Banana Cultivation

Banana cultivation

Varieties And Crop Improvement

Species And Cultivars > Amruthapani > Tella Chakkarakeli > Karpura Chakkarakeli > Bontha > Robusta > Vamanakeli > Yenugubontha >

Species And Cultivars

Species

The banana belongs to the family Musaceae. There are only two genera,

viz Ensete and Musa with about 50 species in this family. Ensete is an old

declining genus, which probably originated in Asia and spread to Africa,

has about 6-7 species, of which E.ventricosa is reported to be grown in

Ethiopia as a food crop.

Cultivars

There are about 300 recorded cultivars of banana. The important cultivars

are described below.

Poovan (Tamil Nadu)

The plant is tall, hardy and grows vigorously under

the ratooning system of cultivation. It is a true

cosmopolitan cultivar growing with equal vigour

both in India and the West Indies.

One of the distinguishing characters of the plant is the rose-pink colour on the outer side of midrib. It can grow under unirrigated condition or with scanty irrigation.

The fruit is medium to small, yellow skinned,

firm fleshed with a sub-acid taste. It has a

good keeping quality. It is resistant to Panama

wilt and fairly resistant to bunchy top disease.

The average bunch weight is about 15 kg.

Kanchkela (West Bengal)

This is the most important commercial culinary banana cultivar of India.

The plant is tall, robust, light green, very hardy and grows under

unirrigated condition. Average bunch weight is about 15 kg. In Tamil

Nadu, the ripe fruit is also popular.

Dwarf Cavendish

It is the leading commercial cultivar of Maharashtra.

The plant is dwarf, fruits large, curved, skin thick and

greenish, flesh soft and sweet.

The greenish colour of the fruit is retained to some extent even after

ripening, but fruits ripen during the winter season develop yellow colour. It

is susceptible to bunchy top and leaf spot disease but resistant to Panama

Wilt. The keeping quality of fruit is, however, not good. A bunch on an

average weighs about 20 kg.

Harichal

Bombay green (Maharashtra), Peddapachaarati (Andhra Pradesh), Robusta (Tamil Nadu). It is a semi-tall sport of Dwarf Cavendish. It is another important commercial banana of Maharashtra. Fruits are large, skin thick, greenish to dull yellow, sweet and delicious. The fruits have better keeping quality than that of Dwarf Cavendish. Average bunch weight is about 20 kg.

Martaman (West Bengal)

Musa (AAB) group-Syn. Rasthali (Tamil Nadu), Mutheli (Maharashtra),

Malbhog (Bihar), Amruthapani (Andhra Pradesh), Rassabale (Karnataka),

Sonkel (Kerala), Silkfig (Trinidad).

It is the choicest table cultivar of West Bengal. The plant is tall and can be

identified by the yellowish green stem with brownish blotches, reddish

margins of the petiole and leaf sheath. The average bunch weight is about

12 kg. fruits are medium-sized and similar to that of Poovan in

appearance, skin thin, ivory-yellow in colour, flesh firm, sweet with a

pleasant aroma. Its cultivation is decreasing due to susceptibility to

Panama wilt. The other demerits are easy dropping of ripe fruits from the

bunch and formation of hard lumps in the pulp.

Hill Banana

Musa (AAB) group-Virupakshi Syn. Mala vazhai. The hill banana is a

speciality of Tamil Nadu. These are perennial bananas of high quality.

There are two main types: Sirumalai and Virupakshi. Fruits of Sirumalai

have better taste compared with Virupakshi. The average bunch weight is

about 12 kg.

Nendran (Kerala)

This cultivar is known in all parts of the world as

plantain. This is a dual-purpose cultivar of Kerala. It

has very good keeping quality.

The fruit is relatively longer and thicker than most

other bananas. The bunch is not compact. The

average bunch weight is 15 kg.

Safed Velchi

It is under stray cultivation throughout South India and Maharashtra and

mostly grown as intercrop in coconut and arecanut garden. The plants are

medium-sized with slender, yellowish pseudostem having reddish petiole

margin. The fruits are small, firm-fleshed and sweet. The average bunch

weight is about 12 kg.

Lalkela (Maharashtra)

This cultivar is grown throughout the world. The colour of the pseudostem

petiole, midrib and fruit peel is purplush red. The fruit is of good size and

has a characteristic aroma. Average bunch weight is 20 kg.

Kunnan (Kerala)

This is a quality cultivar of Kerala. The plants are

medium-sized and slender. Fruits with firm pulp,

taste well.

Gros Michel

Among the dessert banana cultivars of the world, Gros

Michel occupied the first rank in desirable fruit

characters, such as size, quality, flavour, attractive

skin colour, resistance to bruising, grade yield,

symmetry and strength of bunch. The most serious

demerit of this cultivar is its susceptibility to wilt.

Giant Governor

Musa (AAA) group-Cultivation of this cultivar is gaining popularity in West

Bengal. The plant is medium-dwarf, fruits large, greenish to dull yellow in

colour, flesh firm and sweet. A bunch on an average weighs about 15 kg.

the cultivar Amruthapani (Rastali, Pedda Sugandam)

Wt. In Kg

No.of fruits

No.of hands

Duration

Spacing

p 12

p80-100

p 8-10

p 13-14

p 2.0X2.0 m

is susceptible to leaf spot (sigatoka) but resistant to wilt.

Characteristics

This is a choice table fruit. The plant suckers moderately and is medium

tall and does not bear heavily.

The fruit is better in size to Poovan more rounded with a glossy green

colour and the tip is less pronounced.

The rind is thin and develops an ivory yellow colour when ripe. The flesh is

white, rather firm but tasty with a characteristic flavour.

Occasionally hard lumps develop in the pulp which is a drawback. It is

highly resistant to Leaf Spot but very susceptible to 'Panama' disease.

It is exported to Orissa and West Bengal. It is suitable for the entire State.

But it is not grown in Rayalaseema and Telangana Regions. Climate And Soils

Climate > Soils >

Climate

The major banana-growing areas of the world

are geographically situated between the

equator and latitudes 200 North and 200 South.

Conditions in this area are mainly tropical, with

temperature fluctuations from day to night

and from summer to winter being

comparatively small.

Banana is essentially a humid tropical plant, coming up well in regions with a

temperature range of 10° C to 40° C and an average of 23° C. In cooler climate

the duration is extended, sucker production is affected and bunches are smaller.

The growth of the banana plant responds quickly, within a matter of an hour or

two to changes in air temperature. All growth ceases as soon as the temperature

of the surrounding air falls below 11° C.

As long as the temperature remains 11° C, no growth whatsoever takes place. As

the air temperature rises above 11° C growth starts and the growth rate

increases gradually at first, and then with rising temperatures, more and more

rapidly.

The biggest increase in growth rate for every degree that the temperature rise

appears to lie between approximately 19° C and 23° C.

The daily growth at 23° C is, in fact, about double that at 19° C. With further rise

in temperature, the growth continues to increase, but more and more slowly as

high levels of temperature are reached. In the experiments conducted, no falling

off or even leveling off of the growth rate was observed,.

Banana is cultivated under different conditions in India.

Temperature, Rainfall and Latitude details of banana growing states in India.

State Latitude ° N Temp° C Region Rainfall (Cm)

Andhra Pradesh 16-18 16-43 Coastal 100

      Telangana 81

      Rayalaseema 68

Assam 25-27 16-38 - 252

Bihar 22-25 10-46 - 137

Karnataka 14-28 13-18 Coastal 326

      South 124

      North 69

Kerala 10-14 16-38 - 301

Maharashtra 19-22 13-41 - 92

Tamil Nadu 10-12 16-41 - 102

Uttar Pradesh 25-28 7-43 East 102

      West 96

Bananas can be grown from sea level to an altitude of 1200 metres. The 'hill

bananas' of Tamil Nadu are raised between elevations of 500 to 1500 metres

mostly under rainfed conditions.

The wind prone areas cause devastating damage to the banana plantations by

toppling down the plants due to pseudostem breakage. Similarly, bananas cannot

withstand frost to any extent. So, at higher elevations the low temperatures

prevailing cause delayed cropping and slow growth.

In coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu the cyclonic wind damages

the plantations. Hence it is advisable to select areas where mean temperature is

around 25-30° C with a mean annual rainfall of 100 mm per month.

Effects of low Winter temperatures

The problems which result in a banana plantation from low winter temperatures

serve to only emphasize the importance of adequate heat as a factor, in banana

production.

The most important of these are 'choke throat' 'November dump' and frost

damage.

Choke throat

Bunch bursting through pseudostem

Low winter temperatures greatly reduce

vegetative growth of the banana plant. During

the coldest months, the leaf emergence and

number of leaves produced are affected.

The top hands become trapped in the throat of the plant

The elongation of the leaf internodes is reduced.

This reduction in length of the internodes causes

a constriction at the throat of the plant and

combined with the correspondingly reduced

elongation of the internodes of the bunch stem,

makes it difficult for the bunch to emerge

through the throat.

This condition is referred to as 'choke throat' and the trapped bunches which are

exposed to the sun are also called "sun lookers".

This is a major problem with Dwarf Cavendish. Flowering during the winter period

can result in considerable losses, especially during colder years. Severely

chocked bunches should be cut down to let the follower develop faster.

November dump

Cold temperatures also have a marked effect on bunch development. When the flower initiation occurs during the winter, a characteristically a peculiar bunch can be expected.

The November dump bunch is small and composed of

hands of uneven size and often deformed fruits. The

smaller fingers on the hands are, in many cases, fuller at

the flower end and thinner at the stalk end.

The flower end is often black, rough and cracked and

during a good rainy season, fungal diseases further

damage these fruits.

Another common symptom is the cone-shaped protuberance at the flower end.

This protuberance is pale green in colour. The amount of misshapen fruit as

November-emerging bunches varies from year to year.

It must be stressed that November dump symptoms are caused by cold

temperatures and they are not mineral deficiency or drought symptoms. A good

orchard practice is to cut down all the plants producing severe November dumps.

