Beadle, G. (2003) Productivity-Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business NeedsOCR

7/28/2019 Beadle, G. (2003) Productivity-Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business NeedsOCR

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Cambridge UniversityInterdisciplinary Design of he Built EnvironmentMSt Programme

Course Director:Word count:

Thesis

Productivity: Can Existing Office BuildingsProvide for Future Business Needs?

Graham BeadleOctober 2003

Paul Kirby16600


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Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?

Contents1.02.0

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IntroductionOverview of Productivity and Building Related Issues2.1 Definition of Productivity2.2 Measuring Productivity2.3 The Development of Productivity Issues2.4 Present Status2.5 Buildings and ProductivityChange3.1 Changing Economy3.2 Changing Society3.2.1 Home working3.3 Organisational Change3.3.1 Organisational Structure3.3.2 Organisation Management3.4 What Organisations Need from BuildingsThe Effects of Advancing Technology4.1 Advances in Office ITC4.2 What Will ITC Equipment Offer in the Next Ten Years4.3 The Influence of Technology on BuildingsProductivity Research5.1 Individual'5.2 Group5.3 Organisation5.4 FindingsThe Individual's Relationship with the Environment6.1 Psychological Effects on Individual Productivity6.1.1 Arousal6.1.2 Distraction and Overload6.1.3 Fatigue6.1.4 Neurological Research Supporting Donald Hebb's Theory6.2 Elements of the Environment that Affect Individual Productivity6.2.1 Control and Adaptation

6.2.2 Forgiveness6.2.3 Satisfaction and Environmental Factors6.3 Environmental Factors6.3.1 Lighting6.3.2 Windows and Daylighting6.3.3 Temperature and Thennal Comfort6.3.4 Ventilation and Air Quality6.3.5 Noise and Music

6.3.5.1 Noise6.3.5.2 Music6.3.6 Workstations and Space6.3.7 Colour6.4 Summary of Selected Criteria for Individual Productivity

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Contents continued;7.0

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Group Working7.1 Space Planning7.1.1 Gathering Space7.2 Building Space Planning for Knowledge Based Work7.3 Summary of Selected Criteria for Group ProductivityOrganisations8.1 Summary of Selected Criteria for Organisational ProductivityCase Study9.1 Background Information9.2 The Building9.3 "Individual" Productivity Assessment

9.3.1 Artificial Lighting9.3.2 Daylighting and Windows9.3.3 Temperature and Thermal Comfort9.3.4 Ventilation and Air Quality9.3.5 Noise9.3.6 Workstation and Space9.3.7 ControVAdaptation9.4 "Group" Productivity Assessment9.4.1 Building's Plan Form and Structure9.5 "Organisation" Productivity Assessment9.6 Comparison with New Build9.7 Findings from Case Study

ConclusionAppendix A Office Environment SurveyAppendix B The Physical Environments Effect on Group PerformanceAppendix C Description of Work Style CharacteristicsAppendix D Staff Preferences ListAppendix E Patent ApplicationAppendix F Space Planning of a Floor plateReferencesBibliography

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1.0 IntroductionResearch has shown that the re-use of existing building structures offers significant environmental andsustainability benefits due to the reduced need for primary resources 1. However, for office buildings,this is only a viable option if the existing structures can accommodate the needs of future businesses.Traditionally, offices have been demolished and replaced as business organisations' needs havechanged and new technologies introduced, but do today's and future businesses need something morethan what existing structures can offer?The hypothesis proposed for determining if existing office structures can provide for future businessneeds is to consider how well they can provide for good productivity. For many years, organisationshave been trying to improve office productivity, but never more so than with the emergence of theglobal economy where competition with cheaper labour forces around the world is ever increasing,and higher productivity is widely seen as necessary for survival. Some leading companies are nowturning their attention to the buildings in which they work in the search for productivityenhancement 2 3 4 5 6.However, this hypothesis does introduce two complexities. Firstly, the nature of work is going througha phase change due to the rise of the global economy, social developments and advances intechnology. This therefore requires the nature of future business organisations to be established, alongwith their requirements of office buildings. Secondly, there are no guidelines as to what provides forgood productivity, so these requirements have to be established.This thesis therefore establishes what organisations need from buildings by considering the economic,social and technological changes taking place. Then, through reasoning the requirements for goodoffice productivity are established. Which are then applied to a case study building that serves as thebasis of determining if existing structures can provide for future business needs.

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/ Introduction ~/ " ~Social, Organisational Productivity Office Technology& Economic change Present StatusProductivity Research

,ir ,Individual Group OrganisationProductivity Productivity Productivity ~ ~I Criteria I Criteria Criteria

"/ Case Study ~Individual Group Orgall1sationProductivity Productivity ProductivityAssessment Assessment Assessment

1Conclusion-

Figure l . l Structuring of thesis

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2.0 Overview of Productivity and Building Related IssuesThe following section provides background information on productivity and the present status ofknowledge in the subject area, and a view on the scale of influence that buildings have on the overallproductivity of an organisation.

2.1 Definition of ProductivityThere are many definitions of the term productivity available, amongst the most clear and concise ofthese is that proposed by CIBSE7

"The term productivity is generally recognised as being the measure ofan individual's or anorganisation's efficiency at producing products or providing services, normally expressed as aratio of inputs to outputs. The outputs being measured in terms ofquality and/or quantity, andinputs as time or money. Therefore productivity is increased by producing more with the sameamount of resource or producing the same amount with fewer resources."

Organisations generally gauge their productivity in terms of the ratio of input cost to revenuegenerated, as it is one of the few definitive measurement methods and of greatest significance in acommercial environment. Traditionally commercial organisations look to improve their productivityby reducing inputs, for example staff down-time (i.e. through illness, poor equipment), or improvingoutputs through employee training or staff motivation.However as workers' expectations have risen many organisations are now trying to improve theirproductivity by reduced staff turnover through offering incentives such as a good workingenvironment and better career prospects. This has led some experts 8 to criticise the term "productivity"for being too financially orientated. They prefer the term "effectiveness" which is considered toencompass the human elements of organisation's operations, for example:

Satisfaction and commitment among staff Communication and co-ordination among work units Adequate production Mutually supportive relationship with the external environment Ability to sustain performance The importance of individual satisfaction

All of these directly or indirectly affect an organisations' performance. Satisfaction is a very importantissue in its own right. In organisations where staff show high levels of satisfaction, low absenteeismand reduced staff turnover result.2.2 Measuring ProductivityThe measurement of productivity is easily achieved at an organisational level where profit levelsprovide a clear indication of overall performance. Equally, where individuals or groups are producingquantifiable outputs, such as claims processed or calls dealt with, overall productivity levels may bemeasured numerically. However, determining productivity for more complex tasks involving decisionmaking, communication and creativity, is more difficult. Although managers generally know whotheir most productive and talented staff are through casual observations and again overall results. As aresult, organisations are reasonably content with whatever form of productivity monitoring methodsthey use.

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The problem of measuring productivity has prevented progress in the designing of buildings tocontribute to performance because: There is no agreement on the elements that affect productivity. The elements that are chosen are difficult to quantify and rate. All office environments are unique in terms of work tasks and management style. The psychological element of individual personalities and group behaviour.

As a result, most studies in offices are based on staffs perceived productivity (which is perceptionbased)."The problem with using people is that they are difficult to calibrate" (Leaman)

Many of the factors that influence productivity have been the subject of laboratory studies and fieldexperiments, but the results often contrast, as shown below, and the claims made are oftencontroversial.

