Bassists of iKapa (the Cape) A brief analysis of the development of the bass guitar in the musical genres of Mbaqanga and Ghoema in Cape Town, South Africa with a focus on the biographies and techniques of two of Cape Town’s most prolific bassists, Spencer Mbadu and Gary Kriel. By Shaun Johannes Submitted in fulfilment of the Degree of Masters in Music, University of Cape Town, May 2010.
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Bassists of iKapa (the Cape)
A brief analysis of the development of the bass guitar in the musical genres of
Mbaqanga and Ghoema in Cape Town, South Africa with a focus on the biographies
and techniques of two of Cape Town’s most prolific bassists, Spencer Mbadu and
Gary Kriel.
By
Shaun Johannes
Submitted in fulfilment of the Degree of Masters in Music, University of Cape Town,
May 2010.
2
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1 - Introduction Page 6
1.1 ‘The Fairest Cape’ - Background
1.1.1 Apartheid
1.2 Brief thesis background
1.3 Thesis objectives
1.4 Setting the boundaries for topics under review
1.5 Research methodology
1.6 Technical considerations in audio-visual recording and processing
1.7 Interview transcription considerations
1.8 Brief description and analysis of relevant literature
Chapter 2 - Musical considerations – bass evolution, definitions and
other considerations Page 24
2.1 Evolution of the Upright Bass and Electric Bass Guitar in Jazz Music
2.2 Contextualizing and defining Mbaqanga and Ghoema
2.2.1 Mbaqanga
2.2.2 Ghoema
2.3 Development of tone as a result of esotericism
Chapter 3 - Spencer Mbadu Page 40
3.1 The biography
3.1.1 Earliest memories
3.1.2 Family or friends as an influence in music
3.2 The instruments
3.2.1 Instruments played and why
3.2.2 First explorations into identifying and emulating bassists
3.3 The tone – technical considerations
3
3.3.1 Physicality, Technique – Pizzicato and ‘Slapping and Popping’, Character and
Sentiment
3.3.2 Gear - the bass, the equalisation and other technical considerations
Chapter 4 - Gary Kriel Page 52
4.1 The biography
4.1.1 Earliest memories
4.1.2 Family or friends as an influence in music
4.2 The instruments
4.2.1 Instruments played and why
4.2.2 First explorations into identifying and emulating bassists
4.3 The tone – technical considerations
4.3.1 Physicality, Technique – Pizzicato and ‘Slapping and Popping’, Character and
Sentiment
4.3.2 Gear - the bass, the equalisation and other technical considerations
Chapter 5 - The Transcriptions Page 60
5.1 Transcription of the quintessential bassline and analysis
5.2 Transcription of the quintessential solo and analysis
Chapter 6 - Conclusion Page 80
Terms and Definitions Page 84
Bibliography: Page 92
• Sources cited
• Sources referenced
Discography Page 98
4
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank the following people:
This thesis would not have been possible without the never-ending support and advice
from the staff at the South African College of Music, namely Sammy Kruger, Neville
Hartzenberg and Prof. James May. I want to thank Andrew Lilley, Darryl Andrews and
Mike Campbell for their guidance and encouragement during the course of my studies at
UCT. A special mention has to go to Sheila Taylor for dealing with the never-ending and
frustrating administrative aspects of my studies and also for her subtle encouragement.
Much gratitude and appreciation are also due to my supervisor and ‘Onnie’ Sylvia
Bruinders who has offered up her time and for putting up with my endless questions and
moaning. Thank you! Your strength and determination even during your time away was
amazing and I wish you well with your own studies. Your limitless creativity, guidance
and patience is truly appreciated and cherished.
Thanks go to Julie Strauss and her staff at UCT Music Library. Many thanks also to the
UCT Post-graduate Funding Office (specifically Bongiwe and Donrick) and the National
Research Foundation for granting me a scholarship to further my studies and preserve
some of our musical heritage.
This thesis could not be possible without the time, efforts, help and guidance of Gary
Kriel, Spencer Mbadu, their respective families and my ‘teacher’ George Werner - I am
the musician I am because of all of your time and ‘investment’ in my life.
Thanks to my parents, Karin and Elrich Johannes, and fiancé, Tracey Appolis, and her
extended family for their permanent encouragement and support throughout my studies.
All thanks and honour to God through whom all things are possible.
5
6
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1 ‘The Fairest Cape’ – Background
Cape Town is situated at the south-western end of the African continent. Cape Agulhas, a
town situated approximately 150 kilometres from Cape Town, is the lowest part of the
African continent. It is the unofficial meeting place of the cold Benguela current from
Antarctica that runs along the Atlantic Ocean and the warm Agulhas current from the
Indian Ocean. This ‘meeting’ of cold and warm currents also serves as an apt metaphor
when describing the races, cultures and music of the people living in Cape Town which is
also known as the Mother City. One of the now iconic areas that best described this
metaphor was District Six. “District Six,” in her description of this historic suburb of
Cape Town, the vocalist Zelda Benjamin states: “was an education…in that particular
area, we had blacks, whites, coloureds, Romanians… they all lived in that area”
(Rasmussen 2003, 34).
When in the company of older musicians the conversation would usually include a lament
on the “good old days” before the Group Areas Act of 1950 when the ruling regime of the
day, the National Party (NP), “established [separate] residential and business sections in
urban areas for each race, and members of other races were barred from living, operating
businesses, or owning land in them.”1 In doing so, the government cemented its newly
established policy of segregation called apartheid. Separate white, coloured and black
suburbs were established relative to their distance from the city centre. White suburbs
were established closest to the central business district (CBD) as well as in the
picturesque and lush areas of Cape Town. The coloured and black suburbs were at least
20km from the CBD. Apartheid was the ruling social policy in South Africa from 1948
until around the time of the release of Nelson Mandela from prison on 11 February 1990.
The apartheid government was officially removed at the first democratic elections in the
country on 27 April 1994.
1 Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2009) Group Areas Act. Encyclopædia Britannica [Online]. 05 May 2009
Bands which occur annually in Cape Town; secondly, sopvleis or opskit which was
prevalent at dance hall events; and thirdly, tiekiedraai or vastrap which was performed
by the slaves who worked on farms in the rural parts of the Cape Colony and is still
performed today.
The first mention of the origins of the ‘Coon Carnival’ or street parade by the slaves on
the day they were given a holiday from their work, on January second, can be dated back
as far as 1823 (Worden, et al 1998, 194). In an article by Heinrich Egersdörfer in The
Cape Times, 4 January 1884 he wrote:
“The frivolous coloured inhabitants of Cape Town…indulged in their peculiar
notions…by going about in large bodies dressed most fantastically…headed by blowers
of wind and players of stringed instruments…singing selections from their…music with
variations taken from ‘Rule Britannia’…beating the drum, singing and shouting” (quoted
in Martin 1999, 90).
This parade became an annual event which later became known as the Coon Carnival,
now Minstrel Carnival. After slavery in the Cape was abolished in 1834 (Worden, et al
1998, 102), the custom of street parades around the time leading up to and after New
Year’s day was kept as a way for the newly emancipated slaves to maintain as sense of
tradition and their heritage. Several parades occur around this time of year. The
Christmas Band is a cultural practice that takes place as the name suggests on and around
the time of Christmas Day. The Christmas Band ensemble was a combination of a small
vocal choir and instrumentation which could easily be carried as the band walked.
Presently Christmas Bands consist of memberships ranging from fifty to two hundred
members strong comprising of instrumentalists and young people who march ahead of
the band while holding up the band’s banner. Instrumentation include banjos,
saxophones, brass instruments in the trombone, trumpet, tuba and sousaphone, acoustic
guitars and cellos which are held sideways with strings made of gut or plastic. The cello
is played in a pizzicato fashion where the strings would be plucked to generate a sound.
These cellos are known as klein-bassies or ‘little-basses’ (Bruinders 2006, 118). One of
33
the street parade customs is that it occurs annually on 31 December when a singing
troupe will ‘say goodbye to the old year’ by singing ghommaliedjies through the streets.
These troupes are referred to as Nagtroepe (literally ‘night troupes’). These nagtroepe are
also referred to as Malay Choirs or a sangkoor (literally ‘vocal choir’). The third form of
the street parading customs found in ghoema occurs annually on 2 January in which
minstrel troupes take part in what is now referred to as the Minstrel Carnival. This day is
also known as Tweede Nuwejaar or ‘second New-Year’.
Another bastion of ghoema developed in the dance halls of Cape Town at various
weddings, competitions and other functions. The bands at these functions modelled
themselves on the bands in the big band jazz tradition and initially performed repertoire
from the early 1900s jazz band era. Later on the band size would diminish into a quintet
or septet which consisted of a standard jazz rhythm section (drums set, upright bass,
piano, guitar), a singer and a single-note melodic instrument usually the violin. The violin
played the melodies with embellishments and also harmonies if the melody is arranged
for another instrument. Eventually the violin gave way to the emergence of the
saxophone which fulfilled the same duties as the violin but with added appeal: the
saxophone enjoyed a connection to jazz combo performance and people held it in higher
regard for its cool and smooth appeal; it could produce a more prominent vibrato and
generate more volume than the violin. In this style the saxophonist played very loudly
and produced an exaggerated vibrato.14
A new musical phenomenon emerged in this
smaller ensemble format (drums set, upright bass, piano, guitar and saxophone) and it
became known as langarm.
