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Basic information about Phonics, Pronunciation, and
Syllabication
Basic information about Phonics, Pronunciation, and
Syllabication Phonics phonics/f:-n ks/ noun [noncount] : a method
of teaching people to read and pronounce words by learning the
sounds of letters, letter groups, and syllables Phonics is a system
for pronouncing written symbols that represent the way words sound.
It is both a reading and spelling tool. There are 26 letters in the
English alphabet but 40 sounds in the English language (15 sounds
for the 5 vowels). Phonics, pronunciation, and syllabication go
hand-in-hand since most people try to sound out unfamiliar words by
saying them syllable-by-syllable. When they write or spell words,
they usually break them into syllables. Vowels, Consonants, and
Pronunciation vowel /va-wl/ noun plural vowels [count] 1: a speech
sound made with your mouth open and your tongue in the middle of
your mouth not touching your teeth, lips, etc. 2: a letter (such as
a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y in English) that represents a vowel
compare consonant consonant /k:n-s-nnt/ noun plural consonants
[count] 1: a speech sound (such as /p/, /d/, or /s/) that is made
by partly or completely stopping the flow of air breathed out from
the mouth 2: a letter that represents a consonant ; especially: any
letter of the English alphabet except a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes
y compare vowel pronunciation /pr-nn-si-e -n/ noun plural
pronunciations [count] : the way in which a word or name is
pronounced diphthong /d f:/ noun plural diphthongs [count]
linguistics: two vowel sounds joined in one syllable to form one
speech sound The sounds of ou in out and of oy in boy are
diphthongs. First, though, a quick review. The alphabet consists of
26 letters. Letters are divided into two general categories: vowels
(a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y) and consonants (the remaining
letters). Depending on the word, the letter y can be a vowel or a
consonant. You can remember the vowels
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if you remember this joke: A student asks the teacher, Is there
a word in the English language that uses all the vowels including
y? The teacher replies Unquestionably! (The word unquestionably
include all the vowels and y.) Vowels are important because every
word has at least one vowel sound. Vowels can have long or short
sounds: Long vowels sound like the name of the letter itself, as in
the first sound in the words ape, eagle, ice, open, and use. In
dictionary pronunciations, long vowel sounds are indicated by a
long mark or macron. A macron is a bar written over the letter (for
example, the // in the word ape). The Long "i" () sound is the
diphthong /a /. Short vowels sound like the first sound in the
words apple, egg, it, ox, andup. In the dictionary, short vowel
sounds are indicated by breve, a curved mark above the vowel (for
example, the // in apple). There is also a long oo and a short oo
(double "oo") sound. The long double "oo" (/u:/) sounds the way it
does in moon, choose, food, boot, and scoop. The short double "oo"
(//) sounds the way it does in took, good, foot, andhood. The schwa
(/w:/), whose dictionary symbol (//) resembles an upside-down "e",
represents an unstressed vowel. All five vowels can have the schwa
sound, which sounds like [uh], as in the words about, item, edible,
gallop, andcircus. The diphthongs /a/ and /o / (diphthong /a / is
the long "i" () sound) are complex vowel sounds the way it does in
cow, fountain; and boil, annoy. Pronunciation of Vowels in Open and
Closed Syllables Syllables can be open or closed. This affects the
sound of the vowel in the syllable. Open syllables end in a vowel,
and the vowel has a long sound (as in be, or the last syllable of
halo). Closed syllables contain (enclose) a vowel between two
consonants, and a vowel in a closed syllable has a short sound (as
in pat, pet, pit, pot, and put). Another way of saying this is that
in words that consist of a vowel between two consonants, the vowel
is short (hat, leg, tip, dog, hum). Two Other Helpful Pronunciation
Rules Silente rule: In words that end with a vowel + consonant +
silent "e", the vowel usually has a long sound. Examples: behave,
scene, time, whole, huge Two-vowels-together rule: When two vowels
are next to each other in a word, the first vowel is usually long
and the second is silent (not pronounced). You might remember the
rhyme from elementary school that sums it up, When two vowels go
walking, the first one does the talking. Examples: restrain, team,
die, throat, pay
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Consonants Consonants are the rest of the alphabet letters other
than a, e, i, o, and u. Fifteen consonants have only a single
sound. Some consonants (c, g, d, q, s, and x) have more than one
sound when they are combined with other letters. Consonant
combinations can be digraphs or blends: Consonant digraphs are
pairs of letters that together create a new sound. Think, for
example of "ph" that sounds like an /f/ (photo), "gh" that sounds
like an /f/ (cough), and the three sounds of "ch" /t/, //, and /k/
(cheer, chef,choir). Consonant blends are what the name suggests:
combinations that blend the sounds of individual consonants. Common
blends involve the consonants "s" (smile, snoop, speak, squeal,
spring, stream, sweet), "l" (blur, clothes, flip,glass, please),
and "r" (breath, cream, drip, free, grape, praise, trail). The
letter "y" can be a vowel or a consonant; it depends on where it
appears in a word. When it occurs at the beginning of a word, it is
a consonant and sounds /j/ (as in yes, youth, year). It is a vowel
when it occurs within a word or ends a word. As a vowel, it will
sound like a long or short "i" (as in my ormyth) or like a long "e"
(as in the last sound in happy). The letter "w" is usually a
consonant (as in wish), but also appears in vowel combinations (as
in jaw,tower, row). Hard and Soft Sounds of C and G The consonants
"c" and "g" can each be pronounced two ways: hard or soft. When
they are followed by e, i, or y, they have the soft sound. Knowing
that e, i, or y changes their pronunciation to the soft sound will
help you spell more words correctly. C sounds like /k/ (hard sound)
or /s/ (soft sound). (The alphabet contains both of those letters,
but have the letter c anyway!) It sounds softlike /s/when it is
followed by e, i, or y. Examples: In cage, country, comb, and cube,
the "c" sounds like /k/ (the hard sound). In cement, city, and
cycle, the "c" sounds like /s/ (the soft sound). "G" has a hard
sound /g/ (as in gate), but when followed by e, i, or y, it's the
soft sound of [j] //. Examples: In game, go, and gum, the "g" has a
hard sound. In germ, giant, and gym, the "g" sounds like [j] //
(the soft sound). Syllabication syllabication /s-l-bl-ke -n/ noun :
the act, process, or method of forming or dividing words into
syllables
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syllable /s -l-bl/ noun plural syllables [count] : any one of
the parts into which a word is naturally divided when it is
pronounced A syllable is a unit of sound (spoken language) that has
one vowel sound. A word can consist of only one syllable (I, go,
try, stay) or it can have several syllables (dictionary). It is
also used to describe one or more written letters or phonetic
symbols that represent a spoken syllable. Syllabication refers to
dividing written words into syllables. Syllabication is useful to
know: when you are writing and a word is too long to fit on a line,
you must divide the word correctly. Words should always be divided
between syllables. Knowledge of syllabication is also helpful in
pronouncing words. Dictionaries show words divided into syllables,
but you wont always have a dictionary or computer at hand.
