seem to select themselves on common criteria for different populations of students. For ex­ample, elementary and early childhood teachers are warmer, more hopeful, more supportive, and less critical than secondary teachers. They are more exhibitionistic, more orderly, more dependent, less bright, and more consistent in their views than secondary teachers. Elementary teachers are more directive and teacher-centered than those at the secondary level. Secondary teachers encourage pupils' self-actualization, while primary teachers encourage dependence. Even teachers; in various subject matter groups differ in background and personal characteristics.

Teacher self-selectioo. Entrants into teaching apparently select themselves for different programs. This selection seems remarkable in three ways.

First, the selection criteria seem fairly similar within groups since subgroups of teachers are relatively homogeneous. Second, selection on these criteria is apparently done by the neophytes themselves since teacher education programs by and large do not select candidates systematically on the basis of personal criteria. Third, this selection seems astonishingly efficient in that the few self-selection criteria on which information is available seem, in­tuitively at least, so well related to the special demands and satisfac­tions of the varying situations. For example, elementary teaching seems to provide opportunities for exhibitionism-for exaggerated poses, gestures, and pronunciation-whereas such behavior is much

FULLER AND BOWN

less likely to be rewarded in high school. Elementary majors are found to be more exhibitionistic than secondary majors. Per­haps teachers are selecting themselves for situations in which they perform best. Such self-satisfaction certainly deserves investigation. Perhaps as Polanyi would say, they know more than they can tell-or even more than they know they know.3 Certainly they know more than we know they know.

The teacher peer context. Teachers in a single school at a par­ticular grade level probably have a good deal in common. They may be a strong in-group into which neophytes are assimilated. Administrators are not just doing a different job, but they are dif­ferent in their pasts and futures.

Teachers not only select themselves. As we shall see later, they also teach one another how to teach. At least they believe they do. Under such conditions, formal teacher education could be seen as a sort of fiddler crab dance, a ritual parallel to, but essentially irrelevant to, the real business of learning to teach. That, many teachers believe, they do themselves.

THE TEACHER EDUCATOR CONTEXT

Education faculty. Teacher educators have, by and large, humble social-class origins and low status in comparison with their aca­demic colleagues. They more often hold paying jobs while work­ing toward a degree, enter the faculty later, perhaps with the Ed.D, and so are less likely to have acquired the scholarly credentials valued by academicians. Their work is likely to be conative rather than the cognitive pursuits esteemed by other faculty. Worst of all, the knowledge base of education is considered by academicians to be largely exogenous. These personal and occupational differences compound the historical problems of status experiencd by nor­mal schools turned colleges of education.

At the same time, education ,faculty are more "emergent" in their orientation toward education, whereas public school person­nel are more "traditional." Neophyte teachers who are caught in the crack between the "emergent-oriented" college professor and

3· Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 11)66), p. 4·

30 BECOMING A TEACHER

the more traditional supervising teacher may well experience some dissonance.

Public school teacher educators. It is not surprising then to find that teachers, both during their preparation and in later years, report that the part of teacher education administered by the edu­cation faculty is the least effective part of their preparation. Typ­ical of much teacher opinion is the statement of the 1973 National Teacher of the Year, who, in White House ceremonies, expressed himself thus:

I went to college in 1946-49, and I realize a great many changes have been made since then. But, I honesdy feel that the first two years of general education helped me more than the theory classes in education. I learned a lot from my general college education which put [sic] me in good stead when I began teaching. With some education classes, I felt that, if you had one, you had them all .... 4

Public school teachers, especially those who supervise education students, may well communicate these negative opinions to their charges.

The triadic interaction. The relationship of the student teacher, cooperating ~eacher, and college supervisor is complex. The stu­dent teacher has relatively little influence on this relationship. At the same time, a grade in the student teaching course or a recom­mendation are crucial for the student teacher. Especially dependent upon such evaluation are the many upwardly striving student teachers who are likely to have strong needs and few credentials. Not surprisingly, these high stakes and low influence produce great stress in many developing teachers.

THE CLIENT CONTEXT

The client of the school, and thus of the teacher, is the whole of society. The institutional clients of the school include every power base: the family, the business and economic community, the artistic, literary, intellectual, and scientific community, the military, the religious community, and government itself.

Society as client. On the one hand, society's formal goals for

4· Mildred A. Smaardyk, "Teacher of the Year: Ensworth Outlines Quali­ties of Good Teacher," American Association of Colleges for Teacher Educa­tion Bulletin z6 (May 1973): 1.

FULLER AND BOWN 31

teachers are high but somewhat vague. Standards are, in fact, so variable that an important skill for the teacher new to a community is that of sensing its values and modifying one's teaching accord­ingly. If that cannot be done, one must be one's own most sophisti­cated employment counselor.

In any case, no one knows precisely how to accomplish these lofty goals. Teachers are required to solve, on the front line of the classroom, problems that scholars debate. In the words of one teacher describing "experts," "\-Vhen it comes to specifics, they're like a fire department with an unlisted number."

Dilemmas abound. There is, for example, the teacher role di­lemma. The teacher is supposed to educate each child to his fullest capacity. Bulletin boards should reflect the progress of the chil­dren. Individual contributions are recognized. But to do this, the teacher must retain the capacity to maintain the order implicit in this ideal, to play a role, and even to collaborate with other adults playing roles.6

Yet the teacher is supposed to be himself or herself. In this view, collaboration with adults playing roles is inimical to the de­velopment of the child. For the child to develop as a person, the teacher must be a real person. At the same time, teachers are ex­pected, and want, to stick together. As we have seen, and will see further, teachers have good reasons for sticking together. Sticking together is essential for survival. What, then, does Teacher I do when a student confides that Teacher 2 is prejudiced against him or ridicules him? Suppose Teacher I knows the student is right, but Teacher 2 is popular and powerful. If Teacher I confronts Teacher 2, the risk is high. If Teacher I says to the child, "You're just imagining it," she is denying the child's reality, certainly a per­nicious response.