Table 6 Effect: of envlronmUl.tal c o n d i t i o n ~ on pcr{onnance.Productivby juueMean total downcime du", to poor fi . ilities. " . WII1king toIwailing at fu:

l J l a d > i n ~ :and eopicm

Increased illumiDllDcc from 550 10 noo lUll for B p c ~ b B E l e d workInccerustd iUuminancc from 100 to 1000 IWI for te:JI:ul., plantIntrOduction of up-lighting fOr YO U workLighting n:f\arblsbment in Aircroft productionLigbt.iDll nfurbisb.m.ent in tleaignC11l' oma:Lighting rdurblsbment in drawing officeJOCf'e&\ling DOis e by 10 dB in POlit roomReducing (USiDg I::IU' plugs) 1m industrial weaveJSRcdw.:iog noise in Il88CJIlbly roomInlrodudng Ia)W""lon & A d a m ~ )~ l I )Wilson{'n)

F o ~ ) lVCI'DOD{Jo)Vernon et 1lI1O')ScbWe1sbeimerl Dl)

W y o n ( I ~ l l

Kemp & Dinglef"J)Dorgan & AmIociausa>-)Sr.erUng & s ~ n n g < l I 4 )OSl!!1ro . ( I ~ . I J 3 )Drab et al('"Krener el a1(J2,4p)

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A productivity study conducted by the author on the hottest recorded day (10 th August 2003) showsthe effect temperature has on mental productivity. The air temperature and words written each hourwere recorded and the Figure 2.1 produced. Figure 2.1 shows how the words written per hour (mentalproductivity) reduced with increasing temperature.

300-:I 250.c-l. 200cJl! 150.;:;: 100II )"0- 503: 0

33

11 :0012:0013:0014:0015:0016:0017:0018:00Hour of Day

Figure 2.1 Effect of temperature on mental productivity

3433 I!!::I32 m:v31 c . ~E II )30 CI) .2

- II )29 .!: QjIOU28 0-o27 B26 .525

One may question the validity of these results, but the methodology is similar to most productivitystudies on mental tasks. This serves to show how such studies are subject to interpretationaldifferences and are of questionable validity.

2.3 The Development of Productivity IssuesSince the benefits and methods of enhanced productivity were first recognised in the late nineteenthcentury by F.W. Taylor,' it has been the subject of much research. The first research by Taylorinvolved time and motion studies based on physical activities with the aim of minimising movement.Then in the 1930s the effects of environmental conditions such as lighting levels, temperature and restbreaks on factory workers were studied by E.G. Mayoll. Today, the subject is recognised toencompass not only the physical processes and physiological conditions, but also psychological andsociological issues associated with the mental task and social interaction inherent with office work.The psychology of human behaviour is in itself an immensely complex subject that has arguablyprogressed little beyond Freudian theories of circa 1902 '2 13. We are still no nearer knowing our mindsas well as we know our bodies, as psychologists grapple with the question of to what extent the humanmind is "hard wired". In addition to this are the complexities created by group working andmanagerial methods, which are time, culture and context dependent.This sociological and psychological cocktail is perhaps the greatest reason for there having been littleprogress on any of the subjects associated with productivity, and the reason for many researchersreferring to the subject as being too complex, requiring too many interrelated variables to be taken intoaccount'4. There is even confusion amongst researchers as to what issues affect productivity. Someresearchers fail to identify buildings as having any influence on productivity, as shown in the Table2.215



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Source Paper Factors affecting motivation, job satisfaction and performance

Aronoff and Physical setting, motivation, c a m a r a d e r i e ~ respect, satisfaction with goals,Kaplan trade-offs, expectations and equity.

Arvery et al Locus of o n t r o l ~ neuroticism, affectivity related to job satisfaction, education,age, cognitive ability, socio-economic status, career goals, tasks identity,autonomy, skill variety, feed back, congruence between personality and workenvironment.

Bakke Job satisfaction and requirements, communication system, status, reward, pay,organisational character, identity, knowing job, initiatives, job security,control, pride, and self-respect.

BIackler and Identity, meaning of work, social interaction, responsibility to peer group,Williams goal setting, equity, expectancy, group cohesiveness, peer pressure,

Brown Relation ships with management, relationship with co-workers, responsibility,pride of craft, self respect, status, sense of usefulness and control over work

Sundstrom Responsibility autonomy, pay, job security, relationship with co-workers,promotion, the work, itself, and physical environment.

Table 2.2 The relationship between productivity, motivation and environmental factors

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Productivity: Can Existing Office BUildings Provide for Future Business Needs?

A more holistic and structured view of the issues which affect productivity and performance asproposed by Bartlett is shown below l6 ;

EnvironmentAir quality Lighting

VentilationTemperatureErgonomicsStatus symbols

Aesthetics/Colour

Figure 2.2 Facets of productivity

However, the researchers of these individual elements tend to stay within their specialised circles, andas a result a multidisciplinary approach has never been taken, and no guidance is available to buildingdesigners on the requirements for productivity.

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2.4 Present StatusThe influence that buildings have on organisational performance is seldom recognised by occupiersand rarely acknowledged by designers. This, combined with the complexity of the subject has meantthat there has been very little interest in the subject, and investment in research has generally focusedon very specific issues. This has resulted in some very good individual pieces of work, but none thatprovides designers and organisations with an holistic view of productivity requirements. There is alsoa wall ofconfusion that must be seen through in order to identify the real issues associated withproductivity. This wall been created by businesses that profit form selling products and services toorganisations on the basis of productivity benefits. For companies such as these there is no benefit forthe subject area to be developed.

Figure 2.3 The productivity wall ofconfusion

To this day, there is no obvious theory or model of the office environmen t that can be used bydesigners or organisations to consider the issues that affect workplace performance. This is partiallybecause of the complexity of the subject, but also due to the piece-meal approach taken by manyresearchers, which contributes little to advancing the overall subject.Organisations rarely relate productivity to buildings beyond basic proximity planning. This is hardlysurprising as they are constantly subjected to business pressures and seek improved productivitythrough better management, training and better equipment where large benefits can be more easilygained and immediately recognised. Little consideration is given to the kinds of conditions that affecthuman performance. This is most noticeable in the space planning of many offices.Designers tend to have a rough idea of some of the basic requirements, but these are almost alwaysovertaken by issues such as aesthetics and their perceptions of space and light. Consequently, designsproduced tend to follow fashion rather than function. The design of buildings is a very complex task initself, requiring countless judgements to be made, and priorities set within the confines of a time, costand quality brief. Under such conditions, it is understandable that most building designers follow theirperceptions, particularly as there is a lack of clear advice available on productivity issues.However, through the wall ofconfusion which clouds the issues there are a few individuals who aretrying to break through the layers of complexity by identifying the key issues which effectorganisational performance in buildings. They are:

Adrian Leaman - a social scientist who specialises in the behaviour, attitudes and environmentalconditions of building users, and in design and management problems related to usability



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Francis Duffy - a theorist of the rate of change in building and office space useEric Sundstrom - a psychologist of the physical environmentBill Bordass - a researcher of the application and operation of building services systemsPaul Bartlett - expert on the subject of office facilities useUnderstandably, these people are trying to progress the subject in their individual professionaldisciplines, but there is currently no collaborative effort despite several organisations promoting therequirementl718 19 20, One of the problems with achieving a collaborative effort is the number ofspecialists required and the cost of such an exercise.A research program has jus t begun in America that is investigating the psychological effects onbuilding elements of neurological activity. This may provide a greater insight into the effects ofvarious productivity issues and allow priorities to be set for further research. It is also possible thatnew issues may be discovered2l

2.5 Buildings and ProductivityAlthough it is not known how great a role buildings play in the productivity of an organisation, it islikely to be relatively small compared to other elements. The diagram below shows the likely order ofinfluence. The organisation itself must have the greatest influence, because without it the efforts of theindividuals would not be harnessed. This is followed by the individuals who must be fit and well towork, followed by the facilities, which must be available for operation and up-to-date. The building isshown as having least influence. This may be justified as excellent work can be produced by highlymotivated people under very poor conditions.