Therefore, knowing a few basic rules of syllabication will help you
greatly. Basic Syllabication Rules Here are a few basic
syllabication rules. In these rules, "V" stands for vowel, and "C"
stands for consonant. The slanted line shows where the word is
likely to be divided. Each syllable has one and only one vowel
sound, regardless of how many actual vowels appear in the syllable.
For example, the word beauty has four vowels (e, a, u, and y), but
only two vowel sounds (the long u and the y, which sounds like
/bju:-ti/). Therefore, the word has two syllables. 1. Affixes
Affixes are word parts that are added to a root, a base word that
has a meaning of its own. Prefixes and suffixes are affixes. A
prefix is word part attached to the beginning of a word that adds
its meaning to that base word. A suffix is a word part that is
attached to the end of a root word. For example, the word unhelpful
contains the prefix is "un", the base or root word "help", and the
suffix "ful". There are a few syllabication rules regarding
affixes. Prefixes are always separate syllables (prescribe, return,
display, subtract). Suffixes are usually separate syllables
(handful, kindness, statement). The suffix "ed" is a separate
syllable when the base word ends in d or t (landed, hunted). The
suffix "y", along with the consonant that precedes it, usually
forms a separate syllable (lately, nosy). 2. Compound words
Compound words are made of two other words. Divide them between
those words (mailbox; laptop). 3. V/CV When there is a consonant
between two vowels, the consonant usually goes with the second
syllable (nature, deny, below, ago, spoken, evil, above). Notice
that the first syllable is open and has a long vowel sound. The
exception is if the consonant is an r; it usually stays with the
first vowel (peril, baritone). 4. VC/CV When two consonants appear
together, you will usually divide between them (common, mixture,
hunger, picnic).
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5. Two vowel sounds: Divide words between two vowel sounds
(area, reliable, fiasco). Remember, though, that often two or more
vowels together make only one sound (beauty, courageous). 6. VC/CCV
When there are three consonants between two vowels, divide between
the first consonant and the blend or digraph that follows it
(sparkler, strangled, castle, northern, hamster). 7. Final "le" If
a word ends in a consonant followed by "le", those three letters
form the last syllable (table, angle, bundle). Pronunciation Tips
With regard to pronunciation, keep in mind this general
information, much of which was just presented: Vowels in closed
syllables are short. That is, when a vowel is followed (closed in)
by one or more consonants, that vowel is usually short. Examples:
pat, pet, pit, pot, put If a words ends in a vowel + a consonant +
e, the vowel is long and the e is silent (not pronounced): VCe.
Examples: ate, delete, kite, rope, and mute An open syllable (a
single vowel at the end of a word a syllable) usually has a long
sound. Examples: she, my, hero, label When two vowels appear
together, the first one is usually long and the second one is
silent. Vowels followed by r may not sound long or short. Instead,
they have a sound that is neither long nor short. Such vowels are
sometimes referred to as r-controlled vowels. In dictionary
pronunciation keys, the have a special mark above them that looks
like a roof (). Examples: morning, murder, refer, heard, rare,
word, perfect
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The sounds of English and the International Phonetic Alphabet
This chart contains all the sounds (phonemes) used in the English
language. For each sound, it gives: The symbol from the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), as used in phonetic
transcriptions in modern dictionaries for English learners that is,
in A. C. Gimsons phonemic system with a few additional symbols. The
chart represents British and American phonemes with one symbol. One
symbol can mean two different phonemes in American and British
English. See the footnotes for British-only and American-only
symbols. Two English words which use the sound. The underline shows
where the sound is heard. The links labeled Amer and Brit play
sound recordings (Flash is required) where the words are pronounced
in American and British English. The British version is given only
where it is very different from the American version. Vowels ask,
bat, glad : cot, bomb, caught, paw bet, fed (1) about, banana,
collide (2) i very, any, thirty i: eat, bead, bee id, bid, pit
foot, should, put u: boot, two, coo under, putt, bud merge, bird,
further (2) e eight, wade, bay a ice, bite, tie a out, gown, plow o
oyster, coil, boy o oat, own, zone, blow (6) car, heart, bizarre e
bare, fair, wear (1) (7) i near, deer, mere, pier (7) o boar, port,
door, shore (7) u boor, tour, insure (7) British cot, bomb (3)
British caught, paw, port (4) (5) : British merge, bird British
oat, own, zone, blow British near, deer British bare, fair British
boor, tour Consonants Consonants
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b baby, labor, cab d day, kid just, badger, fudge then, either,
bathe f foe, tough, buff g go, dagger, bag h hot, ahead j yes,
vineyard k lacquer, flock, skin k cat, keep, account l law, hollow
pedal, battle, final pool, boil m mat, hemp, hammer, rim n new,
tent, tenor, run button, satin, kitten rung, hang, swinger p lapse,
top, lip, speed p pay, pet, appear r rope, arrive (8) s sad, mist,
kiss shoe, mission, slush t mat, stick, late (9) t toe, attack
later, catty, riddle t batch, nature t choose, chin, achieve thin,
ether, bath v vat, never, cave w wet, software z zoo, easy, buzz
vision, azure, beige button, kitten, satin (glottal stop) Other
Symbols high stress: penmanship low stress: penmanship
indicates British pronunciation variant
(1) Almost all dictionaries use the /e/ symbol for the vowel in
bed. The problem with this convention is that /e/ in the IPA does
not stand for the vowel in bed; it stands for a different vowel
that is heard, for example, in the German wordSeele, or at the
beginning of the /e / sound in English. The proper symbol for the
bed vowel is // (do not confuse with /:/). The same goes for /e/
vs. //. (2) In / / and /: /, the / / is not pronounced in BrE,
unless the sound comes before a vowel (as in answering, answer it).