Another dilemma for teachers arises from the expectation that they will change attitudes and habits, often attitudes and habits de­veloped in the family. But the family is a powerful competitor. Teachers have few of the resources and little of the influence that family and friends of pupils have. Teachers cannot be intimate as

5· Elizabeth M. Eddy, Becoming a Teacher (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1¢9).

BECOMING A TEACHER

family and friends are. For example, children are not permitted to call teachers by their first names, although this is accepted for aunts and uncles. How can teachers, cinched and saddled as they are, redo what has been done in the home to motivation, habits, and entrenched attitudes?

Another example is the innoTative-conforming dilemma. Dur­ing preparation teachers are taught to be flexible and innovative. Later, however, school boards expect that all third grades are going to do and learn approximately the same things, that teachers will not take sides on controversial issues, and so on. So much for in­novative, nonconforming behavior.

There is a great impasse for the teacher when the school be­comes an agent of social change. For example, society wanted eth­nic integration. Did it start by changing housing patterns? No. Schools became the agents of change. In the Inidst of this moral revolution, teachers were on the front lines.

To resolve these dilemmas, teachers need to be 'more flexible than others of their background, education, and social class; more deeply cognizant of the implications of the events in their class­rooms; more realistic and self-transcendent than mere humans; de­pendable rocks of security for the young; and still infinitely toler­ant of ambiguity and uncertainty-a very large order indeed.

Parents as clients. Teachers and parents are, in a fundamental way, competitors. The purpose of the teacher in the United States and in developing countries is to help the pupil rise, even above his parents.

Parents want this too, but their notions differ about what is involved. Parents believe a major function of the teacher is teach­ing the "three R's." Teachers favor the development of social skills. Parent-teacher conferences reflect in microcosm these differ­ences. Perhaps that is why new teachers dread them.

Pupils as clients. Pupils are nonvolunteering participants in the teaching enterprise. Teachers, on their side, are required to accept all comers, although some teachers acquire considerable skill in avoiding problem pupils. Pupils, however, cannot avoid teachers or one another. They have to put up with whatever classmates and teachers are selected for them. Consequently, the classroom is deprived of much of the social and motivational facilitation which

FULLER AND BOWN 33

more or less voluntary participation contributes to other work and social settings. In addition, these sometimes unwilling participants rub elbows in confined spaces. In a phrase, "the logistics are for­midable." 6

At the same time the teacher must make tough value judgments as is vividly and poignantly described by Stephens. 7 These decisions are thought to be made best in the context of a personal relation­ship, a deep knowledge of the child's potentialities and goals.

But such a relationship requires that two people expose them­selves to each other, at least to some extent. As we have seen, self-exposure is not without risk for the teacher, considering the structure of the school, the logistics of the classroom, and the ex­pectations of clients. Formal relationships with pupils are safer. But these formal relationships are disappointing to many new teachers, who hoped to form with their pupils the kind of relationship they wanted with their teachers when they were pupils. Thus another potential reward of teaching is confiscated.

THE RESEARCH CONTEXT

Innovation. Innovation has exposed the teacher and complicated her task. Once upon a time, a teacher could make her mistakes in the privacy of her own classroom, but now team teaching, individ­ually guided instruction, and open classrooms expose her foibles to the world.

Teachers are also victims of changing fashions in theory and research. Such qualities as clarity, enthusiasm, indirectness, task orientation, and the ability to ask good questions and to give stu­dents opportunities to learn are now thought to be desirable.8

Teachers should not be negative, harshly critical, pessimistic, or gloomily dissatisfied.

But even a sophisticated list like this one, culled from many

6. Donald J. Willower, "The Teacher Subculture and Rites of Passage," Urban Education 4 (July 19(59): 105-14.

7· John M. Stephens, The Process of Schooling (New York: Holt, Rine­hart & Winston, 19(57), p. 109.

8. Barak Rosenshine and Norma Furst, "The Use of Direct Obsurvation to Study Teaching," in Second Handbook of Research on Teaching, ed. R. M. W. Travers (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1973), pp. uz-83.

34 BECOMING A TEACHER

studies, cannot be a guide to application. Findings from research are difficult to interpret and apply to teaching. Even innovations based upon good and interpretable findings are looked upon with suspicion by teachers. Perhaps they have reason. Some odd sugges­tions of the past have come and gone, like nudity for teachers as well as children. Many of us are grateful they did not catch on. Teachers are understandably leery of "reforms," which can be dangerous and which are abandoned when support for them lan­guishes. One teacher recalled to us the story of the man who gave his wife a cemetery lot for Christmas. The following Christmas he gave her nothing, and when she inquired about the neglect, he said, "You didn't use the present I gave you last year." Many inno­vations are such eschatological presents. Something tells the teacher not to use them.

Research findings. Researchers tend to discover unflattering things about teachers: that teachers are poor judges of children and of their mental health; that teachers can be fooled into thinking average children are promising late bloomers; that teachers behave differently toward children of different social classes. Rare is the study testing a directional hypothesis flattering to the teacher or even consistent with the teacher's convictions.

No wonder research has little impact on the teacher. She finds it both useless and alien. In discussing the impact of research on education, Clifford observes that the perspective is usually that of the "great" statesmen of education whereas better information might be gained from direct reports from teachers and students.9

All in all, teachers do not feel much helped by research and researchers.10 The research base, an ever present help in time of need for other professions, is not the teacher's friend.

The Experience of Becoming a Teacher The process of becoming a teacher probably begins early.

