Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes

1) Essay the major International efforts for Environment Protection

Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted in 1989 and entered into force in May 1992. This global environmental treaty regulates the transboundary movement ofhazardous wastes and obliges its parties to ensure that such wastes are managed and disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. It also protects the right of states to ban entry of foreign waste into their territories. The United States signed the Basel Convention on March 22, 1989, but has not yet ratified it.

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by over 150 governments at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and entered into force in 1993. It has become thecenterpiece of international efforts to conserve the planet’s biological diversity, ensure the sustainable use of biological resources, protect ecosystems and natural habitats, and promote the fair and equitable sharing ofthe benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. The conventionwas signed on June 4, 1993, but the United States has failed to ratified it.

Convention on Climate Change Over 150 states signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in June 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit, recognizing climate change as “a common concern of humankind.” The convention aimed to reduce emission levels of greenhouse gases to 1990 levels by the year 2000 but failed to set binding goals. The United States signed the treaty on June 12, 1992, ratified it on October 15, 1992, and entered it into force in the United States on March 21, 1994.

Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change The agreement sets, for the first time, legally binding limits on the heat-

trapping greenhouse gases that cause global warming. Under the protocol, 38 industrialized countries agreed to reduce their overall emissions to about 5% below 1990 levels by 2012, and a range of specific reduction requirements was set for other countries. The U.S. signed the protocol on November 12, 1998, but has not yet ratified it.

Convention to Combat Desertification The Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Especially in Africa (CCD) promotes anintegrated approach to managing the problems posed by dry-land ecosystems and encourages developed nations to support such efforts internationally. The convention came into effect in 1996 and has over 120 parties. The United States has signed but not ratified the convention.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) CITES establishes international controls on global trade in endangered or threatened species of animals and plants. For example, CITES prohibits all commercial trade in wildlife species threatened with extinction. CITES was ratified by the United States on January 14, 1974, and implemented as the Endangered Species Act. More than 125 countries are members.

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer The Montreal Protocol—and subsequent revisions—is the primary international regime for controlling the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances such as CFCs, halons, and methyl bromide. As of June 1994, 136 states, including virtually all major industrialized countries and most developing countries, had become parties to the protocol. The United States signed the protocol on September 16, 1987, and ratified it on April 21, 1988. The protocol and its subsequent revisions modified the original 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.

International Environmental Law Principles

These principles have been adopted, as indicated, from either the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development or the IUCN Draft Covenant on Environment and Development.

2 Essay the UNDP millennium Goals

GoalsThe MDGs were developed out of several commitments set forth in the Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eight goals with 21 targets,[6] and a series of measurable health indicators and economic indicators for each target.[7][8]

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger[edit]

Target 1A: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people living on less than $1.25 a day[9]

Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty] Share of poorest quintile in national consumption

Target 1B: Achieve Decent Employment for Women, Men, and Young People GDP Growth per Employed Person Employment Rate Proportion of employed population below $1.25 per day (PPP values) Proportion of family-based workers in employed population

Target 1C: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger Prevalence of underweight children under five years of age Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption[10]

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education[edit]

Target 2A: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling, girls and boys Enrolment in primary education Completion of primary education[11]

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women[edit]

Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferablyby 2005, and at all levels by 2015 Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament[12]

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rates[edit]

Target 4A: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate Under-five mortality  rate Infant (under 1) mortality  rate Proportion of 1-year-old children immunized against measles [13]

Goal 5: Improve maternal health[edit]

Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio Maternal mortality ratio Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel

Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health Contraceptive prevalence rate Adolescent birth rate Antenatal care coverage Unmet need for family planning [14]

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases[edit]

Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS HIV prevalence among population aged 15–24 years Condom use at last high-risk sex Proportion of population aged 15–24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS

Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to antiretroviral drugs

Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with appropriate anti-malarial drugs Incidence, prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Short

Course)[15]

2013 educational improvement

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability[edit]

Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs; reverse loss of environmental resources

Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction inthe rate of loss Proportion of land area covered by forest CO 2  emissions , total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP) Consumption of ozone-depleting substances

Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits Proportion of total water resources used Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected Proportion of species threatened with extinction

Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation (for more information see the entry on water supply) Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, urban and rural Proportion of urban population with access to improved sanitation

Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum-dwellers Proportion of urban population living in slums [16]

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development[edit]

Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system Includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty reduction – both nationally and

internationally Target 8B: Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

Includes: tariff and quota free access for LDC exports; enhanced programme of debt relief for HIPC and cancellation of official bilateral debt; and more generous ODA (Official Development Assistance) for countries committed to poverty reduction

Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing States Through the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States and

the outcome of the twenty-second special session of the General Assembly Target 8D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries

through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least developed countries (LDCs),

Africa, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States. Official development assistance  (ODA):

Net ODA, total and to LDCs, as percentage of OECD/DAC donors’ GNI Proportion of total sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic social services (basic education,

primary health care, nutrition, safe water and sanitation) Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC donors that is untied ODA received in landlocked countries as proportion of their GNIs ODA received in small island developing States as proportion of their GNIs

Market access: Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding arms) from developing

countries and from LDCs, admitted free of duty Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products and textiles and clothing

from developing countries Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as percentage of their GDP Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity

Debt sustainability: Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points and number that have reached

their HIPC completion points (cumulative) Debt relief committed under HIPC initiative, US$ Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services

Target 8E: In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable, essential drugs in developing countries Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis

Target 8F: In co-operation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications Telephone lines and cellular subscribers per 100 population Personal computers in use per 100 population Internet users per 100 Population[17]

3 Essay the work done by UNEP Since its creation, UNEP has been a key player in the creation of many revolutionary treaties and organizations. In 1977, UNEP initiated the World Plan of Action on the Ozone Layer in order to bring attention to the newly realized issue of the destruction of stratospheric ozone.  From this, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was started in 1985, establishing the principle of international cooperation on ozone destruction and stressing the need to cooperate in research and monitoring of the ozone.  For the first time, nations agreed in principle to tackle a global environmental problem before its effects were clear or scientifically proven. 

This was followed, in 1987, by the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, a treaty with a timetable to phase out and eventuallyeliminate the production and consumption of these chemicals. In 1991, UNEP responded to the 1990 decision by the Parties requesting the Secretariat to publish and update a regularly Handbook, setting out the Protocol as adjusted and amended, with the decisions of the Parties and other relevant material by publishing the Handbook for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.  Since 1990, the Protocol has been adjusted on six occasions.  The UNEP Ozone Secretariat serves as the Secretariat for both the Vienna Convention forthe Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer. Its duties include arranging for and servicing the major conferences and meetings of the conventions as well as their bureau, working groups and assessment panels.

UNEP played a pivotal role in coordinating the UN system's preparations for United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. This event is often simply referred to as "the Rio Conference.

Beginning in 1978, each UN agency appointed a Designated Official on Environmental Matters (DOEM), to work with and advise UNEP's Executive Director. The DOEMs regularly reviewed the collective environmental work of UNbodies and agencies in preparation for UNCED and were involved in discussions on post-UNCED institutional arrangements. UNCED in adopting Agenda 21   (in chapter 38, paragraph 21), reaffirmed UNEP's coordinating role, stating that, "in the follow-up to the Conference, there will be a need for an enhanced rolefor UNEP and its Governing Council. The Governing Council should, within its mandate, continue to play its role with regard to policy guidance and coordination in the field of the environment, taking into account the development perspective". Agenda 21 further stipulated that UNEP should concentrate, on "promoting international cooperation in the field of environment and recommending, as appropriate, policies to this end".

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was also established by UNEP, along with help from theWorld Meteorological Organization, in 1988 to assess the state of existing knowledge about climate change: its science, the environmental, economic and social impacts and possible response strategies.

4 Essay the concept of Acid Rain

What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain is a result of air pollution. When any type of fuel is burnt, lots of different chemicals are produced. The smoke that comes from a fire or the fumes that come out of a car exhaust don't just contain the sooty grey particles that you can see- they also contains lots of invisible gases that can be even more harmful to our environment.

Power stations, factories and cars all burn fuels and therefore they all produce polluting gases. Some of these gases (especially nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide) react with the tiny droplets of water in clouds to form sulphuric and nitric acids. The rain from these clouds then falls as very weak acid - which is why it is known as "acid rain".

How acidic is acid rain?

Acidity is measured using a scale called the pH scale. This scale goes from 0 to 14. 0is the most acidic and 14 is the most alkaline (opposite of acidic). Something with a pH value of 7, we call neutral, this means that it is neither acidic nor alkaline.

Very strong acids will burn if they touch your skin and can even destroy metals. Acid rain is much, much weaker than this, never acidic enough to burn your skin.

Rain is always slightly acidic because it mixes with naturally occurring oxides in theair. Unpolluted rain would have a pH value of between 5 and 6. When the air becomes more polluted with nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide the acidity can increase to a pH value of 4. Some rain has even been recorded as being pH2.