ORGANISATIONINDIVIDUAL

FACILITIESBUILDING

INCREASING INFLUENCE

Figure 2.4 Influence of various elements on productivity

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However, the importance of the building's influence on productivity is more apparent when the rate ofchange of each element is considered. I f the building is considered in terms of Francis Duffy's FiveS' s diagram22 with the rates of change shown below, the importance of the building's contribution toproductivity may be said to be raised by its static nature.

Space planning

Skin 30 years

Structure 60 years

Services 15 yearsSpace planning 5 years

Stuff

Figure 2.5 The five S' s and the rate of change diagramThe rate of change of the relatively static elements of the building may be expected to vary from 15years for the services to 60 years for the structure of the building. Whereas an organisation today,which represents space planning and stuff, may be expected to change almost completely within a 5-year period.This raises the importance of building design's contribution to productivity, as it is a long-terminfluence, and identifies a key issue in designing for productivity. The key issue is the design of astatic building, which can provide for the productivity needs of organisations that are, by comparison,very dynamic. This is of particular concern for existing buildings because if they are to provide forproductivity, they must at least be sympathetic to the needs of future organisations. Figure 2.6 showsthe nature of this issue, a dynamic organisation evolving in response to the external pressures ofeconomic and social change and advances in technology, whilst being contained within a staticbuilding.



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TECHNOLOGY

ECONOMY

SOCIE1Y

Figure 2.6 The dynamic organisation and the static building

To determine if existing buildings can provide for the productivity needs of future organisations, theinfluence of the external factors that are forming organisations must be understood.



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Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for FUture Business Needs?

3.0 ChangeOrganisations have always had to adapt to changing economic and social pressures and keep up-todate with the latest technologies, but never before in history has the rate of change being so great, theenvironment so competitive and knowledge so valued. This has caused organisations to adopt newmethods of operation, not only to increase profits but simply to survive. Many organisations todayappear to be under constant reorganisation. Their aim is to become faster at change, free of legacy andflatter in hierarchy whilst adopting more flexible conditions to retain staff. The following sectionsdiscuss the economic, social and organisational changes that are taking place today.

3.1 Changing Economy 23 24 25 26 27 28John Maynard Keynes revolutionised economic thinking during the great depression of the 1930's byrecognising that the economy is not driven by supply but by what people are willing to bur".

"Real GDP does not depend on what can be produced [supply}. Real GDP depends on whatpeople are willinlZ to buy {demand/" (fohn Maynard Keynes)Ever since this time businesses have being competing to provide customers with improved servicesand products at the lowest prices. They have been achieving this for years by employing the latestavailable technologies, developing better processes and cutting staff costs. As transportation andcommunication methods have improved, businesses have been able to spread their nets further to gainaccess to more market places. Similarly, customers are presented with more choice, and competitionbetween manufacturers has further increased.This process of advancing technologies, improving communication and transportation has created theglobal economy we have today. The pressures of globalisation have been growing since the end of theSecond World War, from which time the regulation of world trade has been reducing, mostsignificantly between the late 1970's and early 1980's. The process of deregulatin.g trade is consideredto be the way to liberate underdeveloped countries by improving health and education, andrelationships between countries, so reducing the risk of war. However, in doing this, businesscompetition has become global and is now often referred to as being super-competitive.As water always flows along the path of least resistance, businesses always seek to reduce costs andimprove performance. As we have already seen with manufacturing industries, products are importedand exported all around the world as businesses compete for market shares to maintain profits andproduction levels. Production levels must be maintained to ensure economies of scale are gained frommass production techniques. Through low labour costs and maintaining high production levels and areputation for quality, Japan has cornered the market for mass-produced electrical goods. In contrast,manufacturing in the UK has declined, primarily due to high labour costs. These processes that havebeen taking place among manufacturers around the world for many years is now set to begin in theservices businesses sector, due to the advent of cheap and effective Information technologyCommunication (ITC) equipment which is removing the economic insulating effect of distance.ITC equipment is already enabling services-based businesses in Europe and America to operate ineconomies where labour rates are low and skills are in good and ready supply. Many businesses arenow using this labour for "back office" processing, technical support and even for customer contact inthe case of call centres. India is a particular target for these kinds of workers having 70%unemployment and a supply of over 2 million graduates each year. Labour cost are only 40% of thosein Europe. South Korea, Vietnam, Russia and the Philippines are also emerging to provide similaropportunities despite the inevitable questions about political stability.

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As these lower wage countries and economies develop, they are gaining the skills necessary tocompete directly with higher wage economies, such as the UK and America, for lucrative highlyskilled services sector work. This will inevitably cause the decline, or at least down-scaling, of manyservices business in developed countries as experienced in the manufacturing industry. It is already thecause of rising unemployment and contributing to reduced business confidence in the developedworld, reflected in current interest rates and the existence of deflation in Japan. In some respects, thisdevelopment may be viewed as the start of the balancing of wealth around the world, but it is the highwage economies that are at risk of losing the most, as they must find ways of improving performancein order to maintain their wealth.The changes that have taken place in the manufacturing industry may take place in the highly skilledservices businesses. However, the most significant difference will be the pace of change. It took overtwenty years for a significant change in global manufacturing to occur, but with technology bridgingthe effects of distance, the pace of change in the services sector could to be much quicker.The highly skilled services sector businesses are different to manufacturing businesses in thatperformance is more affected by the individual members of staff rather than the operation of theorganisation as a whole. As this sector of work becomes more competitive, a growing emphasis isbeing placed on the knowledge and abilities of individual members of staff for business success. Asbusiness competition increases the value of knowledge and the marginal benefits it can provide arebecoming increasingly valuable. In the most basic terms, talented staff can save costs through theirintellectual productivity.Although knowledge workers are seen to hold the key to maintaining marginal business benefits, theyare in short supply. Most of the world's knowledge is currently in developed countries and this iswhere the future success of the economy is seen to lie. It is therefore important for buildings toprovide an appropriate working environment for knowledge workers.

3.2 Changing Society'O,3!It is widely recognised that the pressures of working life today are much greater than ever before. Thishas been brought about by the shift in work from manufacturing to the service sector and knowledgework, and the rapid adoption of information and communication technology systems. These have intum brought about increased competitiveness. There has also been a substantial erosion of governmentsupport for both individuals and organisations, who are now clearly masters of their own fate. Addedto this, life in the office has changed dramatically. Masses of staff are no longer employed to completedull repetitive tasks. Technology has created work intensification, the erosion of traditional jobdemarcations and increased workloads. All of which may be much more interesting and potentiallyfulfilling, but it is also a major cause of stress-related illnesses and has eroded the quality of familylife. This is particularly evident when you consider that it is no longer possible for the average familyto live comfortably on a single income.Through this economic and technological progress, a social change has taken place. Individuals arenow free to move between employers and redundancy is nO longer viewed as a threat to livelihood anda source of shame, simply as an inconvenience, or perhaps an opportunity. Similarly, staff who findthemselves dissatisfied with their work conditions will simply seek alternative employment. Inessence, today, "there are no sticks and carrots are everywhere" for skilled workers.Advancing technology is no longer a source of major upheaval as it was during the industrialrevolution. This was when cities developed which severed communities as people left the land. Todaytechnology is viewed as the potential source of reducing many of the problems that it originallyintroduced. The government certainly recognises this and supports the introduction of flexible workingpractices as the way to re-address the work-life balance. Equally, organisations, particularly those that

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employ knowledge workers, realise that happy, stress-free staff are better motivated and producebetter results.