Soils

Banana comes up in relatively wide range of soil

conditions. Two important factors to

be looked into are the soil

depth and drainage. Soils of atleast 50 cm depth, well

drained, fertile lands are necessary for banana cropping.

Soils of Banana growing states in India

State Soil Type

Maharashtra

Coastal Areas

Plains

Sandy soil

Black cotton soil

Tamil Nadu

Cauveri Delta

Hill slopes

Clay soil; Alluvial

Loamy type

Central India

Gangetic delta Alluvial soil

Andhra Pradesh Alluvial, clay

Kerala

Coastal area

Plain & Low hill slope

Sandy loam tract

Red laterite

Bananas can grow well in slightly alkaline soils, but saline soils with salinity

exceeding 0.05 per cent are unsuitable. In alkaline soil wilt disease is less

prevalent.

The physical condition of soils on which bananas are cultivated is very important,

since root development is determined chiefly by the degree of aeration of the soil.

In poorly aerated soils, that is soils which have compacted as a result of poor

structure, or badly drained soils which are over irrigated, there is a marked

decrease in root development.

Season of Planting

The season of planting of banana varies between the various states. In most parts the colder seasons

of the year are unsuitable for planting.

In West Coast, planting is done from September to November, when irrigation facilities are available.

Planting is done all the year round in order to secure better prices during the off season.

In other areas planting is done during South west monsoon in May-June, and continues thereafter till

November. Bontha and Mauritius and for Poovan the best time is November to January because it has

a longer duration.

Planting in cold season is a problem and great care is to be given for irrigating the crop in summer and

also it exposes the plants to high winds or cyclone damage during bunch season.

In Kerala, where Nendrans are cultivated as pure crop planting is done in September-October. On the

Lower Palneys, including Sirumalai April planting is preferred. February-March is the best planting

season in wet lands along the Cauvery bank as in Trichy. But in the perennial plantations in Tanjore,

planting is done from January to June.

October-November is considered to be the best time. They suggested that the rapid progress of plant

growth during the four months of the monsoon is particularly helpful in plants in building up their

growth and establishing themselves in advance of the setting of cold weather in November, when

growth is retarted.

The best time for planting in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa is by the end of the June and in

West Bengal, Bihar and Assam planting could be done at any time during the South West monsoon,

when the rains are not too heavy.

The planting should not be taken up during very cold and very hot months. Similarly, that planting

season should be so adjusted that during the period of high winds, banana should not be in flower or

near flowering stage. The period of planting should be so adjusted that active growth phase of the

plants can continue unhampered during flower bud initiation stage.

In view of the divergence of climatic and soil conditions in our country, bananas are grown all through

the year, while the peak seasons vary in different parts of the country. Different planting seasons

adopted in different states are given below.

Variety and Planting seasons in different States in India

States Variety Season of planting

Maharashtra Robusta August-December

Tamil Nadu

Poovan

April-December

Rasthali

Hill bananas

Kerala

Rasthali

Nendran

November-January

May-September

West Bengal

 August-December

March-April

Bihar

July-October

Andhra Pradesh

  December-April ( East Godavari)

August-September (West Godavari)

Gujarat

August-January

Assam

May-September

Karnataka

 April-June

September-March

Tripura

August & September

Fruits from rhizomes planted in April took two weeks longer for development than those planted in May

Planting Materials

The nature of banana plant has made it imperative that reproduction be

accomplished by vegetative means, since most commercially grown

bananas are vegetatively parthenocarpic and effectively seed sterile.

There are certain problems in propagation of banana plant.

Planting materials (Sucker) are more bulkier and difficult for transport

Proper identification of clones in younger stages may not be possible

Rapid multiplication methods are required to produce more plants from an

achieved hybrid

Disease free and disease resistance seed materials have to be produced.

Besides the above, there are factors like soil, climate, temperature, manuring, size age, type etc., which may adversely affect the

Bananas planted in March/April made better growth and gave higher yields than those planted upto

December. Flowering occurred in less than 300 days after planting in March/April.

Growth and flower bud differentiation and fruit development were adversely affected, when the

average temperature was below 750 F.

Sprouting of rhizomes was inhibited when the monthly average maximum temperature went above 980

F. Six months old rhizomes were better planting material than two month old rhizomes.

propagation of the plants.

In banana, the material commonly used for planting is

sucker. Sword suckers have a well-developed base with

narrow sword-shaped leaf blades at the early stages.

The second type is the water sucker with broad leaves,

which do not produce a healthy banana clump.

Planters throughout the world usually plant sturdy and

healthy sword suckers.

Suckers of 3 months old well developed, disease free

corms are seperated from the mother plant and planted

for starting a new plantation.

Sword suckers having strong base, gradually tappering to a slender point

with one or two narrow sword like leaves at the tip are preferred for

planting, since it grows faster and comes to bearing early compared to

water suckers.

Suckers from high yielding and healthy plant crop are selected. The

suckers are cleared of old roots over the corm, and can be stored in a cool

dry place under shade of a tree for a week.

Planting Distance

Plant population per unit area depends on cultivar, topography, soil

fertility, various aspects of management and duration of plantation etc.

In general, tall cultivators are given wider spacing than the dwarf ones.

High density planting may be practiced in mono-crop culture, while wider

spacing is advocated for ratoon crop.

Tall cultivars 9 feet x 10 feet

Dwarf cultivars 6 feet x 6 feet

Cultivar Recommended spacing

Robusta 1.0 x 2.0 m

Jahaji of Assam 1.2 x 2.0 m

Nendran 1.2 x 1.5 m

Dwarf cavendish 1.5 x 1.5 m

Karpura chakrakeli 2.0 x 2.0 m

Pedda pacha arati 1.8 x 1.8 m

Vamanakeli 1.4 x 1.4

For intercropping 3 x 1.5 m

A density of 4,500 plants/ha is practiced in Maharashtra and Gujarat

The palnt to palnt distance is 1.2 m , row to row ddistance is 1.5 m and

between row to row is 2.0 m . considering the per hactare yield , net

returns and quality of fruit spacing of 1.5 X 1.5 m corresponding to a plant

population of 4,444 /ha was found to be optimum.

The maximum profit in Dwarf Cavendish banana when spaced at 2m x 2m

or 2.5m x 2.5 m. Closer spacing also produced higher yield of fruits.

From a trial with Robusta banana spaced at 2.4 m x 1.8 m and 2.4 m x

2.4m, the highest yield was obtained with a spacing 2.4 m x 1.8m. Though

there was higher yield in high density planting, the growth was found to

be slower and shooting was delayed.

Finger tip disease was severe in close planting. In high density plantation

nearly 30 percent of the plants could not be harvested in time

Preparing Suckers And Planting Material

If any damage is noticed to the corm of the sucker at the time of

seperation of the suckers from the mother plant, the damaged portion of

the corm may be clearly sliced off.

The top portion of the pseudostem of the suckers may be gven a slant cut

leaving six to nine inches psuedostem over the corm.

This will fecilitate easy draining of plant sap, rainn water, leading to

successful establishment of the suckers.

But in coastal Andhra Pradesh the top portion of the sucker is retained

while planting and deheaded to 2/3 size in about 20 days when growth is

visible to maintain uniform height of the plantation.

All the old roots of the rhizome should also be trimmed. The suckers thus

prepared should be dipped in 0.1% Ceresan at the rate of 1g in one litre

solution for five minutes and then planted.

In areas of endemic for banana stem weevil, they should also be treated

with 0.1% metasystox solution

Only flat lands or lightly slopy lands can be selected for planting of

banana. When banana is grown on hill slopes, soil conservation methods

like bench terracing or contour bunding based on the gradient have to be

necessarly adopted.

Banana suckers should not be planted either too deep or too shallow. The

suckers must be planted in the centre of the pit in such a way that the

corm and another two inches of the pseudostem over it should submerge

in the soil.

Press the soil arround the sucker to avoid air spaces, to give firm stand to

the stem and for better sprouting of the suckers.

Suckers must be grouped according to their size and then planted.

Gapfilling

Generally the banana suckers strikes roots within 10-15 days after

planting, even after 15 days if there are no roots to the planted suckers it

means it has died.

Inspite of all precautions taken, some suckers may fail to sprout. This may

be due to defective planting or defective plant material or defective

irrigation. So, one should go around after 15 days in banana gardens and

search for the causalities.

All such causalities should immediately be gap filled with fresh sword

suckers. Maintaining optimum population for unit area always leads to

higher yields.

So all gaps in the banana plantation must be filled with fresh suckers with

in 20 days. This will also ensure fair uniformity in the stand of the crop.

Micro-propagation

Rapid multiplication of banana suckers has been engaging the attention of scientists since a very long

time. There is a problem when a new clone is being generated for extended cultivation or when a large

amount of planting material of a specific pathogen tolerant clone is to be distributed to the growers.

The prevalence of disease problems and the need for generating clean planting stock in large

quantities have stimulated recently a surge of interest in the production of banana clones raised

though aseptic micropropagation techniques.

Shoot tips isolated from the rhizomes were found suitable for platelet production in vitro. Shoot tips

with several older sheathing leaf bases enclosing the axillary buds regenerated multiple pantalets.

Individual shootlet when separated and subcultured, produced a new crop of multiple shoots.

Each plant cell has the potential to generate into a single plant. This is called Totipotency and when

this character is involved into rapid and mass multiplication of propagules at optimum levels is called

Micropropagation.

This is an alternate to slow vegetative plant propagation.

In Tissue Culture when a group of undifferentiated and meristamatically active cell called tissue is

aseptically disserted out and put into a medium containing nutrient and incubated under conducive

controlled conditions of light and temperature, it establish it self and starts growth.

This is called Culture and the concept of 'tissue culture'.

Tissue culture involved following stages

Preparation of Stock plant

The elite plants are selected and maintained under hygenic conditions (by spraying fungicide,

bactericide and insecticide) and then the plant parts are taken for initiation.