Langarm directly translates into English as ‘long-arm’ which refers to the way in which
couples danced to this music with one arm fully extended as in ballroom dancing.
Subsequently, the repertoire performed at these langarm events is comprised of music
from the popular swing band and dance hall music era from the US and Europe. The
repertoire consisted of ballroom dance genres, i.e. the foxtrot, quick step, tango and waltz
14
Jephthah, H. (2007) History [Online]. Available: http://sites.google.com/site/capetownghoema/history
[2008, 16 August)
34
to name a few. Gradually the rhythms and melodies of ghoema worked its way into
langarm and they usually played the genuine ghoema melodies at the end of the function
as the climax to the celebrations or function. This music would later become known as
sopvleis (literally ‘soup-meat’) and opskit (literally ‘shake-up’). This description is as a
result of a conversation with trumpeter Alex Van Heerden who became one of the
foremost unofficial custodians of ghoema and other indigenous music from Cape Town.15
Some of the slaves in Cape Town were transported to work on the vineyards and farms
further inland that surrounded the Cape. Nico Carstens, a famous South African
accordion player, describes in an interview with the journalist Graham Howe how he was
taught by a farm labourer in Piketberg (a farming town approximately 150km outside of
Cape Town) to play guitar in the ghoema tradition (Howe 1997, 114). Nico Carstens
describes the music played by the farmers and farm labourers as boeremusiek (literally
‘farmers’ music’ but meaning ‘white music’) and gamatmusiek (a pejorative term
meaning ‘coloured music’)16
although, as he explains, they were the same kind of music
(Howe 1997, 114). The style of ghoema performed on the farms was more rhythmically
rigid, had a strong marching pulse and was slightly more “Germanic” according to
trumpeter Alex Van Heerden
The main genre of music performed on the farms was called vastrap or tiekiedraai. It
developed its own idiosyncratic sound as they used inferior quality or home-made
instruments. The vastrap ensemble consisted of a concertina or piano accordion and
home-made violins and guitars constructed of oil cans and wire. The piano-accordion, as
wear-and-tear ensued, would sometimes be retuned in a different way to its original
tuning setup. This was as a result of faulty keys and air-chambers.
15
The Khoi Roots of Vastrap Music (Alex van Heerden) [Online] 05 May 2009. Available:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MYxH9NjFQVI 16
The term gamat, or more locally gam is a colloquial derogatory term that is used to describe the so-called
coloured people from the Western Cape.
35
Figure 2.1
A typical ghoema bassline is used in Figure 2.1. This bassline was performed by me
under the guidance of Mac McKenzie of the Ghoema Captains.17
The bassline focuses on
playing the syncopated pattern that is usually performed by the ghoema drum. The drum
set groove is a variation and orchestration for drum set of the ostinato pattern which
would ordinarily be played on the ghoema drum. The pattern has a low pitch on every
beat within the bar of music which gives the music its driving quality with the higher
pitch playing a syncopated pattern to complement the singing and prevailing syncopation
of ghoema music. The only embellishment by the bass comes in the form of a leading
bassline at the end of every second bar to musically suggest a shift in harmony from the
major I chord to the major IV chord. This bassline is played on the upright bass in a
pizzicato fashion in keeping with the parading tradition of the klein-bassies found in
Christmas Bands.
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.2 is a more contemporary foray into ghoema. The bassline is played on a
fretless bass guitar and is played with the right-hand close to the neck to produce a more
singing quality to the bass tone. As in Figure 2.1 the drum set further emphasizes the
17
A transcription from the song ‘Save Me’ off the album ‘The Birth’. See Discography
36
ghoema drum pattern by playing the same rhythm and orchestrating it around the drum
set but with added syncopation which is improvised throughout the tune by the snare
drum and kick drum. The steady hi-hat pulse once again is being played on beats two and
four which helps to anchor the rhythm-section. The song is entitled ‘Lansdowne Road’
which is one of the major roads that runs throughout the Southern suburbs of the Cape
Flats in Cape Town.18
Taking into account all the aforementioned information on the subject of ghoema, my
definition cannot be condensed into a single-lined answer. Therefore, in answering the
question “What is ghoema?” my answer is that ghoema is an energetic music from Cape
Town, South Africa with its musical heritage steeped in south-east Asian and African
cultures. Ghoema occurs in three sub-genres of the annual parading traditions including
the Nagtroepe, Minstrel Carnival and Christmas Bands (three variants of ghoema
performed by troupes), Langarm (a dance hall variant of ghoema performed by an
ensemble at social dances) and Vastrap (a rural variant of ghoema performed on farms by
labourers and owners alike). Ghoema is synonymous with the ‘ghoema drum’ which is
used during the performance of ghoema music.
The conceptualizations and definitions of mbaqanga and ghoema have included historic
evidence, transcriptions and technical considerations on how to perform the music genres
accurately. [In formulating the definitions of ghoema and mbaqanga in this thesis I have
not included certain esoteric considerations about a performer’s regard for the music and
musical instruments they play as it is not the aim of the thesis.
2.3 Development of tone as a result of esotericism
Possessing a fundamentally good tone on an electric bass guitar, whether plugged into an
amplifier or acoustically, will become evident regardless of the quality of the bass being
played. Other aspects of tone control like amplifiers, preamps and effects processors
become superfluous without fundamentally good tone and technique. Hence, the previous
18
A transcription from the song ‘Lansdowne Road’ off the album ‘Sunshine In My Soul’. See Discography
37
statements beg the question: “Will an inferior quality bass not affect the sound?” The
overall sound of a bassist lies in note-selection, phrasing, attack while playing, note-
length, technique and feel. Regardless of the quality of the bass being played, these
concepts would always be heard and can make the bassist easily identifiable. However,
having good equipment does go a long way in making your identifiable sound even more
so. Two major considerations which affect the selection of bass playing equipment are
the bass guitar and the amplifier with a lesser importance extended to strings, pickups and
on-board preamps as well as speaker cabinets, preamplifiers, cables and effects.
Amplifier head and speaker cabinet choices only really concern live performance while
things like pre-amplifiers and effects apply more to recording applications. The choice of
guitar is a crucial one as every guitar brand is different in tone and feel. The components
and wood selection for parts of the guitar also yield different results in terms of the
overall guitar tone and playability. The kind of strings used also makes a huge difference
in the feel of the bass as every string brand sounds different and reacts differently to the
player’s technique. Pickups and on-board preamp (if so desired) selections and matching
also significantly affect the sound of the bass guitar.
After all the technical aspects of developing a fundamentally good bass tone have been
considered, the intangible considerations around music performance have to be reviewed.
While it is difficult or impossible to prove, it is not my intention to make sweeping
statements or generalisations regarding the esoteric aspects about playing music,
however, these generalisations have to occur in order to develop better insight. It is my
contention that the esoteric aspects of performing music and the sentiment exhibited
before and during performances by musicians strongly influence their sound. Through
watching performances, listening to recordings and talking to other musicians I have
condensed the types of bassists into these categories: bassists that are naturally
extroverted and boisterous tend to have a very creative and playful yet compassionate
style of playing while musicians that are introverted and quiet tend to have a determined
and prudent yet supportive and driven style of playing.
38
The first example of this concept is the bassist Jaco Pastorius who performed with the
fusion, jazz-rock band Weather Report. Pastorius was bi-polar which was further
aggravated by his constant alcohol and drug abuse (Milkowski 1996, 123). His
personality was very erratic and he was renowned for making spectacular entrances to
performances and for making spectacular exits by being thrown out of venues. Pastorius
was and still is regarded as having been the most creative and revolutionary electric
bassist of all time, particularly concerning the fretless electric bass guitar. Examples of
his playing style can be heard on his album Jaco19 where he exhibits great imagination
with the song ‘Portrait of Tracey’ and technical virtuosity with his arrangement of Charlie
Parker’s ‘Donna Lee’.20
The upright bassist Ron Carter who performed with Miles Davis
and Herbie Hancock was the complete opposite. Through many readings on CD liner
notes, magazine articles, jazz books and bass player websites as well as having had the
honour of meeting and spending time with Mr Carter, I can confirm that he has a quiet
and calm personality while still possessing a determined and stately quality. Ron Carter’s
bass playing is known for its supportive and driving qualities while very rarely straying
from the original bassline and the role of the bass in the music he performs.
Through research and several conversations with music and medical lecturers at UCT,
there is increasing evidence of interest in the study of how music performance interacts
with the performer physically and psychologically (Sacks 2007). There have been
numerous studies on how music affects the brains of children and adults and physically
which parts of the brain are affected. Some of these studies include: Effects of music
training on the child’s brain and cognitive development (Schlaug, Norton, Overy and
Winner 2005), Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity
in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion (Blood and Zatorre 2001) and
Swinging in the brain: Shared neural substrates for behaviours related to sequencing
and music (Janata and Grafton 2003). One of the leading universities in this field is
Stanford University in California, USA which boasts renowned best-selling
authors/researchers such as Daniel Levitin and academics in the field of cognitive
19
See Discography 20
See Discography
39
psychology such as Roger Shepard (Levitin 2006). How a musician thinks about the song
being performed and his or her regard for it affects the way in which the song will be
played and more specifically the approach in technique during performance. In the jazz
tradition, songs usually follow a form which has at least two themes and these themes are
labelled ‘section A’ and ‘section B’. In my experience and through watching or listening
to other musicians the practice is when the ‘section A’ has a flowing and melodic feel,
‘section B’ often is driving and abrupt. Similarly the approach of the bassist in such a
song would be influenced by the sentiment expressed in the contrasting sections. During
‘section A’ the bass has a rounder tone and plays legato while in ‘section B’ it has a
meatier tone and plays shorter notes to emphasise the drive. Sometimes instead of shorter
notes the bassist just plays louder and physically harder.