Vinegar has a pH value of 2.2 and lemon juice has a value of pH2.3. Even the strongestrecorded acid rain is only about as acidic as lemon juice or vinegar and we know that these don't harm us - so why do we worry about acid rain?

The Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain can be carried great distances in the atmosphere, not just between countriesbut also from continent to continent. The acid can also take the form of snow, mists and dry dusts. The rain sometimes falls many miles from the source of pollution but wherever it falls it can have a serious effect on soil, trees, buildings and water.

Forests all over the world are dying, fish are dying. In Scandinavia there are dead lakes, which are crystal clear and contain no living creatures or plant life. Many of Britain's freshwater fish are threatened, there have been reports of deformed fish being hatched. This leads to fish-eating birds and animals being affected also. Is acid rain responsible for all this? Scientists have been doing a lot of research into how acid rain affects the environment.

Where is it coming from?

Until relatively recently air pollution has been seen as a local issue. It was in southern Scandinavia in the late 1950's that the problems of acid rain were first observed and it was then that people began to realise that the origins of this pollution were far away in Britain and Northern Europe. One early answer to industrialair pollution was to build very tall chimneys. Unfortunately all this does is push thepolluting gases up into the clouds allowing emissions to float away on the wind. The wind carries the pollution many hundreds of miles away where it eventually falls as acid rain. In this way Britain has contributed at least 16% of the acid deposition in Norway. Over ninety percent of Norway's acid pollution comes from other countries. Theworst European polluters are Germany, UK, Poland and Spain, each of them producing over a million tons of sulphur emissions in 1994. Governments are now beginning to admit that acid rain is a serious environmental problem and many countries are now taking steps to reduce the amount of sulphur and nitrogen emissions.

What can be done?

Reduce emissions:

• Burning fossil fuels is still one of the cheapest ways to produce electricity so people are now researching new ways to burn fuel which don't produce so much pollution.

• Governments need to spend more money on pollution control even if it does mean an increase in the price of electricity.

• Sulphur can also be 'washed' out of smoke by spraying a mixture of water and powdered limestone into the smokestack.

• Cars are now fitted with catalytic converters which remove three dangerous chemicalsfrom exhaust gases.

Find alternative sources of energy

• Governments need to invest in researching different ways to produce energy.

• Two other sources that are currently used are hydroelectric and nuclear power. Theseare 'clean' as far as acid rain goes but what other impact do they have on our environment?

• Other sources could be solar energy or windmills but how reliable would these be inplaces where it is not very windy or sunny?

• All energy sources have different benefits and costs and all theses have to be weighed up before any government decides which of them it is going to use.

 Conserving Resources

• Greater subsidies of public transport by the government to encourage people to use public transport rather than always travelling by car.

• Every individual can make an effort to save energy by switching off lights when they are not being used and using energy-saving appliances - when less electricityis being used, pollution from power plants decreases.

• Walking, cycling and sharing cars all reduce the pollution from vehicles

 Restoring the Damage done by Acid Rain

Lakes and rivers can have powdered limestone added to them to neutralise the water - this is called "liming". Liming, however, is expensive and its effects are only temporary - it needs to be continued until the acid rain stops. The people of Norway and Sweden have successfully used liming to help restore lakes and streams in their countries. A major liming programme is currently taking place in Wales.

5 Essay the concept and application of IPR and Environment Management inIndia

pdf attached in mail

6 Essay some of India’s major Environmental Disasters ListofWorstNaturalDisastersinTheHistroyofIndia

1770GreatBengalFamineThe Great Bengal Famine was a large famine in Bengal during the British rule in the period of 1769-1773. Bengal famine was caused the deaths of 10 million people in Bengal, Bihar and some parts of Odisha.

1839CoringaCycloneThe Coringa Cyclone was one of the 10 big disasters that shook India,struck at a tiny village of Godavari district in Andhra Pradesh. The Great Coringa Cyclone killed around 20,000 people in theancient city of Coringa.

1894ThirdPlaguePandemicThe major plague pandemic came to British India in 1896, killing more than 12 million people in India and China alone. Third Plague Pandemic was initially seen in port cities such as Bombay andKolkata then spread to small towns and rural areas of many regions of India.

1979LahaulValleyAvalancheLahaul Spiti valley receives heavy snowfall during the winter season, causes Avalanches. The LaHaul Valley disaster in March of 1979 buried 200 people under 20 feet of snow, the only avalanche in the Himalayas and one of the 10 deadliest Avalanches in History of world.

