Barhebraeus (EI3 2014-2)

40 barhebraeus

The first of these, the Maqma rmiyya from 1138/1725–6, follows the text, with the same title, of the great Cairene scholar, writer, and poet Muammad Shihb al-Dn al-Khafj (d. 1069/1659). Highly original is al-Bakr’s long auto-biographical poem Naf nasim al-asr bi-fa jasim al-asmr (“The early morn-ing breeze in the whispering water cov-ered hills of the night conversations”, now in the Budairiyya Library, in Jerusalem), in which he describes every year of his life up to 1155/1742 in one or more verses and integrates keywords from his other works. In the margin of the poem he gives the full titles of 125 works, with date and ordinal number. Roughly half of these are extant, mostly in manuscript. Many are linked to fism. He discusses aspects of f theory such as the unity of being (wadad al-wujd), showing himself to be a follower of Ibn Arab, the great mys-tic of Andalusian origin (d. 637/1240). In his works about Khalwatiyya practices, al-Bakr does not claim to be a reformer of the order but strives to establish his own branch alongside what he calls Khalwatiyyat al-Shm (the Khalwatiyya of Damascus), a Damascene arqa (lit., way, hence f order) stemming from Amad al-Usl (d. 1048/1638) with prom-inent members such as Ayyb al-li (d. 1071/1660–1) and Muammad b. s b. Kannn (d. 1153/1740). A special feature of al-Bakr’s branch was his wird al-saar (lit., dawn litany), a litany to be recited after the voluntary night prayer (tahajjud) and on which he wrote three commentaries. The traditional Khalwat litany wird al-sattr (lit., litany of the veiler, one of God’s names) was also esteemed.

Although he eschewed scholarly rank and privilege, he advocated neither asceti-cism nor social isolation. He maintained friendly relations with Ottoman func-

tionaries but claims to have received no material benefits from them. In his work al-Firq al-mudhin bi-l-arab f l-farq bayna l-ajam wa-l-arab (“The crowd singing with joy about the difference between non-Arabs and Arabs”), about the differences between Arabs, Persians, and Turks, he demonstrates some friendliness towards Ottoman rule. He had little concern for the organisational aspects of fism, such as the foundation of zwiyas (f lodges), nor did he attract many adepts. The later vigorous spread of his Khalwatiyya branch was carried out by his Cairene khalfa Muammad b. Slim al-ifn (d. 1181/ 1767) and other Egyptian followers.

BibliographyRalf Elger, Muaf al-Bakr. Zur Selbstdarstellung

eines syrischen Gelehrten, Sufis und Dichters des 18. Jahrhunderts, Schenefeld 2004 (includes a complete list of sources and a discussion of earlier research).

Ralf Elger

Barhebraeus

Grigriys Ab l-Faraj Bar Ebroyo (b. 622–3/1225–6, d. 685/1286), known in Arabic as Ibn al-Ibr and in the West as Barhebraeus, was a prelate of the Syrian Orthodox Church and the most prominent author of the period of Syriac literature that has been termed the “Syriac Renaissance.”

Barhebraeus was born in Melitene (Malatya), then under the Rm Saljqs, the son of the physician Ahrun. The name “Bar Ebroyo”, traditionally understood to mean “the son of a Hebrew,” indicating a Jewish ancestry, is probably to be associ-ated rather with the village of Ebro, on the left bank of the Euphrates, to the east of Melitene. Following the Mongol attack

barhebraeus 41

on Melitene in 641/1244, Barhebraeus moved with his family to Antioch, still in Frankish hands at the time, where he may have taken monastic vows. After a period of study in Tripoli and perhaps Damas-cus, he was made bishop of Gubos, near Melitene, in 644 (14 September 1246), taking the episcopal name of Gregory. He was transferred a little later to Laqabin, then around 651/1253 to Aleppo, and was the bishop there when the city was taken by the Mongols in 658/1260. In a synod held in Armenian Cilicia in Rab I 662/January 1264, Barhebraeus was elected to the office of Maphrian of the East, the second highest office in the Syr-ian Orthodox Church, with jurisdiction over areas that had been under Persian rule in pre-Islamic times. As maphrian, Barhebraeus normally resided in Mosul and the nearby monastery of Mar Mattay, but his travels took him on two occasions back to the “West” (666/1268 and 672–3/1273) and twice to Baghdad (663/1265 and 675–6/1277). He was also a frequent visitor to Azerbaijan, specifically the two cities of Margha and Tabriz, which had become the new centres of power and learning under the Mongol lkhns (654–754/1256–1353). He died in Margha in Jumd II 685 (30 July 1286).