After conducting interviews with Kriel and Mbadu, there have been many concerts and
jam sessions where I could watch Mbadu and Kriel perform. At the jam sessions they
sometimes perform separately and sometimes together as Kriel would swop to guitar or
Mbadu to piano. Somehow even when they were not playing the bass, their sound and
sentiment seemed to remain constant during the performance although the medium for
musical expression changed. Having spent time with them after these performances, the
formulation of a holistic view of them as people and musicians developed. Trying to
establish the trajectory from personality to performance surfaced mid-way during this
thesis and has resulted in its inclusion. I have subsequently had independent
conversations with both research consultants and have come to assess that they have not
given the concept of esotericism in music performance any thought. Therefore, further
research and my own experiences as evidence has been included in this thesis. The
development of the concept of tone as a result of esotericism has been enhanced through
the documentation of their individual biographical information as well as the description
and transcription of their bass playing.
40
Chapter 3 - Spencer Mbadu
The first time I heard Spencer Mbadu I was sixteen years old, it was 1 o’clock in the
morning and I was at the jam session at the club Riffs in Wynberg which was owned by
Jay Reddy. The song was the Sonny Rollins composition St. Thomas and I remember
thinking that never before have I heard a bass sound like it did that evening. The sound
was lyrical, warm, personal and exciting. There were many slurs, harmonics and the
basslines were frenetic yet driving, determined and grooved. It sounded as if Mbadu was
playing like it was the last time he would ever play the bass again! I would later come to
learn that Mbadu’s playing is always like that. Suffice it to say that I was completely
mesmerized that evening and would continue to be for a long time after that performance.
When I was introduced to him we ended up talking about everything other than bass
playing and it would turn out to be one of most informative evenings in my life.
3.1 The biography
3.1.1 Earliest memories
Spencer Mbadu was born on 21 January 1955. He grew up in a post-World War II
shanty-town (Western 2001, 632) called Windermere in a sub-section called Mcheko
Block. Today Winderemere is known as Kensington and is situated in the Northern
Suburbs of Cape Town. After the implementation of the Group Areas Act in 1950 by the
apartheid government, Mbadu and his family were forcibly removed from Windermere
as it was rezoned as a ‘coloured area’ in 1958 (Field 2001, 13). They were relocated to
Nyanga (literally ‘Moon’) West which was later to become Gugulethu (literally ‘Our
Pride’) (Field 2001, 42). Like District Six that was situated near the Cape Town CBD,
Windermere was also a melting pot of cultures and races and as Mbadu recalls a “mixed
masala…Indians…coloureds, whites, blacks being born together…growing in
harmony.”21
It was initially also a suburb which was both urban as well as rural in its
socio-economic identity. Windermere, in being rural, was mostly farmland with small
21
See Interview Transcription of Spencer Mbadu. Appendix A
41
dams servicing some of the livestock and crops that people maintained on or near their
property whilst, in being urban, new apartments, stores and centres were being built to
promote economic development outside of the CBD of Cape Town (Field 2001, 27).
Today the only signs of the existence of the former shanty town are in some of the street
names and the name of the primary school in the area.
Spencer Mbadu is a gigging bassist with some of Cape Town’s most notable bands and
artists. Some of the bands have included Opus de Funk and Siyabuya as well as artists
like vocalist Sylvia Mdunyelwa and saxophonist Winston ‘Mankunku’ Ngozi. He has
worked around the country and moved to Johannesburg on several occasions to pursue a
career there. One of the most prolific bands in Cape Town’s history was called Work
Force. This band was home to the city’s finest jazz-rock-fusion musicians. The band
members included guitarist Alvin Dyers, drummer Denver Furness, the late saxophonist
Nic Le Roux and various vocalists who fronted the band with Mbadu on bass. Mbadu
was one of a select few musicians who were booked to be part of the local band for the
series of internationally publicized ‘46664’ concerts which were held across the world.
He performed with world leading pop artists and groups at this event. Throughout his
career he has spent much of his time teaching privately but mostly at the Jazz Workshop
in Cape Town. Some of his students have become very prominent on the local and
international music scene. Some of these students include the late Eddie Jooste, Bongani
Sokhela, Peter Ndlala and Herbie Tsoaeli.
3.1.2 Family and friends as an influence in music
Most of the musicians that I have researched either for this work or for my own
enlightenment seem to have had music played, sung or described to them by persons
close to them within the early stages of their childhoods. In the interview with Spencer
Mbadu in February this year, this concept is reflected as he described how he “started
making sounds on the instruments [that were accessible]” at the age of three and his first
composition was a song that he had composed when he was four years of age. His
grandmother played the concert or pedal harp and it was on this instrument that he first
42
ventured to play music. During his childhood living in Gugulethu, he was surrounded by
music in the forms of pennywhistles being played by kids in the streets and by the
tradition of bands performing on trucks that would drive around the neighbourhood. One
of these was the first big band established in Langa called the Merry Macs led by Joel
M’Brooks Mlomo which included the legendary South African jazz saxophonist,
Christopher ‘Columbus’ Ncgukana (Rasmussen 2003, 155). Ncgukana’s sons are still
active today in the South African music industry and Mbadu has performed with all of
them but most notably Ncgukana’s eldest sons Duke and Ezra Ncgukana. The Merry
Macs band members were quite capable of playing on a truck since all of the instruments
were performed acoustically.
3.2 The instruments
3.2.1 Instruments played and why
After his initial attempts to play the harp, Mbadu later taught himself to play the
pennywhistle, guitar and the piano. The pennywhistle was freely available and in order to
play the guitar children and adults alike in the more impoverished communities would
manufacture their own guitars which were constructed by cleaning out a five gallon tin
(the resonator) and by cutting a hole on one side (the sound-hole), affixing a wooden
beam (the neck and fingerboard) and lastly stringing wire or fishing line from the end of
the neck to the opposite end on the tin. The piano has always been a cherished possession
amongst families but more so in aspirant coloured and black families (Western 2001,
633). It gave these families a sense of sophistication and achievement in owning a piano
as well as prestige amongst their neighbours when their children performed at
Eisteddfods, Royal Schools’ Examinations and at school cultural evenings. Mbadu
explains in his first interview that he “was lazy to go attend school” and found
“school…boring from the age of five already” and was never enrolled for any of the
aforementioned extra-curricular activities. Understanding this, one can relate to Mbadu’s
explanation of the inaccessibility of the piano:
43
“SJ: was it [the piano] freely accessible? Could you get to it [the piano] quickly?
SM: Not really, not especially with the piano…You’ll…make sure there’s nobody
home, all by yourself while others are watching outside when the parents
come…[and you] make as if you didn’t touch the instrument”22
(19 February
2009).
After reading many interviews and articles of international bassists, a common theme
emerged: for many the bass was usually not the first instrument they played. This
phenomenon is displayed again as Mbadu describes how he went from playing rhythm-
guitar in a band to playing bass in the same band. He explains that in 1972 the original
bassist of the band in which he played suddenly quit only two days before their
performance at a festival in Cape Town. The bandleader asked Mbadu to fulfil the bass
playing role for the next two days in order for them to pull off their performance at the
festival. Mbadu explains that he did this with some protest as he explained to the
bandleader that he was only prepared to play for those two days and exclaimed, “Why
don’t you ask my grandmother?! She plays this better than I can play this thing!”23
3.2.2 First explorations into identifying and emulating bassists
As described in earlier passages of this work, Mbadu’s earliest influences were found
right on his doorstep. Bands performed on trucks and drove around his neighbourhood,
kids played on pennywhistles and makeshift guitars, and even his own family was a
source of musical inspiration. In the interview, he mentions the name Joseph Makwela
who was a member of the band which backed Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens, the
Makgona Tsohle Band. This discovery ratified the endeavour by this thesis to nail down
the description and definition for mbaqanga. It also answered my suspicions of how he
came to play in the manner in that he does and for which he is known. It is my contention
that Mbadu’s playing is very playful almost bordering on being too musically busy while
still somehow maintaining a strong rhythmic pulse and groove. My admiration for Mbadu
22
See Interview Transcription of Spencer Mbadu. Appendix A 23
See Interview Transcription of Spencer Mbadu. Appendix A
44
in this regard is ironic in that I admire him as much as he admires Joseph Makwela’s
playing: “He (Joseph Makwela) was so rhythmical and so melodical on his bass…you
would dance to his basslines even if there’s no drum beats going…he was really hip.”24
The best recorded example of Mbadu playing in this fashion can be found in his basslines
performing the song Khawuleza written by Winston Mankunku and Mike Perry.25
The legendary jazz saxophonist Winston ‘Mankunku’ Ngozi formed a band called
Siyabuya with members who later became world-famous musicians like Bheki Mseleku
and Tony Cedras. While Mbadu performed with this band they continually compared his
playing to that of the bass-playing phenomenon Jaco Pastorius. Pastorius is hailed as
“The World’s Greatest Bass Player” due to his revolutionary approach on the electric
and, more specifically, fretless electric bass.26
He was the first person to really play the
instrument as a lead instrument in a band as opposed to its usual function in a band as a
supportive and background instrument (Gridley 2009, 381). Mbadu’s influence by Jaco is
the first notable thing about his playing for a number of reasons: firstly, he was given a 4-
string Höhner fretless bass guitar as a birthday gift by the late bassist and ex-student of
Mbadu’s, Eddie Jooste; secondly, his almost excessive use of harmonics in his playing,
which was popularized by the song ‘Portrait of Tracey’ by Jaco Pastorius on his debut
album Jaco;27
thirdly, the very percussive and rhythmic embellishments; and lastly, the
very lyrical playing and inflections when playing ballads and slow-tempo songs.