1998MalpaLandslideHeavy rainfall caused, Malpa landslide was one of worst landslides in India, at village Malpa in Pithoragarh of Uttarkhand. Around 380 people were killed when massive landslides washed the entire village along with Hindu pilgrims of Kailash Mansarovar yatra.

1999OdishaCycloneThe 1999 Odisha cyclone also known as super cyclone 05B was the most deadliest  tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean and most destructive Indian storm since 1971. It caused almost deaths of 15,000 people and made heavy to extreme damage.

2001GujaratEarthquakeThe massive earthquake occurred on India’s 51st Republic Day on January 26, 2001 at Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District of Gujarat. Gujarat earthquake had a magnitude of between 7.6 and 7.7 and killed around 20,000 people.

2002IndianHeatWaveIndia’s heat wave in 2002 at south region killed more than 1000 people,  Most of the deaths occurred in state of Andhra Pradesh. The heat was so intense that birds fell from the sky, ponds and rivers dried up.

2004IndianOceanTsunamiThe Indian Ocean earthquake and Tsunami occurred in 2004 at the west coast of Sumatra, killing over 230,000 people in fourteen countries. Indian Ocean Tsunami was one of the deadliest natural disasters in history of India.

2007BiharFloodThe 2007- 2008 Bihar flood are listed as the worst hit flood in the living memory of Bihar in last 30 years. Bihar is India’s most flood-prone State, a recurring disaster appears annual basisand destroys thousands of human lives apart from livestock and assets worth millions.

2005MumbaiCatastrophesThe 2005 Maharashtra floods was occurred just one month after the June 2005 Gujarat floods, Mumbai the capital city was most badly affected and witnessed one of its worst catastrophes in the history of India, killing at least 5,000 people.

2010EasternIndianStormThe Eastern Indian storm was a severe storm struck parts of eastern Indian states,spanning for 30–40 minutes. At least 91 people died in Indian statesand Over 91,000 dwellings were destroyed and partially damaged.

2013MaharashtraDroughtMaharashtra state was affected by the region’s worst drought in 40 years,worst-hit areas are Jalna, Jalgaon and Dhule are also affected by the famine. Millions of people in Maharashtra are at serious risk of hunger after two years of low rainfall in the region.

2013UttarakhandFlashFloodsOn June 2013 Uttarakhand received heavy rainfall,massive Landslides due to the large flashfloods,it suffered maximum damage of houses and structures, killing more than 1000 people, sources claimed the death toll could be rise up to 5000. Uttarakhand Flash Floods is the most disastrous floodsin the history of India.

7 Essay the concept of Resource Management in EM Environmental resource management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself. Environmental resources management aims to ensure thatecosystem services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables.[1] Environmental resource management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts that rise between meeting needs and protecting resources. It is thus linked to environmental protection and sustainability.

Significance[edit]Environmental resource management is an issue of increasing concern, as reflected in its prevalence in seminal texts influencing global socio-political frameworks such as the Brundtland Commission's Our Common Future,[2] which highlighted the integrated nature of environment and international development and the Worldwatch Institute's annualState of the World (book series) reports.

The environment determines nature of every objects around the sphere. The behaviour, type of religion, culture and economic practices.

Scope[edit]Improved agricultural practices such as these terraces in northwest Iowa can serve to preserve soil and

improve water quality

Environmental resource management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. Environmental resource management involves the management of all components of the biophysical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and economic environment with the biophysical environment. The essential aspects of environmental resource management are ethical, economical, social, and technological. These underlie principles and helpmake decisions.

The concept of environmental determinism, probabilism and possibilism are significant in the concept of environmental reasource management.

It should be noted that environmental resource management covers many areas in the field of science: geography, biology, physics, chemistry, sociology, psychology, phisiology, etc.

Aspects[edit]Ethical[edit]Environmental resource management strategies are intrinsically driven by conceptions of human-nature relationships.[3] Ethical aspects involve the cultural and social issuesrelating to the environment, and dealing with changes to it. "All human activities take place in the context of certain types of relationships between society and the bio-physical world (the rest of nature),"[4] and so, there is a great significance in understanding the ethical values of different groups around the world. Broadly speaking, two schools of thought exist in environmental ethics: Anthropocentrism and Ecocentrism each influencing a broad spectrum of environmental resource management styles along a continuum.[3] These styles perceive "...different evidence, imperatives, and problems, and prescribe different solutions, strategies, technologies, roles for economic sectors, culture, governments, and ethics, etc."[4]