"Born" teachers in fact may be just that-potential teachers from their earliest years.

9· Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "A History of the Impact of Research on Teaching," in Second Handbook of Research on Teaching, ed. R. M. W. Travers (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1973), p. 4·

10. R. D. Hudelson and E. C. Harris, Report on Education Research (Washington, D.C.: Capitol Publications, 1973).

FULLER AND BOWN 35 THE PRESERVICE EXPERIENCE: EARLY INFLUENCES

Three different conceptualizations of early influences are offered by Wright, by Lortie, and by Stephens.

The psychoanalytic view of Wright is that the choice of teach­ing is rooted in early psychodynamic processes, so that teaching is an expression of early yearnings and fantasies.11 Lortie, on the other hand, holds that early models are internalized and triggered later in teaching.12 Stephens posits two kinds of "spontaneous tend­encies" in teachers, which induce learning even in the absence of any intention to teach.13 These are playful, manipulative tendencies, like interest in some esoteric subject, and communicative tenden­cies to talk, applaud, correct, prompt others, and point the moral. In this view teachers are zealots who are indulged by so­ciety because their subject may have some remote survival value, but whose obsessiveness is controlled by society's hypocrisy: lip service and low pay. Stephens observes that true teachers talk in­cessantly and correct others obdurately. They correct the. errors even of authors long dead! The teacher sees herself as a magician who enjoys the wonderment of others. Perhaps this is what teach­ers mean when they say their greatest satisfaction is seeing a stu­dent's face light up.

If any of these conceptualizations is correct, teacher education is breasting the tide by confiscating the very rewards which led the teacher to choose teaching. For example, Stephens' spontaneous tendency to point the moral is inimical both to indirect behavior and to learning by discovery. If the joy of teaching comes from talking, prompting, and preaching, current fashion is to kill it. The death of joy may be the death of learning as well as of tea~hing. " 'He didn't teach anything,' said Mr. Tweed. 'He just talked. He

II. Benjamin D. Wright and Shirley A. Tuska, "From Dream to Life in the Psychology of Becoming a Teacher," School Review 76 (September H)68); 253""93•

r2. Dan C. Lortie, "Teacher Socialization: The Robinson Crusoe Model," in The Real World of the Beginning Teacher, Report of Nineteenth National Teacher Education and Professional Standards Conference (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, r¢6), pp. 54-66; idem, "Observations on Teaching as Work," in Second Handbook of Research on Teaching, ed. R. M. W. Travers (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1973), pp. 474""97·

r 3· Stephens, op. cit.

BECOMING A TEACHER

was out there to enjoy himself. He made a lasting impression on the boys.' "14

Early experiences. Teachers' early experiences as pupils are ap­parently related not only to choice of teaching as a career but to expectations about teaching, teaching behavior, teaching field, choice of location, and persistence in teaching.

Teachers remember their own experiences as pupils: memories of rejection, of being a pet, of giving a substitute a hard time. Some teachers, in fact, never even leave their own schools. They may attend school, attend a metropolitan college in the same area, do their student teaching at a school like their own, and then return there to teach. Ryan calls it the shock of the familiar. "Teacher education has to change behaviors acquired over many years, re­sponses while in the pupil role. This interferes with new learning. Pupils turned teachers now have to go on red and stop on green." 15

Motivations for entering teaching. Teachers enter teaching be­cause of a desire for upward social mobility, a lack of interest in any other field, and the influence of their elementary and second­ary teachers; because education has value to society, because of an interest in a subject matter field, because of opportunities for self­growth/6 and perhaps because of Stephens' "spontaneous tenden­cies.'' Different groups seem to have different motivational patterns but selection procedure~ do not consider different motivational pat­terns and may even operate to favor students motivated only by expediency.

THE PRESERVICE EXPERIENCE

Concerns of teachers. Three stages of learning to teach have been 'tentatively identified or at least labeled. Different researchers consider the first stage a survival stageP A second seems to be

14. Ibid., p. 6o.

15. Kevin Ryan, personal communication, 1973.

16. National Education Association, Research Division, Status of the Americtm Public-School Teacher, 1970-1971, Research Report 1972-R3, (Wash­ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1972).

17. Frances F. Fuller, "Concerns of Teachers: A Developmental Con­ceptualization," American Educational Research Journal 6 (March 1¢9): 107-26; Frances F. Fuller, Jane S. Parsons, and James E. Watkins, "Concerns

FULLER AND BOWN 37 a mastery stage, when teachers are trying to perform well.18 In the third stage, the teacher may either settle into stable routines and become resistant to change or else may become consequences­oriented: concerned about her impact on pupils 19 and perhaps re­sponsive to feedback about herself.

Whether these really are "stages" or only clusters, whether they are distinct or overlapping, and whether teachers teach differently or are differentially effective in different stages, has not been es­tablished. These stages, if such they are, have been described mainly in terms of what the teacher is concerned about rather than what she is actually accomplishing. However, there seems to be little doubt that the labels describe clusters of concerns and consequently provide a useful means of describing the experience of learning to teach.

1. Survival concerns.-These are concerns about one's ade­quacy and survival as a teacher, about class control, about being liked by pupils, about supervisors' opinions, about being observed, evaluated, praised, and failed. These are concerns about feelings, and seem to be evoked by one's status as a student. Preservice teachers have more concerns of this type than in-service teachers.

2. Teaching situation concerns.-These are concerns about having to work with too many students or having too many non­instructional duties, about time pressures, about inflexible situa­tions, lack of instructional materials, and so on. These frustrations seem to be evoked by the teaching situation. In-service teachers have more concerns of this type than preservice teachers.