3.3 The tone – technical considerations
The sound which you are known by has much to do with the inherent tone of your
musical equipment. The inherent tone in musical equipment is more obvious in
instruments made of wood or metal. Hence, different guitars produce different tones
because the woods they are constructed of produce varied tones and affect overall
performance. Electronics in the form of pickups and on-board preamps are also to be
24
See Interview Transcription of Spencer Mbadu. Appendix A 25
. See Discography 26
See Terms and Definitions 27
See Discography
45
considered as well as their power requirements in terms of them being either ‘active’ or
‘passive’ electronic systems.28
Moreover certain brands of musical instruments have
become the standard for everything else that is made after it. The best example of this
concept regarding electric bass guitars can be found in the Fender brand of guitars which
were built by Leo Fender with guitar models dating back to the 1940s.29
This does not
mean that everything before Fender was irrelevant. Due to its subsequent widespread
popularity and preferred choice by the recording artists since its inception, everything
relating to parts, tone, size, shape and feel are based on this brand of guitar. This is due to
the rise of electric basses and guitars with the arrival of rock, pop, folk rock and jazz
fusion around that time.
3.3.1 Physicality, Technique – Pizzicato and ‘Slapping and Popping’, Character and
Sentiment
Physicality
Upon shaking hands with Mbadu, I was amazed to feel how hard his hands were. The
surfaces of his hands were hard due to calluses from years of playing bass guitar and his
fingers were also meaty or pudgy due to his large size. However, as much as his hands
were akin to those of someone in the construction industry, his grip and touch were
incredibly light and considerate. A greater insight into the fundamental bass tone of
Mbadu could be drawn from this discovery. He has a fat and driving bass sound and
seems to always attack the bass strings with a lot of vigour and conviction while at the
same time maintaining a deft and agile approach.
28
See Terms and Definitions 29
See Terms and Definitions
46
Technique – Pizzicato
Mbadu utilizes a one-finger-per-fret or the claw approach in how he positions his left-
hand in relation to the fingerboard and frets.30
The Claw method covers many notes
across the fretboard without moving the position of the left hand along the fingerboard.
Mbadu’s right-hand technique is the commonly used method which utilizes the index-
and middle-fingers as the main plucking fingers while the ring- and little-fingers act as
dampers across the strings. In this common method of playing electric bass the thumb is
not used to pluck the strings but instead rests on top of the pickup or on the bottom string
(the E-string on a 4-string bass). Mbadu’s use of his thumb is slightly different at times as
it seems to float parallel to and in front of his main plucking fingers. This floating method
allows him to limit tension on the strings while simultaneously giving him access to
creating false harmonics by using his thumb. This method allows for a decrease in string
tension by not resting the thumb on a string or pickup and in so doing decreasing the
overall tension within the guitar.
Technique – ‘Slapping and Popping’
Mbadu’s ‘slapping and popping’ technique is unique and slightly humorous when you
discover why he has adapted his particular style. ‘Slapping and Popping’ on the bass
guitar is a technique first made popular by the bassists of the 1970’s like Larry Graham
and Louis Johnson who played funk and soul music. Slapping the bass is a technique
whereby the thumb on the right-hand is positioned perpendicular to the strings and is
used like a hammer to strike the strings against the fretboard. Popping the bass refers to a
strong plucking of a string where it is lifted by the index or middle finger and when the
string is released it violently rebounds off of the fretboard. This technique is a very
percussive way of playing the bass guitar and has become the highlight of any solo or
bassline.
30
See Terms and Definitions
47
The technique that Mbadu has developed has come about from trying to save money!
Slapping puts a great deal of tension on the strings and if they are not supple, they have a
tendency to snap. Subsequently, new strings are always preferred by bassists as they
sound clearer and have minimal tension. As the strings get older the tone diminishes and
the strings are also less supple and if not slapped or popped correctly will snap. The
technique utilised by Mbadu limits his ability to play more elaborate and intricate
slapping rhythms and phrases but he admits to not using the slapping sound much as he
prefers a more lyrical style of playing. His technique involves using his index finger on
his right hand as a counter-pressure to his middle-finger. He places his middle-finger on
top of, and behind, his index-finger and allows it to slide past the index-finger quickly.
This counter-pressure from the index finger to the downward pressure of the middle
finger allows Mbadu to create a similar motion to that of the thumb in the slapping
technique yet allows him to use less force to create the desired sound. In so doing he can
save money on buying new strings often as they are less likely to snap while slapping
them.
Character and Sentiment
In my time as a student and now a colleague, I can verify that Spencer Mbadu has a
‘larger than life’ personality that is very nurturing and supportive. He is also very
respectful and exhibits a fair amount of humility with an underlying determination and
sense of purpose. Regarding music he is very diligent in wanting to improve upon his
abilities and can always be seen practising between lessons with students. Mbadu does,
however, tend to be somewhat controversial expressing his thoughts regarding music,
musicians and work. By understanding the abovementioned attributes of Spencer Mbadu,
a deeper understanding of his playing can be drawn. Mbadu’s bass playing is very
reminiscent of Jaco Pastorius. While still assimilating a large sense of his own musical
heritage, his style exhibits an inventive, flamboyant and innovative approach to music
and technique.
48
3.3.2 Gear - the bass, the equalisation and other technical considerations
The Bass
The quest for the perfect tone is a never-ending one. This is the case simply because the
perfect tone is relative to the person searching for it. My idea of what constitutes a great
sound for the bass generically and for my personal tone has changed considerably since
the day I started playing. There are a few contributing factors to this tonal evolution. The
most overriding factor is the one of musical taste: as my musical appreciation palette
broadened, so too has my understanding of what makes a good bass tone with regard to a
certain genre. One tone does not work universally and to think so may be somewhat
problematic - it would be like the bassist bringing a harmonica to a club gig!
Mbadu has owned several basses and has elected to do recordings on only a select few,
one of which was a four-string, fretted Ibanez bass guitar.31
This bass had active
electronics but gave him endless problems regarding its on-board preamp and general
feel. He has since discarded that bass and now only uses the basses which have been gifts
from students. The basses he now owns include an Aria32 from Bongani Sokhela, a Cort33
A6 six-string bass from Peter Ndlala and, his prized possession, the Höhner four-string,
fretless bass. The bass that I associate him with is the Höhner bass. As fretless basses go,
the technique of the player generates the overall tone. If you get two bassists to play the
exact same notes on the exact same bass, it would sound remarkably different as a result
of the attack of the strings and the hand placement along the body by the right-hand as
well as the pressure exerted and hand placement on the fretboard by the left-hand.
31
See Terms and Definitions 32
See Terms and Definitions 33
See Terms and Definitions
49
The Equalisation (EQ)
To really get the most out of your bass tone a basic understanding of how altering the
levels of certain frequencies will affect your sound in relation to the venue in which you
may be performing. The book Modern Recording Techniques states that:
“The rate at which an acoustic generator…repeats within a cycle of positive and
negative amplitude is known as the frequency of that signal…The number of
cycles that occur within a second is measured in hertz…the charted output of an
audio device is known as its frequency response curve. This curve is used to
graphically represent how a device will respond to the audio spectrum and, thus,
how it will affect a signal’s overall sound…the x-axis represents the signal’s
measured frequency, while the y-axis represents the…measured output signal”
(Huber and Runstein 2005, 37 and 41).
By understanding the passage above it is possible to formulate a mental image of how the
equalisation controls on a bass guitar and amplifier alters the input signal from the bass.
On a combo amplifier,34
the knobs labelled as pre-gain, bass, mid, treble, post-gain work
as follows: pre-gain refers to the amount of signal which is being sent from the sound
source (guitar, bass, keyboard and so forth) into the amplifier circuitry before
equalisation; bass, mid and treble refer to the boosting or cutting of the amplitude of the
signal over a specific frequency range for each control knob; and post-gain refers to the
amount of signal sent from the amplifier to the connected speaker. A selectable frequency
equalizer is an adjustable audio filter inserted into a circuit to divide and adjust frequency
response through altering or distorting the relative amplitude of a certain frequency range
(Huber and Runstein 2005, 450). The bass, mid and treble controls on an amp are
effectively acting as equalizers which boost or cut a desired frequency range. The
specific frequency range for a tone control knob is also known as a band of equalisation
or, more commonly, an EQ band.
34
A combo amplifier refers to combination of a preamplifier and speaker housed in a single cabinet or
enclosure.
50
The most basic version of tone control on a bass can be found on the Fender bass guitars
where the on-board controls simply include three knobs: a neck pickup volume, bridge
pickup volume and a tone shape knob. The positions on the bass body where the pickups
are situated have two distinct tonal characters while the tone control knob allows the
player to boost a set frequency range across various portions of the frequency spectrum.
Generally basses include a 2-band or 3-band EQ control system. The more bands of
frequency control there are on a bass, the more a player can sculpt his or her desired tone.