In AmE, the / / is always pronounced, and the sounds are sometimes
written as // and //. (3) In AmE, /:/ and // are one vowel, so calm
and cot have the same vowel. In American transcriptions, hot is
written as /h:t/. (4) About 40% of Americans pronounce /:/ the same
way as /:/, so thatcaught and cot have the
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same vowel. It's a phonemic merger called "cot-caught merger".
(5) In American transcriptions, /:/ is often written as /:/ (e.g.
law = /l:/), unless it is followed by "r", in which case it remains
an // or /:/ as in car. (6) In British transcriptions, /o/ is
usually represented as //. For some BrE speakers, /o/ is more
appropriate (they use a rounded vowel) for others, the proper
symbol is //. For American speakers, /o/ is usually more accurate.
(7) In /e /, / /, and / /, the / / is not pronounced in BrE, unless
the sound comes before a vowel (as in dearest, dear Ann). In AmE,
the / / is always pronounced, and the sounds are often written as
/e/, /i/, /u/. (8) All dictionaries use the /r/ symbol for the
first sound in red. The problem with this convention is that /r/ in
the IPA does not stand for the British or American /r/; it stands
for the hard /r/ that is heard, for example, in the Spanish word
rey or Italian vero. The proper symbol for the red consonant is //.
(9) In American English, /t/ is often pronounced as a "flap /t/",
which sounds like /d/ or (more accurately) like the quick, hard /r/
heard e.g. in the Spanish word pero. For example: letter. Some
dictionaries use the // or // symbol for the "flap /t/". Special
Symbols // - The vertical line (//) is used to show word stress. It
is placed before the stressed syllable in a word. For example, the
word contract as noun is pronounced /k:ntrkt/, and as verb is
pronounced /kntrkt/. / / - The sound / / is not a sound it is a
short way of saying that an "r" is pronounced only in American
English. For example, if you write that the pronunciation of bar is
/b: /, you mean that it is /b/ in American English, and /b:/ in
British English. However, in BrE, "r" will be heard if / / is
followed by a vowel. For example, far gone is pronounced /f: gn/ in
BrE, but far outis pronounced /f: rat/. /i/ - The sound /i/ is
usually pronounced like a shorter version of /i:/, but sometimes
(especially
in an old-fashioned British accent) it can sound like / /.
Examples: very /veri/, create /krie t/, previous /pri:vis/, ability
/b l ti/. /l/ - The Sound /l/ means that the consonant "l" is
pronounced as a separate syllable (the syllabic /l/, which sounds
like a vowel), or that there is a short // sound before it.
Examples: little /l tl/, uncle /kl/. Instead of the /l/ symbol,
some dictionaries use an /l/ with a small vertical line underneath
(//), or simply /l/, as in /l t/ or /l tl/. /n/ - The sound /n/
means that the consonant "n" is pronounced as a separate syllable
(the syllabic /n/, which sounds like a vowel), or that there is a
short // sound before it. Examples: written /r tn/, listen /l sn/.
Instead of the /n/ symbol, some dictionaries use an /n/ with a
small vertical line underneath (//), or simply /n/, as in /r t/ or
/r tn/. Does this chart list all the sounds that you can hear in
British and American English? No. This page contains symbols used
in phonetic transcriptions in modern dictionaries for English
learners. It does not list all the possible sounds in American or
British English. For example, the dixtionaries do not list the
regular /t/ and the "flap t: // with separate symbols. It groups
them under a single symbol: /t/. (In other words, it groups a
number of similar sounds under a single phoneme, for
simplicity)
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So the dictionaries actually list phonemes (groups of sounds),
not individual sounds. Each symbol in the chart can correspond to
many different (but similar) sounds, depending on the word and the
speakers accent. Take the phoneme /p/ in the above chart. It occurs
in the phonemic transcriptions of pin /p n/ and spin /sp n/. In
pin, this phoneme is pronounced with aspiration (breathing). This
aspirated p sound has its own special symbol in the IPA:/p/. In
spin, the phoneme is pronounced normally; this normal p sound is
represented by /p/ in the IPA. So the "p phoneme" represents two
sounds: /p/ and /p/. (This can be confusing, because "p" can mean
both the "p phoneme" and the "p sound")
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Vowel Sounds
Vowel Sounds A vowel is a sound made by the relatively free
movement of air through the mouth, usually forming the main sound
of a syllable. You need to understand the basic conceptual
separation of letters and sounds in English. The letter vowels are:
a, e, i, o, and u. Many languages have pure vowels, when the tongue
and lips are relatively stationary while these vowels are being
pronounced. But many of the vowels in English are not pure. This
means they are lengthened and spoken with the tongue moving from
one sound into another sound. There are 15 vowels sounds in
English: 1. /i:/ eat, bead, bee 2. / / id, bid, pit 3. /e / eight,
wade, bay 4. // bet, fed 5. // ask, bat, glad 6. // under, putt,
bud 7. /:/ cot, bomb 8. /u:/ boot, two, tube 9. // foot, should,
put 10. /o/ oat, own, zone, blow 11. // caught, paw, port 12. //
merge, bird, further Diptongs:
13. /a / ice, bite, tie 14. /a/ out, gown, plow 15. /o / oyster,
coil, boy All 12 main vowel sounds in English and the three
diphthongs are organized and described in terms of the following
characteristics: The American English vowel sounds are described in
terms of (front, central, back); height (open, mid, close); lip
position (spread, unrounded, rounded); length (short, long);
jaw-dropping, and tenseness (tense, lax). 1- HEIGHT: Tongue
Position in the mouth:
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High (/i:/, / /, //, /u:/, //) Middle (/e /, //, //, //, /o/)
Low (//, /:/, //) 2- BACKNESS: Far front or back the tongue is in
the mouth: Front (/i:/, / /, /e /, //, //) Central (//, //, //,
/:/) Back. (/u:/, //, /o/, //) 3- LIP POSITION: Whether the lips
are rounded (O-shape) or spread (no rounding) when the sound is
being made:
Unrounded (/i:/, / /, /e /, //, //, //, //, //, /:/ Rounded
(/u:/, //, /o/, //) 4- LENGTH: Represents vowel sound has one or
two parts: Short (/ /, //, //, //, /:/) Long (/i:/, /e /, /ju/,
/o/, and the diphthong /a /) Complex (/u:/, //, //, and the
diphthongs /a/, /o /) 5- TENSENESS: Refers to the amount of
muscular tension around the mouth when creating vowel sounds:
Lax ( /i/ and /u/ *, / /, //, //, //, /:/, //) Tense (/i:/, /e
/, //, /u:/, //, /o/, and the diphthongs /a /, /a/, /o /) */i/ and
/u/ weak sounds Other terms: Monophthongs: A monophthong consists
of only one vowel sound that does not change during its
articulation; i.e., it starts and ends in the same quality, and the
speech organs do not change their position during its
pronunciation. Monophthongs are also called simple vowels, pure
vowels, or stable vowels. American linguists list from 9 to 12
monophthongs in American English monophthongs: /:/, //, /i:/, /i/,
//, /u:/, /u/, //, //.