Initiation (Stage-I)

The innermost tissue of surface sterilised plant in dissected aseptically and put an to the medium of

growth, Medium contains major and miner elements, same vitamins. Amino acids and growth

promoting hormones, solidified by agar.

Multiplication (Stage II)

Shooting and Rooting (Stage III)

Root Organogenesis

After multiplication, the single shoots are separated

and placed into a shooting are rooting medium. At

this stage the hormones may or may not be

required.

The shoot elongates and new root came up. Rooting

takes place within 3-4 weeks.

Hardening (Stage IV)

Complete Plantlet

It involves acclimatisation of bottle grown

plants to the natural environment in Green

House.

The plants are taken out of the bottle and the

media adhering to the root system in washed

fully.

After wards the plants are graded as per their

size and then transferred singly to wells of

portrays containing sterile medium (a mixture

of peat moss and perlite).

The whole portray with plants is maintained under high humidity conditions for a couple of weeks and

there after the portrays are kept in open in the Green House under controlled temperature and

humidity.

This hardening taken 6 weeks and is called primary hardening - Regular sprays of plant protection

chemicals are sprayed to achieve good hygenic condition of the plants.

Established Plantlet

Phosphorous

Phosphorus helps to produce healthy rhizome and a strong root system. It

also influences flower setting and general vegetative growth.

The deficiency of P causes complete cessation of elongation, at a height of

about two feet rosetting of leaves with older leaves becoming increasingly

irregularly necrotic, leaf production is reduced, and marginal chlorosis and

premature death are caused.

Dose :

40-60 g/plant

Entire quantity of phosphorus fertiliser should be applied at the time of

last ploughing or applied at the time of filling the pits.

Introduction

Banana root system spreads in the top 60 cm soil. Being an exhaustive

crop, proper manuring and fertilizer application has to be resorted to in

obtaining good yields.

The choice of fertilizers, the dosage of nutrients, time of application etc.

varies widely with respect to agroclimatic regions and varieties.

The effects of proper fertilization of banana are

increase of the crop yield by the improvement of grading, or of weight of

bunch,

reduction in crop duration

increasing the number of marketable good quality bunches per hectare,

and

Improvement in quality, with physical and chemical characters leading to

high return to farmers.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is the chief promoter of growth. It induces the vegetative growth

of pseudostem and leaves giving them desired healthy green colour.

A healthy robust vegetative frame is an essential pre-requisite for high

yields and nitrogen is mainly responsible for such a vegetative frame.

Banana plants which have not received N produce only seven leaves

against 17 leaves produced by banana plants supplied with adequate N.

If N is deficient in bananas the leaves take 23 days for unfolding against

10 days for the leaves of banana supplied with N.

It was observed that greater the number of healthy and large leaves

produced during the first 4-6 months, larger will be the size of fruit bunch,

N influences the longitudinal growth of petioles.

Nitrogen increases the bunch grade, and sucker production. Nitrogen

deficiency causes slow growth and paler leaves with reduced leaf area and

rate of leaf production.

Leaf petioles short, thin and compressed, thin profuse roots and lesser

number of suckers are produced due to lack of N. Phosphorus uptake is

higher due to N deficiency.

Nitrogen fertilization

Statewise fertilizer recommendations for banana

Mode of application of nitrogen

Nitrogen should be applied in five split doses. Nitrogen is to be applied in

five split doses one at the time of planting

o 2nd 45 days after planting (DAP)

o 3rd - 90 DAP

o 4th - 135 DAP

o 5th - 180 DAP

For banana if 25 % nitrogen is applied in organic farm and remaining

State Spacing (m)

N (g) P2O5 (g) K2O (g) FYM (Kg/pl)

(per plant)

Andaman &

Nicobar 2 x 2 160 160 280

Andhra Pradesh 2 x 2 200 0 200

Arunachal

Pradesh 2 x 2 180 100 225 20

Assam 1.8 x 2.4 110 35 330 12

Bihar 2 x 2 125 80 225 9

Goa

75 75 240

Gujarat 1.8 x 1.8 or 1.2

x 1.2 180 90 180 10-15

Karnataka (DC)

(Robusta)

Others

1.8 x 1.8

2.2 x 2.2

2 x 2

540

405

400

325

245

240

675

507

500

40 t/ha

40 t/ha

40 t/ha

Kerala

Nendran(irrg.)

Palayankonda

(Rain)

Others

2 x 2

2.2 x 1.8

2.2 x 2.2

190

100

160

115

200

160

300

400

320

10

10

10

Maharashtra 1.5 x 2.5 600 720 600 100 cart-load/ha

Mizoram 2 x 2 100 50 300 10-20 kg

Orissa 1.8 x 2.0 80 32 90

Tamil Nadu

1.8 x 1.8

(garden land)

1.5 x 1.5 (wet

land)

110

110

35

35

330

330

10 kg

10 kg

Uttar Pradesh 2-3 m 200 100 250

West Bengal

Robusta

Cavendish

Champa

2.4 x 2.4

1.8 x 1.8

3 x 3

140

90

140

35

35

50

90

90

120

10-15 kg

10-15 kg

20

Potassium

Stimulates early shooting and significantly shortens the time required for

fruit maturity. It improves bunch grade, and size of fingers. The quality of

the fruits is also improved by potassium.

Deficiency of potassium causes marked reduction in growth, interval

between the production of new leaves become longer and leaves are

profusely smaller, premature yellowing of plant.

Once the potassium contained in the storage organs is exhausted, deficiency symptoms appear suddenly starting with a yellowing of the tips and distal margins of older leaves, closely followed by necrosis and dessication.

The yellowing and necrosis spread rapidly

in a proximal direction until the whole leaf

has withered standing in a normal position.

Fruits are badly shaped, poorly filled and unsuitable

for marketing.

Splits develop parallel to the secondary veins and

the lamina folds downwards, while the midrib bends

and fractures, leaving the distal half of the leaf

hanging.

Purplish brown patches appear at the base of the petioles and in severe

cases the centre of the corm may show areas of brown, water soaked

disintegrated cell structures.

Dose :

200-300 g/plant

Mode of application of potassium

Potassium should be applied in split doses. Potassium is to be applied in

five split doses one at the time of planting

o 2nd 45 days after planting (DAP)

o 3rd - 90 DAP

o 4th - 135 DAP

o 5th - 180 DAP

Micronutrients

Zinc

Zinc deficiency is found in banana when it grows in zinc deficient soils.

Narrow pointed and chlorite young leaves,Bunch top crowns are the

symptoms of zinc deficiency

Application of 50 g/plant zinc sulphate at the time of planting is

recommended or foliar application of zinc sulphate at 3 g/litre + urea (5g

per litre) + 10 ml non ionic sticker in 20 litres of water. The above

prepared solution is sprayed at 45 and 60 days after planting.

For ratoon crop 45 days after cutting the mother plant.

Boron

Deficincy of boron may results in reduction in weight and size of the bunch

and it will effects the proper filling of the bunch.

For boran deficiency apply 20 g borax per litre at the time of planting of

spray boric acid at 0.2 % in 4th of 5th month after planting.

Iron

Iron deficiency has been recorded in alkaline soils and is identified by

interveinal chlorosis of young leaves.

Application of iron sulphate will correct the iron deficiency.

Magnesium

Magnesium deficiency symptoms show green

banding around the margin and next to the midrib.

Spraying magnesium sulphate 2 g/l of water

effectively corrects the deficiency.

Water Management

Irrigation > Scheduling Of Irrigation >

Irrigation

Water requirement of banana varies according to topography, soil,

climate, cultivar and type of culture. If there is no rain, the plants should

be irrigated immediately after planting. The soil in banana plantation

should not be allowed to dry completely

Bananas are grown both as a rainfed crop and as an irrigated crop in India.

Wherever the adequate rainfall is not available, banana growers resort to

supplement it with irrigation.

Proper water management is essential for obtaining good yields in

commercial banana.

In olden days, bananas were irrigated by using flooding system or basin

irrigation system wherein, depending upon the moisture retention

capacity of the soil, irrigation is scheduled as once in 3 days, twice in a

week, once in a week likewise.

Banana being a mesophyte, requires a huge amount of water because of

the large foliage area and moisture content of the pseudostem. The

consumptive use of water increased with increase in the available soil

moisture level.

The total water requirement varied from 1841 mm to 2150 mm for the

various conditions. The per day consumption of water varied from 4.81 to

6.11 mm.

The daily water consumption was greater at higher moisture regimes. The

total number of irrigation ranged from 22 to 78 for the various treatments.

Maintenance of high soil moisture level required frequent irrigation with

less quantity of water per irrigation, whereas, the low moisture regimes

required less number of irrigations with more quantity of water for each

irrigation.

Maintenance of a high soil moisture range between 60 and 80 per cent of

available soil moisture may be considered optimum for economic

production of banana.

The height and girth of the pseudostem, total leaf area and number of

leaves per plant at shooting increased significantly with increase in

available soil moisture level. The phylachron (the time interval between

the production of successive leaves) was high under dry conditions.

Sucker production was not significantly influenced by the various

treatments. The bunch weight and the characters associated with it were

significantly increased with increasing soil moisture availability.

Total soluble solids, reducing sugars, total sugars and acidity of fruits

increased significantly with dry soil conditions. Irrigation at 20 per cent

depletion of available soil moisture significantly advanced the shooting.

The shooting to harvest interval was shortened with frequent irrigations.

The total crop duration was extended with decreasing moisture

availability.

The density of roots of banana palms subjected to different irrigation

levels revealed that the mass of roots was not much affected by moisture

stress, though a slight increase in number of roots was observed with

higher moisture stress.

The dry weight of roots increased with decrease in the available soil

moisture which may be the result of increased number of root production

and total root length.

