BASIC ECOLOGY AND PRINCIPLE CONCEPTS 1
BASIC ECOLOGY AND PRINCIPLE CONCEPTS
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THE EARTH IN SPACE
The earth is the only known planet that has life on it because it has water and air making it ideal for living things
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NINE PLANETS THAT TRAVEL THROUGH SPACE AROUND THE SUN
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
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THE SOLAR SYSTEM
4http://www.nd.edu/~csweet1/solar1.gif
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
5http://athene.as.arizona.edu/~lclose/teaching/a202/lect4.html
THE EARTH IN SPACE
The earth is a part of the solar system, a group of nine planets that travel through space around the sun.
The earth is the only known planet that has life on it because it has water and air making it ideal for living things.
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INSIDE THE EARTH
CRUST It varies thickness from 248
miles (40 km) beneath the parts of the continents to only 3.1 miles (5 km) under parts of the ocean floor.
It is made up of lighter rocks than the other layers.
The temperature of the rocks increases by by 86oF (30oC) for every km under the surface.
Two kind: ocean crust (between the seas) and the continental crust (beneath the land) 7
INSIDE THE EARTH
MANTLE It is about 1,800 miles
(2,900 km) thick. At the top is made up of
solid rock. Deeper down it is so hot
that the rock melts and becomes molten.
It is composed of mainly iron and magnesium.
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INSIDE THE EARTH
CORE OUTER CORE – it is about
12,000 miles (2000 km). It is a mixture of a very hot liquid iron and nickel.
INNER CORE – it is thought to be solid ball of iron and nickel that measures about 1,500 miles (2,400 km)
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ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS – formed when hot molten material called magma bubbles up from beneath the crust and hardens. Example: pumice, granite, obsidian and quartz
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – made from pieces of older rocks which collect in layers usually beneath the sea. Often sedimentary rocks form from layers of dead animals and plants. Example: sandstone, limestone, shale and
dolomite METAMORPHIC ROCKS – rocks that have been
changed and hardened by heat and pressure. Example: slate, marble, graphite and serpentinite
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FOSSIL FUELS
These are our main sources of heat and power that comes from beneath the Earth’s surface.
They are legacies of producers that lived hundreds of millions of years ago
These include: Oil – made from bodies of tiny sea creatures that
lived million of years ago. The bodies gathered on the seabed and were gradually squeezed down under rocks that formed above them. Eventually, they turned into oil.
Coal – layers of dead plants were squeezed down until they turned into carbon
Natural Gas – it is made from decomposed animals and plants usually found in same place as oil.
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BIOSPHERE
The layer around the planet where all living things exist.
It is designated as the “SKIN OF LIFE” It contains all various ecosystems and all the
water, minerals, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients that living things need in order to survive.
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LAYERS OF THE BIOSPHERE
LITHOSPHERE – includes the soil and sediments where the organism lives.
HYDROSPHERE – includes the liquid or frozen water on or near the surface of the lithosphere.
ATMOSPHERE – is a region of gases, particulate matter and water vapor.
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ECOSYSTEM
A biological environment and its physical environment.
It is a community of organism functioning together and interacting with the physical environment through (1) flow of energy, and (2) cycling of materials.
The interaction of the community and non-living environment.
Life support system. A community and its physical and chemical
environment.14
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
BIOTIC COMPONENT – living organism ABIOTIC COMPONENT – physical environment
or the non-living component.
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NON- LIVING STRUCTURES (ABIOTIC)
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WHAT SUPPORTS LIFE ON EARTH?
Life exists in only a thin layer just above and below the earth's surface, the biosphere.
The atmosphere is composed of mostly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%)
Nutrient and Sedimentary cycles
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NUTRIENT AND SEDIMENTARY CYCLES
NUTRIENT CYCLE Biogeochemical Cycles a. Hydrologic Cycle
b. Carbon Cyclec. Nitrogen Cycle
SEDIMENTARY CYCLE Sulfur and Phosphorus Cycle
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NUTRIENT CYCLES19
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
A summary of the different chemical repositories where a particular elements resides, coupled with the pathways that convert and transport the element from one repository or form to another.