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Vowel Chart
This chart show the height, backness, and tenseness of the
vowels:
VOWELS Tense/Lax FRONT CENTRAL BACK
HIGH
Tense
Lax
i:
u:
MIDDLE
Tense
Lax
e ()
o
LOW Tense
Lax (*)
(*) Not in all dialects. In this website, the // vowel sound is
changed by the /:/ vowel sound because it was decided not to
indicate the contrast between words like tot /t:t/ and taught
/t:t/, since this contrast isnt made by a large number of American
native speakers, and isnt necessary for non-native speakers to
learn, using as reference the Merriam-Webster's Learner Dictionary.
The neutral vowel sound
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Transcription symbols that are generally used to represent the
neutral sound are // - vowel No. 6 (caret symbol) in stressed
syllables as in gun /gn/, son /sn/, undone /ndn/ and vowel sound //
(schwa symbol) in unstressed syllables as in away /we /, article /t
kl/, minus /ma ns/. In American ESL materials, the schwa symbol //
is very often used for the neutral sound in both stressed and
unstressed syllables: gun /gn/, son /sn/, undone /ndn/, away /we /,
article /t kl/, minus //ma ns/. For your information, the caret
looks like a triangle without a base (or turned v), and the schwa
looks like inverted "e". Diphthongs
The Diphthongs vowels in English (/a /, /a/, and /o /) are
double sounds made up of two distict parts, that is, two different
sounds:
DIPHTHONGS FRONT CENTER BACK
HIGH
MIDDLE
LOW a a
* We use the /a/ symbol in the diphthongs above but it is the
same /:/ vowel sound but weak: //, forming the combination /a /. As
you can see in the diphthongs chart:
The /a / vowel sound begins with the LOW/CENTRAl sound // and
ends with a HIGH/FRONT sound / /.
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The /a/ vowel sound begins with the LOW/CENTRAL sound // and
ends with a HIGH/BACK sound //.
The /o / vowel sound begins with the LOW/BACK sound // and ends
with a HIGH/FRONT sound / /. Diphthongs refers to two adjacent
vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, the
diphthongs are double vowels that have the most tongue movement.
The diphthongs move through the vowel chart as they are pronounced:
they start at one vowel-position, and move towards another. In the
other hand, some Tense vowels are also written with two letters
because they also have some diphthong-like tongue and face
movement, but they are not diphthongs because they begin and end in
the same vowel position: The following vowel sounds are not
diphthongs:
The /e / vowel sound begins and ends with a MIDDLE/FRONT sound.
The /o/ vowel sound begins and ends with a MIDDLE/BACK sound. Long,
Short, and Complex Vowels The long vowel sounds are not pronounced
for longer time than short vowel sounds. The terms "long", "short",
and "complex" are not describing the length of time a vowel sound
is said. These archaic terms are still in popular use in American
classrooms and online. They are used to simply give a name to a
vowel sound so when the sound is discussed, the name and not the
sound is used. 1- Long Vowels A long vowel sound is the same as its
name. Some dictionaries use the diacritical mark for a long vowel
and it is called a macron (), which is in the shape of a line above
the vowel. When a single vowel letter is in the end of a word (or
syllable), it usually says its long sound (or its name), as in go
and be. When two vowels go hand in hand in the same word (or
syllable), the first vowel is usually long, and the second vowel is
usually silent. e.g., bake makes the /a / sound (long a) and the
"e" is silent; goal makes the /o/ sound (long o) and the "a" is
silent. However, there are many exceptions to this rule, such as
with irregular vowels. When there are two adjacent vowels in a
word, the first one is long and the second one is silent. The first
vowel is marked with a long line and second one is crossed out.
Examples of this rule are in coat, ride, read.
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There is both a long and short sound to oo. The long sound
appears as in the words boo, food, smooth, and moose. The following
is a list of the 5 long vowel sounds in American English: 1- Long
"a" () sound /e / as in ape, snail, ache, explain, reindeer 2- Long
"e" () sound /i:/as in eat, agony, needle, pianist, and electricity
3- Long "i" () sound /a / as in eye, cry, tightrope, tile, violin
4- Long "o" () sound /o/ as in oh, domino, ghost, pillow,
stethoscope 5- Long "u" () sound /ju/ as in you, few, use, cute 2-
Short Vowels When a vowel is followed by a consonant, the vowel is
short. Some dictionaries use the diacritical mark for a short vowel
and it is called a breve (), which is in the shape of a downturned
arc. A vowel is usually short when there is only one vowel in a
word or syllable, as incat, bed, hot. However, there are exceptions
to this rule, such as withirregular vowels. There is both a long
and short sound to oo. The short sound appears as in the words
book, booth, and took. The following is a list of the 5 short vowel
sounds in American English: 1- Short "a" () sound // as in at,
taxi, anniversary, laboratory, tackle 2- Short "e" () sound // as
in elm, elevator, jellyfish, pentagon, dentist 3- Short "i" ()
sound / / as in it, gift, inflate, spinach, ink 4- Short "o" ()
sound /:/as in hop, camouflage, garage, chop, father, paw 5- Short
"u" () sound // as in up, cut, cup 3- Complex Vowels Besides long
vowel sounds, short vowel sounds, and the schwa sound, there are
some other special sounds in English that are represented by
vowels. They are as follows: 1- Complex "oo" sound // as in put,
pull, book, good, should 2- Complex "oo" sound /u:/ as in salute,
toothbrush, goose, boot, costume 3- Complex "aw" sound // (*) as in
awful, dog 4- Complex "oi" sound /o /as in boil, poison, toilet,
annoy 5- Complex "ow" sound /a/ as in lighthouse, cow, flower,
fountain Lax and Tense Sound We already said that the vowels can be
short or long, and Lax or Tense. But also there is an unstressed
vowels called Schwa sound:
-
1- Lax Sound: Lax vowels are shorter in sound than Tense vowels.
// ask, bat, glad // cot, bomb, caught, paw // under, putt, bud //
bet, fed /i/ very, any, thirty (*) / / id, bid, pit // foot,
should, put (*) The /i/ is a Lax sound and /i:/ is a Tense sound
but they are pronouced in the same tongue vowel position. The /i/
sound is pronounced in words that have final y. 2- Tense Sound:
Tense vowels are longer in sound than Lax vowels. /i:/ eat, bead,
bee /u:/ boot, two, coo // merge, bird, further /e / eight, wade,
bay /o/ oat, own, zone, blow In the Tense sound are included the
Diphthongs:
/a / ice, bite, tie /a/ out, gown, plow /o / oyster, coil, boy
3- Schwa Sound. When you are speaking American English the vowel
within the stressed syllables is longer, louder and higher in
pitch. The vowel within the unstressed syllable is reduced and
become a neutral, short vowel called Schwa and is pronounced with
the tongue in the neutral or rest position. The symbol used is //.
It can be spelled with a, e, i, o, or u. All of the five vowels can
sound the same if they are part of a reduced syllable. As you can
see, it is more important to know which syllabe is stressed than
how the word is spelled. If people don't understand a particular
word you are saying chances are you stressing the wrong syllable.
The combination of stressed syllables with long clear vowel sounds
and reduced syllables with the Schwa vowel sound create a
distinctly American English speech rhythm. // about, banana,
collid
-
Consonant Sounds
Consonant Sounds A consonant letter usually represents one
consonant sound. Some consonant letters, for example, c, g, s, can
represent two different consonant sounds.
Letters Sounds Examples
b [b] baby, best, buy, bring, blind, absent, about, number,
labor, robber, tub
c
[s]
[k]
center, cellar, cigarette, cinema, agency, notice;
cake, come, cucumber, clean, cry, scratch, act, panic d [d] day,
dear, die, door, duty, admire, hidden, lady, kind, ride, ended
f [f] fast, female, five, forest, fund, fry, flight, often,
deaf, cuff
g
[g]
[j]
[zh]
game, gap, get, go, gun, great, global, giggle, ago, begin, dog,
egg;
general, gin, giant, agent, suggest, Egypt, energy, huge,
manage;
mirage, garage, beige, rouge
h
[h]
[-]
hair, help, history, home, hotel, hunt, behind, inherit;
hour, honor, honest, heir, vehicle, Sarah j [j] jam, Jane, jet,
jelly, Jim, jingle, joke, John, June, just
k [k] Kate, kind, kill, kilogram, sky, blanket, break, take,
look
l [l] late, let, live, alone, close, slim, please, old, nicely,
table, file, all
m [m] make, men, mind, mother, must, my, common, summer, name,
form, team
n [n] napkin, never, night, no, nuclear, funny, student,
kindness, ton, sun
-
p [p] paper, person, pick, pour, public, repair, apple, keep,
top, crisp
q (qu)
[kw]
[k]
quality, question, quite, quote, equal, require;
unique, technique, antique, grotesque r [r] rain, red, rise,
brief, grow, scream, truck, arrive, hurry, turn, more, car
s
[s]
[z]
send, simple, song, system, street, lost, kiss, release;
cause, present, reason, realism, advise, always, is, was t [t]
task, tell, time, tone, tune, hotel, attentive, student, boat,
rest
v [v] vast, vein, vivid, voice, even, review, invest, give,
move, active
w [w] wall, war, way, west, wind, word, would, swear, swim,
twenty, twist
x
[ks]
[gz]
[z]
exercise, exchange, expect, ex-wife, axis, fix, relax;
exam, exact, executive, exert, exist, exit, exult;
Xenon, Xerox, xenophobia, xylophone
z
[z]
[ts]
zero, zoo, horizon, puzzle, crazy, organize, quiz, jazz;
pizza, Mozart, Nazi, waltz
Note 1: The letter Y
The letter Y can function as a vowel or as a consonant. As a
vowel, Y has the vowel sounds [i], [ai]. As a consonant, Y has the
consonant sound [y] (i.e., a semivowel sound), usually at the
beginning of the word and only in the syllable before a vowel.
[i]: baby, hurry, lyrics, mystery;
-
[ai]: by, try, rely, nylon, type;
[y]: yacht, yard, year, yes, yet, yield, you, young, Yukon.
Note 2: The letter W
The letter W represents the vowel sound [u:] in the diphthongs
[au] and [ou]: now, how, owl, brown; low, own, bowl.
