Banganarti - fortifications

B R I T I S H M U S E U M P U B L I C A T I O N S O N E G Y P T A N D S U D A N 1

THE FOURTH CATARACT AND BEYOND

Proceedings of the 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies

edited by

Julie R. ANDERSON and Derek A. WELSBY

PEETERS

LEUVEN – PARIS – WALPOLE, MA

2014

CONTENTS

CO�TE�TS .............................................................................................................................................. V

CO�TRIBUTORS ...................................................................................................................................... XV

PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................ XXIII

ACK�OWLEDGEME�TS ............................................................................................................................ XXV

ABBREVIATIO�S ...................................................................................................................................... XXVII

I�TRODUCTIO�

YUSUF FADL HASAN and Derek A. WELSBY

Opening Session .................................................................................................................................... 1

SALAH MOHAMED AHMED

An Introduction to the Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project (MDASP) ....................................... 5

THE FOURTH CATARACT A�D BEYO�D - MAI� PAPERS

PREHISTORY

Piotr OSYPIŃSKI

Prehistory of the Fourth Cataract ............................................................................................................. 9

Matthieu HONEGGER

Recent Advances in Our Understanding of Prehistory in Northern Sudan ................................................. 19

Donatella USAI

Recent Advances in Understanding the Prehistory of Central Sudan ......................................................... 31

Maria Carmela GATTO

Recent Advances in the Understanding of Nubian Prehistory in Lower Nubia, Upper Egypt and the Deserts 45

THE KERMA PERIOD

Henryk PANER

Kerma Culture in the Fourth Cataract of the Nile ..................................................................................... 53

Charles BONNET

Forty Years Research on Kerma Cultures ................................................................................................ 81

VI CONTENTS

Brigitte GRATIEN

Kerma North of the Third Cataract .......................................................................................................... 95

Dominique VALBELLE

International Relations between Kerma and Egypt ................................................................................... 103

THE KUSHITE PERIOD

SALAH MOHAMED AHMED

Kushites at the Fourth Cataract ............................................................................................................... 111

Vincent RONDOT

The Island of Meroe ............................................................................................................................... 119

Angelika LOHWASSER

Kush and her Neighbours beyond the Nile Valley .................................................................................... 125

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Bogdan ŻURAWSKI

The Fourth Cataract in the Medieval Period ............................................................................................ 135

Włodzimierz GODLEWSKI

The Kingdom of Makuria ........................................................................................................................ 155

David N. EDWARDS

Medieval Nobadia ................................................................................................................................... 171

Derek A. WELSBY

The Kingdom of Alwa ............................................................................................................................ 183

THE ISLAMIC PERIOD

ABDELRAHMAN ALI MOHAMMED

The Islamic Period in the Fourth Cataract ................................................................................................ 201

INTISAR SOGHAYROUN ELZEIN

Islamic Archaeology in Northern Sudan .................................................................................................. 209

Michael MALLINSON

The Red Sea Littoral since the Arrival of Islam ....................................................................................... 217

YUSUF FADL HASAN

The Islamic Sudan and the Outside World, c. 1317-1821 ......................................................................... 227

CONTENTS VII

REPORTS A�D RESEARCH PAPERS

PREHISTORY

Elena A. A. GARCEA

The Evolution from Large Social Units with Loose Networks into Small Social Units with Tight Networks

from the Khartoum Variant to the Abkan and the Pre-Kerma at Sai Island ............................................. 235

Sandro SALVATORI, Donatella USAI, MOHAMED FAROUG ABDELRAHMAN, Antonietta DI MATTEO,

Paola IACUMIN, Veerle LINSEELE and MONGEDA KHALEB MAGZOUB

Archaeology at el-Khiday: New Insight on the Prehistory and History of Central Sudan ........................... 243

Andrea ZERBONI

The Geoarchaeological Contribution to the el-Salha Project: From Site to Landscape at el-Khiday

(Central Sudan) ..................................................................................................................................... 259

Tina JAKOB

A Bioarchaeological Appraisal of the Human Skeletal Remains from e l-Khiday 2, Central Sudan ............. 271

ABDELRAHIM M. KHABIR

Typological and Technological Examinations of Neolithic Pottery from Khartoum Province, Sudan ......... 279

AZHARI MUSTAFA SADIG

Child Burials: A Funerary Practice in the Middle Nile Region. Evidence from the Late Neolithic Site

of es-Sour ............................................................................................................................................ 285

Przemek BOBROWSKI, Agnieszka CZEKAJ-ZASTAWNY and Romuald SCHILD

Gebel el-Muqaddas (site E-06-4). The Early Neolithic Tumuli from Nabta Playa (Western Desert, Egypt) 293