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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE
The movement of water in the earth’s atmosphere, on the surface, and below the surface – a process powered by sun’s energy.
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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
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CARBON CYCLE
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http://www.nps.gov/olym/hand/process/ccycle.htm
CARBON CYCLE
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THE NITROGEN CYCLE
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NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen Fixation: converts gaseous nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3). Certain bacterial species, both aerobic and anaerobic, carry out this conversion.
Nitrification: only certain bacteria, the nitrifying bacteria, can use NH3 as an energy source. The reaction occurs in two steps: Nitrosomonas bacteria convert ammonia (NH3)
to nitrite (NO2-)
Nitrobacter bacteria convert nitrite (NO2-) to nitrate (NO3
-) 26
NITROGEN CYCLE
Denitrification: bacteria that can respire anaerobically will convert nitrate (NO3
-) to nitrite (NO2
-). Note that nitrate is now serving as an electron acceptor. Some anaerobic respirers can also use nitrite (NO2
-), converting it further into nitrous oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (N2O), and ultimately nitrogen gas (N2).
Assimilation: ammonia can be directly assimilated into organic compounds inside cells, producing amino groups (-NH2).
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NITROGEN CYCLE Excretion: during excretion, fermentation,
and other catabolic processes, excess amino groups (-NH2) are released, ultimately producing ammonia (NH3).
Assimilatory Nitrate Reduction: since nitrate (NO3
-) is far more common than ammonia, many organisms can only acquire nitrogen in the form of nitrate. They must reduce nitrate to form the amino groups needed for metabolism. This process, which superficially resembles nitrate reduction by anaerobic respiration, is entirely different.
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THE NITROGEN CYCLE DIAGRAM
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SEDIMENTARY CYCLES30
IMPORTANCE OF PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus is the key to energy in living organisms, for it is phosphorus that moves energy from ATP to another molecule, driving an enzymatic reaction, or cellular transport.
Phosphorus is also the glue that holds DNA together, binding deoxyribose sugars together, forming the backbone of the DNA molecule.
Phosphorus does the same job in RNA.
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PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Plants absorb phosphorous from water and soil into their tissues, tying them to organic molecules.
Once taken up by plants, phosphorus is available for animals when they consume the plants.
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PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
When plants and animals die, bacteria decomposes their bodies, releasing some of the phosphorus back into the soil.
Once in the soil, phosphorous can be moved 100s to 1,000s of miles from were they were released by riding through streams and rivers.
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SULFUR CYCLE
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THE SULFUR CYLE
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IMPORTANCE OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Facilitate the self-regulating process of an ecosystem.
They provide fresh air and transform dead organic matter in the form that can be taken back the metabolic system of plants.
They help retain necessary nutrients in usable form for the living components of the ecosystem.
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HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
Agricultural clearing Excessive deforestation Use of fossil fuel Increasing industrial activities Waste management practices Transportation And many more.....
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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Carbon containing compounds Compounds derived from organisms Chemicals of life
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CHEMICALS OF LIFE
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids
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CARBOHYDRATES
Carbos = Sugars: C, H, O in 1:2:1 ratio (roughly CH2O)
Types Monosaccharides – building block of
carbohydrates (simplest sugar) Disaccharides (Polysaccharides) Oligosaccharides (Polysaccharides)
They are eaten by many animals and contribute to the production of fats and proteins
All energy utilized by living matter comes from carbohydrates.
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SOME EXAMPLES OF CARBOHYDRATES AND THEIR RESPECTIVE USES
a) Glucose - key metabolic fuel (energy source) of all cells.
b) Animal Starch (Glycogen)- long term energy storage for animal cells (stores the glucose molecules in a form not easily used!).
c) Plant Starch (Amylose) - long term energy storage for plant cells (stores the glucose molecules in a form that is not easily used!)
d) Cellulose - Structural polysaccharide of cell walls.
e) Chitin - Structural polysaccharide of exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans.