Some amplifiers include a parametric equalisation stage that allows players to cut or
boost the signals of only selected frequencies. This altering of equalisation allows
musicians who perform in different settings to accurately try and recreate their desired
tone. The bass frequencies and subsequent audio signal is omni-directional and can be
heard farther than any other signal from its original source (Adelman-Larsen and
Thompson 2008, 1). Therefore, it is also the most difficult tone to control in smaller
venues with poor acoustics. High ceilings, glass doors, wooden floors and square or flat
reflective surfaces are the enemies of every bass amplifier. These surfaces do not allow
for enough diffusion or absorption of the bass signal. The bass frequencies become
amplified due to increased audio reflection and in so doing create a louder yet muffled
sound. This bass tone would colloquially be referred to as being boomy. Understanding
amplifiers and acoustics are less important for the bass guitar in studio applications as its
audio signal is usually recorded ‘dry’, that is before equalisation and any other signal
altering processes such as compression.
The equalisation generally employed by Mbadu is not very specific regarding his fretted
or fretless basses. His only requirement for his fretless tone is a “fat sound with a nice
nag” and for his fretted basses to posses a “fat sound with a solid slap and nice sizzle.”35
With the fretless bass he would like the lower frequencies between 80Hz and 120 Hz
boosted to provide the fat, deep bass tone. The ‘nag’ is achieved by boosting the Mid-
range frequencies between 200Hz to 600Hz which provides a more ‘nasal’ and warm
tone. On the fretted bass the lower- and mid-ranged frequencies are boosted just as with
35
See Interview Transcription with Spencer Mbadu. Appendix A
51
the fretless bass but the sizzle that he wants to achieve on the fretted bass is produced by
boosting the frequencies between 1 kHz to 10 kHz.
52
Chapter 4 - Gary Kriel
The first time I heard Gary Kriel was on Errol Dyers’ album Sonesta where he played
electric guitar on the title track. I always think it is out of admiration that a guitarist
would hire another guitarist to play their music. The first time I heard Kriel play bass was
at a bazaar held at a home for the physically disabled in Bridgetown where he was
playing with the musicians of the surrounding area. I remember being very excited when
I heard him play as the sound of the bass was tonally and musically perfect for what was
being performed. The band sounded like the bands which used to perform at the many
weddings and church functions that I attended with my family. The sound was strong and
gritty36
yet incredibly supportive and always understated. I was introduced to Kriel at
another occasion by drummer Richard Pickett while backstage during a concert at the
Artscape Theatre. Pickett and Kriel were playing for Tony Schilder who was to perform
later that evening. Kriel was very friendly and said that he was honoured to finally meet
me as he had heard so much about me. The irony was unbelievable to say the least! I
mentioned to him that I was a huge admirer of his bass playing for a number of years and
that I would really like to meet him one day for a lesson or just to chat as I was sure I
would have much to learn from him about the music scene in Cape Town, his background
and, more importantly, as a bassist.
4.1 The biography
4.1.1 Earliest Memories
Gary Kriel was born on 5 December 1939 in the house on the corner where Church Street
intersects Buitengracht Street in the Cape Town CBD. His musical background comes in
the form of his grandmother who played the guitar. She was from a town called Calvinia
which is situated in the northern region of the Western Cape Province. The area is more
36
A gritty bass tone refers to a tone where the combination of sounds creates an overall tonal colour. The
sound of the strings as they are depressed by the left-hand, plucked by the right-hand and when the strings
touch the frets and fretboard all produce a combined tone that is similar to the sound of sandpaper being
applied to a piece of wood. Hence the term gritty.
53
commonly referred to as the Koue Bokkeveld (literally ‘cold’ ‘goats-field’) which is part
of the Klein Karoo District and lies to the west of the Tanqua Karoo (Penn 2006, 2). The
Klein Karoo has recently been under the spotlight with the release of the DVD ‘Karoo
Guitar Blues’ which was a documentary and concert series about the many singers and
guitarists from the different farming settlements and small towns which can be found in
the Klein Karoo region. Kriel explains:
“David Kramer…he made a documentary about the musicians in the Little Karoo, Koue Bokkeveld…my grandmother, my mother was born in a place called, a small
place called Calvinia…my grandmother’s there and all these people originated
from Calvinia playing guitar…”37
(12 May 2009).
Kriel spent his early childhood playing in the streets of Cape Town and attended school
in the city.
4.1.2 Family or friends as an influence in music
In 1948 Gary Kriel was diagnosed with tuberculosis of the hip. After the diagnoses he
was admitted to Maitland Cottage Home which was established in 1929 through the
Invalid Aid Fund established in 1923 by the Cape Town Society for the Protection of
Child Life.38
While at the institution, Kriel met up with two people who would eventually
become leading musicians in their own right, namely Jimmy Adams and Harold
Jephthah. Adams’ mother was the cook for the home and he used to teach music to some
of the students while Jephthah was also a patient at the Maitland Cottage Home. They
started a little wind ensemble playing instruments made from the bamboo that grew
naturally in the surrounding area. The home would host various bands around the festive
season and on one occasion the mayor of Cape Town presented Kriel with a guitar as a
Christmas gift. This gesture would turn out to be a turning point in Kriel’s life and career
as it became the first of several instruments with which he performed extensively.
Kriel underwent surgery on his hip and left the Maitland Cottage Home after having been
a patient and student for four years. He completed his schooling up until standard 6, now
37
See Interview Transcription with Gary Kriel. Appendix B 38
Black Dot IT Solutions. (2009) Maitland Cottage Home [Online]. 04 August 2009 Available:
http://www.mch.org.za/index.htm
54
grade 8. Being the eldest child in his family he was forced to work at an early age to
supplement the family’s income. He went to work for the post office and was responsible
for cleaning telephone booths. Kriel explains his first involvement as a gigging musician
as follows:
“he [Kenny Jephtha] went up to, those days was Rhodesia, Zimbabwe is
Rhodesia, and he was on tour there and I took his place and the next thing I think I
played, I played for about 5 or 6 years…then they recruited me for the Golden City Dixies”
39 (12 May 2009).
Kriel performed for approximately six years at the venue, which was the old catacomb of
St George’s Cathedral in Cape Town.
The Golden City Dixies was one of the most notable groups in Cape Town’s musical
history having been the stomping ground for many of the city’s most prolific performers
and musicians. Some famous names include the jazz guitarist Jonathan Butler, vocalist
and actor Cyril Valentine, bassist ‘Philly’ Schilder and the jazz pianist Sammy Hartman.
Kriel was booked to play the guitar for the Golden City Dixies but when the Moppies40
were performed he played the banjo. After touring with the show for a number of years,
Kriel became a stalwart in the local South African music industry mainly performing with
groups and artists from Cape Town. The most notable of these performers are two
pianists with whom Kriel has worked for over twenty years. These pianists are iconic jazz
pianists and composers in their own right, namely Abdullah Ibrahim, formerly known as
Dollar Brand, and Tony Schilder. Ibrahim has enjoyed great success abroad and
subsequently spends most of the year playing in the US and Europe while Schilder has
performed throughout Southern Africa and steadily in and around Cape Town.
Unfortunately, due to poor health Schilder has not been performing for the past few
years. Kriel now regularly performs at the restaurant Pigalle with bandleader and guitarist
Richard Caesar.
39
See Interview Transcription with Gary Kriel. Appendix B 40
Comic, upbeat songs which make light of events that are a source of worry (Martin 1999)
55
4.2 The instruments
4.2.1 Instruments played and why
Upon leaving the Maitland Cottages Home Kriel learned to play the accordion and went
on to perform with a langarm41 band to earn a living. Only after being asked to join a
band in Durban did he start to play the electric bass. Kriel is self-taught and claims to
have never practiced a day in his life. He has recorded albums on both electric guitar and
electric bass.
4.2.2 First explorations into identifying and emulating bassists
As Kriel explains, every instrument and gig which he has played has been a last minute
decision, a gift or as a result of, as he puts it, “being thrown into the deep end.” He does,
however, admit that his family and his surroundings have all contributed to the way in
which he plays and feels about music. Kriel always takes a supportive role while playing
music whether it is on electric bass, guitar or the accordion. His playing style is heavily
influenced by his experiences with the Golden City Dixies regarding the more common
ghoema and Cape Town-styled music. Kriel enjoyed the music of the jazz pianist Oscar
Petersen and emulated the feel and sound of the bassist for the Oscar Petersen Trio,
namely Ray Brown.
Kriel claims he has never checked out any musical genres like samba, rock, reggae or
fusion. This is strange by current standards as the average student through the advent of
the internet and a wide variety of print media ends up knowing about players and styles in
these musical genres after their first or second lesson. It is my contention that new
students need to learn as many styles as possible to increase their overall musicality and
general music knowledge. Unfortunately, this does sometimes lead to the student often
overplaying a musical situation and not really functioning as a bassist in laying down the
musical foundations of harmony and rhythm. Kriel has learned how the bass
41
Refer to Chapter 2.2.2 Ghoema. Page 33
56
fundamentally works in music through experience. It could be argued that this extensive
experience has made the need for learning these other genres remarkably less important
for Kriel. This lack of knowledge in other musical genres could be viewed as being
beneficial to Kriel in the sense that he has no pre-conceived ideas of what a typical
bassline in these genres would sound like. I contend that his reliance on his own musical
sense of rhythm and harmony has allowed him to put his ‘musical stamp’ on the music he
performs. The musical stamp is more a sense of sound and feel. Kriel has an ability to
vary the tone by means of his technique to best suit the music being performed: he could
either possess a gritty tone or a warm, round tone depending on the song. His groove and
feel is relative to the length of notes, the length between notes and the placement of the
notes in relation to the feel of the song. A general sense of groove is exhibited over
technical prowess.