3· Pupil concerns.-These are concerns about recognizing the social and emotional needs of pupils, about the inappropriateness of some curriculum material for certain students, about being fair

of Teachers: Research and Reconceptualization," (Austin, Texas: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, University of Texas, 1973); Lillian G. Katz. "Developmental Stages of Preschool Teachers," (Urbana, lll.: ERIC Oearinghouse on Early Childhood Education, 1971); Lortie, "Teacher Socialization"; idem, "Observations on Teaching as Work."

18. Fuller, Parsons, and Watkins, op. cit.

19. John Gabriel, An Analysis of the Emoti01llll Problems of the Teacher in the Classroom (London: Angus and Robertson, 1957).

BECOMING A TEACHER

to pupils, about tailoring content to individual students, and so on. Although such concerns cluster together, they are expressed by both preservice and in-service teachers. This may be because such concerns are associated with characteristics which cut across ex­perience or because in-service teachers feel such concerns more while preservice teachers express more concern about everything than do in-service teachers.

Sequence of concerns. It is also possible to describe dominant concerns of individuals at various stages in the process of becoming a teacher.

r. Preteaching concerns.-Fresh from the pupil role, education students who have never taught are concerned about pupils, that is, about themselves. They identify realistically with pupils, but with teachers only in fantasy. They have not experienced the realities of the teaching role. Education courses which deal with the teach­er's realities seem to them "irrelevant." The identification with pupils manifests itself at the beginning of observation, when they are often unsympathetic, even hostile, critics of the classroom teacher whom they are observing. They have not yet, as one stu­dent observed to us, "g<>~ne over to the enemy."

2. Early concerns about survivaL-At first contact with actual teaching, however, education students' concerns change radically. 20

Their idealized concerns about pupils are replaced by concerns about their own survival as teachers. They are concerned about class control, their mastery of content to be taught, and evaluations by their supervisors. 21 They wonder whether they will ever learn to teach at all. This is a period of great stress.

Stress at this stage is probably exacerbated by constraints in teacher education programs themselves: conflicting value orienta­tions of colleges of education and public schools; complex relation­ships with university supervisors and supervising teachers. Feelings of inadequacy may also be increased by what is taught to teachers. For example, novices may be expected to practice new techniques in their classrooms, such as being indirect, before they are com-

20. Iannaccone, op. cit.

21. Fuller, Parsons, and Watkins, op. cit.

FULLER AND BOWN 39

fortable with more familiar routines like lecturing. Habits of passivity acquired as a pupil may also play a part.

Most intense are concerns about class control. These may origi­nate in the teacher-in feelings of inadequacy, or in dependency, or in plain lack of skill. But the situation, including attitudes of others, is often the culprit, at least in the eyes of teachers them­selves. In fact all the logistics of the class-its size, the involuntary status of students, and variable parental and community standards -make teaching difficult, particularly for a beginner who, in her own words, "isn't even a real teacher!"

3· Teaching situation concerns.-Concerns about limitations and frustrations in the teaching situation, about the varied demands made on them to teach, not just survive, are added on to self-sur­vival concerns. Education students who are teaching now become concerned about methods and materials which were the focus of education courses taken previously. For example, they report fran­tically trying to locate class notes and suggestions made in earlier education courses. They find they learned content well enough in courses to reproduce it on an exam but not well enough to explain it to someone else, to answer questions, or to give examples. These are still concerns about their own performance, their teaching per­formance, not concerns about pupils and their learning.

4· Concerns about pupils.-Preservice teachers express deep concern about pupils, about their learning, their social and emo­tional needs, and about relating to pupils as individuals. But they may be unable to act on these concerns. Flooded by feelings of inadequacy, by situational demands and conflicts, they may have to lay aside these concerns until they have learned to cope with more urgent tasks, such as being heard above the din.

Teacher concerns and teacher education. No one knows what is actually taught in teacher education 22 or whether what is taught is consonant with teachers' needs. However, it seems pretty ~fe to assume that most programs meet the needs of teachers in a se­quence different from the sequence in which teachers feel the needs.

22. Nathaniel Lees Gage, Teacher Effectiveness and Teacher Education: The Search for a Scientific Basis (Palo Alto, Calif.: Pacific Books, 1972),

BECOMING A TEACHER

This is unfonunate because the ch~ces seem good that teach­ing content related to teachers' needs would increase the satis­faction teachers feel, and even their learning. For one thing, pre­ferred material is likely to be reinforcing and so better learned. Even more imponant may be the modeling involved. Teachers may be more likely to consider the motivations of pupils if it is apparent to them that, in their own training, their own needs were considered. Consequendy, an imponant task for teacher education is helping teachers to implement their concerns about pupils since better teaching is probably associated with concerns about pupils rather than concerns about self.23

How can concerns about survival be resolved and concerns about pupils be encouraged? The most obvious remedy lies in the situation: changing the context so that self-concerns are neither generated nor exacerbated by threat, conflict, powerlessness, and unreasonable demands. A second remedy is provision of materials, information, and experiences to resolve self-concerns. For example, providing relevant information and skills may help resolve con­cerns about self. Survival-concerned teachers may need to learn how realistically to "psych out" the hidden reward system of the school. Is the teacher esteemed who stimulates pupil thinking (and pupil noise), or does the praise go to the teacher with a quiet class and exciting bulletin boards? Concerns about class control might be reduced by simulated practice, desensitization, or even by actual situational manipulation. We once "persuaded" a suitable class to be well behaved during the first teaching attempt of a frightened but promising teacher. Microteaching may, as a by-product, per­form this very function. Personal concerns, such as feelings of dependence, may be ameliorated by identifying students' needs early, through personal assessment and by providing counseling for such students and consultation for their supervisors.24 Research

13. Leonard Berkowitz, "Reactance and the Unwillingness to Help Others," Psychological Bulletin 79 (May 1973): 310-17; Elizabeth Prescott, Elizabeth Jones, and Sylvian Kritchevsky, "Group Day Care as a Child-rearing Environ­ment: An Observational Study of Day Care Programs," (Pasadena, Calif.: Pacific Oaks College, 1¢7).