HEBA-TALLAH A. A. IBRAHIM

Megalithic Architecture and the Nubian Desert ........................................................................................ 303

KERMA A�D CO�TEMPORARY CULTURES

George HERBST and Stuart Tyson SMITH

Pre-Kerma Transition at the Nile Fourth Cataract: First Assessments of a Multi-component, Stratified

Prehistoric Settlement in the UCSB/ASU Salvage Concession ............................................................... 311

Magdalena WŁODARSKA

Kerma Burials in the Fourth Cataract Region – Three Seasons of Excavations at Shemkhiya .................... 321

Geoff EMBERLING, Bruce B. WILLIAMS, Megan INGVOLDSTAD and Thomas R. JAMES

Peripheral Vision: Identity at the Margins of the Early Kingdom of Kush ................................................ 329

Enrico DIRMINTI

Between Kerma and Avaris: The First Kingdom of Kush and Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period 337

Pernille BANGSGAARD

Nubian Faunal Practices – Exploring the C-Group “Pastoral Ideal” at Nine Cemeteries ............................ 347

VIII CONTENTS

Petra WESCHENFELDER

Linking the Eastern Desert and the Nile Valley: Pan-Grave People from the Late Middle Kingdom to

the Early New Kingdom ....................................................................................................................... 357

PHARAO�IC

Florence DOYEN

Sai Island New Kingdom Town (Northern Sudan): 3rd and 4th Seasons (2009-2010) ................................. 367

Giulia D’ERCOLE, Giacomo ERAMO and Italo M. MUNTONI

Archaeometric Approaches to Ceramic Manufacture and Traditions at Sai Island, Northern Sudan ........... 377

Lauriane MIELLÉ

Nubian Traditions on the Ceramics Found in the Pharaonic Town on Sai Island ....................................... 387

Giacomo CAVILLIER

Soleb 2010 Project: Amenhotep III’s Fortified Complex Research ........................................................... 393

W. Vivian DAVIES

A Statue of Amenhotep III Rediscovered ................................................................................................. 399

Kate SPENCE and Pamela ROSE

Fieldwork at Sesebi 2010 ........................................................................................................................ 409

Philippe RUFFIEUX

Early 18th Dynasty Pottery Found in Kerma (Dokki Gel).......................................................................... 417

Stuart Tyson SMITH and Michele R. BUZON

Colonial Entanglements: “Egyptianization” in Egypt’s Nubian Empire and the Nubian Dynasty ................ 431

Doris PEMLER

Looking for Nubians in Egypt. Taking a Look at the Iconographic Evidence from the 1st Intermediate Period

and Middle Kingdom ............................................................................................................................ 443

Natalie A. POMERANTSEVA

Images of the Foreigners in Egyptian Art ................................................................................................ 451

Neal SPENCER

Amara West: Considerations on Urban Life in Colonial Kush .................................................................. 457

Michaela BINDER

Cultural Traditions and Transitions During the New Kingdom Colonial Period and Its Aftermath – Recent

Discoveries from the Cemeteries of Amara West ................................................................................... 487

Danièle MICHAUX-COLOMBOT

Pitfall Concepts in the Round of ‘Nubia’: Ta-Sety, Nehesy, Medja, Maga and Punt Revisited ................... 507

Alfredo CASTIGLIONI and Angelo CASTIGLIONI

À la recherche de la terre d’Amou ........................................................................................................... 523

CONTENTS IX

KUSHITE

EL-SAMANI AL-NASRI MOHAMMED AHMED

The Emergence of Kush .......................................................................................................................... 531

Jean REVEZ

The Role of the Kings’ Brothers in the Transmission of Royal Power in Ancient Egypt and Kush: A Cross-

Cultural Study ...................................................................................................................................... 537

Friederike JESSE

On the Borders of Kushite Power – The Gala Abu Ahmed Fortress in Lower Wadi Howar, Northern Sudan 545

Michael H. ZACH

The Army and Military Dictatorship in Meroe? ....................................................................................... 557

Stanley M. BURSTEIN

The Satrap Stela and the Struggle for Lower Nubia ................................................................................. 573

Jeremy POPE

Meroitic Diplomacy and the Festival of Entry .......................................................................................... 577

Maria Iride PASQUALI

On the Traces of Nubians: Notes on the Relations between Romans and Meroites .................................... 583

IKHLAS ABDUL LATIEF

The K3 Symbol in Kushite Civilization ................................................................................................... 587