4.3 The tone – technical considerations
4.3.1 Physicality, Technique – Pizzicato and ‘Slapping and Popping’, Character and
Sentiment
Physicality
Upon meeting Kriel I did not immediately notice that he had a limp due to having had
tuberculosis of the hip. He is just under 1,5 metres in height and of a medium build yet
still possesses a quietly commanding and determined presence about him. When Kriel
performs he is usually seated and plays without a guitar strap, instead he straddles the
bass guitar over his left leg. There are several pictures in the foyer of Westend, a club in
Cape Town, where Kriel has the bass resting upright on a barstool while he stands next to
it and plays it in the same fashion that one would play an upright bass. I asked him
whether it was in an attempt to emulate the sound or feel of an upright bass. He explained
that it was due the fact that the stage at the venue was too small for him to sit and play
with the guitar neck in its usual position.
57
Technique – Pizzicato
Kriel’s technique is based on the more commonly used technique which involves draping
the right-hand over the body of the bass perpendicular to the strings. The index and
middle fingers are used to pluck the strings in an upward motion. When listening to
recordings of Kriel, a sense that he plays with significant force is evident due to the very
gritty and focused sound conveyed. However, upon watching him perform it is clear that
he plays with a light touch in both his hands and utilizes a low guitar action42
to best suit
this technique. His left-hand technique does, however, hint at a partial explanation for
why his sound comes across as gritty. He primarily only utilizes three of his four
available fingers to play notes on the fingerboard – his index, middle and ring fingers.
Playing in this manner forces him to move around on the fingerboard substantially more
than if he utilized the Claw43 technique. This is as a result of having to find the right notes
on the right string to achieve his desired bassline’s note selection with only three fingers.
This substantial movement results in increased grit entering the overall tone of the guitar.
Regarding ornamental playing on the bass in the form of slides and dead or percussive
notes44
Kriel is the complete opposite of Mbadu. Kriel very rarely uses dead or percussive
notes and always opts to play the actual note he is fretting. Slides are sometimes used as
mechanisms to get to other notes on the fretboard. He very rarely uses them as ornaments
in his playing. Kriel utilizes his sense of feel and note-syncopation to enhance the
ornamental qualities of his basslines. Unlike Spencer, Kriel does not use the ‘slapping
and popping’ technique.
Character and Sentiment
Kriel is a humorous and sincere person. He is incredibly humble and tends to shake off
any kind of praise by saying that he is “just a bass player”. This humble and soft nature
42
See Terms and Definitions 43
See Terms and Definitions 44
Dead or percussive notes are produced by playing the strings while the left hand does not fret a note but
instead lightly applies pressure to stop the string from vibrating.
58
belies an underlying sense of self-worth and determination to constantly improve upon
his playing and that of his fellow musicians. In the countless conversations with Kriel
there is always some story or anecdote about how he was misjudged or taken for granted
and how he was able to subtly but surely reaffirm his worth, experience and ability. One
example is about a visiting singer from the US with whom Kriel was booked to play. He
explains:
“Henry Shields he phoned me he says ‘Listen, this American singer she’s
performing at the Green Dolphin…will you come in?’ I was first there and here
this singer came up and said ‘I don’t want a E[lectric] bass’ I said ‘Oh, Mr Shields
asked me to come and I could get back into my car and I can go home.’ She
phoned Henry…[he] said that ‘this is the best I could find to accommodate you.’
So she says to me ‘I didn’t know that a E[lectric] bass can sound like it’s [a]
double bass’. I said ‘it depends how you play it. Let me tell you something: you
know you didn’t even introduce yourself you just…you actually make me feel
very small’ and stuff like that…”45
(12 May 2009).
She asked him if she came to perform again, would he be willing to play for her. His
response was simply, “If you can afford me!” This anecdote further shows his firm
stature as a musician and as a person.
Understanding Kriel’s quiet and understated yet determined nature, it is easy to see why
Kriel plays the way he does in terms of being a supportive, driving bassist with a unique
groove and a huge repertoire of music from which to draw. His presence on the stage is
always supportive and quiet with the uncanny ability to play exactly what is musically
required or appropriate at any stage of the performance.
45
See Interview Transcription with Gary Kriel. Appendix B
59
4.3.2 Gear – the bass, the equalisation and other technical considerations
The Bass
The two basses closely associated with Kriel are the 4-string Höfner46 bass guitar (circa
1961) and the 4-string Fender Precision Bass. The characteristic tones produced by these
two basses are significantly different. The Höfner produces an incredibly warm tone with
a dull attack even when played with a plectrum. The most famous user of this bass is Sir
Paul McCartney of The Beatles. The Fender Precision Bass produces a warm tone but not
to the same extent as the Höfner and the Fender also has much more ‘grit’ and increased
tonal clarity from note-to-note and string-to-string.
The Equalisation (EQ)
The overall tone of the Fender Precision bass that Kriel uses to record with is generally
untouched. Kriel does however add the slightest amount low-range to the sound of his
bass. The frequencies between 80 kHz and 110 kHz are boosted for the bass tone while
increased grit is achieved by either recording using a pre-amplifier or Direct Injection
(DI) box which has vacuum tubes incorporated into the circuitry. The grit could also be
added by boosting the mid-ranged frequencies between 330 kHz and 750 kHz. His tone
also has a very warm quality to it which can mostly be attributed to Kriel’s attack while
playing but is also achieved through the tube DI box which adds body and warmth.
Another way to achieve this warm quality would be to boost the frequencies between 85
kHz and 160 kHz.
46
See Terms and Definitions
60
Chapter 5 - Transcriptions
5.1 Transcription of the quintessential bassline and analysis
Spencer Mbadu
The following transcription is from the recording of a collaborative album between
saxophonist Winston ‘Mankunku’ Ngozi and pianist Mike Perry called ‘Lagunya
Khayelitsha (Zonke)’ on the album entitled Molo Africa.47
47
See Discography
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
The analysis
It is evident in this example that Mbadu’s playing possesses the two distinct musical
influences of Jaco Pastorius and Joseph Makwela. Overall the bassline is very percussive,
musically ornamental and playful. The evidence of Pastorius’ influence can first be seen
in bar 50 where Mbadu plays a portion of a bassline which was first performed and
extensively utilized by Pastorius. The bassline is in a sixteenth-note division feel and
makes use of dead notes to promote the percussive and frantic nature of the bassline. It is
based on the major pentatonic starting on the root of the chord being outlined. This
bassline has become one of Pastorius’ signature basslines. Examples can be found on the
songs ‘The Chicken’ from his album Jaco and the song ‘Dry Cleaner from Des Moines’
on the album Mingus by Joni Mitchell.48
The strong presence of Joseph Makwela can be
found in the more commonly used mbaqanga basslines used throughout the transcription.
To describe mbaqanga derived basslines in terms of their construction is difficult as the
basslines’ main focus is feel and groove while harmonically the bass only plays roots and
sometimes the third degree of a chord. Mostly the bassline will focus on phrasing similar
to those which might be sung by performers of this genre. As I understand it, as much
inflection as possible is utilized in these basslines in order to mimic the nuances of the
human voice. The first example of this kind of playing is in bars 10-13.
The bassline arrangement, construction and purpose
Mbadu utilizes ‘themes’ in his basslines which help to convey a specific section of the
song’s arrangement. The first indication of a theme is from bars 4-8 - I will call it Theme
A. At bar 10 he starts to change into another theme - this is Theme B, which signifies a
change in the song’s arrangement. He utilizes Theme B to the end of bar 25 and reverts
back to Theme A at bar 26. He proceeds to experiment with Theme A at bar 34 by
implementing double-stops while still trying to maintain the essence of the bassline. A
new theme, Theme C, is employed to signal a change in the song arrangement at bar 50
and continues to the end of bar 61.
48
See Discography
69
The start of the first solo form of the song commences at bar 62 and Theme A is
employed to assist the change. The bassline becomes progressively more syncopated and
the groove, as a result, busier as the intensity of the solo increases. At bar 98 the song
structure changes within the solo form and a bassline reminiscent of Jaco Pastorius, as
described in the analysis of this bassline, is employed. This is Theme D. Theme A
reappears at bar 114 which is also the start of the new solo form within the song. The
bassline becomes more elaborate sooner in this solo form in comparison to the first solo
form. At bar 146 a new variation within Theme A is employed to mimic and enhance the
solo played by the saxophone. Mbadu continues with this varied version of Theme A
until bar 162 where the arrangement changes again and he employs Theme D to signal
this change. The solo form ends at bar 194 which is also the start of the song’s melody.