3.2.1 Home WorkingAdvances in technology have enabled home working with full access to all necessary information.The nature of knowledge work being more about results than process means that organisationsdo notinsist that everybody should go to the office every day, unless the job cannotbe done anywhere else orthat strict times should be worked, unless co-ordination is disadvantaged.Remote working with full access to resources is easily achieved with current lTC. The adoption ofremote working can be beneficial to employers, clients, staff, and family life by reducing unnecessarydistractions such as travelling. The diagram below shows the work location model being adopted bysome organisations and individuals.

CLIENT

Figure 3.1 Work location modelThis does raise the question of whether offices will be needed in the future. However, continuoushome working has been recognised to have many negative effects including isolation, lossofmotivation and loyalty, and is therefore not considered a long-term solution". The office serves asmuch more than just a place to work as wonderfully described by Leaman33

"There is occasional talk about the demise of he office which I consider to be, like the death ofMark Twain, wildly exaggerated. On the contrary, the office may well take on a greater socialrole in the rapidly evolving culture. It will become the centre ofoperations for those workerswho are spending an increasing part of here time out of he office. It will ofcourse be a placeof relief, humour, buzz and conviviality. The office becomes the centre of he social activity ofthe corporation; it is the place where people come to meet, and perhaps just talk and catch upon the goings on. It is where the social interaction happens automatically and the synergy ofcorporations happens naturally.This is the hub ofactivity; it is the village market place, surrounded by the business, rewrittenin a new twenty-first century model. This is not a new model, but merely one with an increasedimportance for the office of he future. The canteens become the restaurants, the drinksmachines are replaced by cates, and as much business is done in these areas as on theboulevards ofParis. It is the focus fo r social interaction and communication without which thecompany withers. Al l of his may suggest an office environment that looks more akin to thehome than the office, a place of interaction, community and 'fraternity' ".



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3.3 Organisational ChangeIncreased business competition and the rising importance of knowledge workers is causing businessorganisations to change to become more flexible in structure and in staff working conditions.

3.3.1 Organisational Structure" '5The days when large organisations benefited from their size and self-sufficiency are long gone. Today,organisations focus On their core objectives and out-source for everything else, thereby reducing theirfixed overheads and reducing their loses when there is a sudden change in workload.The diagrams below illustrate the need for organisations to become more flexible'6. The first graphshows a traditional organisation with fixed overheads that grow as the level of work increases.However, when there is a sudden change in workload the fixed overheads cannot be reduced quicklyenough to prevent profits being eroded. The second graph shows the model that most organisations arenow aiming fOLIn this case, the organisation's costs and commitments are designed to vary to matchdemand through flexible leasing and supply arrangements. As the organisation grows it does sowithout legacy, and is in a better position to cope with a downturn in work.

CashFlow

Time

Profit

Loss

CashFlow

Figure 3.2 Need for flexible organisational structure

3.3.2 Organisation Management'7

Profit

OverheadsTime

Knowledge based work is different to traditional office work in that the skills and abilities of the staffare more directly related to the performance of the organisation. This therefore puts the emphasis onorganisations to not only create conditions which are conducive to knowledge work, but also to makesure that high calibre staff are satisfied and retained.

KnowledgeC Manag- Organisa- Hours ofworkers ement lions workbecome styles becomevaluable change moreasset flexible Locationwith staff of workFigure 3.3 Organisational management change

This is not only causing organisations to flatten their hierarchies and share responsibilities amongst alltheir members, but also to empower staff to challenge the status quo and be comfortable in putting

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forward ideas which may lead to advancing the organisation. The kindof management that seems tosuit these kinds of organisations would appear to be more humanistic and organic than mechanistic.Traditional mechanistic styles are most unsuited to the requirements of flexibility and diversity oftasks which knowledge work typically involves. Organic humanistic styles accommodate theserequirements better and can more easily adapt to the changes taking place. Perhaps the only viewcontrary to this one is put forward by Professor Richard Scase, authorof "The Living ZOO,,38. Hebelieves that traditional hierarchies are the only long-term solution39 . Also Professor Price, a lecturerin business at Sheffield University, recently observed that, "business and management theory is todaybroadly comparable to nineteenth century medicine" which suggests little confidence in anytheory4D.One such humanistic "leadership" concept, which is gaining increasing popularity in America,is thatof primal leadership as proposed by Daniel Goleman4 l Goleman postulates, "The task of a leader is toprime good feeling in those which they lead, and through the powersof emotional intelligence inspire,enthuse, motivate and gain commitment from staff'. By this method it is considered that managerslead by example rather than controlling through fear, and evolveto become coaches, helpingindividuals to improve, achieve their aspirations and gain satisfaction from their endeavours. Parallelsmay be drawn between Goleman's leadership concept and thatof Maslow's Motivation theory, wherethe ultimate aim is self-actualisation. Clearly, this also aligns well with human nature and the natureofknowledge work, and creates conditions for success to generate further success.

Direction of Movement

MECHANISTIC HUMANISTIC

Figure 3.4 Changing management styles

3.4 What Organisations Need From BuildingsBusiness organisations have to navigate the rapid economic, social, and technological changes andlook harder to find ways to enhance their performance in super-competitive markets. Thereis anincreasing sense that organisations are striving to make the office they occupy relate better to theirstructure, climate and image, and provide for maximum productivity. There has been a lotofinvestment in lTC, business processes, reorganisation and knowledge management, but little in thebuildings which organisations occupy. As observed by Leaman, "many organisations today arecompletely frustrated by the desperate povertyof imagination in conventional offices, firms areextremely articulate about their organisational features and getno response from a realistic industrymore dead than alive."A few leading companies now recognise that the buildings they occupy are an untapped resource.They realise that the building, and amenities within, are not only a means of impressing clients, butalso serve as a way of attracting and retaining the best staff. They are a methodof changing the cultureof an organisation, a tool for implementing management strategies and a facility for stimulatingworkers. As Duffy states: "The pressure is now on for every organisation to occupy flexible highvalue space that promotes a sense of motivation and co-operative interaction among staf1"2".



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The ideal design forms characteristic of offices prior to the 1960s have now been superseded. Rightlyor wrongly, the current trend in office design is towards intensification and diversification of buildinguse with much greater attention given to:

The adoption of new technologies Growing emphasis on team working Flexibility and adaptability of space use Aesthetics from an organisational and staff perspective The office being the hub of activity rather than the sole location Designing to support people in their tasks

However, little consideration has been given to creating the conditions under which knowledge workis best performed, despite it being seen as the key to continued global economic success. This is mostlikely due to the confusion that surrounds the subject. Therefore designing office buildings for thefaster creation and commercialisation of knowledge, along with the current design trends, wouldappear to be the next logical step in office design.



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4.0 The Effects of Advancing Information Technology43The requirements of current technology on the physical space is undefined with no documentationinvestigating the effect of ITC integration into buildings in public circulation since the ORBIT studiesof the 1990s, when IT was first being introduced into offices44 This documentation recognised theneed for raised floors and increased riser space inherent in all modem offices, and served as the deathsentence of many existing buildings. However, technology has progressed rapidly since this time. Thefollowing paragraphs establish the status of technology, and identify the impact which technology hason buildings today.

4.1 Advances in Office IT CA little over ten years ago, general office ITC equipment consisted of telephones, electronictypewriters and fax machines. At this time computers were large, expensive, hot machines that sat indedicated rooms, and were operated by technologists for privileged users. Today Computers aresmaller, cheaper, produce less heat and are considered standard office equipment, just like a desk orchair. ITC equipment now provides us with e-mail, video conferencing and a whole host of otherdigital devices that have sped up everyday tasks and changed the way we work.The advances in office ITC equipment as observed by Ken Yeang is shown below 45.

o!C.eccce-- -- - -- - ----------- -- i,,, - -- - - -- -----r ------ - - - - J

Figure 4.1 Advances in office technology

4.2 What will IT C Equipment Offer in the Next Ten Years?Office technology equipment is currently limited by computing speed and what may be termed"flexibility." The rate at which computing speed increases is known to obey "Moore's Law", whichstates that the computing speed and complexity double every eighteen months. This, as StevenHawldns suggests, is one of those exponential growths that cannot continue indefinitely. The diagrambelow shows the exponential growth in computing speed (number of calculation per second) from1972 to 2007 as achieved and forecast by Inte146

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The .'r",.OOM',1 g,,,,,,h,, o m p l f " " Btot"" 19n 1\icni por ,"(oM

Figure 4.2 Growth in computer speed

As computing power increases, more intensive applications such as speech and image recognition,natural language processing and massive multi media data bases will appear on individual's desk-topcomputers and note books. The next step willbe when a computer becomes an active platform whereit will tell you when you have received an e-mail, read it to you and respond by voice recognition, andexpensive and cumbersome videoconference suites maybe expected to be replaced by desktopsystems.In addition to computing power increasing,we are currently on the verge of a bandwidth boom andwhat is often referred to as the "wireless revolution". Bandwidth affects the speed at whichinformation is transferred. Presently, mainly businesses have access to broadband due to the limitedextent of the network and the cost of connection. However, broadband cable networks are growingrapidly and this year 3G technology was launched. 3G technologyis "wireless" broadbandcommunication, which will enable mobile computers to be just as connected and functional as adesktop computer no matter were they are. This will provide endless flexibility in working habits andis set to spawn a whole new generation of multi-media communication devices. Further developmentsare WiFi and Bluetooth, which are short-range radio based technologies that are set to remove theinconvenienceof cables from peripheral devices. The combination of 3G and WiFi essentially meansthat working environments canbe entirely free from ITC cabling.With the growth of these technologies it is clear that in the next ten years technology will haveminimal influence on the style of working, as anything that we can currently imagine will more thanlikely be achievable. ITC will present a wide range of communications options such as: audioconferencing, video conferencing, e-mail chat, virtual presence etc. It is not unimaginable that theoffice environment will be free from the masses of ITC cabling which presently occupy our buildings.I t is also realistic to imagine that corporate server rooms will be banished from offices and replaced byremote specialised server farms accessed via the Internet.

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Pnxluctivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?

4.3 The Influence of Technology on BuildingsThe most obvious influence this will have in buildings is the reversal of space requirements that wasbrought about by the introduction of lTC.In turn this will eliminate the reason for demolition of manyexisting buildings.The introduction of technology into buildings brought with it raised floors and larger cooling systemsrequiring greater structural floor-to-floor heights. It also introduced lTC distribution rooms, route andriser space. The changes in floor-to floor heights over time as observed by Duffy are shown in Figure4.247. With the introduction of wire-free lTC equipment it may be expected that the mid 2000 sectionwill be similar to that of the Pre-1980s.

oPre 19805

00o1980s

IL oMId 1990s

Figure 4.2 Changing floor-to-floor heights related to the changing needsofinformation technology

As these wire-free technologies are all currently available, some perhaps in an infantile state, it wouldappear that lTC is likely to have little more than a requirement for desk space in the future and shouldnot represent a reason for demolishing an existing building.



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5.0 Productivity ResearchDespite the many studies on various issues that influence human performance, a clear theory or modelof how people relate to buildings has not been established, This is partially due to the difficulty in anyone theory being accepted due to the lack of empirical evidence, bu t primarily due to the unknownpsychological element. However the various studies, polls and theories offered by recognised pioneersof human performance, such as Maslow and Herzberg, may be considered along with the lesser knownresearchers to identify how buildings contribute to human performance.By studying the work of these researchers, models are proposed which serve to identify themechanisms through which the physical building is considered to influence productivity at each levelof manifestation. The different levels of manifestation are considered to be the individual, the groupand the organisation.

IndividualGroup

Organisation

Figure 5.1 Elements of overall building productivity

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The models proposed are:

INDIVIDUALModel

Psychological

Sociological

GROUPModel

Psychological

Sociological

ORGANISATIONModel

Psychological

Sociological

Psychological

Psychological

Psychological

Figure 5.2 Building productivity models

Physical

Performance

Physical

Performance

Physical

Performance

At each level, the inputs to the element that provide for performance are shown, along withmechanisms through which human behaviour is affected. Where the human behaviour inputs areshown to be physical, this is where the building is considered to influence performance, and in turnproductivity. In each case the physical input is accompanied by a psychological input that requires theapplication of reasoning in order to select appropriate building productivity criteria. The followingsections provide further details on the derivation of each of these models.

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Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Need,,?

5.1 IndividualThe most consistently recognised contribution that buildings make to human performance andproductivity is through environmental satisfaction", simply through providing comfortable conditions.The route through which environmental satisfaction contributes to productivity is showndiagrammatically in Figure 5.3.

Performance Productivity

Figure 5.3 Relationship between environmental satisfaction and productivity

Environmental satisfaction has been proven to correlate well with job satisfaction along with severalother components such as the work itself, remuneration and relationships with fellow workers. Jobsatisfaction is described by Sundstrom as representing: " the individual's attitude towards the job ....asa summary evaluative judgement that reflects the individuals past and present experiences, includingexperiences with the physical environment,,49.The components of the physical environment that Sundstrom considers as contributing most to jobsatisfaction are shown in the diagram below'D:

Lighting Work itself

Windows and daylighling Responsibility autonomy

Temperature Chance of advancement

Air quality Pay

NoiselMusic

Colour Supervision

Status symbols Relations with colleagues

Privacy Job security

Furniture! Equipment Company Policy

Figure 5.4 The physical environment as a component of job satisfaction

The conditions that influence comfort and satisfaction vary from person to person. Herzberg observedthis from his surveys that the influence of the physical environment was not as high as other job

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satisfaction components, being rated 10th out of 14 factors". This led him to his "Two-Factor Theory",which suggests that an adequate environment does not contribute to job satisfaction, but an inadequateenvironment distracts from it. Other researchers also support this theory52. In Herzberg's terms wehave two basic needs: the need to avoid pain and the need for self-actualisation. Hence providingcomfort avoids pain, but will not necessarily increase productivity as motivational needs also have tobe met (self-actualisation).This relationship may be shown diagrammatically:

Psychological Physical

PsychologicalPerformance

Sociologic

Figure 5.5 Individual building productivity model

Maslow's Motivation Theory "hierarchy of needs" provides a simplistic model to relate elements ofthe environment to performance". Maslow's Theory on motivation identified five major "need"categories which apply to people in general, starting from fundamental physiological needs, leadingthrough a hierarchy of safety, social and esteem needs and finally the need for self actualisation, thehighest need of all.