Amarillis POMPEI

Delivery of Nubian Royal Insignia: The Crowns ...................................................................................... 591

Katarina ALDENHOVEN

Kushite Barque Stands ............................................................................................................................ 601

Julie R. ANDERSON and SALAH MOHAMED AHMED

Early Kushite Royal Statues at Dangeil, Sudan ........................................................................................ 613

László TÖRÖK

Quality, Style, and Nubianness. Prolegomena to a History of Meroitic Sculpture ...................................... 621

MURTADA BUSHARA MOHAMMED

The Possible Royal Tomb of Eltameer Merowe ....................................................................................... 635

Julia BUDKA

Egyptian Impact on Pot-Breaking Ceremonies at el-Kurru? A Re-examination ......................................... 641

Brigitte BALANDA

Protecting the Mummy – A Reinterpretation of Shabtis in Napatan Funerary Customs ............................. 655

Timothy KENDALL

Reused Relief Blocks of Piankhy from B 900: Toward a Decipherment of the Osiris Cult at Jebel Barkal 663

X CONTENTS

Svetlana BERSINA†

Sabazios dans les pays de la vallée du Nil. Variétés régionales de l’image et du culte ............................... 687

Emanuele M. CIAMPINI and Grażyna BĄKOWSKA-CZERNER

Meroitic Kingship and Water: The Case of Napata (B2200) ..................................................................... 695

Tracey SWEEK, Julie R. ANDERSON, SALAH MOHAMED AHMED and Satoko TANIMOTO

Conservation of an Amun Temple in the Sudan ....................................................................................... 703

Karla KROEPER

Excavation of “Offering Chapel 360” in Naga ......................................................................................... 711

Pawel WOLF, Ulrike NOWOTNICK and Catharine HOF

The Meroitic Urban Town of Hamadab in 2010 ....................................................................................... 719

Eugenio FANTUSATI, Eleonora KORMYSHEVA and Svetlana MALYKH

Survey in Abu Erteila: Preliminary Results .............................................................................................. 739

Richard A. LOBBAN

Preliminary Findings at Abu Erteila: A Meroitic and Early Christian Site in Sudan .................................. 759

Michel BAUD†

Downtown Muweis – A Progress Report (2007-2011) .............................................................................. 763

Marc MAILLOT

The Palace of Muweis in the Shendi Reach: A Comparative Approach .................................................... 783

Vincent FRANCIGNY

An Elite Meroitic Cemetery at Sai Island ................................................................................................ 797

MAHMOUD SULIMAN BASHIR

The Archaeological Material from the Meroitic Cemetery at Berber ........................................................ 805

Tsubasa SAKAMOTO

Chronology of Meroitic Graves in Northern Sudan: Agency, Power and Society ...................................... 809

Serge FENEUILLE, Jean-Pierre LETOURNEUX and Marie BOUCHAR

Archaeological Information Extracted from a Comparative Study of Samples of Mortar Collected on

Various Ancient Monuments in the Nile Valley between the Third and the Sixth Cataracts .................... 827

MEDIEVAL

Marek CHŁODNICKI

The “Royal” Tumulus at Hagar el-Beida .................................................................................................. 833

Brenda J. BAKER

Tracking Transitions in the Fourth Cataract Region of el-Ginefab: Results of the Arizona State University

Fieldwork, 2007-2009 ........................................................................................................................... 841

CONTENTS XI

Eugen STROUHAL

Anthropology of Wadi Qitna and Kalabsha South .................................................................................... 857

Artur OBŁUSKI

Rank-Size Rule in Nubian Settlement Systems ........................................................................................ 867

William Y. ADAMS

The Eparch at Meinarti............................................................................................................................ 875

Bogdan ŻURAWSKI

Meroitic to Medieval Occupation Upriver from Dongola. Excavations at Banganarti and Selib in 2010 ..... 887

Mariusz DRZEWIECKI

Banganarti – Fortifications ...................................................................................................................... 901

Marta OSYPIŃSKA

Animals in the Economy of Christian Makuria ........................................................................................ 909

Małgorzata MARTENS-CZARNECKA

Nubian Representations of Nativity Discovered in the Monastery in Old Dongola .................................... 917

Magdalena WOZNIAK

Royal Iconography: Contribution to the Study of Costume ....................................................................... 929

Dobrochna ZIELIŃSKA

The Iconography of Power – The Power of Iconography: The Nubian Royal Ideology and Its Expression

in Wall Painting ................................................................................................................................... 943

Adam ŁAJTAR

A Survey of Christian Textual Finds from Gebel Adda in the Collections of the Royal Ontario Museum,

Toronto ................................................................................................................................................ 951

Giovanni RUFFINI

May God Increase Your Years: Unpublished Old Nubian Correspondence from Qasr Ibrim ..................... 961

Grzegorz OCHAŁA

Old Nubian Lists of Goods and Money: A Preliminary Presentation ........................................................ 971

Claudia NÄSER and Alexandros TSAKOS

From Bits and Pieces. A Corpus of Medieval Manuscripts from the Humboldt University (H.U.N.E.)