14- Frances F. Fuller et al., "Personal Assessment Feedback Counseling for Teachers," (Austin, Texas: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, University of Texas, 1971).

FULLER AND BOWN

is needed to develop and sequence such content and experiences which address the felt needs of developing teachers as these needs occur.

PRESERVICE PROCESSES OF CHANGE

Despite the need for theory building and conceptualization of the processes of change during teacher preparation,25 adequate theories are still not available. One important reason has already been mentioned: too little is known about what actually goes on during teacher preparation. The general experimental literature on behavior change offers some clues and has generated a framework which is not inconsistent with research on behavior change in teacher education.26 In this section we shall include some obser­vations about research based on the literature on change in educa­tion students during preservice preparation. Then this relatively scanty information will be cast into the larger framework of the research on behavior change generally in order to generate some hypotheses about processes of change during preservice experience.

Research in teacher education. Empirical findings about the efficacy of teacher education are mixed.27 A few positive changes have been observed. Education students have been found to be­come more likely to recognize individual differences among pupils, to have more positive attitudes toward young people, and to be­come more committed to teaching as a career. Most studies, how­ever, find few benefits and many noxious effects, particularly during student teaching. Student teachers become more impersonal; more negative, rigid and authoritarian; 28 and change from a hu-

25. Gage, op. cit.

26. Frances F. Fuller, "Teacher Education and the Psychology of Behavior Change," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Aisociation, Montreal, Canada, August, 1973.

27. Robert F. Peck and James A. Tucker, "Research on Teacher Educa­tion," in Second Handbook of Research on Teaching, ed. R. M. V. Travers, pp. 94G-78.

28. S. B. Kahn and Joel Weiss, "The Teaching of Affective Responses," in Second Handbook of Research on Teaching, ed. R. M. W. Travers, pp. 759-l!o4; Harry P. Day, "Attitude Changes of Beginning Teachers after Initial Teaching Experience," Journal of Teacher Education ro (September 1959): 326-28; Wilbur H. Dutton, "Attitude Change of Elementary School Student

BECOMING A TEACHER

marusttc to a custodial approach, stressing bureaucratic order and control. 29 These changes may reflect a shift during student teaching toward the prevailing ethos of the public school.

However, the noise-to-signal ratio is high in research in teacher education. The researcher cannot attend to all variables at once. He must choose one or two variables-the signal he is trying to describe. Many other variables to which he cannot attend-the "noise" of subject and situational variables, for example-may be influencing his results more than his observed variables do. Conse­quently, positive effects of teacher education may exist but not be detected because they are a tiny beep in the noise of the turbulent teaching situation.

Teacher education and the psychology of behavior change. Since insufficient information about its processes is available from research on teacher education, a tentative conceptualization of the preservice teacher's life span has been derived from the experimen­tal literature on behavior change, in order to describe the processes teachers probably experience.30 This conceptualization is graphi­cally represented in figure 1.

One facet of the teacher's life space is her ongoing experience ( e in fig. I). A second facet is her goal (g in fig. I). The dis­crepancy between these two, represented by the left side of the triangle, is the difference between what she feels she is doing and what she wants to do, that is, her satisfaction with herself.

Teachers and Anxiety," Journal of Educational Resetrrch 55 (May rg62): 38o-82; M. N. Gewinner, "A Study of the Results of the Interaction of Student Teachers with Their Supervising Teachers during the Student Teach­ing Period" (doctoral dissenation, Mississippi State University, rg68); A. Harrison, Jr., "An Analysis of Attitude Modifications of Prospective Teach­ers toward Education before and after a Sequence of Teacher Preparation Experiences" (doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma, 1¢7); and FJmer B. Jacobs, "Attitude Change in Teacher Education: An Inquiry into the Role of Attitudes in Changing Teacher Behavior,'' Journal of Teacher Education 19 (Winter 1g68): 410-15.

:g. Wayne K. Hoy, "Organizational Socialization: The Student Teacher md Pupil Control Ideology,'' Journal of Education Research 61 (December •967): 153-55·

30- Foller, ''Teacher Education and the Psychology of Behavior Change;" Fnnces F. Foller and Brad A. Manning, "SeH Confrontation Reviewed; A ConcepnWization for Video Playback in Teacher Education," Review of ~ Research 43 (November 1973): 46g-p8.

FULLER AND BOWN 43

Teaching, however, involves not just experiencing and goals but also the observations and responses of others: from supervisors, pupils, colleagues, and parents. The teacher's perception of obser­vations about her is represented by the point o in figure 1.

my j!Xperienc-es of myself

i my

goals fo;-myself

my

'-----------------~ ,ebservations

my awareneSS1 realism of myself

Fig. r. A representation of the teacher's life space

Discrepancies between her experiencing and observations about her can be thought of as her incongruence, that is, the difference between what she was seen to be doing and what she felt she was doing. For example, a teacher is told, or sees in a videotape of her teaching, that she is nervous. She says, "But I didn't feel nervous!" This discrepancy is represented by the base of the triangle.

Discrepancies between observations and goals usually take the form of evaluations: How close was what I was observed to be doing to what I wanted to do? I looked nervous, but I didn't want to look nervous, so the discrepancy between what I did and what I wanted to do is large, i.e., my evaluation of my competency is inaccurate.

The experience of becoming a teacher involves coping with all three: with internal self-evaluation ( e-g), with self-observation (e-o), and with external self-evaluation (o-g).

