Theory of the Firm
Jan 03, 2016
Theory of the Firm
‘Managerial Discretion’Models
Baumol’s modelmanagers’ rewards seem to be more closely
linked to size than to profittherefore, firms aim to maximize sales
revenuebut subject to a profit constraint
TRTRTCTC(Rs)(Rs)
0
TCTC
TRTR
maxmax constraintconstraint
ssrev.maxrev.max
QQmaxmax
QQconstraintconstraint
QQssrevenuerevenue maxmax
Baumol’s Static Sales Revenue Maximising Baumol’s Static Sales Revenue Maximising Model without AdvertisingModel without Advertising
Profit Maximisation Models
Baumol's Theory of Sales Revenue Maximisation
Baumol's Theory of Sales Revenue Maximisation
Two basic models:static single-period model;multi-period dynamic growth model.
Each model can include advertising activity or not.
Rationalisation of the Sales Maximisation Hypothesis
-There is evidence that salaries and other earnings of top managers are correlated more closely with sales than with profits.-Banks and other institutions, which keep a close eye on the sales of firms, are more willing to finance firms with large and growing sales.
Rationalisation of the Sales Maximisation
Hypothesis- Personnel problems are handled more
satisfactorily when sales are growing. Employees of all levels can be given higher earnings and better terms of work in general. Declining sales make the converse and lay-offs more likely.- Large sales, growing overtime, give
prestige to managers; large profits go into the pockets of shareholders.
Rationalisation of the Sales Maximisation
Hypothesis- Managers prefer a steady performance with
satisfactory profits to spectacular profit maximisation projects. If they realise high profits in one period, they might find themselves in trouble in other periods when profits are less than maximum.
- Large, growing sales strengthen the power to adopt competitive tactics, while a low or declining share of the market weakens the competitive position of the firm and its bargaining power vis-à-vis its rivals.
Rationalisation of the Sales Maximisation Hypothesis
The implication of Baumol’s model is that risk avoidance has a statistical effect upon economic activities, eg. R&D in large firms.
Baumol’s Static Models
The basic assumptions of the static models:
- The time-horizon of a firm is a single period.- During this period the firm
attempts to maximise its total sales revenue (not physical volume of output) subject to a profit constraint.
Baumol’s Static Models
- The minimum profit constraint is exogenously determined by the demands and expectations of the shareholders, the banks and other financial institutions. The firm must realise a minimum level of profits to keep shareholders happy and avoid a fall of the prices of shares on the stock exchange.
Baumol’s Static Models
-Conventional cost and revenue functions are assumed - cost curves are ill-shaped and the demand curve of the firm is downward sloping.
Baumol’s Static Models
Four models:- A single-product model, without
advertising.- A single-product model, with
advertising.- A multi-product model, without
advertising.- A multi-product model, with
advertising.
Baumol’s Dynamic Model
The most serious weakness of the static model is the short-time losses of the firm and the treatment of the profit constraint as an exogenously determined magnitude. In the dynamic model the time horizon is extended and the profit constraint is endogenously determined.
The assumptions of the dynamic model
- The firm attempts to maximise the ratio of growth of sales over its lifetime.
- Profit is the main means of financing growth of sales, and as such is an instrumental variable whose value is endogenously determined.
The assumptions of the dynamic model
- Demand and of cost have the traditional shape - demand is downward-sloping and costs are U-shaped. Profit is not a constraint (as in the static model) but an instrumental variable, a means whereby the top management will achieve its goal of a maximum rate of growth of sales.
- Growth may be financed by internal and external sources. However, there are limits to the external sources of finance.Thus profits will be the main source for financing the rate of growth of sales revenue.
The assumptions of the dynamic model
Growth may be financed by internal and external sources. However, there are limits to the external sources of finance. Thus profits will be the main source for financing the rate of growth of sales revenue.
Marris - Growth Maximisation
Model highlights two important factors as far as management is concerned: the attitude to risk and uncertainty and the desire for utility which may not be maximised by the pursuit of maximum profits.
Marris - Growth Maximisation
Marris, like Williamson, suggests that managers have a utility
function in which salary, prestige, status, power, security, etc., are important. The owners
of the firm are, however, likely to be more concerned with profits,
market share, output, etc.
Marris - Growth Maximisation
In contrast to Williamson, Marris argues that the owners and managers have one aspect of the firm in common; namely, its size.
He therefore postulates that managers will be primarily concerned with maximisation of the rate of the growth of size rather than absolute firm size.
Marris - Growth Maximisation
The attraction of the growth rate of size is thought to stem from the positive effect growth has upon
promotion prospects. Stress is put on an alleged preference of managers for
internal promotion and this is made easier if the firm is seen to be
expanding rapidly.
Marris - Growth Maximisation
Managerial utility function may be written as follows:
Um = f (gD,s)
where
gD = rate of growth of demand for the
products of the firm;
s = a measure of job security.
Marris - Growth Maximisation
Owners utility function may be written as
U0 = f *(gc)
where gc = rate of growth of capital.
Marris - Growth Maximisation
S(a measure of job security) can be measured by a weighted average of three ratios: the
liquidity ratio, the leverage debt ratio and the profit-retention
ratio.
Marris - Growth MaximisationS can be measured by weighted average of S can be measured by weighted average of liquidity ratio, debt ratio and profit retention ratioliquidity ratio, debt ratio and profit retention ratio
Liquidity ratio = Liquidity ratio = Liquid assetsLiquid assetsTotal assetsTotal assets
Debt ratioDebt ratio = = Value of debtValue of debtTotal assetsTotal assets
Retention ratio =Retention ratio = Retained profitsRetained profitsTotal profitsTotal profits
Marris - Growth Maximisation
Too low liquidity ratio may lead to insolvency and bankruptcy and there is a threat of take-over in case it being too high.
Too low Retention ratio may upset shareholders and too high ratio may inhibit growth.
Managerial Utility & Constraints
Optimum Managerial UtilityAt point A, utility is lower and the growth rate is
not as high though v is above the minimum constraint.
At B, utility and growth are higher than at A but v is below the minimum constraint.
At C utility is as high as it can be given the security minimum valuation ratio constraint
Profit is important but growth more soThe need to keep v high limits trading off profits
for a higher growth rate.
Cyert and March Behavioural Theory
1. The Firm as a Coalition of Groups with Conflicting
Goalsbased on a large multiproduct group
operating under uncertain conditions in an imperfect market - difference between ownership and control - firm treated as a multi-goal, multi-decision organisational coalition of managers, workers, share-
holders, customers, suppliers, bankers.
Cyert and March Behavioural Theory
2. Goal Formation – The Concept of the Aspiration
LevelIndividuals may have (and
usually do have) different goals to those of the organisation-firm.
Cyert and March Behavioural Theory
3. The Goals of the Firm: Satisficing Behaviour
Goals set by top management.
Cyert and March Behavioural Theory
The main goals:Production goal - smooth running.Inventory goal - adequate stock of
suitable raw material.Sales goal - from sales department. Share of the market goal – also from
sales department.Profit goal – shareholders, finances.
Cyert and March Behavioural Theory
4 Means for the Resolution of Conflict
Conflict is inevitable. Nevertheless the groups and the firm as a whole may
remain in a stable position - limited time to bargain, etc. Behaviour, goals
and decisions are largely based on past history.
Cyert and March Behavioural Theory
5. The Theory of Decision Making - At Top Management Level
Resource allocation - implemented by the budget - share of budget
taken by each department. Largely determined by bargaining power which is itself determined by past
performance.
Cyert and March Behavioural Theory
6. Uncertainty and the Environment of the Firm
Two types of uncertainty:
- market (cannot be avoided)
- competitor's reactions (overcome by tacid collution, eg. trade associations)