Barhebraeus’s ecclesiastical and liter-ary activities are marked by a remark-able openness towards other Christian denominations and towards Islam. While firmly upholding the doctrinal position of his own church in his writings, he main-tained friendly relationships with leaders of the rival Church of the East, at least in the latter part of his maphrianate, and frequently used the writings of Church of the East authors in his exegetical and his-torical works. Similarly, while defending the Christian faith in his doctrinal works and criticising the injustices committed by

Muslims against Christians in his histori-cal works, he engaged in exchanges with Muslim scholars, especially in Margha, and drew heavily on works of Muslim authors in composing his own.

Thirty-one works by Barhebraeus are mentioned in a list drawn up by his brother Barawmo af (d. 707–8/1307–8), while a number of other works, mostly liturgical, are attributed to him with varying degrees of certainty. He wrote mostly in Syriac, but some of his works were composed in Arabic, and many of his Syriac works were later translated by others into Arabic. His works on religious subjects include his extensive biblical commentary, Storehouse of mysteries (Awar roze); his major theological compendium, Candelabrum of the sanctuary (Mnorat qudshe); a later and shorter work on the same sub-ject, Book of rays (Ktobo d-zalge); a widely-read monastic handbook, Book of the dove (Ktobo d-yawno); and a commentary on the Book of Hierotheos, a mystical work by Stephen Bar Sdayl (sixth century C.E.). Even in these works, where he depended mainly on earlier Christian authors, Bar-hebraeus’s familiarity with Islamic schol-arship is often evident. In the Candelabrum he used arguments taken from such works of Islamic theologians as Fakhr al-Dn al-Rz’s (d. 606/1210) Kitb al-muaal. More heavily indebted to an Islamic work is his Ethicon (Ktobo d-itiqun), a guidebook for virtuous Christian living, completed in Rab I 678/July 1279; the overall struc-ture as well as much of the content of this work is borrowed from al-Ghazl’s (d. 505/1111) Iy ulm al-dn. The influence of al-Ghazl is also seen in his Book of the dove, into which he inserted an autobio-graphical passage inspired by al-Ghazl’s al-Munqidh min al-all. Similarly, in his legal work, Book of directions (Ktobo d-hudoye, Nomocanon), much of the material in the

42 barhebraeus

chapters dealing with non-ecclesiasti-cal law has been found to be based on al-Ghazl’s handbooks of Shfi law, al-Wajz and al-Was.

The longest of Barhebraeus’s compen-diums of Peripatetic philosophy, Cream of wisdom (ewat ekmto), written in 684–5/1285–6, is modelled as a whole on Ibn Sn’s (Avicenna, d. 428/1037) Kitb al-shif, but also draws on older Syriac material, including the Syriac version of Nicolaus of Damascus’s Compendium of Aristotelian philosophy, as well as on more recent Arabic works, such as those of Ab l-Barakt al-Baghdd (d. 560/1164–5) and Fakhr al-Dn al-Rz, and, in the section on practical philosophy, on Nar al-Dn al-s’s (d. 672/1274) Persian work on the subject, Akhlq-i nir. The shortest of the three compendiums, Con-versation of wisdom (Swod sfiya), similarly draws on the works of Ibn Sn and oth-ers, and the medium-length Treatise of trea-tises (Tegrat tegroto), probably the earliest of the three, appears to be modelled on al-Ghazl’s Maqid al-falsifa, while his short work on logic, Book of the pupils of the eye (Ktobo d-boboto), shows an affinity with contemporary Arabic works on logic such as Najm al-Dn al-Qazwn al-Ktib’s (d. 675/1276) al-Risla al-shamsiyya. Bar-hebraeus also translated into Syriac Ibn Sn’s Kitb al-ishrt wa-l-tanbht (extant) and Athr al-Dn al-Abhar’s (d. 663/1264) Zubdat al-asrr (lost).