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PROTEINS
They are organic molecules consisting of many amino acids bonded together.
AMINO ACIDS – building blocks of proteins. PEPTIDE BOND – bond between two or more
amino acids. DENATURATION - protein shape altered with
changes in pH, temperature. Change in shape alters activity of enzyme.
ENZYMES – biological catalysts (substances that speed up chemical reactions). 42
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS AND NAMED EXAMPLES
1) Enzyme catalysis: Enzymes help reactions occur more easily. Example- Amylase (Converts starch to simple sugar.)
2) Defense: Antibodies - Globular proteins that "recognize" foreign microbes.
3) Transport- Hemoglobin (red blood cell protein).
4) Structure / Support- Collagen, which forms the matrix of skin, ligaments, tendons and bones.
5) Motion- Actin, a muscle protein responsible for muscle contraction.
6) Regulation- Hormones which serve as intercellular messengers. Example - Insulin (blood sugar regulation).
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LIPIDS Organic molecules insoluble in water due to
numerous non-polar C-H bonds. Fats, oils, & waxes
Types of Lipids Triglycerides (fats)
1. Saturated fats – solid at room temperature 2. Unsaturated fats – liquid at room temperature
Phospholipids Steroids Terpenes Prostaglandins
FATTY ACIDS – building block of lipids 44
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
1. Energy storage- Fats store glucose energy for long time periods.
2. Chemical messengers- Steroid hormones (testosterone & estrogen)
3. Lipid bilayers of cell membranes
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NUCLEIC ACIDS
Hereditary materials Types:
Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA, master molecule, stores hereditary information
Ribonucleic acid: RNA, template copy NUCLEOTIDES - monomers of nucleic acids.
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CLIMATE REGIME47
CLIMATE AND WEATHERIs there any difference?
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CLIMATE VS WEATHER
Weather Climate
Average weather over a long period
Influenced by slow changes in the ocean, the land, the orbit of the Earth about the sun, and the energy output of the sun
Fundamentally controlled by the balance of energy of the Earth and its atmosphere
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Daily conditions, including temperature and rainfall
Can change very rapidly from day to day, and from year to year.
Changes involve shifts in temperatures, precipitation, winds, and clouds.
CLIMATE
is the average pattern of weather in a place over a long period of time
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weather
CLIMATE IS AN OUTCOME OF MANY INTERACTING FACTORS
Variations of incoming solar radiation
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The earth’s daily rotation and its annual path around the sun
CLIMATE IS AN OUTCOME OF MANY INTERACTING FACTORS
Distribution of continents and oceans
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Elevation of land mass
WHAT IS THE CLIMATE SYSTEM?
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HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK? The atmosphere is a thin layer of mixed
gases which makes up the air we breathe. The oxygen and ozone (O3) at the
atmosphere absorb nearly the ultraviolet wavelengths which is dangerous to most living things.
This also helps the earth from becoming too hot or too cold.
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HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK? Weather systems, develop
here in the atmosphere brought about by the heat from the sun, the rotation of the Earth, and variations in the Earth’s surface.
Air currents – the warm equatorial air rises and spread northward and southward. In the arctic regions, the air-cools, sinks downward, then flows back towards the equator. The prevailing air currents help dictate the distribution of the different types of ecosystem. 55http://www.inkart.com/images/lineart/weather_2.gif
HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK? The oceans cover
about 70% of the Earth’s surface.
Their large mass and thermal properties enable them to store vast quantities of heat.
The atmosphere and the ocean exchange energy and matter.
Gyres – circular ocean movements
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http://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/images/OceanCurrents.gif
HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK?
Land covers 27% of the Earth’s surface and land topography influences weather patterns.
Ice is the world’s largest supply of freshwater and covers the remaining 3% of the Earth’s surface. Because of its insulating properties, ice plays an important role in regulating climate. 57
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HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK?