44 BECOMING A TEACHER

Reducing discrepancies seems desirable. If discrepancies be­tween experiencing and goals are reduced, the teacher's experience is closer to her goal and she is better satisfied. If discrepancies be­tween her experiencing and observations about her are reduced, her inner experience and her external performance match more closely, that is, she is more congruent or genuine. If her external per­formance and her goal match more closely, then she is observably doing what she wants to do, that is, she is more self-controlled. So reducing discrepancies is a way of defiR.ing increases in her satis­faction, her genuineness, and her self-control.

What are the processes by which these discrepancies are re­duced? First, experiencing, observation, and goals need to be de­scribed or assessed. Second, the teacher needs to become aware of these descriptions. Third, the teacher must identify discrepancies among them. And last, means must be provided which make pos­sible reduction of the discrepancies.

1. Assessment.-To set the process in motion, someone needs to describe and conceptualize in a meaningful way the teacher's ex­perience, observations about her, and desirable goals. Ideally "some­one" is plural, perhaps a diagnostician, a video camera, and experts in various disciplines, as well as the teacher herself.

2. Awareness.-The teacher must become aware of her experi­encing, of her observations about herself, and of goals whlch are possible for her. In the case cited earlier, she felt calm (ex­periencing), looked nervous (observation), and wanted to look calm (goal).

Of course, this is a simple example. Goals can be far more com­plex: a philosophical stance, some view of man, some model of education. Awareness of important goals may take a lifetime. So too with awareness of experiencing and observation, which ulti­mately is self-transcendence.

Increasing the teacher's awareness (not merely exposing her to information) is an important role for teacher education. Such awareness, both affective and cognitive, is a worthy behavioral objective.

3· Arousal, confrontation, disruption.-On the heels of aware­ness comes confrontation: identification of discrepancies among experiences, observations, and goals. When confronted, the teacher

FULLER AND BOWN 45 becomes aroused, even alarmed, if the confrontation is "bad news."

If she can, she changes the discrepant experience, the discrep­ant observation, or the discrepant goal. If she cannot do that, if the behavior is automatic and entrenched, she may have to deauto­matize it. She finds that when she tries to go on red and stop on green, she does it badly. Her behavior is disrupted. Under such circumstances arousal and even disruption may be worthy be­havioral objectives. Temporary decrements in behavior ought to be expected.

4· Resources, remedies, and change.-Whether change is ac­complished depends upon a multitude of conditions-intrapersonal, interpersonal, and situational. Suffice it to say here that an important role for teacher education, in the view of developing teachers, is the provision of resources and remedies which reduce discrepancies among experiencing, observations, and goals.

A concerns-confrontation conceptualization. The processes of assessment, awareness, arousal, and change can be applied to con­cerns about survival, concerns about teaching, and concerns about pupils. A teacher who is concerned about discipline, for example, can be thought of as scanning the horizon for help. First, she needs to be discovered. Her prepotent need must be identified. Next she needs to become aware of her experiencing, for example, her intra­personal experiencing related to the problem, perhaps a need to be liked and a fear of alienating the class. She needs to become aware of observations related to the problem, for example, timid behavior toward the class or indecisiveness about planning. She needs to become aware of goals immediate or distal which are pos­sible for her. Similarly, she needs to identify discrepancies among her experiencing, observations, and goals, and to be provided with · resources to help her reduce these discrepancies.

THE EARLY IN-SERVICE EXPERIENCE

Pathways to teaching. Induction into satisfying in-service teach­ing may also be complex. For example, the probability is low that the beginning teacher's first job will suit her. The available jobs are likely to be those that experienced teachers want to leave, such as teaching problem classes or in slum schools. In fact, many teach-

BECOMING A TEACHER

ers end up in assignments which do not even correspond to their qualification certificates. 31

The situation is a source of stress, but older teachers help new teachers survive. Eddy poignantly describes this relationship and the practical help older teachers give new ones.32 They tell new teachers to have an assignment on the board when the class arrives in the morning and again after lunch to quiet the class down and give the teacher time to catch up on her clerical work. Older teachers help newer ones with attendance cards and registers and give them support in dealing with the principal. They suggest when to complain and when to bear it. Such help seems much like what neophytes wanted earlier as education students. The con­cerns of first-year teachers may be survival concerns again. In this setting, they may be able to confess their concerns to trusted col­leagues and find help. These crucial relationships are made difficult, however, by scheduling and demands on the teacher's time.

In-service change. The early in-service years may offer the best opportunity for improved teaching, an opportunity soon lost. Teaching effectiveness seems to rise rapidly during the first years of teaching and then to level off 83 or decrease.34 More experienced teachers hold more conservative views, while less experienced teach­ers have more liberal views.35 The teacher who may have the roughest time is the one for whom teacher education "takes," i.e., the teacher who retains the idealistic, humanistic orientation which teacher education attempts to inculcate. Not only is this orienta­tion unlikely to work because it fails to consider the relationship

3 1. Matti Koskenniemi, "The Development of Young Elementary School Teachers: A Follow-up Study," 1¢8, ERIC ED o6o 390·

32· Eddy, op. cit., pp. 101-19.

33· Who's a Good Teacher, ed., William J. Ellena, Margaret Stevenson and Harold V. Webb (Washington, D.C.: American Association of School Administrators, 1961).

34· David G. Ryans, "Prediction of Teacher Effectiveness," in Encyclopedia of Educational Research, third ed., ed. C. W. Harris (New York: Macmillan Co., 1¢o), pp. 1486-91.

35· Donald J. Willower and Ronald G. jones, "When Pupil Control Be­comes an Institutional Theme," Phi Delta Kappan 35 (November 1¢3): 107-9·

FULLER AND BOWN 47

between situational characteristics and child behavior,86 but it runs counter to the prevailing climate of the schooU7 In fact, the best teachers, the most altruistic, committed, realistic, and prepared, may have the hardest time.