The double-stops utilized in Theme A are used to signal a new section of the song. At bar
210 Theme D is utilized and carries on until the song’s end at bar 225.
Theme A has the most space as far as amount of notes and syncopation is concerned. By
space I refer to the fact that the bassline is not filled with many notes and the space
effectively refers to the silence between notes within the bassline. This allows for a more
relaxed and supportive bassline. Harmonically the bassline is constructed mainly of root-
notes of the corresponding chords which are being played. The syncopation is purely to
help to lock the timing and groove of the kick drum. By referring to the syncopation as a
way to lock the timing and groove I refer to the sense of cohesion and synchronicity
between the drummer and bassist in their communal phrasing and feel. The change into
Theme B at bar 10 is as much an ornamental approach as a functional approach. Mbadu
could have opted to still utilize Theme A but to change as the melody and intent changed,
he was wise to use a busier and more colourful bassline. The solo is played on a harmonic
sequence form that is used during the melody. Since the song enters this sequence again,
the busier version of the bassline is a wiser choice as it signifies that the original bassline
theme is the basis for the new bassline while interacting with the phrasing and new
energy of the soloist. Theme B (bar 10) helps to pick up the momentum and excitement
of the song with increased syncopation of the notes and bassline colour. Reverting to the
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song’s melody at bar 26 by the horn section is further aided by Mbadu changing to
Theme A. The variation of Theme A (bar 34) which includes double-stops is a way of
simultaneously enhancing the harmonic, rhythmic and ornamental qualities of a bassline.
Double stops sound more lyrical than a conventional bassline as it has increased
harmonic content. Due to the tuning of the bass guitar, the easiest way to play a double-
stop would be to suggest a major, minor or dominant seventh chord quality. Rhythmic
enhancement is due to the fact that you have to produce the upper register where the
chord colour is emphasised while still performing your duties in playing the root of the
chord and all this has to be done within the space of one or two bars. This variant of
Theme A picks up the overall intensity of the section within the song arrangement but
also adds to the clutter and an overall busy nature of the bassline.
Theme C (bar 50) is the quintessential example of the bass playing of Spencer Mbadu. It
is a natural hybrid in terms of a mixing of the styles of Joseph Makwela and Jaco
Pastorius. The bassline here is reminiscent of the playing styles of both musicians in the
note-selection and syncopation. This bassline further increases the playful energy within
the song but also increases the ‘clutter’ due to its busy nature. Theme D (bar 98) is a more
direct interpretation of a bassline popularized by Jaco Pastorius. Mbadu directly quotes
the bassline verbatim as it is played by Pastorius on the song ‘Dry Cleaner from Des
Moines’ by Joni Mitchell. Overall there are very few instances of superimposed harmonic
movement by the bassline by means of root movement, arpeggio-like runs or through the
use of double-stops.
Gary Kriel
The following transcription is from the recording of pianist Abdullah Ibrahim called
‘Shosholoza (Trio)’ on the album entitled Township One More Time.49
49
See Discography
71
72
73
74
The analysis
The overall feel of the bassline is laid-back or behind the beat.50
This way of playing
creates a calm and soulful tone for the bassline but also the entire song. The groove for
this song is ghoema and Kriel further emphasizes the overall feel by maintaining the
syncopated rhythm in the first few bars throughout the song with variations at times.
Kriel makes use of a thematic approach to his basslines in helping to define the overall
song arrangement. The first bassline, Theme A, is played from bar 1 to bar 20. The
second bassline is a variation of Theme A, which I refer to as Theme B, and is introduced
at bar 21. A less syncopated rhythm and a new bassline are ushered in at bar 33 and
carries on to bar 40. Theme A is repeated from bar 41 to bar 76. Theme B is re-employed
from bar 77 to bar 80. A hybrid of Theme A and Theme B is used from bar 81 to bar 92.
Theme B is played from bar 93 to the end of the song.
The bassline arrangement, construction and purpose
My general feeling about this bassline is that it is different from conventional basslines.
The typical bassline is constructed in such a way as to serve the purposes of solidifying
the harmony and rhythm in syncopating the bass and other instruments with the general
groove and harmonic rhythm. Kriel’s bassline in Theme A (bar 1-4) seems to be more
focused on creating a groove and colour. When the piano enters the song at bar 5, Kriel
still plays the same bassline while the piano melody and harmonic rhythm seems to
constantly be shifting around. The two instruments start to synchronize, although briefly,
at bar 21 where Kriel also starts using a new bassline. This new bassline offers a firmer
support and general cohesion within the trio. At bar 33 the form of the song starts shifting
towards a solo for the pianist. Kriel’s playing tends to be more communicative regarding
the phrases and interjections of the pianist. The overall feeling of the bassline starts to
become more playful yet still maintains support and thoughtfulness.
50
Refers to the rhythmic placement of notes to be behind the pulse or beat in a bar of music. To place the
notes behind creates a lazy or laid-back feel as opposed to placing the notes ahead, which creates a sense of
anxiety or forward momentum.
75
Kriel’s playing sometimes focuses more on feel than on colour and ornamental
approaches. He employs rhythmic changes throughout the song, the most notable of
which occurs at bars 27-28, 53-54 and 75-76. Harmonically the only suggestion towards
re-harmonization comes in the form of tri-tone substitutions. When he approaches strong
harmonic centres such as chord IV or chord V7, he plays the note a semitone higher
towards the end of the preceding bar. Other harmonic ideas include semitone movements
from chord ii to chord iii which gives the suggestion of a diminished chord preceding
chord iii. This diminished chord suggestion could also be viewed as the relative V7 chord
in its third inversion of chord iii. Towards the end of the solo form the bassline tends to
revert to the bassline Theme A (bar 69). This brings closure to the solo form and also
creates the support and familiarity when replaying the melody as the song gets softer or
fades out.
For the most part, there is very little difference between Kriel’s approach to bass soloing
or basslines. His bassline and solo transcription both reflect a general sense of being
harmonically solid and a constant delivery of the appropriate harmonic rhythm. His
bassline seems to be thought out and regimented in its rhythmic concept and his note
selection often centres on the chord-tones of the related chords. His soloing feels looser
and less determined to deliver the overall rhythmic feel as strongly with instances of
deviation from the chord-tone approach to note selection.
5.2 Transcription of the quintessential solo and analysis
Spencer Mbadu
The following transcription is taken from a recording of a bass solo by Spencer Mbadu.
The song is from another collaborative album between saxophonist Winston ‘Mankunku’
Ngozi and pianist Mike Perry called ‘Khawuleza (Hurry Up!)’ on the album entitled
Dudula.51
51
See Discography
76
77
The solo starts with a melody constructed from the pentatonic scale found on chord I.
This melody is reminiscent of the melody and scale found throughout mbaqanga and
isicathamiya. These genres are based on 3-chord harmonies which yield a hexatonic
scale. At bar 6 of the solo, Mbadu plays a riff or lick.52
The phrase carries on and then
ends in a lick reminiscent of blues music in bar 8. Mbadu now launches into a new theme
in his solo which is more concerned with the intensity and feeling of the solo than trying
to play in accordance with the chords as some of the notes played at certain points would
be horribly dissonant. At bar 14 Mbadu plays a more anchoring and root-orientated
phrasing similar to his initial mbaqanga bassline. At the end of the solo Mbadu plays a
fill which serves two purposes in that it completes the solo but also signifies the start of a
new section in the song.
Gary Kriel
The following transcription is taken from a recording of a bass solo by Kriel. The song is
called ‘The Minstrel (Trio)’ from Abdullah Ibrahim’s album entitled Township One More
Time.53
52
A riff or lick can best be described as a musical cliché from a specific genre of music and is generally
used where improvisation is involved. 53
See Discography
78
79
Overall the solo is more rhythmically than harmonically diverse or strong. The
syncopation of the solo further emphasises the groove of the song and is in keeping with
the general sixteenth-note syncopation and feel throughout the song. The solo phrases all
start on the root of the corresponding chord at the beginning of the bar. Mostly chord-
tones are utilised in phrase construction with semitones above or below certain chord
tones included to create harmonic tension. Examples of this semi-tonal approach can be
found at bars 1, 3, 8 and 15.
While transcribing the solo it became evident that there was an error in the track. At bar
15 there seems to be two different bass solos overlapping for a second or two within the
bar. To confirm my suspicions I attempted to play the solo myself and soon realized that
it was physically impossible with the technique that Kriel uses. It was potentially feasible
if being executed with the use of the technique referred to as tapping whereby the left and
right hands depress the strings on the fingerboard with a hammering action and can
generate several quick phrases in a short space of time. The overlapping solos are
indicated as an error which would have happened during the mixing and editing process
during the completion of the album. I transcribed the most prominent parts of the overlap
and presented it as being the actual part of the solo.
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Chapter 6 - Conclusion
The major aim of this thesis is to investigate, document and analyze the playing and
biography of two of the most notable bassists from Cape Town who perform the music
indigenous to the region. Kriel and Mbadu come from vastly different biographical and
musical backgrounds and have unique playing techniques and musical approaches. I seem
to be the last generation of bass players in Cape Town who know these two bassists and
can really appreciate their contribution towards the pedagogy of the instrument in a way
which is relevant to South Africa and its indigenous music. I feel that this work has
accomplished this aim to a large extent even though a great deal of the information has
come from personal experience as a bassist in Cape Town. My intention of formulating a
more holistic viewpoint regarding the definitions of ghoema and mbaqanga has been
achieved through the documentation and discussion of my personal experience as well as
academic research surrounding the contextualization of these genres. The overall
conceptualizations of ghoema and mbaqanga are offered and transcriptions of a
quintessential bassline from each genre is presented, analyzed and discussed for use by
future bass players locally and internationally. A great deal of time has gone into
researching the technical aspects regarding the actual bass playing technique and tone
reproduction in these genres. Unfortunately, only a general description of the basses
being used and equalization employed in generating their specific tones is included.