The biosphere is the place where living things live and large amounts of carbon dioxide are exchanged between the biosphere and the atmosphere.
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THE LIVING COMPONENTS (BIOTIC) OF AN ECOSYSTEM
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PRODUCERS (AUTOTROPHS)
Able to produce or build its own complex organic molecule from simple organic substance in the environment.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC AUTHOTROPHS – organisms able to build all the organic molecules it requires using carbon dioxide as the carbon source and sunlight as the energy source.
CHEMOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHS – organisms able to build all the organic molecules it requires carbon dioxide as the carbon source and certain inorganic substances as the energy source.
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CONSUMERS (HETEROTROPHS) Organisms that is not self-feeding and that ingest
other living organs in whole or in part to obtain organic nutrients.
HERBIVORES – plant-eating animal. CARNIVORES – animal that eats other animal. OMNIVORES – organism able to obtain energy from
more than one source rather than being limited to one trophic level.
DECOMPOSERS – obtain organic nutrients by breaking down the main or products of other organisms.
DETRIVORE – feeds on partial decomposition of plants and plants and animals tissues.
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THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
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FOOD CHAIN
The series of the stages that energy goes through in the form of food.
The general sequence of who eats whom.
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FOOD CHAIN
TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS GRAZING FOOD CHAIN –
one which goes from green plants to grazing herbivores and finally to carnivore.
DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN – one which goes from dead organic matter to microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organisms.
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FOOD WEB
Network of many interlinked food chains, encompassing primary consumers, decomposers and detrivores.
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TROPHIC LEVEL
Describes its distance, in steps, from the prime source, the sun.
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TROPHIC LEVELS WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM
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Abiotic Environment
Producers
Consumers
Decomposers
CONCEPT OF ENERGY LOSS AT EACH SUCCESSIVE TROPHIC LEVEL
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BIOCONCENTRATION It is the accumulation or increase in
concentration of a substance as it proceeds up the food chain Many high molecular weight organics are
sparsely soluble in water but highly soluble in lipids (fatty tissue)
This unequal solubility can lead to bioconcentration if the substances are not effectively metabolized by the organism.
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BIOENERGETICS70
ENERGY
A capacity for interaction between particles A capacity to make things happen A capacity to do work
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ENERGY FLOW
Energy flows into ecosystem from outside sources as sun.
Energy flows through the ecosystem based on the consumption of living tissues of photosynthesis growing food webs and the use of organic wastes products (detrital food webs) and remains as a result of metabolic activities of each organism.
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ENERGY SOURCES
Fuel Resources Petroleum Natural Gas Coal Peat Water Product Wood
Non-Fuel Resources Hydropower Geothermal Tidal Wind Solar Energy
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS ENERGY SOURCES
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PETROLEUM
Essentially a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with small amount of atmospheric substances; recovered from onshore and from tar offshore fields, tar sand and oil shale; also found in deep sea.
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PETROLEUM
Abundant and accessible Deposits are widespread
in sedimentary areas. Highly versatile high-
grade fuel Petroleum and its
products are used for transportation, heating lighting, cooling, lubricating, medical products, animal, protein, fertilizers, etc.
Non-renewable, requires considerable capital investment.
Cause pollution through cost production sand and oil shale is higher than from conventional sources.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGE
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NATURAL GAS
A combustible gaseous mixture that in gas fields (“non-associated gas”) contains largely methane and wet state with petroleum (“associated gas”) contains other hydrocarbons.
Found in natural gas field; in coal mines in geopressure zones; obtained as by-product of coke making.
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NATURAL GAS
Relatively cheap and abundant, clean and virtually sulfur-free.
Versatile; use as few material for petrochemicals.
Non-renewable except when produced from organic waste or algae.
Expensive to transport when liquified.
Risky to handle because of vapor clouds and danger of fire.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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COAL
A combustible mineral substance containing expensive and essentially carbon with small amount of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and other constituents; classified as anthracite, bituminous and lignite.