Barhebraeus is best known to scholars of Islamic studies for his historical works, where he combined materials taken from earlier Syriac chronicles, such as those of Patriarch Michael I (d. 596/1199), with materials gathered from Arabic and Per-sian sources, such as Ibn al-Athr’s (d. 630/1233) al-Kmil f l-tarkh and Al al-Dn Juwayn’s (d. 681/1283) Trkh-i

jahngush. While the publication of the ear-lier works used by Barhebraeus has some-what diminished their value, his works remain among the most important sources for the history of the period closer to his time. The two parts of his major work in this field, Chronicon (Maktbonut zabne), deal-ing respectively with civil and ecclesiastical history, have been published separately as Chronicon syriacum/Chronography and Chroni-con ecclesiasticum. We are told that it was at the request of the Muslims in Margha that Barhebraeus composed his Arabic work on history, Mukhtaar tarkh al-duwal, which not only is a summary of his Chroni-con but also contains some important addi-tional materials, and which became the first Arabic book to be printed at Oxford when it was published in part by Edward Pocock in 1650, followed by full publica-tion in 1663.

As was noted by its editor François Nau, Barhebraeus’s astronomical work, Ascent of the mind (Suloqo hawnonoyo), draws parts of its material from Nar al-Dn al-s’s al-Tadhkira f ilm al-haya, while in its structure it more closely resembles that of the same author’s Zubdat al-idrk f hayat al-aflk. Further instances where Barhebraeus was influenced by Muslim authors include his major work on Syriac grammar, Book of splendours (Ktobo d-em), which has been found to draw on al-Zamakhshar’s (d. 538/1144) al-Muaal f l-naw; his Laugh-able stories (Tunoye mgakone), based to a large extent on al-b’s (d. 421/1030) Kitb nathr al-durr; and a short, incomplete mystical piece entitled the Childhood of the mind (alyut hawno), whose beginning closely resembles that of al-Suhraward’s (d. 587/1191) Risla f lat al-ufliyya. Many of the pieces in his collection of some 300 poems also draw their inspira-tion from Arabic models.

barhebraeus 43

Most, if not all, of Barhebraeus’s medical works were composed in Arabic. Of these the following survive: an abridgement of Ab Jafar al-Ghfiq’s (sixth/twelfth cen-tury) al-Adwiya al-mufrada (Simple medica-ments, partially published), an epitome of unayn b. Isq’s (d. 260/873) al-Masil al-ibbiyya (Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, MS 4925, and Syrian Orthodox Patri-archate, MS 6/17), a commentary on Hippocrates’ Aphorisms (reportedly in Patriarchate, MS 6/17), and a commen-tary on Hippocrates’ Prognosticon (Istanbul, Beyazt Devlet Kütüphanesi, MS Veliyüd-din Efendi 2506).

BibliographyHidemi Takahashi, Barhebraeus. A bio-bibliogra-

phy, Piscataway NJ 2005; Actes du colloque Barhebræus et la renaissance syriaque (Paris, décembre 2007), Parole de l’Orient 33 (2008), 17–198; Herman G. B. Teule, Barhebraeus, in David Thomas and Alex Mallett (eds.), Christian-Muslim relations. A bibliographical his-tory (Leiden 2012), 4:588–609.

Principal editions and translationsExegesis, theology, etc.: Ethicon, seu Moralia Gre-

gorii Barhebræi, ed. Paulus Bedjan, Paris 1898; Nomocanon Gregorii Barhebræi, ed. Paulus Bed-jan, Paris 1898; Bar Hebraeus’s Book of the dove, together with some chapters from his Ethikon, trans. A. J. Wensinck, Leiden 1919; Barhebraeus’ Scholia on the Old Testament, Part I. Genesis-II Samuel, ed. and trans. Martin Sprengling and William Creighton Graham, Chicago 1931; Gregory Barhebraeus, Ethicon (Mmr I), ed. and trans. Herman G. B. Teule, 2 vols., Louvain 1993; Ktobo d-zalge w-shuroro d-shetese idtonoyoto men syome d-abun qadisho Mor Grigriys d-hu Bar Ebroyo, Istanbul 1997; Die Scheune der Mysterien. Kommentar zum Alten und Neuen Testament des Mor Gregorios Yohanna Bar Ebroyo (1226–1286), [ed. Y. Y. Çiçek], Glane/Losser, The Netherlands 2003; ed. and trans. of most parts of the Candelabrum of the sanctuary in the series Patrologia Ori-entalis (PO 13/2, 22/4, 24/3, 27/4, 30/2, 30/4, 31/1, 35/2 [164], 40/3 [184], 41/3 [188], 43/2 [194]); edition in one volume in Mnorath kudshe (lamp of the sanctuary) by Mor