Concession in the Fourth Nile Cataract ................................................................................................. 977

Alexandros TSAKOS and Henriette HAFSAAS-TSAKOS

A Note on the Medieval Period of Sai Island ........................................................................................... 985

Robin SEIGNOBOS

Nubia and Nubians in Medieval Latin Culture. The Evidence of Maps (12th-14th Century) ........................ 989

XII CONTENTS

ISLAMIC TO MODER�

NADA BABEKIR MOHAMMED

Fangool Archaeological Site: A Brief Note .............................................................................................. 1005

RAGEH Z. MOHAMED

Bani Ady, Darb el-Arbaiin’s Last Station between Upper Egypt and Nubia in the Islamic period .............. 1009

Alex DE VOOGT

The Introduction of Mancala to Sai Island ............................................................................................... 1017

HAIFA MOHAMMED HASSAN ELTAYEB Sudanese Beautification Ornaments between the Past and the Present ...................................................... 1021

Armgard GOO-GRAUER

House Decoration by Nubian Women Prior to 1964 Resettlement ............................................................ 1025

Anne M. JENNINGS

The Changing Face of Tourism in West Aswan Village ........................................................................... 1027

Costanza DE SIMONE

Perceptions of Nubia in Museum Collections and Displays ...................................................................... 1031

Salomé ZURINAGA

The Preservation of the Documentary Heritage of the ‘Nubian Campaign’ kept at the Spanish National

Archaeological Museum, Madrid, Spain ................................................................................................ 1035

MULTI-PERIOD

KABBASHI HUSSEIN GISSEMA

The Merowe Dam Salvage Archaeological Project (Sudan) ...................................................................... 1049

FAWZI HASSAN BAKHEIT

Rock Drawing Studies: Four Seasons In The Middle Nile Region ............................................................ 1057

Joanna THEN-OBŁUSKA

The Code of the Hidden Beads – From the Kerma to the Islamic Period According to the Fourth Cataract

Material from the Gdańsk Archaeological Museum Expedition Excavations ........................................... 1069

Ross THOMAS

Changing Societies in the Fourth Cataract: Identity Displayed through Ceramic Use and Consumption

Practices ............................................................................................................................................... 1091

YAHIA FADL TAHIR

Archaeology and Palaeoecology of el-Ga’ab Basin .................................................................................. 1099

ALI OSMAN MOHAMED SALIH

Archaeology and Settlement in the Third Cataract Region. Abu Fatma: A Nubian Settlement from the

Kerma Period to Modern Times ............................................................................................................ 1107

CONTENTS XIII

Margaret JUDD

Growing Up in Gabati: An Overview of Health ....................................................................................... 1115

SIDDIG BABIKER AHMED

The Archaeological and Ethnographical Reconnaissance in the Sabaloka Area (Western Bank of the Nile,

North of Omdurman District) ................................................................................................................ 1125

Tim KARBERG

Rock Art from Wadi Abu Dom. Recent Discoveries of the W.A.D.I. Project (Münster/Germany) ............. 1135

KHIDIR ADAM EISA

The Recent Archaeological Survey and Salvage Excavations on the Eastern Bank of the White Nile,

8th Season – 2009 .................................................................................................................................. 1143

Andrea MANZO

Beyond the Fourth Cataract. Perspectives for Research in Eastern Sudan .................................................. 1149

YOUSIF ELOBEID ELSHEIKH SALIH

GIS in Archaeology ................................................................................................................................ 1159

LA�GUAGE A�D LI�GUISTICS

Claude RILLY

Language and Ethnicity in Ancient Sudan ............................................................................................... 1169

Herman BELL

A World Heritage Alphabet: The Role of Old Nubian in the Revitalization of the Modern Nubian Languages 1189

Banganarti 1 is an exceptional site. Thanks to vari-ous papers, mainly by Bogdan Żurawski, the director of the archaeological-conservation mission working on the site, the sacred architecture and paintings of Ban-ganarti have taken a significant place in the history of medieval Nubia. The central buildings on the site are churches and they are part of a settlement complex which is surrounded by a curtain wall (Figure 1). The remains of the fortifications extend up to 4m in height and are the best preserved medieval mud-brick con-struction of this type in Upper Nubia. The fact the mud-

brick architecture is in such good condition can be explained by the fact that throughout its existence Ban-ganarti was continuously being buried by wind-blown sand (Plate 1). This also permitted the preservation of the non-architectural, occupation layers around the walls and has provided much unique information on the subject of human activity in their vicinity. This is of exceptional value for investigations into issues con-nected with fortified architecture in Upper Nubia. The excavations in Banganarti began ten years ago.