Summary and Conclusions

THE CONTEXT OF BECOMING A TEACHER

The early context of becoming a teacher has more room for movement than a straightjacket, but both have mare constraints than resources. The neophyte selects herself without assistance, probably on the basis of obsolete information derived from her experience as a pupil. The sole feedback she receives about the wisdom of her choice is massive: elimination from the program. Even that usually comes so late that retreat is costly. To help her navigate the chasm dividing pupilhood from teacherhood, an in­adequate knowledge base is communicated in a low status prepara­tion program. She gets mixed signals about goals and means from her different trainers as well as from her different clients. The same behaviors are both rewarded and punished by different groups to which she is responsible before she has achieved skills and internal­ized values. Even when the goals are agreed upon, they are lofty and vague. What works may be disapproved. In this demanding, complex, stressful situation, she is relatively powerless.

THE EXPERIENCE OF BECOMING A TEACHER

How do teachers feel while they are learning to teach? They feel stimulated, apprehensive, exposed, endangered, confused, dis­couraged, touched, proud, and lost-not necessarily in that order. Sometimes they feel the thrill of having "reached" a student. Some­times they say to themselves at the end of a lesson, "They got it! I believe they really got it today." Rarely, rarely do they feel autonomous, fulfilled, effective, or even pleased with their teach­ing generally. Rarely is a teacher heard to say, "I'm a good teacher."

36. Eddy, op. cit.

37· Willower, op. cit.

BECOMING A TEACHER

Why is learning to teach so awful? Teaching as conceived in the United States is simply incredibly, unexpectedly demanding. The demands are not mitigated much by skill, experience, or even genius. William James himself said upon his retirement from teach­ing:

l'or thirty-five years I have been suffering the exigencies of being ... [a teacher], the pretension and the duty namely, of meeting the mental needs and difficulties of other persons, needs that I couldn't possibly imagine and difficulties that I couldn't possibly understand, and now that I have shuffled off the professional coil, the sense of freedom that comes to me is as surprising as it is exquisite ... What! not to have to accommode myself to this mass of alien and recalcitrant humanity, not to think under resistance, not to have to square myself with others at every step I make-hurrah! it is too good to be true.as

Teaching is also constant, unremitting self-confrontation. From such a process are saints-and blind men-made. Class "control" is difficult because feedback about herself is impossible for a teacher to deny. Pupils tacitly, if not overtly, let the teacher know what they think, what they learn, how they feel about her. Learning to tolerate, nay to seek systematically, to assess, perceive, and use such information, is the sine qua non of teaching. But truthful feedback can be excruciating.

Fortunately, self-confrontation is now somewhat less painful than it once was. Altruism is "in." Love is "chic." To teach re­sponsively, to interact sensitively, to seek feedback are valued among new teachers. The cultural gestalt is with them. Prospec­tive teachers today are by and large hardworking, conscientious, altruistic people.

Still, teachers are different from one another. These differences are usually recognized by teacher educators but are rarely provided for in the preparation program. Assignments to education profes­sors, to courses, to laboratory experiences, to supervising teachers, are uniform and random, or intuitive, and are rarely tailored to differing needs in an organized systematic way.

Their education professors do not model for education students

38. Jacques Barzun, Teacher in America (Garden City, New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, Doubleday & Co., 1945), p. F·

FULLER AND BOWN 49

the kind of teaching the students are expected to do. Little is taught them that they find helpful. The experience teachers do find help­ful is student teaching, but there they straddle two worlds with secure footing in neither: the child-centered, more liberal orienta­tion of their university supervisor, on one hand, and on the other hand, the content-oriented "three R's" emphasis of the school and its many clients.

Old habits need to be unlearned. Previously smooth perform­ance is disrupted. Many new teachers feel they look even worse than they really are.

Considering these constraints in the situation, the powerlessness of their position, the paucity of their resources, and their inade­quacy as teachers, it is not surprising that prospective teachers are typically anxious,39 and preoccupied with their own survival. As a consequence, they are not prepared to benefit from the very real help which teacher education offers them. They are not able to attend to it. The more they know, the worse they feel. As a de­parting student teacher said to a new one in our hearing, "If you're not nervous, you don't understand the situation."

THE EXPERIENCE OF BEING A TEACHER EDUCATOR

An unparalleled opportunity for research about the experience of being a teacher educator needs to be exploited. In the absence of solid information, we can only speculate. The job of educating teachers is enormously complex. When we consider this com­plexity, the agitated state of most prospective teachers, the inade­quate resources available to educate them, and the possibility that teacher education may be fighting natural, spontaneous tendencies of teachers, it is not surprising that teacher education may actually move students away from its avowed goals. Teaching teachers is a bit like trying to repair a speeding automobile in the midst of a bitter argument about how it should be done. More information about how the car runs is badly needed. It might also help if we ran the car to test it, but stopped it for repairs!

39· Thomas J. Coates and Carl E. Thoresen, "Teacher Anxiety: A Review with Recommendations," Research and Development Memorandum no. 123, Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching, April, 1974.

BECOMING A TEACHER

Implications for Action

PRACfiCE

Teacher education is not speaking to teachers where they are. Feelings of anger and frustration about teacher education are typ­'ical among teachers.

Neophytes are clearly concerned about their own survival. This concern needs to be recognized and dealt with. Textbook content should be sequenced to meet this need. So should other experiences. Such sequencing has more than empty "relevance " to recommend it. It may give teacher education access to the motivation of pros­pective teachers.