Gregorios Yohanna Bar Ebryoyo, Glane/Losser, The Netherlands 1997.

Philosophical worksD. S. Margoliouth, Analecta orientalia ad Poeticam

aristoteleam (London 1887), 114–39 (Cream of wisdom, book of poetics); Herman F. Jans-sens, Bar Hebraeus’ Book of the pupils of the eye, American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature 47 (1930/1) 26–49, 94–134; 48 (1932) 209–63; 52 (1935) 1–21; Herman F. Janssens, L’entretien de la sagesse. Introduc-tion aux œuvres philosophiques de Bar Hebraeus, Liège 1937; H. J. Drossaart Lulofs and E. L. J. Poortman, Nicolaus Damascenus. De plantis. Five Translations (Amsterdam 1989), 68–113 (Cream of wisdom, book of plants); Hidemi Takahashi, Aristotelian meteorology in Syriac. Bar-hebraeus, Butyrum sapientiae, books of mineralogy and meteorology, Leiden 2004; N. Peter Joosse, A Syriac encyclopedia of Aristotelian philosophy. Barhebraeus (13th c.), Butyrum sapientiae, books of ethics, economy and politics, Leiden 2004; John W. Watt, Aristotelian rhetoric in Syriac. Barhebraeus, Butyrum sapientiae, Book of rhetoric, Leiden 2005; Jens Ole Schmitt, Barhebraeus, Butyrum sapientiae, physics, Leiden, forthcoming.

Historical worksGregorii Barhebræi Chronicon ecclesiaticum, ed.

and trans. Joannes Baptista Abbeloos and Thomas Josephus Lamy, 3 vols., Louvain 1872–8; Gregorii Barhebræi Chronicon syriacum, [ed. Paulus Bedjan], Paris 1890; Tarkh mukhtaar al-duwal lil-allma Ghrghriys al-mala al-marf b-Ibn al-Ibr, ed. Ann lin, Beirut 1890; The chronography of Gregory Abû’l Faraj, the son of Aaron, the Hebrew physician, commonly known as Bar Hebraeus, ed. and trans. E. A. Wallis Budge, 2 vols., Oxford 1932; La chronographie de Bar Hebraeus, trans. Philippe Talon, 3 vols., Fernelmont 2013.

GrammarsOeuvres grammaticales d’Abou’lfaraj dit Bar Hebreus,

ed. l’Abbé [ J. P. P.] Martin, 2 vols., Paris 1872; Buch der Strahlen. Die grössere Grammatik des Barhebräus, trans. Axel Moberg, 2 vols., Leipzig 1907–13; Le livre des splendeurs. La grande grammaire de Grégoire Barhebraeus, ed. Axel Moberg, Lund 1922.; Other: Gregorii Bar-Hebraei carmina, ed. Augustinus Scebabi, Rome 1877; Laughable stories collected by Mâr Gregory John Bar-Hebræus, ed. and trans. E. A.

