CHAPTER 1 1.0 Silviculture 1.0.1 General Botany 1.0.1.1 A superior bamboo for planting on rocky mountains Regnum: Plantae Cladus: Angiospermae Cladus: Monocots Cladus: Commelinids Ordo: Poales Familia: Poaceae Subfamilia: Bambusoideae Tribus: Bambuseae Genus: Dendrocalamus Species: Dendrocalamus latiflorus Giant timber bamboo. Latiflorus is very hardy and easy to grow; a preferred bamboo plantation species with delicious shoots and large, strong smooth timber. Very large leaves and classic form make it also highly ornamental. Our most vigorous growing bamboo; it handles strong wind and frost, and is suited to a range of sites with enough room for a plant that grows to 26 metres. 1
Giant timber bamboo. Latiflorus is very hardy and easy to grow; a preferred bamboo plantation species with delicious shoots and large, strong smooth timber. Very large leaves and classic form make it also highly ornamental. Our most vigorous growing bamboo; it handles strong wind and frost, and is suited to a range of sites with enough room for a plant that grows to 26 metres.
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Fermented dry Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoot noodles, also called
lactic dry D. latiflorus shoot noodles is well known as health food and
highly appreciated in Japanese market meanwhile In China for its huge
edible shoots which are sweet and very delicious. The vegetables fiber is
moderate and its digested after mentation, and also it has anti – cancer
early property.
Fujian Province is abound with Dendrocalamus latiflorus resources.
The Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoots are also more fully developed and
utilized. It is estimated that the whole province has 200 to 300 thousands
mu of Dendrocalamus latiflorus resources. The period from April to
October is the growth and harvest season for shoots. If the shoots can be
collected well in time, they can be made into shoot products needed in
Japanese market.
The processing procedures require to use the middle part of the
shoot, after removing the hard nodes. After boiling and fermentation
( usual fermentation time is half to one month ), the shoots are
reprocessed into 4 to 5 cm long and 2.8 mm wide dry shoot noodles. At
present, the production of fermented dry Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoot
32
noodles has already been developed in the regions of Quangzhou,
Zhangzhou, and Fuzhou.
On the other hand, Bamboo forest is a part of Taiwan forest
resources. The commercial bamboo forest area is about 133,014 ha in the
province. The mixed forest with broad – leaved trees and Dendrocalamus
latiflorus is 51,489 ha, being 9.9% of the forest area in the province
(1,364,700 ha). There were 10.292 culms in 1980.
The area of forest producing bamboo shoot is 225,175 ha, that for
producing bamboo skin is about 70 ha. The export value of culms and
wares is about 401.8 thousand yuan in new Taiwan currency in the same
year, 201.5 thousand yuan for bamboo wares export (50.15%), 167.2
thousand yuan for shoot and processed product export, 22.4 thousand
yuan for bamboo stem export, 2.9 thousand yuan for root, strip and
weaving article export.
4.4.2 A study on semichemical pulp of Taiwan bamboo
With 3 – year – old bamboos (Phyllostachys makinoi,
Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Bambusa dolichoclada) as materials,
pulping by cold caustics soda, kraft process and neutral sulfite sodium
semi – chemical process is carried out, separately. The test results are :
The yield of pulp by cold soda is 72% - 86%, 55.3 – 78.5% by kraft
process, and 55.6 – 69.1% by neutral sulfate sodium process, but
the yield of the former is 45 – 50% higher than that by chemical
process.
33
The strength of pulp by cold caustic soda is lower, the strength of
pulp by kraft process and neutral sulfite sodium process is closer
and neutral sulfite sodium process is closer to kraft wood pulp.
Neutral sulfite sodium semi – chemical pulp is easier to bleach.
72 – 80% GE of pulp brightness can be reached by chloride – alkali
extraction hypochlorite bleaching. The long fibre wood pulp can be
substituted, and cultural papers can be made. But cold caustic soda
and kraft semi – chemical pulp is difficult to bleach. Corrugating
core paper, inside paper board and package papers can be made
by unbleached pulp.
4.4.3 Study on fractionating cooking of Taiwan bamboo pulp
Sample are 3 – year – old bamboos (Phyllostachys makinoi,
Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Bambusa dolichoclad, B. blumeana).