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COAL
Very abundant. Deposits are widespread
in sedimentary areas. High-coal contains 70-
80% of the energy per unit weight of oil.
Some kind of low in sulfur.
Lignite can be used to produce a high-grade smokeless fuel through the qriquetting process.
Non-renewable. Deep mining can be
dangerous and hazardous to health.
Surface stripping damages the land and creates problem of soil erosion and unproductive land unless remedial work is undertaken, which may be expensive.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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PEAT
Compressed and carbonized elements such as uranium and thorium results in the release of enormous quantities of energy.
Plutonium is produced in nuclear reactors. Uranium is found in rocks and seawater; also
as by product of minerals, such as gold, phosphate, oil shale.
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PEAT
Moderate widespread in many parts of the world.
Can be used locally for domestic purposes and for electricity generation.
Low cost if no transportation involved
Can be more costly than coal to produce on a commercial basis.
Non-renewable
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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WATER PRODUCT
Agricultural and municipal waste provides steam when burned; animal waste can be dried and used directly as a fuel and converted to methane and fermentation and to oil or gas by methods of decomposition.
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WATER PRODUCT
Easily obtained and renewable.
Can be processed to produce cattle feed.
Solves problems of wastes disposal of related environmental pollution.
Organic municipal waste produces low-grade fuel.
Large scale of agricultural organic waste could be costly.
Technical problems are still to be solved.
Can only be a complement of energy.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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WOOD
Provides heat for domestic purposes.
Methanol can be produced from wood, renewable.
Less pollution than other fuels.
Provides less heat per unit weight than other fuels, such as coal and oil.
Inefficient conversion causes smoke pollution.
Other industrial uses, such as construction and paper production may yield a higher return than its use for energy.
Forests are far from industrial centers.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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HYDROPOWER
Water power used to supply energy
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HYDROPOWER
Clean method of electricity production.
Can be cheap of cost.
Many involved high initial construction cost.
Growing shortage of natural sites.
Damming the water may cause changes in the environment, backwater sedimentation are rapid silting.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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GEOTHERMAL(ENERGY SUPPLIED FROM THE HEAT OF THE EARTH’S INTERIOR)
Abundant Can generate electricity
and provides heat for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes.
Can be used to desalinate water.
Can generate electricity economically in relatively small units.
Not subject to seasonal variation.
Found principally in areas of tectonic activity.
Environmental pollution possible; release of sulfur components; highly mineralized hot water containing materials may have to be reinjected into the field; thermal pollution may be created when used to generate electricity; hot water and stream must be used from geopressure zones and hot rocks not yet developed.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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TIDAL
Generated from the flow of tides.
Non polluting and renewable.
Possible only in areas where different tide level is high enough to generate electricity.
Output is complicated and costly.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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WIND
Power from force of wind.
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WINDMILL
WIND
Traditionally used in many rural areas.
Non polluting Small wind
generators can support energy is isolated regions.
Variation in energy output according to duration and force of wind.
Storage of electricity when wind velocity changes is expensive.
For large scale production suitable sites with adequate wind power are hard to find.
Can only be complementary to other sources of energy.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
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SOLAR ENERGY
Sunlight affects rains, winds and ocean currents; provides energy for plant and animal life through photosynthesis.
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POSSIBLE FUTURE RESOURCES
Solar Energy Nuclear Fusion Sea-Thermal Waves Ocean Currents Algae
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BIODIVERSITY
The variety among living organisms and the ecological communities they inhabit, gives ecosystems stability.
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www.mass.gov
EVOLUTION
The natural process of change in response to the physical changes of an aging planet.
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ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT OR ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological Succession – is an orderly process of community development that involves changes in species structure and community process with time.
Primary Production – means the amount of material trapped by autotrophs in the process of photosynthesis and productivity. It is the amount of material stored by autotrophs per unit time.
Cybernetics – the science of controls.
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