44 baeriyya

Wallis Budge, London 1897; Le livre de l’ascension de l’esprit sur la forme du ciel et de la terre. Cours d’astronomie rédigé en 1279 par Grégoire Aboulfarag, dit Bar-Hebræus, ed. and trans. François Nau, 2 vols., Paris 1899; Mushhoto d-Mor Grigriys Yuanon Bar Ebroyo mafryono qadisho d-madno, [ed. Yuanon Dolabani], Jerusalem 1929; The abridged version of “The book of simple drugs” of Ahmad Ibn Muhammad al-Ghâfiqî by Gregorius Abu’l-Farag (Barhebraeus), ed. and trans. Max Meyerhoff and G. P. Sobhy, vol. 1, fasc. 1–4 (no more published), Cairo 1937–40; Josef Önder, Das Meer der Weisheiten. Ein Briefwechsel zwischen dem Jako-bitischen Maphrian des Ostens, Mr Gregorios Yann Bar Ebry und Den I., Katholikos der Nestorianer, in der Blütezeit des 13. Jahrhunderts, Glane 2009; Das Buch der ergötzlichen Erzählun-gen des Bar Hebräus, trans. Zeki Joseph, Berlin 2013.

Hidemi Takahashi

Batriyya

Batriyya (or Butriyya) is a pejora-tive term applied to one of two groups (the other being the Jrdiyya, discussed below) considered to be the progeni-tors of the Zayd Sha. The name likely originates from polemical accusations that they sever (batr) the legitimate rights of the Family of the Prophet.

According to the heresiographical lit-erature, the Batriyya were a moderate Sh group distinguished by the following characteristics:

(a) The belief that the Prophet’s designa-tion of Al as his successor was implicit, thereby absolving those Companions who opposed him of charges of apos-tasy. The Batrs upheld the caliph-ates of Ab Bakr and Umar, based on Al’s apparent acceptance of their rule; in the process, they affirmed the caliphate of the “less worthy (mafl),”

even in the presence of a “superior” candidate, namely, Al.

(b) The belief that legal authority was dispersed throughout the Muslim community. This position differed from that of other Sh groups, which restricted such authority to either the entirety of Al’s descendants or one specific line of descendants. Since the Batrs considered religious knowledge to be learned (as opposed to intrin-sic), they permitted imms (holders of legitimate political authority) to study with non-Sh scholars and required them to demonstrate a mastery of legal methods such as ijtihd (rational interpretation/reasoning).

(c) The Batriyya were part of the larger Kfan traditionist movement. They predicated their legal views on tradi-tions ascribed to the Prophet and his Companions. These included opinions transmitted from figures generally con-demned by Sh groups, most notably ’isha and Umar. As a result, Batr positions on various aspects of ritual law—for example, the permissibility of nabdh (date wine)—often resembled those of Kfan “proto-Sunn” groups.

The other group associated with the founding of Zaydism was the Jrdiyya. The Jrds were purportedly named after Ab l-Jrd Ziyd b. al-Mundhir (d. mid-second/eighth century). They dif-fered from the Batrs on a number of key points. They held that the Prophet had clearly and unambiguously appointed Al as his successor, and accordingly those Companions who rejected Al’s claims were guilty of apostasy. The Jrds also restricted legitimate legal authority to the descendents of Al and the Prophet’s daughter Fima. They were particularly

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list of abbreviations

a. PeriodicalsAI = Annales IslamologiquesAIUON = Annali dell’ Istituto Universitario Orientale di NapoliAKM = Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgen landesAMEL = Arabic and Middle Eastern LiteraturesAO = Acta OrientaliaAO Hung. = Acta Orientalia (Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae)ArO = Archiv OrientálníAS = Asiatische StudienASJ = Arab Studies JournalASP = Arabic Sciences and PhilosophyASQ = Arab Studies QuarterlyBASOR = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental ResearchBEA = Bulletin des Études ArabesBEFEO = Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-OrientBEO = Bulletin d’Études Orientales de l’Institut Français de DamasBIE = Bulletin de l’Institut d’ÉgypteBIFAO = Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale du CaireBKI = Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en VolkenkundeBMGS = Byzantine and Modern Greek StudiesBO = Bibliotheca OrientalisBrisMES = British Journal of Middle Eastern StudiesBSOAS = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African StudiesBZ = Byzantinische ZeitschriftCAJ = Central Asiatic JournalDOP = Dumbarton Oaks PapersEW = East and WestIBLA = Revue de l’Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes, TunisIC = Islamic CultureIJAHS = International Journal of African Historical StudiesIHQ = Indian Historical QuarterlyIJMES = International Journal of Middle East StudiesILS = Islamic Law and SocietyIOS = Israel Oriental StudiesIQ = The Islamic Quarterly

JA = Journal AsiatiqueJAIS = Journal of Arabic and Islamic StudiesJAL = Journal of Arabic LiteratureJAOS = Journal of the American Oriental SocietyJARCE = Journal of the American Research Center in EgyptJAS = Journal of Asian StudiesJESHO = Journal of the Economic and Social History of the OrientJIS = Journal of Islamic StudiesJMBRAS = Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic SocietyJNES = Journal of Near Eastern StudiesJOS = Journal of Ottoman StudiesJQR = Jewish Quarterly ReviewJRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic SocietyJSAI = Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and IslamJSEAH = Journal of Southeast Asian HistoryJSS = Journal of Semitic StudiesMEA = Middle Eastern AffairsMEJ = Middle East JournalMEL = Middle Eastern LiteraturesMES = Middle East StudiesMFOB = Mélanges de la Faculté Orientale de l’Université St. Joseph de BeyrouthMIDEO = Mélanges de l’Institut Dominicain d’Études Orientales du CaireMME = Manuscripts of the Middle EastMMIA = Majallat al-Majma al-Ilmi al-Arabi, DamascusMO = Le Monde OrientalMOG = Mitteilungen zur Osmanischen GeschichteMSR = Mamluk Studies ReviewMW = The Muslim WorldOC = Oriens ChristianusOLZ = Orientalistische LiteraturzeitungOM = Oriente ModernoQSA = Quaderni di Studi ArabiREI = Revue des Études IslamiquesREJ = Revue des Études JuivesREMMM = Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la MéditerranéeRHR = Revue de l’Histoire des ReligionsRIMA = Revue de l’Institut des Manuscrits ArabesRMM = Revue du Monde MusulmanRO = Rocznik OrientalistycznyROC = Revue de l’Orient ChrétienRSO = Rivista degli Studi OrientaliSI = Studia Islamica (France)SIk = Studia Islamika (Indonesia)SIr = Studia IranicaTBG = Tijdschrift van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en WetenschappenVKI = Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land en Volkenkunde WI = Die Welt des IslamsWO = Welt des OrientsWZKM = Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des MorgenlandesZAL = Zeitschrift für Arabische LinguistikZDMG = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft

vi list of abbreviations

ZGAIW = Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen WissenschaftenZS = Zeitschrift für Semitistik

b. OtherANRW = Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen WeltBGA = Bibliotheca Geographorum ArabicorumBNF = Bibliothèque nationale de FranceCERMOC = Centre d’Études et de Recherches sur le Moyen-Orient ContemporainCHAL = Cambridge History of Arabic LiteratureCHE = Cambridge History of EgyptCHIn = Cambridge History of IndiaCHIr = Cambridge History of IranDozy = R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes, Leiden 1881 (repr. Leiden and Paris 1927)EAL= Encyclopedia of Arabic LiteratureEI1 = Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed., Leiden 1913–38EI2 = Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., Leiden 1954–2004EI3 = Encyclopaedia of Islam Three, Leiden 2007–EIr = Encyclopaedia IranicaEJ1= Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1st ed., Jerusalem [New York 1971–92]EQ = Encyclopaedia of the QurnERE = Encyclopaedia of Religion and EthicsGAL = C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, 2nd ed., Leiden 1943–49GALS = C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, Supplementbände I–III, Leiden 1937–42GAP = Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie, Wies baden 1982–GAS = F. Sezgin, Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums, Leiden 1967–GMS = Gibb Memorial SeriesGOW = F. Babinger, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Osmanen und ihre Werke, Leipzig 1927HO = Handbuch der OrientalistikIA = Islâm AnsiklopedisiIFAO = Institut Français d’Archeologie Orien taleJE = Jewish EncyclopaediaLane = E. W. Lane, Arabic-English LexiconRCEA = Répertoire Chronologique d’Épigraphie ArabeTAVO = Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen OrientsTDVIA=Türkiye Diyanet Vakfi Islâm AnsiklopedisiUEAI = Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisantsvan Ess, TG = J. van Ess, Theologie und Gesell schaftWKAS = Wörterbuch der Klassischen Arabischen Sprache, Wiesbaden 1957–

list of abbreviations vii