Need MaslowSelf - the need to develop potentialities andactualisation skills, to become what one believes one is(selffulfilrneut) capable of becoming.Esteem - the need to have a stable, firmly based,high evaluation of oneself (self esteem) andto have the respect of others (prestige).These needs may be classified into twosubsidiary sets; first, the desire forachievement, for adequacy, for confidence

in the face of the world, and forindependence and freedom, and, second, thedesire for reputation or status defmed asrespect or esteem from other people, andmanifested by recognition, attention,importance, or appreciation.Social - the need for love, affection and acceptanceal) belonging to a group

Safety - the need for protection against danger andthe deprivation of physiological needsPhysiological - the need for oxygen, food, water and sex

Figure 5.6 Maslow's "hierarchy of needs"



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On the basis of Maslow's Theory it may be considered that a building contributes to the physiologicaland safety needs of motivation. However, the achievement of these needs may be considered the mostbasic of requirements, and does not contribute to the concentration and cognitive thinking required forknowledge-type work. The building's long-term contribution to individual performance may berecognised as providing environmental satisfaction but not motivationSummaryOn the basis of Herzberg's "Two Factor Theory" it may be appreciated that at an individual level abuilding is considered an enabler of performance through providing environmental satisfaction, butdoes not enhance performance. This Theory will be used for the selection of individual buildingproductivity criteria.

5.1 GroupAs well as the building affecting performance through individual job satisfaction, it is also recognisedas contributor to group performance by influencing cohesion. The route through which cohesioncontributes to productivity is shown diagrammatically below.

Performance Productivity

Figure 5.7 Relationship between group cohesion and productivity

Sundstrom suggests, " the existence of a cohesive team contributes to the efficiency of a work unit.The process underlying group formation is face to face conversation made convenient by the physicalenvironment.',54. Sundstrom considers this to be achieved by workspace layout, which affects privacy,communication and cohesion. He identifies the following facets of the physical environment as beinginfluential55 :

Room layout: Seating arrangements Furniture

Building Layout: lnter-workspace proximity Enclosure of works paces Gathering space

The issues listed here are generally implemented through space planning processes. The relationshipbetween space planning, communication and performance may be shown diagrammatically, as inFigure 5.8.

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Psycholo gical Physical


Sociological

Figure 5.8 Group building productivity modelSummaryBuildings may be considered to contribute to group productivity through enabling desired spaceplanning arrangements. On this basis again it may be recognised that the building serves as an enablerof performance rather than an enhancer.

5.2 OrganisationThere is little research on the influence that buildings have on the performance of an organisation.However, Sundstrom56 does postulate that the building influences performance through proximity,separation and differentiation of work units, which can be a direct influence. Also by reinforcingcertain organisational characteristics, such as management structure, culture and image, the buildingcan have an indirect influence on performance. In overall "building productivity" terms, a building hasthe most influence on performance by indirectly supporting management strategy, as the organisationis considered the most influential element of overall productivity. See Section 2.5. The relationshipbetween organisational congruence, management and organisational performance may be showndiagrammatically, as shown in Figure 5.9.

Psychological Physical


Sociological

Figure 5.9 Organisational building productivity model

SummaryIt is perhaps only at an organisational level that a building may enhance productivity through it'sindirect influence, rather than simply enabling it. It is however highly dependant on the arrangementand scale of building complementing an occupying organisations unique requirements.

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Pnxluctivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?

5.4 FindingsThe element through which a building may directly influence productivity most is the individual, asthis is the source of output, particularly in terms of knowledge workers, independent of group andorganisational productivity. The group may be considered the next most directly influenced bybuilding productivity through providing flexibility in space planning and therefore providing forefficient communication. At an organisational level the building is considered to contribute the leastdirectly to productivity. At each of these levels, the building is viewed as a performance enabler ratherthan an enhancer. However, it is at an organisational level a building may serve to enhanceperformance by indirectly supporting management aims. The diagram below shows the relative orderof influence of each element through which overall building productivity manifests itself.

ORGANfSATION( D ~ e c t l y )

GROUPfNDfVIDUAL

INCREASING INFLUENCE

ORGANfSATION(fndirectly)

Figure 5.10 The buildings influence on productivity

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Proouctivily: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?

6.0 The Individual's Relationship with the EnvironmentTheories on a building's affect on perfonnance indicate that an individual's relationship with abuilding is based on physical and psychological elements. A building contributes to perfonnancethrough providing an adequate environment and not serving as a distraction. The relationship ofdistraction with dissatisfaction, and satisfaction providing for concentration and perfonnance, isillustrated in Figure 6.1.

DISlRACTfONDISSATISFACTION

LOW

PERFORMANCE

SATISFACTIONCONCENTRATION

HfGH

Figure 6.1 Satisfaction and concentration lead to perfonnance

6.1 Psychological Effects on Individual ProductivityOne theory that addresses psychological effects on individual productivity has been put forward byDonald Hebb. Hebb suggests that perfonnance is influenced through arousal, stress, overload,distraction and fatigue57 . This important theory will be discussed in the following sections.

6.1.1 ArousalArousal is seen as the gauge of alertness, ranging from extreme agitation to drowsiness. Central to thistheory is that the level of arousal must be appropriate for the task in hand. High arousal isadvantageous to the perfonnance of repetitive dull tasks, and low arousal is preferred for knowledgebased or complex tasks. Therefore an optimal level of environmental arousal must be attained to suitthe demands of the task.

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High

Performance

Low

Relaxation

Low

Optimalrange ofArousal

ModerateArousal

Excitation

High

Figure 6.2 Relationship between arousal and performanceThe physiological elements of increased arousal include heart rate, raised blood pressure, blood flowin peripheral vessels, perspiration, skin temperature and muscular tension. Hence, the stimulationproperties of a physical environment reflect both physiological and psychological processes.Sundstrom gives the example of how heat can create arousal, at least through the body's mechanism tomaintain a core body temperature". But intense environmental stimuli such as loud noises or brightlights can lead to arousal for psychological reasons including perceived novelty or stress.

6.1.2 Distraction and OverloadDistraction effectively disrupts the performance of tasks, and in the office environment, concurs withdissatisfaction. Overload occurs when information arrives at a greater rate than which it can be dealtwith. Hebb suggests that a consequence of distraction or overload is called "low priority inputs".Elements of the physical environment such as loud noise, glare, high or low temperatures, may causepeople to ignore aspects of the job that they perceive as least important (or have little responsibilityfor). Equally the environment may become a low priority input to the worker if overloaded. In whichcase the environment will represent only a temporary influence on performance.

6.1.3 FatigueFatigue is recognised as being a result of muscular tension. It oCcurs mostly in environments thatcause uncomfortable posture, strenuous movement and awkward procedures. It frequently occurs as aresult of poor or unsuited office furniture design such as chairs for example, which may cause backpain, discomfort, distraction or even stress and may lead to reduced performance.

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6,1.4 Neurological Research Supporting Donald Hebb's TheoryRecent neurological research, using positron emission tomographical brain scans, is beginning to showthat when we are distracted, overloaded or stressed, the chemicals our body releases tum off the partof the brain that allows us to concentrate and think effectively, which supports Hebb's theory of the1940' s. Maclean's model of the "Triune Brain" provides a useful metaphor of human brain operations,which assists in understanding and explaining the relationship between performance and distractions9The diagram below shows the brain in three layers and identifies the role of each. Essentially, thebrain layer shutdown sequence starts with small distractions turning off the frontal lateral cortexwithin the cerebral cortex. This part of the brain is responsible for cognitive thinking. The shutdowncontinues to the reptilian brain, responsible for basic fight, flight and flock reactions.