Remove non – fibrous matter with different alkali charge and temperature
by fractionating cooking treatment, reducing fiber loss and increasing yield
of pulp. The test methods is :
1. Use boiling water cook the materials by alkali solutions
2. Cook with diluted alkali solution and concentrated solution
3. When compared with common simple sequence alkali process, the
highest yield first method is 45.92% - 54.16%^, 40.5 – 53.7% by the
second methods, 39.81 – 50.06% by the third. The third stage
bleaching, the brightness of pulp by three different methods
reach80% GE. Physical strength of unbleached pulp is close to that
34
by kraft process. The pulp strength is little reduced after being
bleached, it also can be compared with that of Taiwan broad –
leaved wood by kraft method, especially high crackability. In
comparison with other two methods, the first methods gives low
alkali charge, high yield and has high strength. It is more
economics for papermaking.
4.5 Storage and Processing of Shoots
4.5.1 Principle and methods of storing and preserving of bamboo
shoots
The purpose of storage and preservation is to maintain the color,
smell and taste of the natural bamboo shoot, to reduce rotting and
increase its selling price. After harvesting, a bamboo shoot is still a living
organism. The components of the shoots will change throughout storage
and these changes are influenced by temperature, moisture,
microorganisms and the means of storage.
Maintaining moisture in the shoot is one of the vital factors for
preserving the fresh character of bamboo shoots. If significant moisture is
lost the shoot will lose its fresh, plump outward appearance and quality will
deteriorate. At the same time, enzyme activity will increase and hydrolysis
of carbohydrates will occur. As a result, the shoots will start to rot.
The carbohydrates in bamboo are mainly glucose, fructose and
sucrose and these are the basis of respiration. Carbohydrates will be
consumed gradually with increasing period of storage. Therefore, it is
necessary to decrease the respiration rate and the consumption of
carbohydrates during storage.
35
Under oxygen deficient conditions (when the oxygen content is less
than 2%) anaerobic respiration occurs. Alcohol, acetaldehyde, carbon
monoxide and a little heat are released. Due to the accompanying release
of heat energy the temperature of the stored heap of bamboo shoots will
increase during storage and the shoots will rot very easily.
Therefore, when bamboo shoots are heaped up in a processing
mill, they should be sheltered from sunlight to prevent color and quality
changes. Suitable low temperatures can control moisture transpiration of
bamboo shoots and damage by microorganisms.
Mechanical damage can induce high respiration and invasion of
microbes, and hence cause rotting of bamboo shoots. As the respiration
rate is related to moisture, temperature, humidity, and the activity of
enzymes the main ways of keeping bamboo shoots fresh during the
storage period are as follows:
1. Store bamboo shoots in a cool and moist place in order to decrease
respiration rate. The temperature in storage should be maintained
at about 5°C and the relative air humidity at about 85%. The
temperature must not be so cold such that the cells freeze.
2. Add some salt to control enzyme action.
3. Place bamboo shoots in cans and kill bacteria by high temperature
treatments.
4. Store bamboo shoots under oxygen insulation conditions to control
the activity of microorganisms.
5. Add chemical preservatives to preserve cooked shoots.
36
4.6 The Different Shoots Between Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa
blumeana, Bambusa oldhamii And Dendrocalamus latiflorus
The agronomy / silvicultural trials were conducted on four bamboo
species. These differed in their responses to the imposed treatments not only
because of their genetic make-up but also because of their relative ages. The
mature Dendrocalamus asper (giant bamboo) produced few shoots, on average
c. 1 shoot per standing culm, but they were large if harvested for consumption
(reaching 4.5 kg).
In contrast, the young (3–7 years old during the trial) Bambusa blumeana
(kawayan tinik) produced very few shoots, although the poor soil or some other
factor may have had an overriding effect, as average shoot number per clump
did not increase during the 5-year course of the experiment. Even older clumps
of the same species produced few shoots per culm, only 8 of 65 treatment × year
combinations produced more than 7 shoots per clump.
The commonly recognized, smaller-shoot-producing species Bambusa
oldhamii, with clumps close to 10 years of age, produced on average over 20
shoots per clump in the optimal treatments. This was unlike Dendrocalamus
latiflorus, aged 3.5 and 4 years at commencement of the experiments, which
produced many shoots early on but fewer as the clumps aged (on average c. 40
shoots per clump in the first year, c. 30 in the second and c. 10 in the third year).
However, the proportion of market able shoots increased over time.
37
CHAPTER 5
5.0 Culms Production
Culms or poles as they are commonly known are the major commercial
and subsistence bamboo product in that country. In contrast, with minor
exceptions, in Australia the culms present a logistical headache, for although
imported culms command a high price (Midmore 1998) locally produced culms
are not widely marketed because of their virtually non-existent quality control.
Indeed, when thinning bamboo clumps in order to optimize shoot
production, culms may be variously converted into mulch, burnt, or used as a
low-quality timber replacement around the farm. Quite simply, the scale of
production does not merit their entry into energy generation (Sharma 2005) or
other mainstream economic activities.
As for shoot production, species has an overriding influence on culms
production, in terms of both numbers and size. Although this was not an
experimental factor, we can draw some useful cross-species comparisons, as we
can for the other experimental factors.
The assessment of bamboo resources relative to national culms
requirements reveals that they are inadequate for sustained yield (as discussed
38
above). Given the worsening status of current timber resources, there is a need
to increase the areas planted to bamboo as potential substitutes for wood-based
products. There are available technologies for bamboo plantation development
and management of commercial species. These technologies are considered
mature and are employed in various regions in the country.
5.1 Culms Thinning Practice
In general in Australia, treatments at all sites that had high numbers of
young culms (1 and 2 years old at the time of shoot emergence) led to high shoot
numbers. Indeed, in the high rainfall site, shoots selected for culms production at
the beginning of the shoot season themselves produced edible shoots near the
end of the same shoot season.
In the drier environment of Australia, shoot production was greater when
all early shoots were removed for sale, leaving only late-season shoots for culms
production possibly minimizing the effect of apical dominance that may inhibit
later shoot emergence. Weight per harvested shoot was not affected by thinning
regime, or by the spatial arrangement of standing culms (widely spaced versus
narrow spacing within a clump).
In the Philippine, treatments with more young culms raised the productivity
index (the number of shoots produced per standing culms) and, in the rained (in
Bukidnon), the standing culms density (SCD) of 10-10 (ten 1-yearold and ten 2-
year-old culms) gave more shoots than the 6-6 treatment.
Leaving all shoots to grow into culms caused congestion in the clumps,
and constrained production of shoots in later years. For this reason, some
39
minimal annual thinning of culms or shoots is necessary if clumps are to continue
to produce shoots (and culms) on a sustained basis.
The effect of culms thinning treatment on culms biomass was closely
related to the effect of species, and was tightly linked to culms thinning practices.
With younger (3.5–7.0-year-old) clumps of D. latiflorus thinning treatments did
not affect individual weight of culms; most likely because complete canopy
closure had not occurred. Hence, culms yield was a reflection of the number of
culms harvested. Culm yield ranged from 3.5–3.7 to 6.8 t/ha/year for the
treatments with SCD of 4-2-2, 2-2-2 and 4-4-4, respectively.
5.2 Irrigation
In Australia, withholding irrigation during the dry season increased culms
water-use efficiency (WUE—weight of culms per unit of irrigation and rainfall) by
25% over the fully irrigated treatment, although culms biomass was not reduced
and the difference between full and temporal irrigation in WUE was not
significant.
Withholding irrigation altogether reduced biomass yield by 40%, but that
was confounded by also withholding fertilizer. Further north (in NT), the same
effect of withholding winter irrigation was evident at one of the sites—culms yield
was reduced by 24% compared to full irrigation.
Irrigation throughout the year at only 50% of pan evaporation reduced
culms yield by 15%, not as great as withholding all irrigation during the dry
season. At another site, on a lighter soil, the 50% irrigation treatment did not
affect culms yield, although culms WUE (this time based upon weight of culms
per unit of irrigation) was double that of the 100% irrigation treatment.
40
In the Philippines (in Capiz), neither lack of irrigation nor irrigation supplied
only just before and during the shoot season reduced culms yield compared to
the fully irrigated treatment (although both treatments had higher culms WUEs
than the irrigated control). In the other site with irrigation treatments (in Ilocos
Norte), culms that experienced the reduced irrigation treatments were thinner
and their biomass lower.
CHAPTER 6
6.0 Afforestation Techniques for Bamboo Shoot Plantations
6.0.1 Nursery site preparation
The nursery should be selected on the lee side of gently sloping
hills in a sunny location with good drainage and with water resources
nearby for ease of irrigation. The soil should be loose and fertile sandy
loam or loam, with acid, slightly acid or neutral reactions. The groundwater
level usually should be less than one meter. Rocky, sandy, clayey or
heavy saline-alkali soils should not be selected as nursery land.
Before raising seedlings, the land requires overall soil preparation
i.e. loosening soil to increase the ability of preserving fertility and humidity,
weeding, and sterilizing for eliminating soil pest. Overall soil preparation
can create favorable conditions for bamboo seedling growth and
development. The soil in the nursery should be deep ploughed and
carefully prepared before freezing in winter or after defrosting in spring.
The best time for ploughing is the beginning of winter. Remove roots and
rocks and rake the soil level.
41
After deep ploughing, the nursery soil should be made into a
seedbed. This is usually 1 metre wide and 15-20 cm high and its length
can be determined according to the terrain. It is necessary to apply
sufficient manure or plant ash as a base fertilizer for improving bamboo
seedling growth and root development.
6.0.2 Planting season
Taiwan Giant Bamboo can be planted throughout the year. But the
best time for planting is in the dormant season i.e. from January to March
or in the rainy season in the summer. Planting in high temperatures and
drought seasons requires intensive management techniques and requires
more labour.
6.0.3 Comparative experiment research for afforestation on D. latiflorus
Comparative tests of different afforestation methods for D. latiflorus
show that survival after stem and twig cutting is 100 percent. Mother
bamboo afforestation reaches 43.3 percent. The sprouting rate is different
too after 3 years of afforestation like 2.13 for sliced stem sprouts and
1.97% for mother bamboo sprouts. One sprouts of mother bamboo
afforesting costs are as high as 7 yuan, and other two kinds of sprouts
cost 0.5 yuan. Their cultivation techniques and management methods are
simple too 20-30 ft. (6-9 m)
42
6.0.4 Control text on afforestation with different seedlings of Dendrocalamus latiflorus
A test for three years bin succession showed that the survival rate
of afforestation was 100% by burying culm and using shoot cutting of
Dendrocalamus latiflorus, and it is 2.3 times higher than that of transfer of
mother bamboo. The number of germinating shoots and their average
diameter of various afforestation methods were different, but none of them
reached high level. The growing speed of the bamboos cultivated with
seedlings of buried culm and shoot cuttings was not slower than that of
transfer method of mother bamboo. However, the cost of afforestation per
mu is reduced from 280 yuan to 20 yuan.
6.1 Field Propagation and Nursery Techniques
There are two ways of propagating bamboos: sexual and asexual
propagation. Bamboos seldom flower and even when they do only a few mature
seeds are produced. Hence raising plants from seed is only possible
occasionally. Thus the most common and practical method of raising plantlets is
by asexual propagation.
This involves the use of offsets, Culm (or branch) cuttings, stumps with
rhizomes, and rhizomes themselves for direct afforestation or for plantlet
preparation in a nursery and then planting out. Culm or branch cuttings are the
most widely used method for sympodial bamboo (Dendrocalamus latiflorus).
Raising seedlings of sympodial bamboo (Dendrocalamus latiflorus) by
seeds generally involves sowing individual seeds in shallow holes dibbling in
trenches with 5-8 seeds per hole. Cover the seeds with a layer of 3-5 cm soil,
place a layer of straw on top and water them in.
43
When the seedlings are about 10 cm high they can be transplanted in
groups of two or three. One to two year old seedlings can be used for
establishing the shoots plantation. There are several methods of vegetative
propagation. Culms can be buried whole. They then develop new plantlets at
each node. Alternately one and two-noded culm cuttings can be used.
Other methods include layering and offset planting. Select healthy and
strong propagules 1-2 years old with plump buds and no diseases or pests for
propagation. Propagation should be done generally from February to April (in
China) before culms start assimilating nutrients and before the their buds have
germinated.
6.1.1 Study on rapid propagation in vitro of Dendrocalamus latiflorus
The tests with seeds of Den. latiflorus through artifical pollination
and with stems of young seedlings, using MS as essential culture medium
composed of growth – regulars in different concentration, pH 6.5 at
lightintensity about 1600 Lx, for 9 – 10 hours of daily supplementary
illumination under a temperature 22 – 30C showed that bud proliferation
increased by 2,3 times a month, rootability of tube seedlings reached
93.9%, average survival rate of buds after transplantation was over 80%,
and rootibility of seedlings out of tube reaced over 66.0%. flowering of 5
months tube seedlings was observed and its causes were discussed.
6.2 Bamboo Processing
6.2.1 Current low-level utilization
44
The agriculture sector is still the biggest user of bamboo (for fish
pens, banana props, poultry houses, and other low-value uses). Other
users include the furniture and handicraft sectors, but relatively few
businesses in these sectors choose to use bamboo for their craft because
of
Uncertainty of supply
The high cost of collection and transport of culms because of the
scattered locations of the bamboo sources.
6.2.2 Issues in promoting high-value utilization
Issues being faced by the industry in moving toward high-value
utilization of bamboo include substitution, cost, and image positioning,
distribution, and technology level. Since the bamboo industry is essentially
a substituting industry, the following strategic directions should be pursued
(FOSTER Asia 1997):
Industry positioning—in providing substitute products, the bamboo-
processing industry must
- target a critical mass of users and aim to supply popular
products that all households can use for construction, décor and
other applications
- essentially be privately led with government initiatives that will
enable it to take off and become sustainable
- approximate the extent and scope of distribution prevalent in the
wood industry and rationalize the channels of distribution
45
- Re-engineer its technology to an extent that will enable
individual enterprises to compete with wood-based products
domestically and internationally.
industry structure—there is a need to support small-to-medium-
scale enterprises producing construction-related products such as
laminated bamboo, composite and structural materials so that
these enterprises can eventually become globally competitive.
market positioning—among the emerging high value applications of
bamboo, natural fibre composites and laminated bamboo are the
most promising; it would be practical for the sector to
Target construction-related requirements.
Technology—proposed technologies for acquisition or development
include
- laminated bamboo for walls and structures
- bamboo composites such as panel boards, wafer boards
- structural bamboo such as hollow boards
- Flooring and roofing tiles.
6.3 Bamboo Production
6.3.1 Bamboo inventory
A systematic and accurate record of natural and plantation stands of
commercial bamboos at regional and national levels is lacking.
46
6.3.2 Taxonomy
Bamboo taxonomy is still a major problem in the Philippines. Local
names of many species vary with location, which often creates confusion
about the true identity of a given species. For example, the common name
‘botong’ refers to Gigantochloa levis in Iloilo province, but
Dendrocalamus latiflorus in the regions of Davao and Northern
Mindanao. In other provinces, G. levis is known as ‘bolo’ in Laguna and
‘buho’ in Batangas.
In addition, two commercial bamboo species have yet to be studied
for their scientific name at the species level. The first, ‘bayog’, was
formerly identified as Dendrocalamus merrillianus, but an international
bamboo taxonomist changed the genus Dendrocalamus to Bambusa. Its
species name has yet to be verified. In the second case, while ‘laak’ has
been tentatively named Bambusa philippinensis, the species name is still
being verified.
6.3.3 Growth and yield
Growth and yield data for some species as a function of
geographical location and site quality have yet to be generated. Species
included in this group are Dendrocalamus asper (giant bamboo), G. levis
(bolo), D. latiflorus (machiku) and B. oldhamii (Oldham bamboo).
6.3.4 Clump management
Stands of climbing bamboos are dwindling. These bamboos
constitute about 78% of the natural stands that are being utilized for
47
handicraft and other purposes. Propagation and management of
regeneration for clump yield sustainability have yet to be studied.
One of the major causes of depletion of commercial bamboo stands
is the rampant, unregulated harvesting of edible shoots. Clump
management regimes to allow for both culms and shoot harvest have to
be developed for selected species that produce edible shoots.
6.4 Bamboo-Processing Enterprises
There are four levels of bamboo-processing enterprise, namely: backyard;
small scale; medium scale; and large scale. Relative to their potential, these
enterprises were characterized and evaluated by FOSTER Asia (1997) as
follows:
Backyard. This level of the enterprise operates in the house with
household members as workers. It has been estimated that the average
annual sales of backyard enterprises do not exceed PHP500, 000
(equivalent to around US$11,300) per business. In terms of number, the
majority of the bamboo processing undertakings and ventures in the
Philippines belong to this category.
Small scale. The bamboo-processing ventures belonging to this category
operate in the vicinity of houses and are located mainly in urban areas.
Small-scale enterprises usually have small shops, and use both hand
tools and some equipment in production operations. The assets of these
businesses do not exceed PHP1 million, with estimated annual sales of
PHP1–2 million.
48
Medium scale. This level of bamboo processing operates with a standard
plant, usually located in an urban area. Its assets are close to PHP5
million. Usually, enterprises belonging to this category have the capability
and expertise to produce good-quality products, design their own products
and sustain volume production. They can export products directly to other
countries. There are very few business ventures in this category and most
of them are located in Metro Manila.
Large scale. This category of bamboo-processing enterprise operates with
automated plant equipment. It employs skilled workers and produces
products of export quality. Another study (Ramirez 1999) showed that the
majority of bamboo enterprises in the Philippines had very low
capitalization. Ramirez inferred that such enterprises could not afford
improved technologies and hence maximum efficiency in bamboo
processing was not being attained.
6.5 Supply And Demand
In 1997, the annual demand for bamboo was estimated at about 50 million
culms (poles) per year. The existing bamboo stands of about 46,000 ha yield
only about 36 million culms per year—hence there was a supply deficit of 14
million culms. The annual demand has been projected to increase to between
113 million and 132 million culms per year by 2015 (OIDCI 1997).
With this demand projection, and current supply rates (c. 800 culms/ha),
the supply deficit would require additional bamboo plantations of 150,000–
166,000 ha by 2015. This is in the absence of any productivity gains to be made
following research to increase yields.
49
The percentage distribution of the raw material production is distributed to
various industries/sectors as follows: furniture and handicraft (40%); fish pens,
housing and construction (25%); vegetables and fruit industries (10%); and other
uses (25%).
50
REFERENCES
- Collins R. and Keiler S. 2005. The Australian bamboo shoot industry: a supply
chain approach. RIRDC Report 05/022. Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation: Canberra, 92 pp.
- Kleinhenz V. and Midmore D.J. 2001. Aspects of bamboo agronomy. Advances
in Agronomy 74, 99–153.
- Kleinhenz V. and Midmore, D.J. 2002. Improved management practices for
culinary bamboo shoots: local and export markets. RIRDC Report 02/035. Rural
Industries Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, 64 pp.
- Midmore D.J. (ed.) 1998. Bamboo for shoots and timber. RIRDC Report 98/32.
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, 66 pp.
- Midmore D.J. and Kleinhenz V. 2000. Physiological studies on edible bamboo.
Asian Foods Newsletter 6, 6–8.
- Midmore D.J., Walsh K.B., Kleinhenz V., Milne J.R., Leonardi J. and
Blackburn K. 1998. Culinary bamboo shoots in Australia: preliminary research
results. RIRDC Report 98/45. Rural Industries Research and Development
Corporation: Canberra, 44 pp.
- Sharma A. 2005. Agroforestry systems for municipal effluent disposal. PhD
thesis, Central Queensland University, Australia.
- Virtucio F.D. and Roxas C.A. 2003. Bamboo production in the Philippines.
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment
and Natural Resources: College, Laguna, 202 pp.
51
- Bello E.D. and Espiloy Z.B. 1995. New products and applications of bamboo.
Paper presented at the ‘National Symposium on the Sustainability of the Bamboo
Industry, College, Laguna, 20–21 December 1995’. Ecosystems Research and
Development Bureau: College, Laguna.
- FOSTER Asia (Foundation for Sustainable Techno - Environmental
Reforms in Asia) 1997. Bamboo processing industry. Consultancy report
conducted for the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI)
and the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and National Resources
Research and Development (PCARRD) of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST).
- Ganapathy P.M., Zhu H.M., Zoolagud S.S., Turcke D. and Espiloy Z.B. 1996.
Bamboo panel boards: a state of the art report. International Network for Bamboo
and Rattan (INBAR): Beijing, 145 pp.
- Maoyi F. 1998. Criteria for selection of superior bamboo varieties, propagation
and plantation establishment. In ‘Bamboo—conservation, diversity,
ecogeography, germplasm, resource utilization and taxonomy: proceedings of a
training course cum workshop, Kunming and Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China,
10–17 May 1998’, ed. by A.N. Rao and V.R. Rao. International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-
APO): Serdang, Malaysia. At:<http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/
Web_version/572/>. Accessed 5 June 2008.
- OIDCI (Orient Integrated Development Consultants, Inc.) 1997. Master plan
for the development of bamboo as a renewable and sustainable resource.
Prepared for the Cottage Industry Technology Center. Department of Trade and
Industry: Metro Manila.
- Ramirez. A.R. 1999. A critical analysis of the governance system for bamboo
forests in the Philippines. PhD thesis, University of the Philippines Los Baños
(UPLB): College, Laguna.
52
- Rojo J. 1999. Bamboo resources of the Philippines. Pp. 65–70 in ‘Ang kawayan.
Proceedings of the First National Conference on Bamboo, Iloilo City, 1–3 August
1996, ed. by E. Navera, S.M. Pablico and S.C. Malab. Cottage Industry
Technology Center: Marikina, Metro Manila.
- Virtucio F.D. and Roxas C.A. 2003. Bamboo production in the Philippines.
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment
and Natural Resources: College, Laguna, 202 pp.
53
APPENDIX I
The structure of wax on the epidermis was granule
The structure of stomata and guard cells.
54
The tissue arrangement and shape in the outer part of culm wall.
The tissue arrangement and shape in the middle part of culm wall.
55
The tissue arrangement and shape of pith periphery in the inner part of culm wall.
56
Three-dimensional structure of Taiwan giant bamboo.
Oblique perforation plate in the metaxylem vessel of Taiwan giant bamboo.
57
Simple perforation in the metaxylem vessel of Taiwan giant bamboo.
58
Part of perforation between scalariform and reticulate type in the metaxylem vessel of
Taiwan giant bamboo.
The ring thickening formed in the protoxylem of Taiwan giant bamboo.
59
The sieve cells and companion cells of the vascular bundle near the pit periphery.
Thicked wall fiber in the inner of fiber sheat of Taiwan giant bamboo.
60
Thin wall fiber in the fiber strand of vascular bundle of Taiwan giant bamboo.
The septate fiber of Taiwan giant bamboo.
61
The structure of epidermis and cortical parenchyma of Taiwan giant bamboo.
The structure of radial section in the outer part of culm wall of Taiwan giant bamboo.
62
The enlargement of several layers in the radial section of epidermal tissue showed
structure of stomal complex of Taiwan giant bamboo.
63
The structure of cortical cells showed the new cell wall formation after cell division of
Taiwan giant bamboo.
The structure of culm parenchyma cells in longitudinal section of Taiwan giant bamboo.
64
The structure of culm parenchyma cells in cross section of Taiwan giant bamboo.
The structure of parenchyma of pith periphery in cross section of Taiwan giant bamboo.
65
The structure of parenchyma of pith periphery in longitudinal section of Taiwan giant
bamboo.
The structure of parenchyma of pith periphery of tangential section of Taiwan giant
bamboo.
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The structure of thin membrane over the surface of pith cavity of Taiwan giant bamboo.
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APPENDIX II
Recommended Afforestation Models for Bamboo Shoot Plantations
Afforestation Model for Moso (Phyllostachys pubescens) and Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoot plantations
Economic Analyses of the Recommended Afforestation Models of Newly Established Bamboo Shoot Plantations
Economic Analyses of the Afforestation Models (1 USD = 8.3 CNY)
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APPENDIX III
NEW STRAITS TIMES, 2 FEBRUARY 2003
Bring on the bambooBamboo is a natural forest resource whose commercial potential in Malaysia has yet to be fully realized. Its used is still associated with traditional rural society. But there’s more to it than just raw material for fish traps or lemang container.
BAMBOO PARQUET: Dr. Azmy Mohamed with samples of bamboo floor parquet.
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DWARFED: Bamboo clusters such as this species from Myanmar can reach height of 15 meters or more