Ecological

"The pairing of significant uncertainty about the behaviour and response of ecological systems with urgent calls for near-term action constitutes a difficult reality, and a common lament" for many environmental resource managers.[15] Scientific analysis of the environment deals with several dimensions of ecological uncertainty.[16] These include: structural uncertainty resulting from the misidentification, or lack of information pertaining to the relationships between ecological variables; parameter uncertainty referring to "uncertainty associated with parameter values that are not known precisely but can be assessed and reported in terms of the likelihood…of experiencing a defined range of outcomes";[17] and stochastic uncertainty stemming from chance or unrelated factors.[16] Adaptive management [18][19] is considered a useful framework for dealing with situations of high levels of uncertainty [20] though it is not without its detractors.[21]

Sustainability[edit]Main article: Sustainability and environmental management

Sustainability and environmental resource management involves managing economic, social, and ecological systems within and external to an organizational entity so it can sustain itself and the system it exists in.[31][32] In context, sustainability implies that rather than competing for endless growth on a finite planet, development improvesquality of life without necessarily consuming more resources.[33]Sustainably managing environmental resources requires organizational change that instills sustainability values that portrays these values outwardly from all levels and reinforces them to surrounding stakeholders.[31][32] The end result should be a symbiotic relationship betweenthe sustaining organization, community, and environment.

Current paradigm shifts[edit]To adjust to today's environment of quick social and ecological changes, some organizations have begun to experiment with various new tools and concepts.[43][44] Those that are more traditional and stick to hierarchical decision making have difficulty dealing with the demand for lateral decision making that supports effective participation.[43] Whether it be a matter of ethics or just strategic advantage organizations are internalizing sustainability principles.[44][45] Examples of some of the world's largest and most profitable corporations who are shifting to sustainable environmental resource management are: Ford, Toyota, BMW, Honda, Shell, Du Pont, SwissRe, Hewlett-Packard, and Unilever.[31][32] An extensive study by the Boston Consulting Group reaching 1,560 business leaders from diverse regions, job positions, expertise in sustainability, industries, and sizes of organizations, revealed the many benefits of sustainable practice as well as its viability.[45]

Tools[edit]As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a commonauditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.

Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it in various ways:

The Green Dragon Environmental Management Standard is a five level EMS designed forsmaller organisations for whom ISO 14001 may be too onerous and for larger organisations who wish to implement ISO 14001 in a more manageable step-by-step approach,[51]

BS 8555 is a phased standard that can help smaller companies move to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps,

The Natural Step  focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps focus engineering on reducing use of materials or energy use that is unsustainable in the long term,

Natural Capitalism  advises using accounting reform and a general biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to do the same thing,

US Environmental Protection Agency  has many further terms and standards that it defines as appropriate to large-scale EMS,[citation needed]

The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital" measurement and management framework,[citation needed]

The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS).

8 Essay the UNCHE, 97 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden in June 1972.When the UN General Assembly decided to convene the 1972 Stockholm Conference, at the initiative of the Government of Sweden to host it, UN Secretary-General U Thantinvited Maurice Strong to lead it as Secretary-General of the Conference, as the Canadian diplomat (under Pierre Trudeau)had initiated and already worked for over two years on the project.[1][2]

History[edit]Sweden first suggested to ECOSOC in 1968 the idea of having a UN conference to focus on human interactions with the environment. ECOSOC passed resolution 1346 supporting the idea. General Assembly Resolution 2398 in 1969 decided to convene a conference in 1972 and mandated a set ofreports from the UN secretary-general suggesting that the conference focuson "stimulating and providing guidelines for action by national governmentand international organizations" facing environmental issues.[3]

Stockholm Declaration[edit]The meeting agreed upon a Declaration containing 26 principles concerning the environment and development; an Action Plan with 109 recommendations, and a Resolution.[4]Principles of the Stockholm Declaration:1. Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned2. Natural resources must be safeguarded3. The Earth’s capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained4. Wildlife must be safeguarded5. Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted6. Pollution must not exceed the environment’s capacity to clean itself7. Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented8. Development is needed to improve the environment9. Developing countries therefore need assistance10. Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry out environmental management11. Environment policy must not hamper development12. Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards13. Integrated development planning is needed14. Rational planning should resolve conflicts between environment and development15. Human settlements must be planned to eliminate environmental problems16. Governments should plan their own appropriate population policies17. National institutions must plan development of states’ natural resources18. Science and technology must be used to improve the environment19. Environmental education is essential20. Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing countries21. States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger others22. Compensation is due to states thus endangered23. Each nation must establish its own standards24. There must be cooperation on international issues25. International organizations should help to improve the environment

26. Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated[5]

One of the seminal issue that emerged from the conference is the recognition for poverty alleviation for protecting the environment. The Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in her seminal speech in the conference brought forward the connection between ecological management and poverty alleviation. It is to be noted that she was the only other speaker in the conference other than the hosting country prime minister.Some argue[6] that this conference, and more importantly the scientific conferences preceding it, had a real impact on the environmental policies of the European Community(that later became the European Union). For example, in 1973, the EU created the Environmental and Consumer ProtectionDirectorate, and composed the first Environmental Action Program. Such increased interest and research collaboration arguably paved the way for further understanding of global warming, which has led to such agreements as the Kyoto Protocol and also this has given a foundation of modern environmentalism .

9 Essay the Famines of India

Famine had been a recurrent feature of life in the Indian sub-continental countries of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, and reached its numerically deadliest peak in the late 18th and 19th centuries. Historical and legendary evidence names some 90 famines in 2,500 years of history.[1] There are 14 recorded famines in India between the 11th and 17th centuries. Famines in India resulted in more than 60 million deaths over the course of the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. The last major famine was the Bengal famine of 1943. A famine occurred in the state of Bihar in December 1966 ona much smaller scale and in which "Happily, aid was at hand and there were relatively few deaths".[2][3][2]The drought of Maharashtra in 1970–1973 is often cited as an example in which successful famine prevention processes were employed.[fn 1] Famines in British India were severe enough to have a substantial impact on the long term population growth of the country in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on climate: a favourable southwest summer monsoon is critical in securing water for irrigating crops. Droughts, combined with policy failures, have periodically led to major Indian famines, including the Bengal famine of 1770, the Chalisa famine, the Doji bara famine, the Great Famine of 1876–78, and theBengal famine of 1943.[5][6] Some commentators have identified Britishgovernment inaction as contributing factors to the severity of famines during the timeIndia was underBritish rule[citation needed]. Famine largely ended by the start of 20th century with the Bengal famine of 1943 being an exception related to complications during WW2.The 1883 Indian Famine Codes, transportation improvements, and changes following independence have been identified as furthering famine relief. In India, traditionally, agricultural labourers and rural artisans have been the primary victimsof famines. In the worst famines, cultivators have also been susceptible.[7]

The late 18th and 19th centuries saw increase in the incidence of severe famine.[fn

3] These famines in British India were bad enough to have a remarkable impact on the long term population growth of the country, especially in the half century between 1871–1921.[22] The first, the Bengal famine of 1770, is estimated to have taken the lives of nearly one-third of the population of the region—about 10 million people.[23] The impact of the famine caused East India Company revenues from Bengal to decline to £174,300 in 1770–71. The stock price of the East India Company fell sharply as a result. The company was forced to obtain a loan of £1 million from the Bank of Englandto fund the annual military budget of between £60,000–1 million.[24] Attempts were later made to show that net revenue was unaffected by the famine, but this was possible only because the collection had been "violently kept up to its former standard".[25][fn 4] The 1901 Famine Commission found that twelve famines and four "severe scarcities" took place between 1765 and 1858.[27]

The famines were a product both of uneven rainfall and British economic and administrative policies.[42][43][44] Colonial polices implicated include rack-renting, levies for war, free trade policies, the expansion of export agriculture, and neglect of agricultural investment.[45][46] Indian exports of opium, rice, wheat, indigo, jute, andcotton were a key component of the economy of the British empire, generating vital foreign currency, primarily from China, and stabilising low prices in the British grain market.[47][48] Export crops displaced millions of acres that could have been used for domestic subsistence, and increased the vulnerability of Indians to food crises.[47] Others dispute that exports were a major cause of the famine, pointing out that trade did have a stabilising influence on India's food consumption, albeit a small one[4

The Odisha famine of 1866–67, which later spread through the Madras Presidency to Hyderabad and Mysore, was one such famine.[50] The famine of 1866 was a severe and terrible event in the history of Odisha in which about a third of the population died.[51] The famine left an estimated 1,553 orphans whose guardians were to receive an amount of 3 rupees per month until the age of 17 for boys and 16 for girls.[52] Similar famines followed in the western Ganges region, Rajasthan, central India (1868–70), Bengal and eastern India (1873–1874), Deccan (1876–78), and again in the Ganges region, Madras, Hyderabad, Mysore, and Bombay (1876–1878).[50] The famine of 1876–78, also known as the Great Famine of 1876–78, caused a large migration of agricultural labourers and artisans from southern India to British tropical colonies, where they worked as indentured labourers on plantations.[53][54] The large death toll—about 10.3 million—offset the usual population growth in the Bombay and Madras Presidencies between the first and second censuses of British India in 1871 and 1881 respectively.[55]