Cerebral Cortex (thinking cap)Cognitive and problem solvingLanguage writing and drawingLong range planning and forecastingDiscerning relations and patterns of meaningCreates models for understandingSome processing emotionsReptilian brainFight or flight and flOCking behaviourin response to fear and stressMonitoring motor functionsMating ritualsTerritoryHierarchiesRate behaviour

Generates emotionsFilters information in and outImmediate expressivenessSexualitySocial bonding and attachments from parentalbondingAttention and sleepHub for long term memory via hippocampusGoverns concepts of value and truthValidates knowledge and understanding

Figure 6.3 The "Triune Brain"

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COGNITIVETHINKING

human r in has apredispositio 0 thinkmeaningfully a d make sense ofthe world bu eeds to be in apositive stateactive and en mind, stress free,gedmn t be as multisensory and otionallyengaged as p S 'ible- the dull,boring and r p titive will befiltered out a not engage

our thinking

The humanfrom thinkinflight and flothreat, In thiis possible,

ain

'n shifts downode to fight,'ng when unders te, no learning

BLACKOUT

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6.2 Elements of the Environment that Affect Individual ProductivityThe following section provides reasoning for arriving at criterion that may be used for judging thesatisfaction occupants gain from an office workstation environment due to the physical structurewhich envelopes it. There are no technically correct values as they are all affected by personalexperiences and expectations, gender, culture and age differences, but may be considered appropriatefor determining the general acceptability of an office environment.The environmental factors associated with the physical environment, which are recognised bySundstrom as contributing to job satisfaction, are noted in Figure 5.4, Section 5.1. However, in termsof the potential environmental satisfaction that a building might provide, status symbols and privacywill not be considered, as they are secondary issues not associated with the physical building. Inaddition, control, adaptation and windows will be considered, along with the issue of forgiveness.There is no evidence to suggest that performance is reduced due to aesthetic features although thiselement of buildings is often the most considered, possibly due to corporate image issues.The diagram below shows the elements that influence performance, which will be considered further,and identifies the interdependencies between them. This illustrates why the overall satisfaction anindividual has with their environment is a sum of the individual parts, rather than anyone individualelement as proposed by Leaman60 and Sundstrom61. All parts need to be achieved to a satisfactorylevel, as severe dissatisfaction with one can cause loss of productivity through distraction or stress,and ultimately lead to absenteeism.

Secondary issues:Aesthetics

Figure 6.4 Elements of the building environment that influenceproductivity and the interdependences between them

To gain a better understanding of an individual 's satisfaction with various elements of a building theauthor conducted a survey in an office of 42 staff. The Herzberg" Two Factor Theory" was applied,with staff simply asked if satisfied or dissatisfied with various elements of their environment. Theresults of this survey are shown in figure 6.5. Further details of this survey are shown in Appendix A.



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Percentage(%)

100908070605040 '302010o

Figure 6.5 Office satisfaction survey summary

6.2.1 Control and Adaptation

Satisfied (%)Dissatisfied (%)

Satisfaction with an environment is recognised as been more likely if users are provided with a meansof modifying conditions through controVadaptation. Control may be considered to be the ability tochange a setting at source, such as temperature, close a window that is the source of a draught, orlower a blind to reduce glare. Adaptation may be considered as a secondary means of control that doesnot eliminate the source of dissatisfaction but allows satisfaction to be achieved by blocking thesource. Examples of this are: users being able to install partitions as desired to reduce noise levels orprovide a level of privacy, wearing more clothing if feeling slightly cool, changing seat orientation toavoid distractions.Leaman states that" one of the most prominent findings of the office environment surveys was theimportance of control to the building user" and he related control to "loss of productivity andcomplaints of i l l health,,62. The graph below shows the results of Leaman's survey on the control ofvarious elements of the environment and the perceived affect on productivity shown in terms of"greater productivity than average,,63. I f control cannot be provided the response time to complaintsmust be very quick to compensate64 .

1.0

0.8

0.8MoM or,,,'-,.., OAaw"",,

02

0.0

-{)20 2 6

Degree of COfltrol (1ow=:1 ,hlgh=7)

Temperature

Ventilation

UghlingOvemllcontrol

8

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6.2.2 ForgivenessForgiveness is a factor that is difficult to quantify but influences an individual's satisfaction with anenvironment. Where there is a recognised and justifiable reason for conditions not being ideal, peopleare more likely to accept, or "forgive" the faults and rate a building with greater satisfaction65 .Forgiveness is an entirely psychological issue. Examples are: naturally ventilated buildings canachieve better satisfaction as the user feel that they are contributing by reducing environmental issues,and existing buildings may be forgiven for the inconveniences they introduce because the limitationsare recognised. However there is little information or quantification of such issues presently available,although Building Usability Studies (BUS) are understood to be researching the forgiveness issue66

6.2.3 Satisfaction and Environmental FactorsThe relationship between the environmental factors and satisfaction is considered to follow the processshown in Figure 6.7 and simplified in Figure 6.8. The individual environmental factors are sensed andmentally processed and a response generated. I f the response is unsatisfactory, the individual willdesire to modify the situation through either control or adaptation to achieve satisfaction. When thebehavioural differences of people are considered the powerful influence which human control andadaptation provides may be recognised. The influence of forgiveness is also shown to influence humanresponse. For a user perspective control is the single most important factor underlying comfort67

Experiences Artificial lightingSatisfactionSight Windows and daylight

CultureTouchIFeel Thelmal comfort

GenderSmell Air quality

Age Taste Noise and musicReligion Hear

Workstation and spaceExpectations ControVAdaptationForgiveness

Figure 6.7 The relationship between environmental factors and satisfaction - Detailed



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ControllAdaptationFigure 6.8 The relationship between environmental factors and satisfaction - Simplified

6.3 Environmental FactorsThere is an abundance of laboratory and field studies on most of these elements of the environment,which have been carried out in various contexts. However many studies are based on individualoccupants and miss out on the wider context of !be differences between buildings and their operationaland managerial circumstances. Buildings and occupying organisations are rarely similar whichcomplicates comparison, and the simple fact that users may perceive that they are being studied cancause them to behave differently. Methodological and interpretational problems cause differences inmost studies that often lead to conflicting results. This makes it difficult to determine !be mostimportant issues.The following sections identify the key criteria known about each aspect of the environment.Herzberg's "Two Factor Theory", (which suggests that an adequate environment does not contributeto productivity but an inadequate environment distracts from it) will be used, along with insightsobtained through surveys, to select a datum for the balance between satisfaction and dissatisfaction forthe majority of people. Hence, the finite detail is not important but !be adequacy of an environment forthe majority of users is.The main sources of surveys used for this assessment are:

Sundstrom 68CIBSE 69Author's own



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Productivity: Can Ex.isting Office Buildings Provide for Future Dusiness Needs?

6.3.1 LightingIn terms of the office environment artificial lighting serves two primary purposes?o:

Facilitates the performance of visual tasks The creation of an appropriate visual environment

Studies on lighting have shown that there is a good correlation between lighting intensity and quality,quality being used to describe reading speed (performance). See Figure 6.9 71.

1098gm 7

21 ~ ~ __ ~ ~ __ ~ - L __ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~o 400 800 1200 1600Illuminance em desk (IK)

Figure 6.9 Mean assessment of light quality

The graph shows that performance increases with intensity of lighting, with diminishing returns. Thiswould suggest the brighter the better, although a balance must be gained between performance effectsand practical and economic requirements. Reading performance diminishes with lower lighting levelsas the contrast between text and background reduces, requiring greater effort and time to read. Figure6.10 illustrates tills72.

Figure 6.10 Contrast and reading performance

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The current lighting standard for offices is 500 lux for general offices, and 300 - 500 lux in officeswith visual display units (VDU). The lower lighting level for VDU users reduces contrast and glareproblems that can cause fatigue.From a performance point of view, it may be desirable to have all surfaces of a uniform brightness, butthis would create a bland appearance and provide poor modelling of facial features, hindering effectivecommunication. For these reasons it is normally desired that lighting should provide good definition oftextures and a building's internal architecture. This is normally achieved using directional lightdesigned to avoid introducing glare problems. A further consideration is the contrast in lighting levelsaround the office space. This should be sufficiently consistent not to cause eyestrain when looking upfrom a workstation to the surrounding space.As recognised by Sundstrom73 and confirmed by the authors survey (see Figure 6.5, Section 6.2)artificial lighting is rarely identified as a source of dissatisfaction, provided i t is designed to bestpractice standards. Therefore, it may be concluded that the Herzberg "Two Factor Theory" will besatisfied if office artificial lighting provides an adequate lighting level for the task performed and ifglare is avoided.

6.3.2 Windows and DaylightingWindows perform many functions besides those that contribute directly to user satisfaction, which aregenerally recognised as being: control, view and provision of daylight. As noted by Leaman74 from astudy of building users "most satisfied staff sit next to windows". This is confirmed by the authorssurvey work. Leaman believes this is because, "from a user perspective, perception of control is thesingle most important factor underlying comfort,,75. This maybe correct, but it would impairoperations and be highly uneconomic if buildings were constructed solely on this basis.It is known from surveys of workplaces with no windows that negative psychological effect have beenexperienced, as "it seems to be associated with a feeling of being denied something that is one'sright,,76. Words associated with such environments taken from surveys are: cooped-up, isolated,claustrophobia, depressed, tense.Other researchers believe that outdoor lighting levels affect the body's circadian cycle and thephysiological processes associated with it77 This means that a disruption in normal lighting patternscan produce temporal disorientation, sleep deprivation, mood changes and mental exhaustion.Conversely, research in a hospital in Pennsylvania claims that patients with views of vegetationrecover more quickly78. Views are also considered to contribute to knowledge work through providingvisual escape, for thought and assisting with maintaining concentration79. The association ofdaylighting with well-being is recognised in the Netherlands and Germany were health regulationsprohibit buildings where staff are more than 6m from windows. There are no such regulations in theUK although the Building Research Establishment's environmental assessment method recognises thatdaylighting can contribute to reduced absenteeism and increased productivityBO. This suggests thatoffice workers will benefit from having visual access to the outdoors from their workstations, andsufficient daylighting provision.In the 1930' s, before electric lighting was common, office depths were limited to 18m on the basis thatdaylight would not penetrate more than 9m from a window. At this time experts recommended 12mfrom window to window, such depths also served well for natural ventilation". These shallow depthsremained until the advent of air-conditioning which allowed comfortable temperatures to bemaintained in deep-plan buildings. A formula more commonly used by architects for building daylightpenetration estimates is 2.5 times a building's floor to ceiling height. A more accurate predictionmethod for office design purposes, which recognises window design and building dimensions is 82:



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Daylight penetration:UW +UHw < 2/(l-Rb)Where: L

WHwRb

Distance from the window (m)Room width (m)Window head height (m)Average reflectance of surfaces

The depths given by this formula are shown in the table below for various room surface reflectances,widths and window head heights83

Reflectance (Rb) 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6Room width (m) 3 10 3 10 3 10Whldow head height Depth of daylight penetration (m)(m)2.5 4.5 6.7 5.4 8.0 6.8 10.03.0 5.0 7.7 6.0 9.2 7.5 U.S3.5 5.4 8.6 6.5 10.4 8.1 13.0

Table 6.1 Limiting depths for daylighting

Survey work shows that occupants generally overestimate the contribution of natural daylight to desklighting particularly the further away they are from the windows".

Percentage 90 90(%) of light 80 80 Estimatedprovided by 70 70daylight 60 6050 5040 4030 3020 2010 4 3 100 02.4 3.3 4.2 5.1 7.5 10.5 13.5 18.9 2.4 3.3 4.2 5.1 7.5 10.5 13.5 18.9

Median distance from source of daylight (metre)Figure 6.11 Measured and estimated daylight levels

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However, this does not account for the issue of views. A view provides for well-being, visualorientation and change of focus. Based on the above information a maximum acceptable distance of6m from a window may be considered reasonable provided the building design also permits daylightpenetration to this depth. On the same premise, the maximum distance of 3m from an atrium may beconsidered a maximum. This may be justified because an atrium may be expected to provide somevisual stimuli, but daylight penetration is adversely affected.6.3.3 Temperature and Thermal ComfortThe effects of temperature on human performance and productivity have been the subject of hundredsof studies, and there have been many collective reviews of the results of these studies. These reviewshave been largely inconclusive, and it is generally stated that the effects of temperature on mentalperformance are not as clear as those on physical performance8S Although short term exposure to heatand cold is noted as increasing mental performance, this is thought to be due to increased arousal.Perhaps the best graphical representation of the effects of temperature on performance is that proposedby Wyon 86 Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12 Summarised relationships between temperature and performanceFigure 6.12, shows how mental performance may be expected to reduce with continued exposure totemperatures higher than 20C.However, temperature alone offers little guidance on whether thermal comfort and satisfaction withthe environment will be achieved. In terms of the Two-Factor Theory where the environment serves asa distraction to performance, the important issue is that the occupant is not distracted by the thermalenvironment. For this reason the thermal comfort standards as proposed by Fanger are considered. 87more appropnate .The comfort assessment method proposed by Fanger takes account of air temperature, air movement,radiant temperatures, humidity, clothing and activity levels. It is based on the assumption that a personis comfortable when their body is in, or close to, thermal equilibrium with the surroundingenvironment. By this method the percentage of people dissatisfied are calculated for the given roomconditions. The "best percentage people dissatisfied" score achievable is 5% since it is not statisticallypossible to create an environment that will fully satisfy all occupants. The environment is consideredunacceptable if conditions frequently exceed 30% dissatisfaction. The method proposed by Fanger isthe basis of current international standards, but it does gain some criticism for being based on comfortchamber tests and predicts comfort at slightly higher temperatures than measured in workplaces.

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6.3.4 Ventilation and Air QualityAir quality is concerned with the presence of air pollution which survey research has shown to be aconsiderable problem in offices, being recognised as one of the major sources of sick buildingsyndrome in recent times. Air quality is reduced when pollutants, gases, dust, mist, vapour, or fibresare present in the air, besides its natural constituents. The effects may be alleviated by increasingventilation rates, thereby reducing pollution concentrations. Certain pollutants do have welldocumented health effects. However "research on the effects of specific forms of pollution has beeninfrequent, and the psychological effects are largely unknown"88.The effects of air quality on performance have not been studied in any detail but in the terms of thisstudy, it is acceptable to assume that if ventilation rates are achieved as recommended by CIBSE thereshould be little cause for reduced performance89 However, it is recognised that a greater supply offresh air is associated with a feeling of well-being. Any performance reduction that does result fromair quality issues is due to the source of pollution. It should be mitigated and should not be the reasonfor an increasing the ventilation rate, which could cause discomfort through draughts.The ventilation rate recommended by CIBSE is 8 litres/second per person. This does not al10w forsmoking, which on no account should be allowed in office spaces, primarily for reasons ofsatisfaction.

6.3.4 Noise and Music6.3.5.1 NoiseNoise in offices and its affect on performance is one of the most researched elements of the officeenvironment and is recognised as being a major source of dissatisfaction. However much of theresearch has been conducted within laboratories and does not relate to a real office context. Asummary of the findings from studies in offices suggests that the most disturbing sources of noiseare: 90 91;

Conversations Phones ringing Office machines

Conversations are the most disturbing noise source. This is not because of its physical qualities butmore because of its meaning to the listener. Annoyance caused by office noise is not related to itsgeneral intensity but strongly related to the intensity of sound audible above background noise levels92.Noise is generally associated with a decrease in accuracy. Predictable noise is sometimes associatedwith increased performance of simple

Beadle, G. (2003) Productivity-Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business NeedsOCR

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