BANGANARTI – FORTIFICATIONS

MARIUSZ DRZEWIECKI

Figure 1. Banganarti 1, site plan after the 2010 season (R. Łopaciuk and M. Drzewiecki).

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902 MARIUSZ DRZEWIECKI

THE HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH OF THE BANGANARTI FORTIFICATIONS

The site was first investigated in 1985 when it was designated ROM 53 by the Royal Ontario Museum Expedition to Nubia led by Krzysztof Grzymski (1987, 11). No further work was carried out here until 1997 when the Southern Dongola Reach Survey – SDRS (Żurawski 2003) began, directed by Bogdan Żurawski. As part of this project there have been regular excava-tions in Tangasi since 2001. A difference in inventory methods led to the change of the kom name from ROM 53 to Banganarti, site 1.

Excavations were carried out concurrently around the churches and the fortifications. In the 2001 and 2002 seasons Marcin Wiewióra (2003a, 350-352; 2003b, 493-495; 2005, 265-269; 2007, 204-206) super-vised the work in the area around the curtain wall. The excavations covered a large area (Figure 2) and their aim was to clarify the architectural layout and create a map of the site (Żurawski 2002, 221-226). The inves-tigations into the identification of the defensive system continued from 2005 up to 2011. In 2005, and at the start of the season in 2006, sondages were dug. In the

second half of 2006 the outline of the curtain wall in sectors I, II and III was revealed (Figure 2). The method of excavation was similar to that applied earlier. A deposit of quartz and carnelian beads was uncovered in “locus A” in the north-eastern corner, inv. no. 15–18W/2006 (Drzewiecki 2008a, 403-409).

The most intensive investigations of the fortifica-tions were performed in the 2007 season in sectors IV, V, VI, VII and VIII (Figure 2). A gate in the northern wall was revealed. Known as the north gate, it was built during the initial stages of fortification, and after its reconstruction it was the largest tower recorded so far in Banganarti. The surveys led to the identification of the methods used in the construction of the wall in particular sections, to determine how the foundations were laid and it was also possible to record remains of human activity in the immediate vicinity of the fortifi-cation. Buildings added to the external face of the cur-tain wall and built on the ruins of the fortifications were also recorded (Drzewiecki 2008b, 47-72; Drze-wiecki 2010). Activities in the last seasons (XI-XII. 2008, 2010 and 2011) consisted mainly of the digging of sondages at key locations along the wall (Figure 2).

Works on the identification of the fortification sys-tem also led to the discovery of numerous remains con-nected to the economic exploitation of the zone adja-cent to the defensive walls. In 2001, in the area around the tower at the south-eastern corner, a deposit of mud stoppers was found (Jaklewicz 2004, 268). In 2010, 49 mud stoppers from storage vessels (Plate 2) and two clay monogrammed stamps were identified (Figure 3),

Plate 1. Banganarti 1, aerial photograph taken after the 2007 season (photo B. Żurawski).

Plate 2. Banganarti 1, mud stopper discovered in 2010 (photo K. Molga).

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BANGANARTI – FORTIFICATIONS 903

probably a further part of this collection. In 2006, close to the wall the remains of a bread oven were uncovered (Żurawski 2008, 393).

Apart from the excavations, attempts were made to apply non-invasive survey methods. Aerial photographs taken from a kite were used to document the site and in 2002, Krzysztof Misiewicz carried out a geophysical reconnaissance using a proton magnetometer (Misie-wicz 2003). Due to the level of interference it was only possible to distinguish the area of the south-eastern cor-ner of the fortification and record red-brick construc-tions – lime kilns – in the western section of the site.

THE CONSTRUCTION PHASES OF THE BANGANARTI FORTIFICATION

The excavations have resulted in the identification of the Banganarti fortifications as a very complex sys-tem which frequently underwent reconstruction. Archaeological access to the earliest phases of con-struction is limited. For this reason, despite the number of fieldwork seasons, the complex most certainly con-

Figure 2. Banganarti 1, excavated areas of curtain

wall (R. Łopaciuk and M. Drzewiecki).

Figure 3. Banganarti 1, stamps from area of the south-east corner tower, scale 1:2 (drawn by A. Cedro).

96798.indb 903 23/05/14 14:14


tains many as yet undiscovered secrets. So far, the gen-eral chronology and basic phases of construction have been distinguished.

Before the fortification

In the south-east section of the curtain wall below

the earliest foundations, non-architectural layers were

recorded. In some places the layers are up to approxi-

mately 1m thick (Figure 4, Plate 3). This may indicate

that before the construction of the fortifications, this

area had been settled (Drzewiecki 2011). On the other

hand, directly below the foundation of the earliest

church in Banganarti a virgin sand layer was registered

(Żurawski 2008, 389).This observation may indicate

that the church was built before the construction of the

curtain wall and the layers recorded below the fortifica-

tion date to the same period in which the earliest church

was being used. Additionally, there are a few places

where the foundations of the earliest curtain wall have

been built directly on layers consisting of dense burnt

deposits and ash (Figure 5A, see red arrows).

The first fortifications (Wall I)

The construction of the first fortifications in Banga-narti can be dated to the 7th century from the analysis of the ceramic vessels discovered in the layers adjacent to the foundations. It encloses a roughly quadrilateral area (Figure 5B); there were probably towers at each angle, there was at least one tower halfway along the eastern flank and two gates on the northern and south-ern sides. The fortifications were built largely of mud brick with other materials used sporadically: the entrance arches were constructed of red brick, and the foundations in some areas rested on rocks. The wall measured around 2m thick and survived to a maximum height of about 3m.

The gates were built according to a unified plan. They were of a ‘D’-shaped projecting tower with the gate passage through the curtain wall into the tower interior and then turning at 90º leaving the tower through its side wall.

The corner towers are partly preserved in the north-eastern and south-eastern sections of the fortification. Originally, they were approximately 8m in diameter with chambers within, accessible via a narrow passage-way from the interior of the complex. The remains of a dividing wall which may have supported a barrel vault forming the base of the stairs leading up to a higher level were discovered in this chamber in the south-eastern tower. Traces of the other corner towers

Figure 4. Banganarti 1, entrance to the south-east corner tower (drawn by A. Cedro).

Plate 3. Banganarti 1, remains of the entrance to the south-east corner tower (photo A. Cedro).

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Figure 5. Banganarti 1, phases of fortifications

(R. Łopaciuk and M. Drzewiecki).

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(NW and SW) have been destroyed by modern agricul-ture (palm seedlings) or by Nile floods, evidence of which was recorded in the south-western section of the complex.

Wall I also has traces of probable small reconstruc-tions and repairs, visible in sector VII where two sup-ports were added on the external face. The eastern tower also revealed an additional reconstruction stage in this phase, during the 2011 season.

Some of the chambers inside the complex were built at the same time as the curtain wall and are bonded into its brickwork. This was observed in sector IX. At some point between the 7th and 11th centuries the construction of buildings beyond the walls but against the external face began. This can be seen on the southern side of the complex (Figure 5C).

Reconstruction of the fortification (Wall II)

The lower church ceased to be used in about the mid 11th century. In approximately the second half of the 11th century the first upper church was built on its flat-tened remains (Żurawski, pers. comm.). Between the 11th and 13th centuries (dated on the basis of the typol-ogy of the ceramic vessels as defined by D. Bagińska (2008, 421-25)), the defences were also renovated. The old curtain wall (Wall I) was the base on which the new fortifications were built (Figure 5D). In many sections Wall II was constructed on top of Wall I; there are also sections where Wall I was used as the core for Wall II. The most likely explanation for these differences is the variations in the levels of sand, which was continuously accumulating, covering the complex. Some sections were covered more, others less at the time when Wall II was constructed.

The new fortifications were also made of mud brick. The thickness of the wall in the sections investigated was about 3m, apart from sectors I, IX and the north gate. In sectors I and IX the wall was about 0.8-1m thick, but directly adjacent to the internal face barrel vaulted chambers were built which meant the wall still appeared thick though less time and building materials were necessary to achieve this.

At this time the north gate was bricked up. The walls of this gate were then thickened reaching approxi-mately up to 4m across. Two unusual construction fea-tures were added to this part of the wall of the gate – square shafts, running down vertically and coming to an end at a level close to the foundations of the gate. When they were discovered they were filled with burnt

material and layers of ash. Bogdan Żurawski interprets this to be the remains of the socket for throwing machines, similar to trebuchets. The west gate was probably built at this time, and was of similar shape to the others. It was built close to the lime kilns which may suggest that the supplies needed for the firing pro-cess came through this gate. The corner towers were strengthened, their diameter increased to around 10m. At a certain point, buildings began to arise beyond the complex once again (Figure 5E). The so-called ‘trape-zoidal’ building and small chambers on the southern side were built at this time (Wiewióra 2007, 205).

The fortifications ceased to be used at the same time as burials that have been recorded on their remains or directly inside the walls, began to appear (Figure 5F). Structures exploiting the remains of the fortifications were built. It is probable that the community living in Banganarti at this time declined significantly and activ-ity was concentrated in the area of the western building which was at that time rebuilt to a great extent, and the external walls doubled in thickness. The western build-ing most likely continued to function long after the church was abandoned (Żurawski 2005, 302).

ATTEMPTS AT INTERPRETATION: ORIGINS – THE HISTORICAL-POLITICAL CONTEXT

The location of Banganarti close to Old Dongola sig-nifies that the changes on the site to a certain extent can be related to the politics and fate of the Makurian king-dom. The possibilities for interpretation are huge for the whole period during which the complex was active. I would like to focus on one aspect – the beginnings of the fortification at Banganarti. To explain my point of view I shall start with a look at the history and settle-ments in the Dongola Reach.

The 4th century AD is most often interpreted as a time when the territory of the Kushite Empire disinte-grated into regional polities. The Post-Meroitic period is characterised, amongst other things, by struggles between neighbouring powers. Out of this period of political disruption three kingdoms emerged which became Christian in the 6th century. However, during this time of conversion to Christianity did the rulers of these three kingdoms (Nobadia, Makuria and Alodia) really have full control over the territories modern scholarship assigns to them? It seems to me, at least in the case of Makuria, that the answer should be in the negative. In order to explain further, I will refer to the

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interesting distribution of fortified sites along the Nile Valley throughout the Dongola Reach. For the region downstream from Old Dongola there are no early Christian fortifications up to the Third Cataract, but open settlements (at least in the Letti Basin, Grzymski 1987) have been identified.1 According to written sources the Third Cataract was a frontier between Makuria and Nobadia (later Maris).

On the other hand, moving up river from Old Don-gola we observe regularly placed fortified complexes (Welsby 2002, 130). One of which, closest to the capi-tal, is Banganarti.

This type of fortified settlement pattern may indicate that only some regions of the kingdom were to a certain extent under threat or unstable. It is possible to con-clude that there was no fear of an external attack sweeping over the entire country, as in such case forti-fications would have been recorded across the whole of the kingdom. If we accept that the distribution of the fortified complexes is a response to local political struggles then this would mean that the area upriver was the main zone of political-military activity. It would then be possible to state that this was an area of upheaval, perhaps of strong opposition to the kings of Dongola.

When we look at the distribution of fortified sites in the Fourth Cataract and Mograt Island we can see that the area of Mograt was densely occupied.2 When we connect this with the locations of Post-Meroitic ceme-teries, especially the one at Khizeinah mentioned by Welsby (2002, 23) identified perhaps as one of the most important in this area, we may consider that Mograt Island could have played an important role on the political stage of early medieval Nubia.

Due to its location, Banganarti for sure witnessed such struggles. In an attempt to find indications sup-porting these suppositions it is first necessary to con-sider what sort of archaeological remains we can look for on the site.

The origins of Banganarti are linked to the time when the rulers of the Makurian kingdom converted to Christianity. The decision to officially change religion could have sparked tension amongst their subordinates. It may have strengthened the arguments of all who

1 The question regarding medieval fortifications at Qasr Wad Nimeiri and el-Khandaq is still open (Crawford 1951, 36-8; Inti-sar Soghayroun el-Zein 2010, 94). Christian pottery has been found on both sites but when it comes to fortifications it seems that those visible on the surface are post-medieval.

2 See for example, reports by the Humboldt Universität Nubien Expedition to Mograt (Näser 2006; 2008).

were against the official rulers. This could have led to conflict and attempts to change the political order. If indeed these observations are correct, then the conver-sion to Christianity could have deepened conflicts within Makuria and led to unrest in the region upstream of Old Dongola.

Is it possible to find some indications of this situa-tion in Banganarti? The remains of the earliest church unfortunately were flattened to around 900mm before the next one was built, so not much has been preserved from the time when it was in use (Żurawski 2008, 389). However, when it was first built it was not surrounded by a curtain wall. The first fortifications were con-structed in 7th century on previous settlement layers. In some places the foundations of the wall rested on an ash/burnt deposit. Perhaps the fortifications were built to protect or restrict access to the church, the central building on the site, after it had been threatened. Per-haps the construction of the first church in Banganarti met with strong opposition and the ruler ordered the fortification to be built as protection, as he also did further along the Nile in the Dongola Reach.3

It is likely that the rulers of the early Makurian king-dom focused on local problems, such as keeping the country united and retaining their hold on power etc., and for this reason they built fortifications in selected areas. An analysis of the correlation between the distri-bution of the fortifications and the largest burial mounds (“royal tumuli”) from the Post-Meroitic era would surely prove interesting in light of this subject.

Banganarti is a unique site.4 Its preservation and diversity has instigated many studies into numerous aspects of human life in medieval Nubia, from every-day activities through to religious life, and conflict between regions and kingdoms. Even though the research in Banganarti has been going on for 10 years the site surely contains many surprises for future exca-vators.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bagińska, D. 2008. ‘Pottery from Banganarti season 2006’, PAM 18, 410-425.

3 It should be noted that many places have fortifications and churches erected within them, for example: Bakhit, Deiga, Suegi, Redab and Ras el-Gezira.

4 It has been said that Selib appeared to be a ‘twin site’ to Banga-narti (Grzymski 1987, 11), however, recent excavations have changed this view. See for example, Drzewiecki in press.

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Crawford, O. 1951. The Fung Kingdom of Sennar. Gloucester.

Drzewiecki, M. 2008a. ‘The curtain wall in Banganarti results of research in 2006’, PAM 18, 403-409.

Drzewiecki, M. 2008b. Obwarowania Banganarti na tle umocnień obronnych Królestwa Makurii, Poznań (unpublished MA thesis).

Drzewiecki, M. 2010. ‘Excavating the Curtain Wall in Banganarti in 2007’, PAM 19, 342-358.

Drzewiecki, M. 2011. ‘Banganarti fortifications in the 2008 season’, PAM 20, 271-282.

Drzewiecki, M. in press. ‘Enclosure walls in Banga-narti and Selib after 2010 season’, PAM 22.

Grzymski, K. 1987. Archaeological Reconnaissance in Upper �ubia. Toronto.

Intisar Soghayroun el-Zein 2010. ‘Qasr Wad Nimeiri and its Qubbas’, Sudan & �ubia 14, 91-95.

Jaklewicz, A. 2004. ‘Mud sealings from the Banganarti site’, PAM 15, 268-271.

Misiewicz, K. 2003. ‘Magnetic surveys on the sites of Tergis 40 (Soniyat) and Banganarti 1’, in B. Żurawski (ed), Survey and Excavations between Old Dongola and Ez-Zuma, �ubia II. Warsaw, 521-522.

Näser, C. 2006. ‘Die Humboldt University Nubian Expedition 2006: Arbeiten auf Us und Mograt’, Der antike Sudan MittSAG 17, 89-116.

Näser, C. 2008. ‘Die Humboldt University Nubian Expedition 2008: Arbeiten auf Mograt Insel’, Der antike Sudan. MittSAG 19, 47-52.

Welsby, D. A. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of �ubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle �ile. London.

Wiewióra, M. 2003a. ‘Badania archeologiczno-architektoniczne twierdz i kościołów chrześcijańskich w Górnej Nubii’, Archaeologia Historica Polona 13, 343-364.

Wiewióra, M. 2003b. ‘Fortifications in the Southern Dongola Reach of the Nile’, in B. Żurawski (ed), Survey and Excavations between Old Dongola and Ez-Zuma, �ubia II. Warsaw, 493-511.

Wiewióra, M. 2005. ‘Sinada/Banganarti–Abkor–Diffar: Three Fortified Settlements in the South Dongola Reach’, GAMAR 3, 265-283.

Wiewióra, M. 2007. Architektura obronna �ubii od V do XVI wieku stadium archeologiczno-architekton-iczn. Toruń.

Żurawski, B. 2002. ‘The Southern Dongola Reach Sur-vey, 2001’, PAM 13, 217-226.

Żurawski, B. 2003. Southern Dongola Reach Survey 1, Survey and Excavations between Old Dongola and Ez-Zuma, �ubia II, Warsaw.

Żurawski, B. 2005. ‘Banganarti 2004 season including activities at the fortress of Ed-Deiga’, PAM 16, 297-308.

Żurawski, B. 2007. ‘Banganarti 2004/2005’, PAM 17, 301-321.

Żurawski, B. 2008. ‘Banganarti the 2006 season’, PAM 18, 385-395.

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Banganarti - fortifications

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