The experience of becoming a teacher needs to be acknowl­edged for what it is: complex and demanding. Complex, demanding tasks require either low stress in the situation or high-stress toler­ance in the learner. Success in such tasks requires other personal and situational characteristics. The process of selecting teacher candidates and the characteristics of the situation both need to be modified accordingly.

Especially urgent is resolution of the problem of class control, preferably by modifications in the situation. Equally important is independence training for the teacher herself, training in the ability to take risks and to tolerate consequences. Training in these abilities is important not only because the job requires them, but even more because teachers are unlikely to have them.

Personal development, in fact, is an essential part of the teach­er's preparation, and this development needs to consider what most teachers are. For example, the Teacher of the Year for 1973 was probably right when he came out foursquare for content courses. Teachers by and large do not come from homes with libraries and scholarly afterdinner discussions. If teachers do not receive a broad academic background during their preparation, they will not get it at all.

Resources should be offered to help the teacher change as a person: a trip abroad, cosmetic surgery, counseling, or a course in Russian literature might be more welcome-and effective-than some traditional activities. Personal development incorporated into teacher education can help teachers to be happier, to live more

FULLER AND BOWN 51

fulfilling lives, and to be more interesting and more creative.40

Teachers can learn how to form informal but influential rela­tionships with pupils. They want such relationships, and they need them to be influential, but in their rush to "relate" to pupils they often throw their good sense and their high status out of the window. They need to know, for example, that a high-status teacher can admit human error and still be obeyed, but a low­status teacher cannot. In many such matters the teacher needs to be a social psychologist.

The processes actually occurring within the teacher need to be recognized and provided for at the time they occur. The pro­cess now emphasized in most teacher education programs is aware­ness: teachers are helped to become aware of content and method. Even here, the teacher is merely exposed. Awareness is assumed. Little attention is given to other processes: to assessment of ex­periencing, observations, and goals; to arousal through identifica­tion of discrepancies among these; and to reduction of discrep­ancies identified.

The influences to which different teachers are most susceptible need to be brought to bear: the social, emotional, and artistic for the elementary teacher; the social, rational, and divergent for the secondary teacher; and always and everlastingly, feedback on what "works" and what is truly helpful in the teaching act itself, pre­ferably from the person who is making it work. For example, in­service teachers need to become sophisticated teacher educators. Feedback from pupils needs to be systematic. Teachers need to learn to use feedback constructively.

Learning to teach needs to be more rewarding. Now most re­wards are confiscated during preservice experience: intimate rela­tionships with pupils, being the real teacher, and the chance to talk, to moralize, to help, to be personally useful. Experiences which suit the personal characteristics of teachers-in the way that the

40. Frances F. Fuller, Robert F. Peck, Oliver H. Bown, Shirley L. Menaker, Meda M. White, and Donald J. Veldman, Effects of Personalized Feedback During Teacher Preparation on Teacher Personality and Teaching Behavior, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Bureau of Research, Final Report, 1969. Project No. 5-0JII, Grant No. OEJ-IO-QJ2. (Austin, Texas: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, The University of Texas at Austin, 1¢9).

BECOMING A TEACHER

moot court suits the verbal aggressiveness of law students-need to be devised.

RESEARCH

The question is: which interventions by which interveners in what situations elicit what responses from which prospective teach­ers? Each of the variables warrants examination.

Almost nothing is known about teacher education as an inter­vention. For example, which teacher educators are the prime inter­veners? What do teacher educators actually do? Studies of their classroom teaching, of their supervisory conferences, and of their interactions might tell us what interventions are offered.

Both the situation and the work of the beginning teacher need painstaking observation and analysis. Since we do not know now what to tell the teacher to expect, the teacher ought to have an early experience in a natural situation, with all its tacit messages for her. It should be a rewarding experience in a situation tailored to her needs and capacities, an enterprise certainly requiring more knowledge than we now have.

The whole area of teacher education should be recognized as a case of the general class of behavior change: an infant, substan­tively. As such, case studies of usual and unusual phenomena are warranted. But substantive primitiveness does not preclude the use of sophisticated methods. For example, experimental studies of single cases, using systematic observations of behavior for de­pendent measures, may be fruitful. The experimental literature about behavior change offers hypotheses to advance conceptualiza­tion of intrapersonal and interpersonal processes. The appropriate question at this stage of our knowledge is not "Are we right?", but only "What is out there?"

TEACHER EDUCATION

The Seventyfourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education

PART II

By

THE YEARBOOK COMMITIEE

and

ASSOCIATED CONTRIBUTORS

Edited by

KEVIN RYAN

Editor for the Society

KENNETH J. REHAGE

19~75

Distributed by THE UNIVERSITY OF CillCAGO PRESS • CillCAGO, ILLINOIS

The responsibilities of the Board of Directors of the National Society for the Study of Education in the case of yearbooks pre­pared by the Society's committees are ( 1) to select the subjects to be investigated, ( 2) to appoint committees calculated in their per­sonnel to insure consideration of all significant points of view, ( 3) to provide appropriate subsidies for necessary expenses, (4) to pub­lish and di~ribute the committees' reports, and ( 5) to arrange for their discussion at the annual meeting.

The responsibility of the Society's editor is to prepare the sub­mitted manuscripts for publication in accordance with the prin­ciples and regulations approved by the Board of Directors.

Neither the Board of Directors, nor the Society's editor, nor the Society is responsible for the conclusions reached or the opin­ions expressed by the Society's yearbook committees.

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 6-16938

Published 1975 by

THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF EDUCATION

5835 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637

Copyright, 1975, by KENNETH J. REHAGE, Secretary

The National Society for the Srudy of Education

No part of this Yearbook may be reproduced in tmY form 'Without written per11Ussion frum the Secretary of the Society

First Printing, 10,000 Copies

Printed in the United States of America

iv