Bengal famine of 1943[edit]Main article: Bengal famine of 1943

The Bengal famine of 1943 reached its peak between July and November of that year, andthe worst of the famine was over by early 1945.[91] Famine fatality statistics were unreliable, and it is estimated up to two million died.[92] Although one of the causes

of the famine was the cutting off of the supply of rice to Bengal during the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese, this was only a fraction of the food needed for the region.[93] According to the Irish economist and professor Cormac Ó Gráda, priority was given to military considerations, and the poor of Bengal were left unprovided for.[94] The Famine Commission of 1948 and economist Amartya Sen found that there was enoughrice in Bengal to feed all of Bengal for most of 1943. Sen claimed the famine was caused by inflation, with those benefiting from inflation eating more and leaving lessfor the rest of the population. and blamed.[95] These studies, however, did not account for possible inaccuracies in estimates or the impact of fungal disease on the rice.[95] De Waal states that the British government did not enforce the Famine Codes during the Bengal famine of 1943 because they failed to detect a food shortage.[96] The Bengal famine of 1943 was the last catastrophic famine in India, and it holds a special placein the historiography of famine due to Sen's classic work of 1981 titled Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation.[97]

Any imports to alleviate the famine would have had to come from Australia, North America or South America. Some supplies from Australia entered the region. The main constraint was shipping. The Battle of the Atlantic was at its peak from mid-1942 to mid-1943, with submarine wolf packs sinking so many ships that the Allies were on the verge of defeat, so shipping could not be spared for India.[98]

Bihar famine[edit]The Bihar famine of 1966–7 was a minor famine with relatively very few deaths from starvation as compared to the famines of the British era.[2] The famine demonstrated theability of the Indian government to deal with the worst of famine related circumstances.[3] The official death toll from starvation in the Bihar famine was 2353, roughly half of which occurred in the state of Bihar.[118] No significant increase in thenumber of infant deaths from famine was found in the Bihar famine.[22]

The annual production of food grains had dropped in Bihar from 7.5 million tonnes in 1965–66 to 7.2 million tonnes in 1966–1967 during the Bihar drought. There was an evensharper drop in 1966–67 to 4.3 million tonnes. The national grain production dropped from 89.4 million tonnes in 1964–65 to 72.3 in 1965–66 — a 19% drop. Rise in prices offood grains caused migration and starvation, but the public distribution system, relief measures by the government, and voluntary organisations limited the impact.[119] On a number of occasions, the Indian-government sought food and grain from the United States to provide replacement for damaged crops. The government also set up more than 20,000 fair-price stores to provide food at regulated prices for the poor orthose with limited incomes.[120] A large scale famine in Bihar was adverted due to this import, although livestock and crops were destroyed. Other reasons for successfully averting a large scale famine were the employing various famine prevention measures such as improving communication abilities, issuing famine bulletins over the radio andoffering employment to those affected by famine in government public works projects.[121]

The Bihar drought of 1966–67 gave impetus to further changes in agricultural policy and this resulted in the Green Revolution.[78]

1972 Maharashtra drought[edit]

A child suffering Marasmus, extreme starvation, in 1972, a drought in which there were zero deaths and

one which is known for the successful employment of famine prevention policies.[122]

After several years of good monsoons and a good crop in the early 1970s, India considered exporting food and being self-sufficient. Earlier in 1963, the government of the state of Maharashtra asserted that the agricultural situation in the state was constantly being watched and relief measures were taken as soon as any scarcity was detected. On the basis of this, and asserting that the word famine had now become obsolete in this context, the government passed the "The Maharashtra Deletion of the Term 'Famine' Act, 1963".[123]They were unable to foresee the drought in 1972 when 25 million people needed help. The relief measures undertaken by the Government of Maharashtra included employment, programmes aimed at creating productive assets such as tree plantation, conservation of soil, excavation of canals, and building artificial lentic water bodies. The public distribution system distributed food through fair-price shops. No deaths from starvation were reported.[124]