The -s/es ending of nouns and verbs
After a voiceless consonant: [s]
After a voiced consonant or vowel: [z]
After the letters s, z, x, ch, tch, ge, dge, sh: [iz]
[s] [z] [iz]
tapes [teips], streets [stri:ts], parks [pa:rks], chiefs
[chi:fs], myths [mis]
ribs [ribz], kids [kidz], legs [legz], leaves [li:vz], clothes
[klouz], girls, games, cars, boys, pies [paiz], cows [kauz], cities
['sitiz]
pieces ['pi:siz], roses ['rouziz], prizes ['praiziz], boxes
['boksiz], coaches ['kouchiz], bridges ['brijiz], dishes
['dishiz]
(he) grips [grips], writes [raits], takes [teiks], sniffs
[snifs]
(he) robs [robz], reads [ri:dz], digs [digz], saves [seivz],
falls, plans, swims, offers, plays, cries, goes [gouz], copies
['kopiz]
(he) kisses ['kisiz], loses ['lu:ziz], relaxes, catches, judges,
manages, flashes, washes, rouges
Pip's [pips], Kate's [keits], Mike's [maiks], Jeff's [jefs],
Seth's [ses]
Abe's [eibz], Fred's [fredz], Meg's [megz], Olive's ['olivz],
Ben's [benz], Molly's ['moliz], Anna's
Chris's ['krisiz], Tess's ['tesiz], Rose's ['rouziz], Liz's
['liziz], Rex's ['reksiz], George's ['jo:rjiz]
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The -ed ending of verbs
After a voiceless consonant: [t]
After the letters t, d:
[t] [d] [id]
stopped [stopt], liked [laikt], coughed [ko:ft], crossed
[cro:st], released [ri'li:st], reached [ri:cht], washed [wosht]
robbed [robd], saved [seivd], seized [si:zd], called [ko:ld],
planned, occurred, bathed [beid], managed, played, tried,
studied
wanted ['wontid], hated ['heitid], counted ['kauntid], started,
needed [ni:did], loaded ['loudid], folded, added
Consonant combinations
Letters Sounds Examples
cc
[ks]
[k]
accent, accept, access, eccentric, accident;
accommodate, account, accuse, occur, acclaim
ch
tch
[ch]
chain, check, chief, choose, teacher, much, church;
kitchen, catch, match, watch, pitch, stretch
ch (Latin, Greek)
ch (French)
[k]
[sh]
character, chemical, Chris, archive, mechanic, technical,
ache;
champagne, charlatan, chef, chic, machine, cache ck [k] black,
pack, deck, kick, pick, cracker, pocket, rocket
dge [j] bridge, edge, judge, knowledge, budget, badger
gh
-
[g]
[f]
[-]
ghost, ghastly, Ghana, ghetto;
cough, enough, rough, tough, laugh;
though, through, weigh, neighbor, bought, daughter
gu
[g]
[gw]
guard, guess, guest, guide, guitar, dialogue;
language, linguistics, Guatemala, Nicaragua
ng
[]
[]+[g]
king, sing, singer, singing, bang, long, wrong, tongue;
finger, anger, angry, longer, longest, single ph [f] phone,
photograph, phrase, phenomenon, biography
qu
[kw]
[k]
quality, question, quite, quote, equal, require;
unique, technique, antique, grotesque
sc
[s]
[sk]
science, scissors, scene, scent, scythe;
scan, scandal, scare, score, Scotch, scuba
sch
[sk]
[sh]
school, scholar, scheme, schedule;
schnauzer, schedule sh [sh] share, she, shine, shoe, fish, cash,
push, punish
th
[]
[]
thank, thick, think, thought, thunder, author, breath, bath;
this, that, then, though, father, brother, breathe, bathe wh
-
[w]
[h]
what, when, where, which, while, why, whale, wheel, white;
who, whom, whose, whole
xh
[ks]
[ks]+[h]
[g]+[z]
exhibition;
exhumation, exhume, exhale;
exhaust, exhibit, exhilarate, exhort, exhume, exhale With silent
letters Sounds Examples
bt, pt [t] doubt, debt, subtle; receipt, pterodactyl
kn, gn, pn [n] knee, knife, know; gnome, sign, foreign;
pneumonia, pneumatic
mb, lm [m] lamb, climb, bomb, comb, tomb; calm, palm, salmon
ps [s] psalm, pseudonym, psychologist, psychiatrist
rh [r] rhapsody, rhetoric, rheumatism, rhythm, rhyme
wr [r] wrap, wreck, wrestle, wrinkle, wrist, write, wrong
Letters in the suffix Sounds Examples
ti, ci, si, su [sh] nation, patient, special, vicious, pension,
Asia, sensual, pressure
si, su [zh] vision, fusion, Asia, usual, visual, measure,
pleasure
-
Insertions: /j/, /w/, and intrusives /r/
Insertions: /j/, /w/, and intrusives /r/ Americans often change
the sounds of words in order to speak with more rhythm and
musicality in their speech. One way they do this is to insert [y]
and [w] sounds between consonants and vowels, so that the
pronunciation can glide through the mouth. Example If we pronounce
the word regular as its spelled, we would say [REG ew lar].
Inserting the [y] sound allows us to say the word with greater
musicality, speed, and stress. [RE gy l] Notice the [y] sound that
we insert into the pronunciation of the following words. Listen and
Repeat particular [p TI ky l] vocabulary [v K by ley riy] interview
[IN tr vyew] usual [YEW Ew wl] beautiful [BYEW t fl] popular [PA py
l] regular [R gy l] united [y NAI t d] figure [F gy] computer [km
PYEW t] university [YEW n V s tiy] opinion [ PIN nyn] useful [YEWS
fl] articulate [ar TI ky l t] Remember, even though the letter y
does not appear in these words, you must ensure to insert the [y]
sound in your pronunciation in order to be clearly understood.
When a word ends in /i:/, or a diphthong which finishes with /
/, speakers often introduce /j/ to ease the transition to a
following vowel sound:
/j/ is inserted after high front vowels /i:/, / /, /e/ /, a/ /,
o //, such asseeing /si:j /.
When a word ends in /u:/ and //, or a diphthong which finishes
with //, speakers often introduce /w/ to ease the transition to a
following vowel sound: /w/ is inserted after high back vowels /u:/,
/o/, /a/, such as doing /du:w /.
-
The insertion of glides /j/ and /w/ occurs because they are the
least marked epenthetic consonants in hiatus position. In other
words, glides are generally considered to have the same featural
make-up as vowels, i.e. they agree in both backness and roundness
with the preceding vowel, such that /w/ occurs after /u:/, // and
/j/ occurs after /i:/, / / Moreover, this apportioning of the vowel
space is based on the fact that vowels which trigger [r]-insertion
never trigger [j]-insertion or [w]-insertion. Each glide has its
own domain, although the domains exempt all lax front and lax high
vowels, which never occur word-finally in English. If you learn to
do this, your English will sound smooth and natural. Intrusive /r/
also involves the pronunciation of an /r/ sound, but this time
there is no justification from the spelling as the words spelling
does not end inor . Again this relates to non-rhotic accents;
rhotic accents do not have intrusive r. Thus, link a final // or
even /:/ to an initial vowel in the same sense group by inserting
an r-sound even if there is no "r" in the spelling. The /r/ added
in this way is known as Intrusive /r/, such as The idea of it /i_a
d _v_ t/ > /i_a d _r_v_ t/ When the following vowel sound
symbols occurs immediately before another vowel in the same
syllable, the vowel sound symbol change.
/i:/ and / / change to /ij/ /u:/ and // change to /uw/ /e /
changes to /ej/
/a / changs to /aj/ /a/ changes to /aw/ /o/ changes to /ow/ //
changes to /r/ or /r/ // changes to /r/ /e/ changes to /er/ /i/
changes to /ir/ /o/ changes to /or/ Rules:
1- If you have a high/middle front vowels (/i:/, / /, and /e /)
or the low/middle center/back vowel diphthongs (/a / and /o /), and
another vowel following, there will be /j/-change. Examples:
high /ha / higher, hire /haj/ 2- If you have a high/middle back
vowel (/u:/, //, and /o/) or the low center vowel diphthong (/a/),
and another vowel following, you're going to have /w/-change.