Delay in irrigation for banana results in delay in bunch formation, delay in maturity of bunch Intercultural Operations

Weed Control > Desuckering > Male Bud Removal > Propping > Trimming > Bunch Covering >

Weeding

Weeds are a menace in any cropping system. In a crop like banana, where

the entire crop depends on the surface soil for its nutrition and water

requirements, weed of any sort will be of deleterious effect to the crop.

The weeds compete with the main crop for nutrients and moisture. They

at times also harbour pests of banana.

The luxurious weed growth in any banana fields will reduce the yield by

way of reduction of bunch weight, grade of bunches, etc. Hence in banana

plantations, periodical weeding is taken up to have a clean cultivation.

Weeding is done either through a light digging of surface soil, by mulching

Irrigation Schedule

Irrigate the plants immediately after planting. After that irrigate at weekly intervels for about 35-40

times.

Rainfall requiement for banana growing areas should be 1500-2000 mm. In summer irrigate for every 5-10 days depending up on the type of soil.

Irrigation through drip system will

induce early bunch formation and

arround 40-45% water can be

saved. Drip system has to be

operated daily for 2-3 1/2 hours.

or by manual weeding. Presently, in commercial banana gardens,

weedicides, are also used extensively to control the weeds.

One Dalapon and Eleven Paraquat sprays controlled weed effectively in

banana plot.

Pre-emergence application of Diuron at 4kg a.i/ha was effective in

checking both monocot and dicot weed growth. Diuron treatment did not

reduce banana quality.

Among the post-emergence sprays, the combination of Diuron and

Gramaxone at 4 kg/ha and 1.5 l/ha gave good control of weed population.

Desuckering

Bananas are vegetatively propagated through the suckers, which are

produced from the auxiliary buds of the underground rhizome, once the

plant crop attains maturation.

The suckers produced by different varieties vary in number. The time of

sucker production by parent plant is that more than half the number of

total suckers produced by a plant is produced since flowering of the

mother plant.

Some suckers are produced three or four months before flowering also. In

a pure crop of banana, where single crop is only taken, usually all the

suckers, which arise before flowering are removed as it will compete with

mother plant for nutrients resulting in reduction of bunch size.

Hence suckers which are produced by the plant in excess, or out of place

are removed periodically to ensure better growth and bunch development

of mother plant.

This is an important operation in growing of bananas. In perennial system

of banana culture, the 'setting of followers' at proper time will ensure good

ratoon crop to the banana growers.

In Tamil Nadu, it is a practice to pour kerosene into cavity left after

digging the suckers. In case of hill bananas, unwanted suckers are

removed after heading off and killing them by pouring kerosene (5-10 ml

per sucker) over the cut surface of the sucker.

While using kerosene, it should be avoided to treat suckers, which arise on

the corm above ground level and have no root system. These suckers are

entirely dependent on the parent plant and the kerosene may move back

into the sap stream and injure it.

The best method of handling these suckers is to cut off level with the

parent corm.

Desuckering of bananas by using chemicals like, 2, 4-D is also found to be

in use. A pruning paste consisting of a mixture of 2, 4-D, fuel oil and

grease may also be applied for desuckering.

Setting of followers for ratooning

Removal of all suckers upto flowering of the plant and maintaining only

one follower afterwards is the best desuckering practice.

Ordinarily daughter sucker commences to appear from the base of the

plants from about the third month of planting, but in suckers carelessly

removed as to include large slices of rhizomes, some buds may shoot up

to form new suckers even earlier than above period.

Removal of male bud

The part of the inflorescence which consists of male flowers only, is

invariably termed in different parts of the world as male bud, heart, or

Navel. This has apparently no comprehensible function or value in the

normal bunch formation or development.

Therefore, the male bud is more often pruned off in many places, where

intensive and efficient cultivation is practiced, obviously with the belief

that the removal of unwanted growth may favour better bunch

development.

In one of the commercial variety Karpura Chakkrakeli Male bud was

removed (12-15 days after shooting) soon after the completion of bunch

formation, leaving a 5cm length of a barren axis. It was found that pruning

the male bud had resulted in some increase in both the length and

circumference of the fruit.

In respect of mean duration from shooting to maturity, there was

reduction of light days in the pruned plants.

In the case of yield also, there was a significant increase of 0.9kg in the

mean bunch weight of pruned plants which worked out to 7.5 per cent

increase in yield.

Other advantages in pruning the male bud include extra monetary returns

by sale of male buds which are used as vegetable.

It was observed that the banana thrips which attack the fruit and cause

unsightly brown freckling on the fruit, live and breed in the male buds in

large numbers.

When the bunches are nucleus foci for further infection. The removal of

the male buds obviously results in less damage from this pest.

In Dwarf Cavendish whenever the male bud was allowed to grow, it

delayed the harvest by 18 days.

The bunches in which male bud was removed, were heavier by three

kilograms over the un removed plants

Propping of Banana plants

One of the important problems facing banana growers is the lodging of plants with mature or immature bunches during heavy winds and cyclones. The plants are uprooted or broken at the middle resulting in heavy losses to the growers.

Plant supported with bamboos

To overcome this problem, the plants have to be

propped with bamboos or caesarian poles. Single

props are given. The top of the prop is placed

against the throat of the plant, under the

curvature of the bunch stem.

It is important that the prop itself is clear of the

bunch to prevent fruit injury. Double props consist

of two poles of equal length and tied together. The

legs are spread to form a V at the top, in which the

bunch stem is held.

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Trimming of leaves and care of Banana bunches

Leaf trimming is an important operation for controlling certain leaf

diseases and for promoting light penetration.

Trimming is the removal of the dead leaves that hang down the sides of

the pseudostem. It is very important that only the dead and diseased

leaves are cut and removed and not the still green leaves that often hang

down the side of the pseudostem.

By removing those green leaves, the photosynthetic area is reduced and

the final bunch size is affected.

Leaf removal may be done throughout the growing season. By keeping the

plantation clean, more light and heat are available for promoting plant

growth.

Further advantages of removing dead and dried leaves are that the

potential dangers of fruit injury and disease infection are reduced.

Bunch covering

Bagging is a cultural technique used by planters in

the French West Indies, Latin America, Africa,

Australia, etc., particularly, where export bananas

are grown.

The main purposes are the protection of bunches

against cold, sun scorching, against attack of thrips

and scarring beetle.

It also improves certain visual qualities of the fruits. Bunch covering with

dry leaves is a common practice in India, which, however, may be a

source of inoculum for post harvest diseases.

Earthing up

Earthing up should be done during the rainy season to provide drainage,

and to avoid waterlogging at the base. During summer and winter, the

plants should be in furrow and on ridges during rainy season. Disease Management

Introduction > Anthracnose > Dimond Spot > Brown Spot > Cigar End Or Tip Rot > Sigatoka Leaf Spot > Panama Wilt > Bacterial Soft Rot > Bacterial Wilt Or Moko > Bunchy Top > Infectious Chlorosis >

Introduction

Banana is much more vulnerable to disease than to the insect pests. The

diseases often occur in epidemic proportions and bring about catastrophic

losses.

Among the diseases, the banana wilt ranks first. In addition to fungal

diseases, the bunchy top virus has created a situation of a dismal future

for the banana industry.

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Fungal Diseases Of Post-Harvest-Fruits

Anthracnose:

Gloeosporium musarum

Severe during June-September when temperatures are high accompanied

by rain. Attack plants at any growth stage.

Both green and ripe fruits are attacked, however, ripe fruits are more

susceptible to the disease.

Symptoms

Infection of green fruits, flowers and distal end of hands show circular black, sunken spots surrounded by yellow halos later convening the entire fruit resulting in premature ripening.

Black spots on Fruit

Ripe fruits develop symptoms from the tip as

minute, circular dark brown sunken spots

invading the entire tip which becomes black.

A pinkish fungus sporulation is produced in the

black, sunken areas of fruit.

Control

Spraying Chlorothalonil 2 g/I at 15 days interval is effective in minimising

later infections.

Careful harvesting, clean packing, refrigeration at 100C after harvest, fruit

dip in aqueous solution of Benomyl at 1000 ppm or aureofungin 100 ppm

help in reducing blemishes on fruits.

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Diamond Spot: Cercospora hayi, Fusarium spp

Symptoms

The spot is black, sunken, diamond-shaped lesion, very much confusing

with pitting disease.

Diamond spot is prevalent after prolonged rainy season.

Control

Plantation sanitation, good drainage and proper spacing reduce the

incidence of this disease.

To prevent spread of the disease, spraying of Captan or Dithane M-45 or

Dithane Z-78 is effective.

Brown Spot: Cercospora hayi

Symptoms

Brown spots occur on the rachis, and fingers. The spots are pale to dark

brown with an irregular margin surrounded by a halo of water soaked

tissue.

Control

Plantation sanitation, good drainage and proper spacing reduce the

incidence of this disease.

To prevent spread of the disease, spraying of Captan or Dithane M-45 or

Dithane Z-78 is effective.

Cigar End/ Tip Rot :Verticillium theobromae and Trachysphaera fructigena

Symptoms

A black necrosis spread from the perianth into the tip of immature fingers.

The corrugated necrotic tissues become covered with fungus and

resemble the greyish ash of a cigar end.

Control

The only best control was the removal of the pistil and perianth by hand

as soon as the fingers emerged.

Placing a polythene bag over the stem before the hands emerged was

effective

Leaf Spot Or Sigatoka Disease

Mycosphaerella muscicola - sexual stage

Cercospora musai

- asexual stage

Sigatoka is the name of the valley where the disease first attracted attention. A monogrpah has reviewed information of leaf spot disease. It is a fungal disease.

Causes severe economic losses. Spreads very fast during rainy season. Attacks mostly leaves.

Epidemiology

Three components of weather, usually, determine the production and movement of sigatoka inoculum,

rainfall, dew and temperature.

Conditions favouring mass infection are most common during the rainy season with temperature

above 21° C.

Other factors, which influence the rate of disease developed and intensity of spotting, include amount

of inoculum on the leaf, age and position of the leaf, plant growth, sun and shade effects on leaf

tissue, etc.

The major commercial cultivars of banana-Gros Michel and Cavendish group are all highly susceptible

to leaf spot disease.

All triploid AAA desert bananas of commerce are highly susceptible to sigatoka.

Symptoms

Spots are concentrated towards the leaf

edges.

Eye shaped spots

Streaks enlarge and form small spindle or eye shaped spots with greyish centre and dark brown or black borders and chlorotic halo around them.

Scorching appearance

Disease first appears as pale yellow or

greenish yellow streaks running parallel to

leaf veins on both the leaf surfaces.

Leaves present a scorched appearance, petioles collapse and leaves hang down from pseudostem. if

severe, bunch maturity is affected.

Early diseased plant produces poor fruits.

Control

Removal of infected leaves and burning.

Proper drainage, spacing, weed management are very

Spraying of Thiophanate methyl 1 g/l, or 1per cent Bordeaux mixture + 2% linseed oil, or Captan 2 g/l are some practices that can manage the disease.

Scorching appearance

Disease first appears as pale yellow or

greenish yellow streaks running parallel to

leaf veins on both the leaf surfaces.

Leaves present a scorched appearance, petioles collapse and leaves hang down from pseudostem. if

severe, bunch maturity is affected.

Early diseased plant produces poor fruits.

Control

Removal of infected leaves and burning.

Proper drainage, spacing, weed management are very

Panama Disease Or Banana Wilt: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. Cubense

The first major disease which attacked banana was called Panama disease

from the area where it first became serious.

Banana wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease and gets entry in the plant body

through roots and wounds caused by nematodes. It is most serious in

poorly drained soil. Disease spreads through infected suckers.

Epidiomology

Warm soil temperature and bad drainage favour the spread of the disease

and also light soils and high soil moisture. Greater incidence of the disease

has been noticed in poor soil with continuous cropping of banana.

Symptoms

Breaking of petioleSplitting of Pseudostem

Vascular discoloration

Dreaded disease of banana and is wide spread in Assam, Bihar,

Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal where the cultivars of Rasthali group such as Rasbale, Amrutapani, Malbhog and Mariban are grown.

Bacterial Soft Rot Of Rhizome And Pseudostem : Erwinia spp

This is a minor bacterial disease, but causing concern in West Bengal.

Symptoms

It is characterised by a massive soft odorous rot of the centre or a portion

of the rhizome. The rot progresses up the pseudostem destroying the

growing point and causing internal decay often with vascular

discolouration.

Externally, the symptoms sometimes resemble those of fusariam wilt.

Yellowing and wilting of the leaves are the characteristic symptoms.

Control

Soil drenching with bleaching powder was found beneficial. Soil and plant

drenching with bleaching powder at 2 g/l water at an interval of 10-15

days was found effective in controlling the disease.

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Bacterial Wilt Or Moko Disease :Pseudomonas solanacearum

Symptoms

Affected sucker

Affected plants show more or less rapid-

wilting and collapse of leaves with a

characteristic discolouration of vascular

bundles, wilting and blackening of

suckers.

Affected young plant

If pseudostem and rhizomes are cut, a

characteristic bacterial oozing as shiny

drops can be noticed for besides vascular

discolouration.

In Cavendish varieties, lower leaves

develop a yellowish tinge which soon

spreads to other leaves of the plant,

which subsequently droop and petioles

break at the junction of lamina or

pseudostem.

Production of yellow fingers, discoloured vascular bundles of fruit stalks

and internal dry rot of fruits can also be noticed.

Bacterium is soil born. Spreads through use of diseased suckers for

planting.

In field disease spreads through irrigation water, implements and insects.

Infection is favoured by root injury.

Control

Disease can be minimised by exposing soil to sunlight.

Selection of healthy planting material, eradication of infected plants.

Disinfecting cutting knives and providing better drainage.

Flower visiting insects are main agents for transmitting the disease and

this is a good reason for following the practice of removing the bud from

the male axis before the bunch matures.

Herbicides, e.g., 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T, can be used to kill infected plants in

situ and dieldrin sprayed onto a chopped down mat will prevent insects

transmitting the disease to the unaffected plants.

Initial symptoms appear in older leaves as characteristic yellowing which

ultimately wither, break at petiole and hang down along the pseudostem.

Young leaves may not dry immediately but are erect and also get affected

later. If severe, entire foliage wilt within 2-3 days

Splitting of pseudostem , discoloured vascular region in rhizome are also

seen.

Individual strands appear yellow, in addition red or brown dots and streaks

are also seen.

Longitudinal splitting of pseudostem, emittance of rotten fish smell when

cut, stunting of plants, wilting and death of suckers are other symptoms of

the disease.

Control

Basrai is immune and Poovan or Champa is resistant, while Sonkel,

Rasthali Malbhog, Alpan, Morthaman, Kanthali, Sirumalai, Monthan,

Virupakshi are susceptible. Other resistant cultivars include Cavendish

group, Moongil, Peyladen Rajabale, Vamanakeli.

Selection of healthy suckers, avoiding injury to roots

The diseased plants should be uprooted and burnt.

Highly infected soil should not be replanted with banana at least for 3-4

years.

Use of disease-free planting material and resistant cultivar are

recommended.

Other measures include use of quicklime near the base of the plant and

soaking with water.

Application of lime to infested pits, dipping suckers in carbendazim 1 gl/I

before planting followed by bimonthly drenching starting 6 months after

planting are effective management practices

However, once soil is generally infested, there is no economic method of

reducing the pathogen population to a level where more than two or three

crops of a susceptible cultivar can be obtained.

Spraying of Thiophanate methyl 1 g/l, or 1per cent Bordeaux mixture + 2% linseed oil, or Captan 2 g/l are some practices that can manage the disease.

Bacterial Soft Rot Of Rhizome And Pseudostem : Erwinia spp

This is a minor bacterial disease, but causing concern in West Bengal.

Symptoms

It is characterised by a massive soft odorous rot of the centre or a portion

of the rhizome. The rot progresses up the pseudostem destroying the

growing point and causing internal decay often with vascular

discolouration.

Externally, the symptoms sometimes resemble those of fusariam wilt.

Yellowing and wilting of the leaves are the characteristic symptoms.

Control

Soil drenching with bleaching powder was found beneficial. Soil and plant

drenching with bleaching powder at 2 g/l water at an interval of 10-15

days was found effective in controlling the disease.

Bacterial Wilt Or Moko Disease :Pseudomonas solanacearum

Symptoms

Affected sucker

Affected plants show more or less rapid-

wilting and collapse of leaves with a

characteristic discolouration of vascular

bundles, wilting and blackening of

suckers.

Affected young plant

If pseudostem and rhizomes are cut, a

characteristic bacterial oozing as shiny

drops can be noticed for besides vascular

discolouration.

In Cavendish varieties, lower leaves

develop a yellowish tinge which soon

spreads to other leaves of the plant,

which subsequently droop and petioles

break at the junction of lamina or

pseudostem.

Production of yellow fingers, discoloured vascular bundles of fruit stalks

and internal dry rot of fruits can also be noticed.

Bacterium is soil born. Spreads through use of diseased suckers for

planting.

In field disease spreads through irrigation water, implements and insects.

Infection is favoured by root injury.

Control

Disease can be minimised by exposing soil to sunlight.

Selection of healthy planting material, eradication of infected plants.

Disinfecting cutting knives and providing better drainage.

Flower visiting insects are main agents for transmitting the disease and

this is a good reason for following the practice of removing the bud from

the male axis before the bunch matures.

Herbicides, e.g., 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T, can be used to kill infected plants in situ and dieldrin sprayed onto a chopped down mat will prevent insects transmitting the disease to the unaffected plants.

Bunchy Top- Viral disease

The disease is covered by domestic quarantine regulations. Losses were

estimated to be Rs.4 crores every year and 100% loss occurs if infected

suckers are planted.

Symptoms

Dark green streaks

- Stunting of plant

Aphid

Symptoms appear at stage of growth associated with occurrence of

prominent dark green streaks on petioles and along leaf veins.

In badly diseased plants leaves bunch together, margins of lamina

become wavy and slightly roll upwards.

In case of secondary infections, irregular, dark green streaks occur along

the secondary veins from series of dark green dots to a continuous dark

green line.

Severe stunting, non-elongation of leaf stalks, more erect leaves, non

production of bunches are other external symptoms.

The virus spreads through infected suckers and by banana aphid

Pentalonia nigronervosa.

Control

Adoption of strict quarantine measures. The diseased plants along with

rhizomes should be destroyed as soon as they are detected.

Planting materials should not be collected from places affected by this

disease.

The aphid should be controlled to check spread of the disease by spraying

with an effective insecticide (Metasystox 0.1 to 0.5%, Dimecron or

Parathion).

Injection of Monocrotphos solution diluted with water at 1:4 ratio at 30-day

interval twice or thrice at 2-3 months after planting has been found

effective.

Injection of Fernoxone, 4 ml mixed with water at 1:8 ratio into the corm or

insertion of capsules containing 200-400 mg of the chemical into the

pseudostem after making a slanting hole are also suggested for effective

killing of the infected plants.

Regular inspection, roguing of diseased plants, and planting virus-free

corms have reduced bunchy top disease in Australia.

Field trials with Dwarf Cavendish banana revealed that phytosanitary measures help in minimising the disease to a great

extent.

Banana Mosaic Or Infectious Chlorosis

Infectious chlorosis or heart rot of banana is caused by Cucumber Mosaic

Virus (CMV) has recently become serious, the disease has been recorded

from 20 to 80 per cent in Poovan cultivar.

Symptoms

The disease manifests itself in all stages of crop growth. Due to repeated

use of suckers from infected plants the disease spreads and resulting in

the gradual decrease in yield and quality.

The disease is known to occur in all banana-growing states.

Yellow streaks on leaf

Light yellow streaks run parallel to leaf veins

giving the leaf a striped appearance. The

streaks run usually from mid rib to edge of

the blade.

Outer leaf sheath may separate from

pseudostem and the emerging heart leaf may

be necrotic. Diseased plants may not produce

bunches or only a few fruits are produced.

Rolling of leaves

Mosaic plants are easily recognized by their

dwarf growth and mottled, distorted leaves.

Young leaves show loss of green colour in

patches leading to typical mosaic pattern.

Leaves are reduced in size, narrow, chlorotic.

Virus is disseminated by suckers and Aphis

gossypi.

Control

Adoption of strict quarantine measures.

Systematic destruction of diseased plants.

Use of disease free suckers.

Treating suckers at 40°C with dry heat for 1 day followed by treatment

with 120 ppm aureofungin.

Cultivation of varieties such as Kuru Bale are recommended

Banana Rust Thrips : Chaetanaphothrips signipennis

Thrips affected Fruits

It has yellowish shaded wings, The damage

done by thrips is by oviposition on the young

fruits.

 Nature of damage

It causes smoky or red discolouration

between individual fingers.

The skin becomes reddish brown, roughened

and dull in appearance, superficial cracks

appear in discoloured skin. The fruits may

also split.

Control

Using only clean corms

Dipping in Metasystox 0.1% solution to control the spread of the disease

Spray the bunches after emergence with 0.2% Phosphomidan for effective

control of pest

Burrowing Nematode : Radopholus similis

Family: Tylenchidae

Order: Radopholinae

An extremely serious and wide spread nematode, particularly in

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu also reported from Andhra Pradesh.

Other hosts include coffee, pepper, coconut, vegetables, ornamentals,

grasses and weeds.

Nematodes are now recognised as an important soil-borne pathogens

causing decline in yield in bananas.

Affected plants do not respond to fertilizer, irrigation or cultural practices.

The other nematodes associated with the banana crop in- clude,

Heterodera oryzicula, Helicotylenchus sp. and Tylenchorhynchus sp.

Nature of damage

Infested roots

Larvae and females are found inside roots in the

cortical parenchyma where they feed on the

cytoplasm of nearby cells destroying them and

forming root cavities which coalesce as the

nematodes continuously feed by burrowing

laterally and towards the endodermis, producing

characteristic reddish-brown lesions throughout

the cortex.

Lesions on stem

Fungi attack through the lesions resulting in

atrophy of roots. There appears to be some

association between the nematode and Panama

disease.

Nematode damaged field

Eventually the root system is reduced to few

short stubs and affected plants get "toppled".

Nematode management

Crop rotation

Rotations involving turmeric, sugarcane, cotton and green gram. Paddy

after banana suppressed the population of all nematodes.

Paddy after banana, green gram after banana, two crops of paddy after

banana were effective in reduction of R.similis. Fallowing and flooding for

3 months after banana efficiently suppressed R.similis.

The nematode population was brought down especially R.similis, in

coriander and banana ntercropping.

Mulching

Applying black polythene mulch at 60 per cent moisture depletion

recorded the lowest population.

Organic amendments

Application of neem coated urea at 110 g/plant as a full dose to banana

reduced the nematode population both in soil and root.

Chemical control

Sucker disinfestation

Paring and pralinage treatment of suckers with Carbofuran 3G (45

g/sucker) is suggested as a control.

Field treatment

Drenching Carbofuran 45% G at planting or Carbofuran pralinage registered lowest root nematode population coupled with maximum bunch yield per plant.

Rhizome Weevil : Cosmopolites sordidus

Family:

Curculionidae

Order :

Coleoptera

Most destructive pest, widely distributed in all banana growing areas. Specific pest of Musa spp. Malbhog and Champa varieties highly susceptible.

Adult Weevil

Adult weevils (10-13mm) are shiny reddish brown to

black, with a long and curved snout, elytra short and

striated longitudinally, though functional, but the

weevils seldom fly.

Grub

Grubs are creamy white, stout, fleshy, legless, wrinkled

and spindle shaped, with red head.

Nature of damage

Damaged Rhizome

Eggs are laid in collar region or on under-

ground rhizomes. Grubs bore into the

pseudostem and rhizome and make

tunnels by feeding.

Weevil damaged field

Adults also bore into the suckers. As a result of

the attack by adults and grubs, the central

shoots gets killed, plants show premature

withering, suckers get killed, fruits remain

undersized and fewer in number.

Damaged stem

Fungi and bacteria accelerate rotting.

Trees may break down with strong winds.

Similar damage is done by Odoiporus

longicollis in North-East India.

Control

Planting of healthy suckers

Clean cultivation

Removal of pseudostems below ground level

Trimming the rhizome

Dipping in methyl oxydemeton 2 ml/l solution prevents infestation.

Applying castor cake 250g or carbaryl 50g dust or phorate 10g per pit

before planting also prevents infestation.

In case of severe attack, dimethoate methl, oxydemeton or phosphamidon

may be sprayed around the collar region.

Trapping of adults using yellow traps is also helpful.

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Fruit And Leaf Scarring Beetle: Colaspis hypochlora

Nature of damage

The beetle, Colaspis hypochlora feeds on young leaves and skin of young

fruits.

This insect sometimes lives in the heart of the pseudostem within the roll

of the central leaf.

Occurrence of this pest is usually the maximum during the rainy season.

Severe scarring of fruit skin leads to underdeveloped fruit, which fetches

less price in the market.

Control

Clean cultivation, particularly, the removal of grass weeds from

plantations where the population of this pest is high, can often reduce the

population levels enough to avoid the use of insecticides.

Unless the beetles are causing serious economic losses the use of

insecticides should be avoided.

Low volume spray of aldrin 0.25% a.i., controls the insect.

Dusting with Malathion is also effective. Harvesting And Storage

Introduction > Ripening > Storage > Packing And Transport >

Introduction

Bananas are harvested at various stages of its maturity depending upon

the purpose for which it is cultivated, such as culinary, table purpose etc.,

and distance to the market (3/4 full maturity in Robusta for distant

markets, while full maturity for local market etc.).

The assessment of the harvesting maturity is itself is a skilled job. The

harvesting in India is usually done by visual judging. The duration of

flowering to maturation in days can also be taken as a guide to harvest

index.

In many of the perennial plantations, depending upon the time of setting

of followers, the age of follower sucker at the time of setting it, cultural

practices like manuring, irrigation followed will determine the time of

harvest, and most often a continuous harvest all throughout the year can

be obtained.

After harvesting, the pseudostems should be cut leaving a stump of about

0.6 m height. This practice is called muttocking.

Experimental evidence showed that the left over stump with its stored

food material continues to nourish the daughter sucker (follower) till it

withers and dries up

The cultivars like "Poovan', 'Monthan', 'Rasthali' and Dwarf Cavendish are

ready for harvest in 11 to 12 months from date of planting.

Dwarf Cavendish (Basrai) takes 14 months in Maharashtra. Some cultivars

like Nendran in Kerala takes only 10 months for harvest. Yields are highly

variable.

The following are the yield figures of major cultivars

Dwarf cavendish in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra 30 to 40 t/ha

Poovan perennial plantations 15 to 20 t/ha

Wetland or gardenland 20 to 25 t/ha

Hill bananas (perennial) 15 -17.5 t/ha

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Ripening

Bananas are not usually allowed to ripen on the tree as it takes long time.

Moreover, the fruit-peel splits, fruit ripens unevenly and fails to develop

good colour and aroma, hence the marketable quality deteriorates.

Therefore, banana needs to be ripened artificially.

On arrival at the destination, the banana bunches are immediately sold to

wholesale dealers who store the fruits in loose heaps in godowns and

ripen them in lots as per the need of the retail dealers.

In tropical conditions, fruits for local consumption are harvested and

ripened by hanging the bunches in a shady place.

Some considered four enzymes as catalysts, which increased with ripening

particularly at temperature below 300 C.

The predominant carbohydrate of green banana was found to be starch

which hydrolysed to sucrose, glucose and fructose on ripening.

The starch hydrolysis did not commence until respiration had increased to

the two-thirds of the climacteric peak and at about the peak of ethylene

production.

The starch degradation is accompained by an increase in sucrose content

followed by glucose and fructose formation during ripening.

Some reported that during ripening, arginine, serine, valine, leucine and

histidine contents increased whereas aspartic acid and glutamic acid

content declined.

Smoke treatment is the commonest method to induce ripening in

Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Smoking is done with straw, leaves and

cowdung in a closed chamber with bunches arranged in a heap for 18-24

hours in summer and 48 hours in winter.

After taking the bunches from the chamber they are placed in a well-

ventilated room for development of colour.

Smoke treatment causes ripening of the bunches within 3 days. Ripening

is also done by keeping the bunches covered with gunny sacks.

Ethrel, ethylene and temperature promoted respiration can cause ripening

of the fruits.

High concentration (1000 ppm) and/or a prolonged treatment with ethrel

(5 min) and ethylene (48 hours) caused intensive respiration.

Ethylene at a concentration of 1 part per thousand also helps to initiate

ripening of banana.

In commercial trade, ripening is initiated by using various chemical

substances. Growth regulating chemicals, such as 2, 4-D, 2, 4, 5-T, IAA

and TBZ have been tried to hasten ripening.

2, 4-D is the cheapest chemical for inducing artificial ripening, and 1000

ppm of 2, 4-D for 30 seconds was optimum.

A post-harvest dip of banana fruits in ABA and IAA solution also hastened

ripening. Use of acetylene gas generated from CaC2 for ripening banana

was started as early as 1932. Since then CaC2 is used on a large scale in

case of ripening mature green bananas.

Ethrel application at or above 500 ppm accelerated ripening by 2 days,

resulting in optimum eating quality by 4 days after treatment.

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Storage

Banana can be stored at a temperature slightly above 550 F (130 C) and a

relative humidity of 85 to 95 per cent for about three weeks, and is

ripened in a week or two at 62-700 F (16.5-210 C).