Large scale employment to the deprived sections of Maharashtrian society which attracted considerable amounts of food to Maharashtra.[125] The implementation of the Scarcity Manuals in the Bihar and Maharashtra famines prevented the mortality arising from severe food shortages. While the relief programme in Bihar was poor, Drèze calls the one in Maharastra a model programme. The relief works initiated by the government helped employ over 5 million people at the height of the drought in Maharashtra leading to effective famine prevention.[126] The effectiveness of the Maharashtra was also attributable to the direct pressure on the government of Maharashtra by the public who perceived that employment via the relief works programme was their right. The public protested by marching, picketing, and even rioting .[127] Drèze reports a labourer saying "they would let us die if they thought we would not make a noise aboutit."[128]

West Bengal drought[edit]The drought of 1979–80 in West Bengal was the next major drought and caused a 17% decline in food production with a shortfall of 13.5 million tonnes of food grain. Stored food stocks were leveraged by the government, and there was no net import of food grains. The drought was relatively unknown outside of India.[129] The lessons learntfrom the Maharashtra and West Bengal droughts led to the Desert Development Programme and the Drought Prone Area Programme. The intent of these programmes was to reduce thenegative effects of droughts by applying eco-friendly land use practices and conserving water. Major schemes in improving rural infrastructure, extending irrigation to additional areas, and diversifying agriculture were also launched. The lessons from the 1987 drought brought to light the need for employment generation, watershed planning, and ecologically integrated development.[78]

2013 Maharashtra drought[edit]

In March 2013, according to Union Agriculture Ministry, over 11,801 villages in Maharashtra were declared drought affected.[130] red worst, next to the another one in Maharashtra in 1972.[131]

53.1 Eco-Mark vs Eco Tourism

Ecomark[1] or Eco mark[2] is a certification mark issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards [3]  (the national standards organization of India) to products conforming to a set of standards aimed at the least impact on the ecosystem.[1][2][4][5][6] The marking schemewas started in 1991. One of the purposes of the mark is increasing awareness among theconsumers towards reducing environment impact. The mark is issued to various product categories and the development of standards for more products is in progress.

The specific objectives of the scheme are as follow :

To provide an incentive for manufacturers and importers to reduce adverse environmental impact of products.

To reward genuine initiatives by companies to reduce adverse environmental impact of their products.

To assist consumers to become environmentally responsible in their daily lives by providing information to take account of environmental factors in their purchase decisions.

To encourage citizens to purchase products which have less harmful environmentalimpacts.

Ultimately to improve the quality of the environment and to encourage the sustainable management of resources.

Ecotourism is a form of tourism involving visiting fragile, pristine, and relatively undisturbed natural areas, intended as a low-impact and often small scale alternative to standard commercial (mass) tourism. Its purpose may be to educate the traveler, to provide funds forecological conservation, to directly benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, or to foster respect for different cultures and for human rights. Since the 1980s ecotourism has been considered a critical endeavor by environmentalists, so that future generations may experience destinations relatively untouched by human intervention.[1] Several university programs use this description as the working definition of ecotourism.[2]

Involves travel to natural destinations Minimizes impact Builds environmental awareness

Provides direct financial benefits for conservation Provides financial benefits and empowerment for local people Respects local culture Supports human rights and democratic movements

53.2 Environmental Finance vs Economics

Environmental finance is the use of various financial instruments (usually land trusts and emissions trading) to protect the environment. The field is part of both environmental economics and the conservation movement.

The field of Environmental Finance was first defined by Richard L. Sandor, American economist and entrepreneur, when he taught the first ever Environmental Finance course at Columbia University in the fall of 1992.

Environmental Economics is a sub-field of economics that is concerned with environmental issues. Quoting from the National Bureau of Economic Research Environmental Economics program:

“ [...] Environmental Economics [...] undertakes theoretical or empirical studies of the economic effects of national or local environmental policies around the world [...]. Particular issues include the costs and benefits of alternative environmental policies to deal with air pollution, water quality, toxic substances, solid waste, and global warming.[1] ”

Environmental economics is distinguished from ecological economics in that ecological economics emphasizes the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem with its focus upon preserving natural capital.[2] One survey of German economists foundthat ecological and environmental economics are different schools of economic thought, with ecological economists emphasizing "strong"sustainability and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can be substituted by human-made capital.[3] For an overview of international policy relating to environmental economics, see Runnals (2011).[4]

Environmental economics was a major influence for the theories of natural capitalism and environmental finance, which could be said to be two sub-branches of environmental economics concerned with resource conservation in production, andthevalue of biodiversity to humans, respectively.