-
Examples: cow /ka/ coward /kawd/ toe /to/ toe-er /tow/ 3- If you
have the high central vowel // before a stressed vowel, there will
be /r/-adition. This sound is usually voiceless when it follows a
voiceless stop. The letter "r" is not pronounced or is pronounced
as // after a vowel in the same syllable. Examples: terror /ter/
terrorize /tera z/ terrorist /terr st/ score /sko/, scorn /skon/
scorer /skor/ Rules in linking words:
1- If you have a high front vowel, like /i/ and / /, and another
vowel following, there will be /j/-insertion. Example: I need the
key and licence. /.._ki:_j_n../ 2- If you have a high back vowel,
like /u/, and another vowel following, you're going to have
/w/-insertion. Example: Let's have a Q&A session.
/..v_a_kju:_w__ne ../ 3- If you have a mid/low vowel, like
(numerous ones mentioned), then that's where /r/-insertion happens.
Example:
Karma applies to everyone. /..k:m_r_pla z../
-
Letter "x" Pronunciation
Letter "x" Pronunciation: The letter "x" is always pronounced
with the more commonly known /k/ sound + /s/ sound pronunciation.
In English, the "x" spelling has two possible pronunciations: - /k/
sound + /s/ sound as in box (/b:ks/) - /g/ sound + /z/ sound as in
exact (/ gzkt/) "x" = /s/ sound + /k/ sound The letter "x" will be
pronounced as the /k/ sound + /s/ sound when both of the following
are not true: - The word's stressed syllable begins immediately
after the letter "x" - The "x" is followed by a vowel sound Also,
the letter "x" will be pronounced as the /k/ sound + /s/ sound when
it is the final letter of the word. Note: Inflectional suffixes
such as -es and -ed can be added to words ending in the letter "x"
without changing the pronunciation from the /k/ sound + /s/ sound
(examples include the words fixes and fixed). Examples: box /b:ks/
toxic /t:ks k/ explain / ksple n/ galaxy /glksi/ "x" = /g/ sound +
/z/ sound The pronunciation of the letter "x" will be that of the
/g/ sound + /z/ sound when both of the following are true: - The
word's stressed syllable begins immediately after the letter "x" -
The "x" is followed by a vowel sound Examples: exact / gzkt/
example / gzmpl/ existence / gz stns/ anxiety /zajti/
-
Exceptions There are a few exceptions to the letter "x"
pronunication patterns. The following words are pronounced as /gz/
or /ks/ sounds. Examples: exit /gzt, kst/ exile /gzajl, ksajl/
-
Schwa Sound
Schwa, the most important weak vowel sound When you are speaking
American English the vowel within the stressed syllables is longer,
louder and higher in pitch. The vowel within the unstressed
syllable is reduced and become a neutral, short vowel called Schwa
and is pronounced with the tongue in the neutral or rest position.
The symbol used is //. It can be spelled with a, e, i, o, or u. All
of the five vowels can sound the same if they are part of a reduced
syllable. As you can see, it is more important to know which
syllabe is stressed than how the word is spelled. If people don't
understand a particular word you are saying chances are you
stressing the wrong syllable. The combination of stressed syllables
with long clear vowel sounds and reduced syllables with the Schwa
vowel sound create a distinctly American English speech rhythm.
Exemples: // about, banana, collide Schwa is weak, unstressed vowel
sound. It most frequently occurs adjacent to stressed syllables,
and its pronunciation is very, very close to that of a short "u"
sound: //. Schwa is transcribed in pretty much every dictionary as
an upside-down letter "e": //. This, at least is consistent.
However, some dictionaries will also use the schwa symbol (//) for
the short "u" sound: //. If your dictionary does this, you should
understand that schwa and short "u" are very nearly identical in
pronunciation; you can assume that whenever you see an upside-down
e (//), you will use the vowel sound of the word sun, (short "u" -
//). On the other hand, you will see the upside-down "v" (//) in
the transcription of the word sun in other dictionaries. This
distinction is important. An understanding of schwa as a weak vowel
is so important for two reasons: - it allows non-native speakers to
better predict the pronunciation of a word from its spelling - the
rhythm of English relies on unstressed syllables as much as
stressed syllables Over-pronouncing unstressed syllables leads to
choppy speech and it can fatigue your listeners because they'll be
forced to adjust what they're hearing to what they expected to
hear. If you pronounce words with a strong and stressed vowel
sounds instead of an unstressed vowel sound, it becomes very
difficult to distinguish which syllable is stressed. As listeners,
we rely on syllable stress for comprehension; it is a major clue as
to which word we are hearing.
-
Syllabication Rules
Syllabication Rules and end-of-line divisions Syllabication is
the art of forming or dividing words into syllables. Syllables are
single speech parts
-
that are made up of a vowel sound with or without a closely
combined consonant sound. In some languages, the spoken syllables
are also the basis of Syllabication in writing. However, possibly
due to the weak correspondence between sounds and letters in the
spelling of modern English, written Syllabication in English is
based mostly on etymological or morphological instead of phonetic
principles. English written Syllabication therefore deals with a
concept of "syllable" that doesn't correspond to the linguistic
concept or a phonetic (as opposed to morphological) unit. As a
result, even most native English speakers are unable to syllabify
words accurately without consulting a dictionary or using a word
processor. The process is, in fact, so complicated that even
schools usually do not provide much more advice on the topic than
to consult a dictionary. In addition, there are differences between
British and US Syllabication and even between dictionaries of the
same English variety. The centered dots () in the example words
below in each rule indicate potential end-of-line division points
and not necessary syllabication. These division points are
determined by considerations of both morphology and pronunciation,
among others. Here a consistent approach has been pursued, both
toward word division based on traditional formulas and toward
syllabication based on phonetic principles. When you hyphenate a
word hyphenate between syllables. Hyphens (-) are used to separate
syllables in pronunciation transcriptions. In actual speech, of
course, there is no pause between the syllables of a word. The
placement of hyphens is based on phonetic principles, such as vowel
length, nasalization, variation due to the position of a consonant
in a syllable, and other nuances of the spoken word. The syllable
breaks shown in this text reflect the careful pronunciation of a
single word out of context. Syllabication tends to change in rapid
or running speech: a consonant at the end of a syllable may shift
into a following syllable, and unstressed vowels may be elided. The
numerous variations in pronunciation that a word may have in
running speech are of interest to phoneticians but are well outside
the scope of us. As a result, the hyphens (-) indicating syllable
breaks and the centered dots () indicating end-of-line division
often do not fall in the same places. Rule#1 Every syllable has one
vowel sound. Rule#2 The number of vowel sounds in a word equals the
number of syllables. home /hom/ = 1 subject /sb- kt/ = 2 publishing
/p-bl - / = 3 Rule #3 A one syllable word is never divided. stop
/st:p/
-
feet /fi:t/ bell /bl/ Rule#4 Consonant blends and digraphs are
never separated. resting /rs-t / * bushel /b-l/ * reaching /ri:-t /
* * In speech the words above, the /t/, //, /t/ are properly
pronounced in the second syllable. Rule #5 When a word has a "ck"
or an "x" in it, the word is usually divided after the "ck" or "x".
nickel /n -kl/ * taxis /tk-siz/ ** * In speech the word nickel has
the in the second syllable. ** The letter "x" in the word taxi has
two sounds: /ks/. In speech the word taxihas the sound /ks/ with
/k/ in the first syllable and /s/ in the second syllable. Rule #6 A
compound word is divided between the two words that make the
compound word. inside / n-sa d/ or / n-sa d/ football /ft-b:l/
toothbrush /tu:-br/ Rule #7 When two or more consonants come
between two vowels in a word, it is usually divided between the
first two consonants. sister /s s-t/ butter /b-t/ hungry /h-gri/
Rule #8 When a single consonant comes between two vowels in a word,
it is usually divided after the consonant if the vowel is short.
dragon /dr-gn/ * canister /k-ns-t/ * habit /h-bt/ * * In speech the
above words have the consonant sounds /g/, /n/, and /b/ in the
second syllable. Rule #9 When a single consonant comes between two
vowels in a word, it is usually divided before the
-
consonant if the vowel is long. basin /be -s .n/ fever /fi:-v/
major /me -/ Rule #10 When two vowels come together in a word, and
are sounded separately, divided the word between the two vowels.
diaspora /da -s-p-r/ diet /daj-t/ pronunciation /pr-nn-si-e -n/
Rule #11 When a vowel is sound alone in a word, it forms a syllable
itself. graduate /gr--we t/ * education /--ke -n/ * hiatus /ha -e
-ts/ * In speech the words graduate and education, has the
consonant "d" sound (//) in the second syllable with the vowel "u".
Rule #12 A word that has a prefix is divided between the root word
and the prefix. discount /d s-kant/ misfit /m s-f t/ untie /n-ta /
Rule #13 When be, de, ex and re are at the beginning of a word,
they make a syllable of their ownn. become /b -km/ defend /d -fnd/
exhale /eks-he l/ remain /r -me n/ Rule #14 A world that has a
suffix is divided between the root word and the suffix. kindness
/ka nd-ns/ thankful /k-fl/ stuffing /st-f / * * In speech the word
stuffing has the consonant sounds /f/ in the second syllable. Rule
#15 When a word ends in le, preceded by a consonant, the word is
divided before that consonant. purple /p-pl/
-
fumble /fm-bl/ middle /m -d .l/ Rule #16 When -ed comes at the
end of a word, it forms a syllable only when preceded by "d" or
"t". funded /fn-dd/ * started /st-td/ * * In speech the above words
have the consonant sounds /d/ and /t/ in the second syllable with
-ed. Rule#17 When a word or syllable ends in al or el, these
letters usually form the last syllable. usual /ju:--wl/ or /ju:l/
or /ju:-wl/ * level /l-vl/ * * In speech the above words have the
consonant sounds // and /v/ in the second syllable. Rule #18 When
ture and tion are at the end of a word, they make their own
syllable. posture /p:s-t/ lotion /lo-n/ Rule #19 When a word ends
in ly, divide the word before the ending. especially / s-p--li/
roughly /r-fli/ * * In speech the word roughly has the consonant
sounds /f/ in the second syllable. Rule #20 When a word ends in the
noun suffix ant preceded by a consonant or digraph, divide the word
before that consonant or digraph. assistant /-s s-tnt/ * attendant
/-tn-dnt/ * immigrant / -m-grnt/ * * In speech the words above have
silent the first consonant sounds /s/, /t/, and /m/ in the first
syllable.
-
The American T The American T is influenced very strongly by
intonation and its position in a word or phrase. It can be a little
tricky if you try to base your pronunciation on spelling alone.
There are, however, 4 basic rules: [T is T], [T is D] , [T is
Silent], [T is Held]. 1 The beginning of the word [T is T] If the T
is at the beginning of a word it is a strong, clear T sound.
1. In the beginning of a word: table, take, tomorrow, teach,
ten, turn Thomas tried two times. 2. With a stressed T and ST, TS,
TR, CT, LT and sometimes NT combinations: They control the
contents. 3. In the past tense, D sounds like T, after an unvoiced
consonant sound f, k, p, s, ch, sh, th (but not T).
picked [pikt], hoped [houpt], raced [rast], watched [wcht],
washed [wsht] It took Tim ten times to try the telephone. 2 Middle
of the word [T is D] If the T is in the middle of the word,
intonation changes the sound to a soft D. Letter sounds like
[ledder]. Water, daughter, bought a, caught a, lot of, got a,
later, meeting, better Practice these sentences: What a good idea.
[w'd' gdi deey'] Put it in a bottle. [p di di n' bd'l] Get a better
water heater. [gedda bedder wder heeder] Put all the data in the
computer. [pdall the dayd' in the k'mpyuder] Patty ought to write a
better letter. [pdy d' ride a bedder ledder] 3 [T is Silent] T and
N are so close in the mouth that the [t] can disappear.
interview [innerview] international [innernational] advantage
[dvn'j] percentage [percen'j]
If the T is at the end of a word, you almost don't hear it at
all. put, what, lot, set, hot, sit, shot, brought. That's quite
right, isn't it?
4 End of the word [T is Held] With -tain, -tten and some TN
combinations, the T is held. The "held T" is, strictly speaking,
not really a T at all. Remember, [t] and [n] are very close in the
mouth. If you have [n] immediately after [t], you don't pop the
[t]the tongue is in the [t] position, but your release the air for
the [n] not the [t]. An important point to remember is that you
need a sharp upward sliding intonation up to the "held T," then a
quick drop for the N. Written, certain, forgotten, sentence:
He's forgotten the carton of satin mittens. She's certain that
he has written it. Martin has gotten a kitten.