Banana fruit becomes blackened at lower temperatures and should not be

placed in a refrigerator. Internally, the banana is carried either by rail or

by road in unrefrigerated carriage.

On the other hand, the produce for overseas trade is carried in

refrigerated ships, the banana being kept in a cool air circulation at about

52-560 F (11-13.50 C). Premature ripening is probably the biggest single

cause of loss during storage.

Keeping the fruit in relatively high concentration of CO2 and low

concentration of O2 can prolong storage life.

Dipping of bananas at 200 ppm TBZ has been approved and

recommended as a post-harvest treatment.

A double coating of 12% wax emulsion prolonged the storage life of Dwarf

Cavendish banana by 10-12 days at 580 F (14.50 C).

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Packing And Transport

The banana bunches harvested at apt

age of maturity are wrapped with dried

banana levels before packing into in

lorries or railways wagons for long

distance transport. This practice is in

vogue in commercial orchards of

Maharashtra, Bihar, etc.

At destination the bunches of Dwarf cavendish, poovan etc. are dehanded

and sold in retail outlets, whereas in the markets whole bunches as such

are marketed.

In Tamil Nadu, Hill banana 'Virupakshi' is dehanded in the plantation itself

and are packed in small lots of 500 fruits each and marketed in Madras

and Dindigul.

In Kerala, the Nendran bunches are marketed as whole bunches itself.

Often male buds are not even removed to give a better show for the whole

bunch during festive seasons. Marketing

Introduction > Harvesting > Storage > Assembling > Sorting > Packing > Transportation > Distribution > Preparation Of Marketing >

Introduction

Banana stands second next only to mango in area and production among

fruit crops in India. The major banana producing states are Maharashtra,

Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

More than 40 per cent of production being in Southern States of India, the

produce finds its market mainly in large North Indian cities like Bombay,

Calcutta, Delhi, etc.

The production centers are situated in the remote villages, with less

conveyance and transport facilities. The harvested produce experiences

losses due to rough handling in different markets and while in transport.

The marketing system for bananas is not well organized in India and

hence, the produce suffers losses in quality and quantity before it reaches

the consumers.

As the export of banana from India is practically nil, the entire produce is

consumed internally. Hence, the prevalent internal marketing system of

banana is briefly discussed.

Before considering the existing situation in relation to internal marketing,

it will be useful to briefly deal with methods of harvesting, packing and

transport to consuming centres.

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Harvesting

Banana bunches are cut at different stages of maturity depending on the

distance of haulage and the time of consumption.

Being the polyclonal system of cultivation practiced by cultivators, it is

difficult to stipulate a common harvest index for all the varieties. Usually,

visual judging is the only criterion adopted by the farmers to fix the stage

of harvest.

Bananas meant to be marketed locally are harvested at full maturity. In

Robusta and other Dwarf Cavendish varieties cutting after 90'days of

shooting or at full three quarters maturity is adopted.

In the case of bananas transported to long distance markets, harvesting is

done after 80 days at three quarters full maturity.

The method of harvesting assumes great importance when bananas are to

conform to export specification like absence of cuts and bruises. That

banana bunches are carefully cut with sharp knives and very often two

men are employed to cut a large bunch.

In Maharashtra and Gujarat, harvesting of banana is done by persons

having specialised experience. In most of the states bunches are cut from

the stem by means of a bill-hook or a sickle.

The harvesting of the crop in a particular field is not done at one time,

since bunches produced by all the plants do not attain uniform maturity.

Every day, bunches are harvested which have developed fully and

produce a metallic sound when tapped with the back of the nail.

Immature fruits, which are angular in the beginning, became more

roundish as they mature. It takes about 3 1/2 to 4 months to mature fully

from the date of emergence of inflorescence depending upon varieties.

The fruits are harvested at 80-90 per cent maturity.

In Tamilnadu fruits reach the place of distribution within a day or two from

the assembling centre.

Monthan is harvested about 7-10 days before it is actually distributed. In

the case of Poovan also, it is found to have better shelf life than others.

Mauritius variety, which has to be distributed within four days after

smoking is harvested just a week before the stage of actual distribution.

Hill bananas and Rasthali are harvested at about 80-90 per cent maturity as they are not able to stand for a period more than a week to 10 days after harvest.

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Storage

Storage of bananas during the marketing process occurs at different

levels, viz. Producers level, assembling level, wholesaler level and retailer

level.

Being a perishable commodity, the fruits are disposed off in all these

stages very quickly, and as such are not stored for long periods in general.

Producers do not store the produce. They usually harvest the produce only

on the day of marketing or at most a day prior to it.

At assembling centres or village markets also, the bunches are sold on the

same day on which the produce gets assembled.

There is usually no delay in moving the produce from the assembling

centres to wholesalers.

The wholesalers inturn, ripen the fruits in smoke house depending upon

the estimated demand in succeeding days.

The fruits which are given smoke treatment for ripening are disposed off

to the retailers on the same day when it is taken out of ripening chambers.

These fruits may be stored for 2 or 3 days depending on the ripeness. The

retailers are usually hotels, small petty shop keepers, and hand cart a

time from the wholesaler which he can sell on one or two days.

Hence, at retailer level also the storage for the produce is the minimum.

Thus, the mature fruits harvested from gardens are sold as ripened fruits

usually within a period of 7 to 10 days after harvest.

During the peak seasons when markets are flooded with bananas, the

bunches are to be stored for days together for which the modern facilities

like cold storage are not available in many markets.

Hence, a loss of about 1 O to 1 5 per cent due to over ripening, fungal deterioration etc., will be taking place before the produce reaches the ultimate consumers.

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Assembling

Assembling of bunches is an important operation. The judging of

harvesting maturity of individual bunches in a garden is a labour intensive

process as there won't be any uniformity in maturation within the same

variety grown in a garden.

Harvesting and assembling the produce for the market is done by

1. Growers

2. Pre-harvest contractors

3. Village merchants.

i) Growers

Banana growers in South India are mainly marginal farmers who do not

find it profitable to harvest the crop at periodical intervals and transport to

markets as the bunches usually do not attain harvestable maturity

uniformly due to variation in sucker size and variation in fertlisation,

irrigation, etc.

Unless the produce is assembled at the village level itself, transport

charges will be high and hence the role of intermediaries. The grower's

share in assembling of the produce will be only upto 10 per cent in India.

ii) Pre-harvest contractors

Pre-harvest contractors are the main assembling agents in the case of

bananas. They conduct periodical visits to the banana garden of individual

small holdings and enter into contract with these farmers by advancing

money to purchase the bunches.

Hence, it will be either the contractor or his subagents who will conduct

the harvesting of bunches from the small holdings, assemble them and

transport to the main markets.

Pre harvest contractors operate in and around all the district markets.

They are the main financing agents for the farmers.

Even before all the bunches emerge in the garden, these contractors enter

into contract with farmers for the

Contract is sometimes fixed on the basis of bunches. Suppose in a garden

having about 1000 plants, contract is fixed only for 900 bunches, as only

that number of good bunches alone are expected.

The choice of elimination of any bunch rests with the contractor as he will

never mark the 100 bunches excluded from the contract, hence till his 900

bunches are harvested, the full bunches in the garden remain to be that of

contractors.

These merchants advance money to cultivators at the time of entering

into contract and go on paying as and when bunches are harvested. Some

of the contractors pay only at the end.

These pre-harvest contractors are the main assembling agency accounting

for nearly 80 per cent of the quantity assembled.

iii) Village merchant

Village merchant accounts for about 10 per cent of the total produce

assembled. These merchants operate in villages near about shandies.

These merchants collect the produce and then have it sold at shandies.

These merchants either make outright purchases on cash basis or act as commission agents.

Sorting

In Maharashtra and Gujarat, bananas are sold by weight and in Tamil Nadu

by bunches or by numbers.

Sale by numbers appears to be the practice in Andhra Pradesh, West-

Bengal and many other states. Hence, sorting of bunches/fingers into

different grades and marketing are not practiced in India by the growers.

Even at the assembling centres, disposal is as bunches and as such no

sorting is resorted to.

At the retail level only, fruits are sorted according to different sizes. In the

case of hill bananas, sorting is done at harvest stage itself as the produce

is sold as fingers, not as whole bunches.

No standard grades are followed for sorting of fruits. The wholesalers, at

times, sort their bunches based on number of hands and number of

fingers.

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Packing

In India the bunches are marketed naked. There is no practice of using

any special type of containers.

The bunches are as such loaded or unloaded from the carts, lorries or rail

wagons.

When the produce is to be sent to far off places, through lorry, the

individual bunches are packed with banana waste leaves which served as

cushion in between the bunches and consequently the damage to the

fingers during transit is reduced.

There is no unit of packing as transport and sales are effected on the basis

of number of bunches. In the case of hill bananas, the bunches after

harvest are split up into different hands possibly due to easiness of

transport on mule or ponies.

Hill bananas are, packed in gunny bags each having a capacity of 400 to 600 fruits. If the fruits are to be transported over a long distance, generally no packing is undertaken and the fruits are sent in loose form.

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Transportation

The harvested bananas from the gardens located in villages are usually

transported as head loads, on ponies, as cart loads and as lorry loads, the

transport for interstate trade are mainly effected through lorry services

and railway wagons.

Due to difficulties faced by wholesalers to arrange wagons, that too in

correct time, lorry transport is more depended in India.

Distribution

The distribution is effected through growers or producers, preharvest

contractors, whole salers, commission agents and retailers.

The channel of movements in the different distribution system are

depicted in the figure. The most common market channels seen in banana

trade in India are:

1. Producer -wholesaler -retailer -consumer

2. Producer -village merchant -wholesaler -retailer -consumer

3. Producers -village merchants -retailer -consumer

4. Producer -retailer -consumer

5. Producer -consumer

Preparation For Marketing

The majority of cultivators sell their produce to pre-harvest contractors in

advance and the harvesting and preparation for market is done by

merchant contractors only.

Usually bananas are not given any special post-harvest treatments such

as dipping in fungicidal solutions etc.

Since the quality awareness has not been sufficiently developed to admit

higher price differential for treated bananas, it may not be worthwhile to

adopt expensive post-harvest treatment techniques in all cases of internal

marketing.

Similarly, the bunches are harvested, assembled and transported as such

without dehanding in India.

The separation of individual hands for sale are done at retailer level only.

Till then the bunches in toto are handled as a single unit.

The wholesale merchants at the consumer markets will prepare their

bunches for marketing.

The bunches are staked in smoke houses or pits for 24 hours in summer and 48 hours in winter for inducing uniform ripening, before they are exhibited for sale on the days to follow Economics

Cost of cultivation

Details of operations

(Expenditure in Rs.)

Main crop I Ratoon II Crop

Land preparation (Deep

ploughing & harrowing) 1000 - -

Digging pits 6000 - -

Mannures and chemicals 4500 - -

Fertilisers and transport 22,000 11,000 11,000

Planting cost 2,000 - 2,000

Irrigation expenses 500 300 300

Chemicals for foliar

spray+Transportation 3,000 1,500 1,500

Plant protection chemicals 2,500 1,250 1,250

Stakes and staking 6,000 - -

Intercultivation 2,000 1,500 1,500

Labour charges for 365

man days (Rs 30/labour) 10,950 6,500 6,500

Harvestin, Loading &

unloading +

Transportation

5,000 4,500 5,000

Sub Total 86,450 26,550 50,050

Misc. expenses at 5% of A 4,322 1,328 2,503

Cost of cultivation 90,772 27,878 52,553

Crop insurance @5% 4,538 1,394 2,628

Total cost 95,310 29,272 55,181

Bank interest for main

crop@ 12% flat which is

equivalent to 18% P.A on

reducing interest basis

11,437 - -

Total Investment 1,06,747 29,272 55,181

Fixed investments

Fencing 10,000

Borewell 25,000

Drip irrigation (about Rs 10,000 as subsidy) 30,000

Management & Administration expenditure for big

farms more than 50 acres) 15,000

Total 75,000

Note

1. Bank interest was not calculated for ratoon and III crop because the

expenditures can be managed fro revenue from first crop

2. Variation may be there in total costa which may depend generally on

locality, labourwages and trasportation charges.

Crop returns

Assumptions Average yields

1) Main crop - 40 kgs2) I Ratoon - 30 kgs3) II Crop - 40 kgs

Particulars Main crop I ratoon II crop

Crop returns per

acre

2003 x 20 x 4.00

plants x yield/plant x cost

= Rs. 1,60,240

2003 x 15 x 4.00

plants x yield/plant x

cost

=Rs.1,20,180

2003 x 20x

4.00

plants x

yield/plant x

cost

= Rs. 1,60,240

Deducting 10%

amount in crop

returns keeping

in account

mortality, yield

variation,

improper

management

1,60,240

- 32,048

---------------

1,28,192

1,44,216

- 24,036

-------------

96,144

1,60,240

- 32,048

-----------

1,28,192

Total returns per acre/two years

= Rs.1,28,192+96,144+ 1,28,192

= 3,52,528 - P

Total cost = Rs 1,06,747+29,272+55,181

=1,91,200 - C

Profit (P-C) = 3,52,528-1,91,200 =1,61,328

Economics :

Most important and interesting part for the growers, corporate farming

companies and big investors.

The banana crop cycle comprises of 3 crops in 2 years i.e. main crop of

about 12 months duration 2nd and 3rd crops at 18 and 24th month

respectively(ratoon).

The cost of cultivation for main crop per acre is about 90,772 and 2 nd and

3rd crop @Rs.40,000 each.

Expected return from all the three crops is about Rs. 3.6 Lakhs. So by

deducting all these, the total profit out of all the three crop will be about

Rs.1.61 lakhs per acre which walks out 0.5 lakhs per crop or Rs.0.80 lakhs

per acre per year. Crop Improvement

Breeding And Crop Improvement

Breeding banana is almost a difficult exercise due to complexities

resulting from parthenocarpy, sterility, polyploidy and vegetative

propagation. The uniqueness lies in the fact that in banana which is

almost sterile, raising sexual progeny in sufficient numbers to combine

desirable characters and at the same time resulting in another sterile

plant is indeed very difficult.

As the degree of sterility is particularly high in edible cultivars, breeding

banana is complicated, difficult and time consuming. Nevertheless, the

results of work done since 1922 in the West Indies proved to be, in the

words of some, an encouraging milestone of success.

The sole objective of banana breeding in the West Indies was to evolve a

banana as like Gros Michel as possible but immune or highly resistant to

Panama wilt disease. Gros Michel had been the only main commercial

banana (the green gold of Jamaica) at that time (though in the subsequent

years Lacatan, Highgate, Cocos and Valery gained importance) with all the

desirable characters, but it became almost impossible to grow it on

account of its high susceptibility to the wilt disease, for which there was

and still, is, no effective chemical or cultural method of control except by

growing resistant cultivars.

The first artificially produced hybrid banana in the West Indies, named IC-

1was a tetraploid and was highly resistant to Panama disease.

It was evolved by crossing Gros Michel (AAA) with a wild wilt resistant,

seeded diploid M.acuminata spp. malaccensis. Its bunches lacked

symmetry and, hence, were not suitable for shipping as naked bunches.

Besides, the fruits were shorter and the number of hands were also fewer

per bunch. Other hybrids IC-2, S-19, J-1877 and Bodles Altafort produced

subsequently were also similarly unacceptable.

The latter had several desirable qualities, but its tall stature and slow

growth with leaves often breaking at the base proved unsuitable for the

cyclone prone islands.

In the beginning, the breeders were trying to exploit Gros Michel's ability

to form a few unreduced triploid egg cells that could be fertilized with

normal haploid pollen to give tetraploid embryos.

The value of this phenomenon was that genes from the mother plant did

not segregate and, therefore, the maternal characteristics in respect of

the fruits were retained.

Adding one set of chromosome from a diploid, carrying heritable

resistance to wilt to the three sets from the mother was the main idea in

this programme.

This had the undesirable effect of restricting breeding to a parent that was

highly susceptible to the disease, besides, being tall in stature. Another

possibility was then to breed triploids by crossing these tetraploids with

diploids.

This involved the usual processes of reduction division on both sides,

reassortment and seggregation of gene complexes, giving only a remote

chance of success, as practice has confirmed.

Numerous primary tetraploids and secondary triploids have now been

bred in this way.

The objective of banana breeding in India is entirely different. Unlike West Indies, banana cultivation in India is polyclonal and

Panama wilt never became a threat.

Hybrid-95,

Breeding work started in Tamil Nadu in 1949,

therefore, had the objectives of improving

the bunch grade, reducing the stature of the

plant, etc.

Hybrids that resulted from the preliminary

work carried out with 15 triploid cultivars and

four other species of Musa including

balbisiana were found inferior.

In the meantime, nematodes became serious

problem.

Hybrid-21.

The programme was, therefore, reoriented to

include some of the commercial edible

diploids already in cultivation, in the breeding

programme.

As many as 13 acuminata (AA) and 10 hybrid

(AB) diploids were screened and two of them,

Anaikomban (AA) and Tongat (AB) were

found fairly resistant to nematodes.

Another diploid-Sanna Chen Kadali (AA) having a red fruit skin was

selected for its hardy nature, medium tall stature, shorter duration and

resistance to leaf spot disease. A synthetic diploid (AA) evolved by

crossing Matti (AA) and Pisanglilin (AA) has the high fruit quality of the

former and nematode resistance of the latter.

This new diploid has great potential to serve as a male parent in the future

breeding programme.

A new triploid hybrid H-135 (AAB) evolved through multiple crossing

involving M.balbisiana is becoming popular as it resembles the famous

Virupakshi hill banana of Tamil Nadu both in respect of high fruit quality

and external appearance.

Some reported a new banana clone UCRS as resistant to Mycosphaerella

musicola and also resistant to wind damage. The plant adapts well to

various types of soil.

In a trial to determine the acceptability to the British customer, 34 clones

were assessed by taste palels. The acceptability varied considerably, but

the best clones were comparable with established Cavendish clones, such

as Valery.

The cultivars obtained from IITA, Nigeria showed good drought, pest and

disease and wind resistance in Bangladesh. The cv. Ogonired gave the

highest yield.

Most breeding efforts have been directed towards the improvement of

dessert bananas, the greatest consideration being fruit quality, dwarfness

and disease resistance. Resistance to important disease, such as fusarium

wilt, Sigatoka leaf spot, black Sigatoka and resistance to the burrowing

nematode (Radopholus similis) have been by far the main recent breeding

objectives, and these, in turn, have necessitated a continued search for

germplasm and an interest in the origin of various cultivars and clones.

Modest programmes have been initiated to explore the use of induced

mutation breeding. As a purely clonal crop plant, it seems that bananas

are admirably suited to this approach.

It is quite clear that the effects of somatic mutation or bud sporting can be

significant, since from a historical perspective in Jamaica alone, some six

mutants of the once highly prized Gros Michel were detected in a 100-year

period, and it is surmised that many more have gone undetected.

Improvement by mutations induced by chemical mutagens of irradiation

has great potential, which needs further investigations.

Callus and cell culture, somatic embryogenesis, androgenesis and related

techniques for Musa improvement pointed out that genetic engineering

procedures, such as gene insertion, perforce will depend on successful

regeneration of the plant from cells and protoplants.

Even procedures involving pollen genome modification will benefit from

such capability, and screening embryoids from pollen will require

androgenesis to be achievable at a reasonably high efficiency.

All perspective advantages that might accrue to banana-plantain breeding

or improvement programme other than the obvious ones, such as embryo

rescue and multiplication via meristems and shoot tips demand

availability of dependable cell, protoplast, anther-pollen-ovule culture

procedures.

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