It is my contention that over the last five years there have been too few academic or even
popular works which help to preserve the music or playing traditions from a performer’s
viewpoint from Cape Town and South Africa. The only published work from Cape Town
over the last five years in this regard has been the ‘Cape Jazz Collection’ songbook by
Colin Miller (2008). This book includes a small biography of the artists listed and several
songs which have been transcribed and arranged. In my research I have come across
several published works about Cape Town’s Jazz musicians but none that talk about the
actual technical aspects of music creation. Descriptions surrounding socio-economic
background and political influences have been included but no information about the
music to such an extent that it has been transcribed, analyzed and discussed.
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The preservation of music is through performance and the teaching from one musician to
another. Music preservation is also achieved through scholarly study, analysis,
transcription, and lastly, publication. Through conversations with my peers, older
musicians and some private students it has become evident that the general feeling is that
music genres from North, South and Latin America and Europe are the most desirable in
terms of learning the playing techniques, music production and general performance.
When musicians get together, the conversation always revolves around a recording of
some famous US jazz musician, German cellist and composer or Cuban percussionist.
For bassists the conversation is even more specific and limited to several famous US
bassists, their techniques and soloing proficiencies. It is therefore a worthwhile goal to
ensure the preservation of the music and musicians of South Africa for future scholars of
music. It is my personal objective to have future conversations which revolve around the
technique and soloing of Kriel or Mbadu and the music of South African artists. This
thesis aims to accomplish the worthwhile goal of the preservation of South African music
as it documents clearer, more concise and contextualised definitions for the two musical
genres of ghoema and mbaqanga. The goal of preservation is further enhanced through
the investigation, analysis and transcription of the playing techniques, musical insights
and notable recordings of two of Cape Town’s most influential bassists in Gary Kriel and
Spencer Mbadu.
Making everything relate solely to South Africa, or specifically to Cape Town, is the one
aim that has proven somewhat difficult when referring to the concepts surrounding the
electric bass guitar and its relevant technical considerations. This is, as explained in the
brief description and analysis of relevant literature, a result of the fact that most
instructional videos and books come from the US and all the content in these instructional
videos and books is only relevant to US genres of music like rock, soul, funk and so
forth. The playing of the electric bass is not limited to American forms of music as
explained by Mbadu:
“I never think in terms of American music (or) African music, to me music is
music whichever angle it comes from…as long as its got a treble clef and a bass
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clef… the instrument I play doesn’t sound Italian, neither Russian, neither
Chinese…its just a musical note…if I hold it, it will sustain (and) if I stop playing,
it will stop”54
(19 February 2009).
The inclusion of transcriptions of the bass playing of Kriel and Mbadu further reinforce
my aim of ensuring the preservation of their unique playing styles. The analysis of the
transcriptions have been laid out in a way to ensure the successful reproduction of these
bass playing styles theoretically as well as practically. It is not the intention of this thesis
to analyze the transcriptions to such an extent as to diminish the sense of creativity within
the transcriptions. Every effort was made to maintain the character and sentiment of Kriel
and Mbadu in their respective transcriptions.
Finally, in the preservation of the bass playing styles of Kriel and Mbadu, this work
should, ideally, be made available to musicians across the world in respect and gratitude
to the musicians who have come before and have blazed musical trails without any
recognition, thanks or thought. Several musicians have passed away while completing
this thesis: Alex Van Heerden passed away in a car accident, Jeff Weiner passed away
from a heart attack with Winston ‘Mankunku’ Ngozi and Tony Schilder passing away as
a result of generally failing health. The musical contributions of these musicians and
others like them should be preserved instead of their contributions dying with them. It is
my sincere hope that this thesis is the first of many in the preservation of music, musical
contributions and performance transcriptions from Cape Town, South Africa.
54
See Interview Transcription of Spencer Mbadu. Appendix A
83
84
Terms and Definitions
1. Description of Drum Set Notation and Drum Set Components
(for musical examples of ghoema and mbaqanga)
• Kick Drum
The largest part of the drum set which is struck by using a kick drum pedal which is
played by the foot of the drummer. This drum has the lowest pitch of any part of the drum
set.
• Snare Drum
The drum is constructed with metal snares running across the bottom velum of the drum
and produces a sharp, rattling sound. This drum is struck more than any other and
generally conveys the overall feel of the drum set.
• Hi-Hats
The hi-hats are two small cymbals which are placed facing one another on a hi-hat stand.
The hi-hats are regarded as the ‘time-keeping’ component of the drum set as it usually
plays a set pattern on a loop throughout the performance. The hi-hats can be struck with a
stick to produce a sound or can be played by opening and closing them onto one another
by means of the hi-hat pedal’s foot stand. This pedal is played by the drummer’s foot not
being used to play the kick drum.
• Tom Drums (not notated)
These are drums of varying dimensions which can be struck to produce a tuned pitch with
very short sustain. They are usually in a set of three tom drums which are tuned to
different pitches.
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• Cymbals (not notated)
Cymbals are used primarily for musical embellishment and tonal variety. The two basic
cymbals are: the ‘ride’ cymbal which is usually the largest and can be struck on its ‘bell’
(centre-most part of the cymbal) and ‘bow’ (area between ‘bell’ and the ‘edge of the
cymbal); and the ‘crash’ cymbal which is struck to create a sharp sound to accentuate
musical events during a performance.
2. Description of Bass Guitar Components
• Body
Guitar bodies are made up of at least one and at most 3 types of woods that are put
together in layers. Cavities are made to house the various hardware and electronics that
complete the electric guitar.
• Neck
The neck comes in two formats namely ‘bolt-on’ or ‘neck-through’. ‘Bolt-on; refers to a
neck made from a separate piece of wood that slots into the guitar body and is attached by
means of large metal screws. ‘Neck-through’ refers to a neck that is carved from the same
piece of wood that the body is made of and is a natural, flowing extension from the guitar
body. The neck also house’s the ‘truss rod’ running the length on the inside of the neck.
The ‘truss’ rod is used to make the guitar neck more concave or convex in relation to the
strings
• Fingerboard or Fretboard
A wood usually made of rosewood, maple or ebony which is attached to the neck. The
fingerboard has the frets installed onto it which are the markers for playing notes on the
bass. The fingers are placed between frets to produce a pitched note. A fretless bass is as
the name suggests. There are no frets to play between so instead the finger has to be
pushed onto where the fret would be to produce the correct pitch. Intonation is a big
problem on the fretless bass and is often frowned upon as bass players tend to play out of
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tune. Sometimes inlays of abalone or oyster shell are used for decorative purposes on the
fingerboard.
• Bridge
A metal component that acts as the housing for the end of the strings attached to the
guitar. The string passes through the bridge, and rests on a ‘saddle’ whereby the guitar’s
‘action’ and ‘intonation’ may be adjusted. Guitar ‘action’ refers to the height of the string
from the fingerboard. Guitar ‘intonation’ refers to the guitar’s ability to be in tune within
itself. It requires that the correct string length is used between the bridge and the ‘nut’ and
that it allows for the tone produced on an open string to be ‘in tune’ to the same note
being produced on a depressed string.
• Headstock
This is the furthest part of the neck away from the body of the guitar. This houses the
‘tuning pegs’ on which the strings are wound to secure them to the guitar and to tune the
strings’ pitches. The section where the headstock meets the fingerboard is the position for
the ‘nut’ of the guitar. The ‘nut’ is a thin block usually made of wood, plastic and
sometimes bone on which the strings rest before reaching the ‘tuning pegs’
• Pickups
These are the two components housed in the guitar’s body between the bridge and the
guitar neck under the strings. These act as the transducers explain with which the sound
generated by plucking the strings is transferred to the guitar’s output-jack plug. Pickups
work in either a ‘passive’ or an ‘active’ and are situated near the neck and bridge on the
body. Pickups come in various dimensions, shapes and pickup-coil windings/positions.
‘Passive’ pickups do not require any power from the on-board preamp and ‘active’
pickups do require power from the on-board preamp (usually in the form of at least one
9-volt battery).
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• On-board Preamp
From the mid-1980s, guitar manufacturers started moving away from the ‘passive’ bass
circuitry design to an ‘active’ circuitry design. The circuitry is housed inside the guitar’s
body in a cavity carved out on the lower half of the body. ‘Passive’ guitar circuitry
usually has a volume control knob for each pickup and an overall tone shaper or filter.
‘Active’ circuitry usually requires either one or two 9-volt batteries to power the preamp
and has equalization controls in various setups but always has either one or two volume
knobs and a pickup blend knob in the event of a single volume knob. Various bands of
equalisation altering are available in either 2-band (bass and treble knobs) or three-band
(bass, midrange and treble) settings. Some preamps even have switches or ‘push/pull’
knobs whereby the preamp may be bypassed and the guitar returned to a ‘passive’ state
and a midrange frequency selection switch or ‘push/pull’ knob to change the frequency
range that is altered when increasing or decreasing the amount of midrange being
produced by the preamp.
3. Popular Bass Guitar Brands and Tonal Descriptions (based on research and
personal experience)
• Fender (Founded by Leo Fender in 1946, USA)55
This is the quintessential example of the electric bass guitar. Everything from guitar parts
to guitar accessories is modelled on this brand. The two flagship models of the Fender
bass guitars are the Jazz Bass and the Precision Bass. There are also differences within
these two styles based on where it was built i.e. The United States, Mexico or Japan.
• Ernie Ball Music Man (Sterling Ball, Dan Norton, and Dudley Gimpel produce
the first Musicman StingRay in 1984, USA)56
55
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (2009) Fender History. [Online] 14 January 2010. Available: