Back and forward: neolithic standing stones and iron age « stelae» in french Brittany

THE LIVES OF PREHISTORICMONUMENTS IN IRON AGE, ROMAN,

AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/6/2015, SPi


The Lives of PrehistoricMonuments in IronAge, Roman, andMedieval Europe

Edited by

MARTA DÍAZ-GUARDAMINO,LEONARDO GARCÍA SANJUÁN, AND

DAVID WHEATLEY

1


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Preface

This book was conceived during our recent research collaboration,centred on a variety of prehistoric monuments in Iberia. Theseinclude funerary megalithic monuments, standing stones, stelae,and statue-menhirs found on sites that frequently show persistentpatterns of use and reuse well into ‘historic’ times. The long-termbiographies accrued by some of these places in Iberia are redolent ofthe complex life-histories known for other sites of north-west Europe,where there is a well-known tradition of research on the culturalbiographies of monuments, places, and landscapes. During the lastfour years our research in Iberia has sparked many conversations andinteresting discussions about this topic, outlining two aspects that,in our view, deserved further examination. On the one hand, wewere particularly interested in the specific roles that monumentsthemselves, and the large stones they were made of, had played inthe crafting of these long-term and complex place-biographies.Ultimately, we were interested in the active roles of prehistoricmonuments in social life long after their initial construction ormanufacture. On the other hand, comparable patterns of recurrentuse are frequently found in different regions of Europe, and we feltthat not enough attention had been devoted to this fact hitherto. Theoccurrence of this phenomenon in areas other than north-westEurope had not been as widely disseminated in the English language,and this fact had prevented their analysis within a comparativeframework.Therefore, we decided to promote the examination of these ques-

tions through a book project. We invited a series of researchers—nowthe contributors to this volume—to present case-studies of differentEuropean regions, exemplifying the active roles played by prehistoricmonuments in social life during the Iron Age, the Roman, andthe Medieval periods. In order to enhance the overall coherence ofthe resulting edited volume, we organized a meeting for the authors topresent and discuss their contributions in advance. This meetingtook place in a session held at the 19th Annual Meeting of theEuropean Association of Archaeologists (September 2013, Plzen,


Czech Republic), and helped to ensure the consistency and homo-geneity of the book’s contents. We are deeply indebted to ProfessorRichard Bradley for having accepted the task of writing the conclud-ing chapter of the book, in which he discusses ideas underlying thedifferent chapters of the book, and presents an inspiring comparisonbetween the development of monumental architecture and that oforal literature.We would like to thank the contributors to this volume for their

commitment and enthusiastic engagement. Through their hard workthey have enriched the overall experience and outcome of this col-lective endeavour. We are particularly thankful to the anonymousreferees, whose helpful commentaries and insights have contributedto greatly enhance the overall quality of the book. Finally, manythanks to Hilary O’Shea, Alexander Johnson, and Annie Rose, fromOUP, for their helpful advice, support, and guidance during theeditorial process.

vi Preface


Contents

List of Figures ixList of Tables xvList of Contributors xvii

PART I: INTRODUCTION

1. The Lives of Prehistoric Monuments in Iron Age, Roman,and Medieval Europe: An Introduction 3Marta Díaz-Guardamino, Leonardo García Sanjuán, andDavid Wheatley

2. Before the Standing Stones: From Land Forms to ReligiousAttitudes and Monumentality 19Joyce E. Salisbury

PART II: CASE-STUDIES

3. Kings’ Jelling: Monuments with Outstanding Biographiesin the Heart of Denmark 35Steen Hvass

4. Icons of Antiquity: Remaking Megalithic Monumentsin Ireland 55Gabriel Cooney

5. Beowulf and Archaeology: Megaliths Imagined andEncountered in Early Medieval Europe 77Howard Williams

6. Myth, Memento, and Memory: Avebury (Wiltshire, England) 99David Wheatley

7. Les Pierres de Mémoire: The Life History of TwoStatue-Menhirs from Guernsey, Channel Islands 119Heather Sebire


8. Back and Forward: Neolithic Standing Stones andIron Age Stelae in French Brittany 141Luc Laporte, Marie-Yvane Daire, Gwenolé Kerdivel,and Elías López-Romero

9. Enduring Past: Megalithic Tombs of Brittany and theRoman Occupation in Western France 163Mara Vejby

10. The Outstanding Biographies of Prehistoric Monumentsin Iron Age, Roman, and Medieval Spain 183Leonardo García Sanjuán and Marta Díaz-Guardamino

11. Megaliths and Holy Places in the Genesis of the Kingdomof Asturias (North of Spain, ad 718–910) 205Miguel Ángel de Blas Cortina

12. Life and Death of Copper Age Monoliths at Ossimo Anvòia(Val Camonica, Italian Central Alps), 3000 bc–ad 1950 225Francesco G. Fedele

13. Biography of a Hill: Novi Pazar in South-Western Serbia 249Staša Babić

14. What Happens When Tombs Die? The HistoricalAppropriation of the Cretan Bronze Age Cemeteries 265Borja Legarra Herrero

15. Roman Dolmens? The Megalithic Necropolises of EasternMaghreb Revisited 287Joan Sanmartí, Nabil Kallala, Rafel Jornet, M. CarmeBelarte, Joan Canela, Sarhane Chérif, Jordi Campillo,David Montanero, Xavier Bermúdez, Thaïs Fadrique,Víctor Revilla, Joan Ramon, and Moncef Ben Moussa

PART III: RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS

16. The Plot Against the Past: Reuse and Modification ofAncient Mortuary Monuments as PersuasiveEfforts of Appropriation 307Estella Weiss-Krejci

17. Piecing Together a Past 325Richard Bradley

Index 343

viii Contents


Index

abandonment 13, 81, 195, 232–5, 267,271–2, 297–8, 327, 332, 338

Achilles 253Adam’s Grave 105Aeneas 9, 171Africa 28, 297, 302Africa, North 9, 23, 287Africa, Nova 300afterlife 13–14, 57, 114, 280, 282, 320agencyart 90material 268, 280, 282, 336natural 104

Aggersborg 43–4, 47Aghnaglack 56Agia Photia 266, 272Agia Triada 266, 271, 277, 281Agios Myron 266–7Al Andalus 197Alcocer 195Alderney 120, 130Alfonso III (King) 211, 213–14Alfonso VI (King) 216Algeria 288–9Alluquius (buried person) 193Almohad period 189Alps 11, 23, 225–43, 333, 336altar 174–5, 179–80, 270, 332see also temple, sanctuary, shrine

Althiburos 288–303America 28amnesia 99Anaunia 238ancestors 171, 177, 218, 282, 302, 332appropriation 308–19cult 278, 297, 318fictive 313home for the 13, 57imagined 300mythical 211see also descent, dynasty, genealogy,lineage, noble house

ancestralauthority 216–17images 241, 336

monuments 4, 198, 218past 68, 70places 11, 103power 4, 211

ancientartefact 252, 334connection 310cosmology 338human remains 83imagery 236–7, 241, 335–6monument 22, 56, 70, 78–81, 94,104, 133, 236, 240, 307–18, 330,338–40

myth 219narratives 328past 71, 333place 66remains 104scoundrel 26site 197stone 241subterranean space 82tradition 192

Anglo-Saxonarchitecture 78, 84, 91–2, 328imagination 89kingdoms 77kings 332landscape 78–9, 81, 83, 88literature 78, 88perceptions 78, 105poetry 327–8subterranean space 93

Annales School 21Ansippung (attachment to

kin-group) 310Antequera 185, 196–7anthropomorphism 225antiquarian 55, 108, 136, 318Antiquity 183–5, 195, 197, 227–40,

271, 290Antoninus (Emperor) 170Antony 171Anvòia 11, 13, 225–41Aphrodite (goddess) 171


appropriation 14, 25, 78, 103, 143–4,217, 265, 282, 308–9

genealogical 309–10, 319political 9, 12, 217symbolic 10

Arab 3–4, 211Aratispi 185archaeologicalprocess 249, 258record 58–69, 85, 112–35, 257–68,299–302, 328

survey 227Archaeology 14, 77, 249Archaic 267, 276–7Archanes Phourni 266, 274architecture 43, 83, 290, 329–30, 341Anglo-Saxon 328church 92–3Cretan 276–7megalithic 94monumental 266, 271–2, 340oriental 192Roman 335stone 7, 83–94, 185traditional 337

Århus University 38aristocratic 81, 273Armorica 151, 153, 208Arzon 172–4Asia 28Asklepeios 280assemblage 208, 252, 256Astarte (goddess) 170Astérix the Gaul 142Astures Trasmontanos 206Asturias, Prince of 3–4Attic 272, 299aura 221autochthonous 291, 300Avebury 7, 13, 99–115, 241, 330, 333

Badajoz 190–3, 197Baie de Kerdréan 169Balkans 24, 27, 252, 255, 327Banqueting Hall 64Barbarossa 312see also Frederick I

barber surgeon 107barrow 37, 64–5, 70, 77–94, 124,

206, 217see also earthwork, mound

Bay, Quiberon 169–78

Bay of Biscay 205Bay of Saint Malo 120bazinas 288Beaker 56–69, 103, 232, 331Beckhampton 102–8Belas Knap 82beliefs

enduring 21, 23‘pagan’ 11, 217, 333religious 11, 20–2, 330

beorg 83Beotia 9Beowulf 6, 77–94, 327–9, 335Bergous 168–9, 176, 179Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste 10, 314–15biographical approach 4, 12biography

monument 80–1, 87, 94, 141, 158,173, 175, 188, 319

place 249–62see also life-histories

Bjorn (King) 335Bluetooth, Harald 10, 35–51Boann 60body

absence 85, 87, 255, 261dead 313, 318dragon 81holy 197, 214, 216human 135, 335tattooing 99–100

boga 83Borno, Plateau 226–40Bou Nouara 289boulder 65, 122, 126Bourbon (dynasty) 3

see also dynasty, noble housebourgeois 314Boyne Valley 55–70Braga, Martin of 28Brandopferplätze 237–8

see also fire, votiveBraudel, Fernand 20–1breaking, stone 109, 234–41Brega (dynasty) 60Bremen, Adam of 47Breno Spinera 240Brière marshland 147Bronze Age 7, 37, 56–66, 191, 257–8,

265–81, 328–40Bronze Age, Early 55–66, 103, 156, 267,

270–81, 339

344 Index


Bronze Age, Late 65, 103, 189–97,266–81, 289

Bronze Age, Middle 266–77Brú na Bóinne 6, 59–62buildingactivity 46, 77, 130, 158, 252material 193, 236, 243

Bulgarians 250burialactivity 56–70, 257–8ground 189, 270mounds 51, 87–8, 252, 255–6stone 105–9

Byzantine 272, 298

C-transforms 260–1Cabeza del Gentil (Head of the

Heathen) 195Cáceres 186, 192–4cache 80–94, 251Cádiz 185–6, 189–90cairn 62, 125, 168, 173see also stone

Camunian 225–6Cancho Roano 184, 192–3Canton Wallis 232Canute (King) 35capitolium 300Capo di Ponte 240capstone 123–4, 134, 188, 210see also stone

Carhon 165, 168–9Carl XIV Johan (King) 10,

314–16, 319Carl XV (King) 318Carnac 134, 142, 144, 154, 172Carnicería de los Moros 185Carrowmore 55Carthaginians 171Casabermeja 195Castel Meur 164Castile 216Catholic 187see also Church

cave 22–3, 83–8, 196, 218–19, 270Celsus 25Celtiatus (buried person) 193Celtic 28, 69, 71, 128, 131, 163, 193cemetery 64–70, 142, 188–9, 216–20,

271–7, 338see also necropolis

Cemmo 226–40

ceremonialpractices 11, 77, 241site 225–40

Chalcolithic 56, 66, 69, 122, 195see also Copper Age

Champ-du-Ruisseau (dolmen) 168Chania 270Château Bû 145chest 216, 253–61Childe, Gordon 325chouchet 288Christ 44

tomb 85–7Christian

appropriation 21–30chapel 122, 130, 142, 192, 196,213–14

cross 196, 213–19, 334–9kingdom 3, 77representations 91times 60

Christianity 60, 240, 339state religion 46–7, 51

Christianization 11–12, 60, 69, 134, 143,187–98, 219, 240

Christiansborg 35Chronicle of Abelda 211Chrysolakos 271Church 25, 28–9, 109, 187, 317church

(building) 104, 206–20,250–61, 270

architecture 83–93parish 126–35

cist 63, 190see also tomb

Ciudad Real 192–4civilization 12, 51, 258Classical, period 267–81Cnodbai (King) 60Codex of Roda 213coffin 255

see also sarcophaguscollective

activities 142burial 57, 288, 299

confrontation 27, 239, 333, 339–40consecration 238–41conservatism 239Constantine II (Emperor) 169–70Constantius 239contested 14, 59, 309, 320

Index 345


contexthistorical 110, 332landscape 58socio-political 192, 217, 302

continuity 3, 8, 20–2, 46, 64, 71, 189,218–20, 307

see also durability, permanencyConventus, Asturum 206Conventus, Cluniense 206Copenhagen 35, 50Copper Age, monuments 183–9,

225–43, 333see also Chalcolithic

Coppergate 91Corao 210Córdoba 195, 197Coriosolitae 164Cornouailles 151Côtes d’Armor 142–3, 154Cotswold-Severn 82Counter-Reformation 241Cova Dominica (cave), see CovadongaCovadonga 3–4, 206–21Crec’h Quillé 123cremation 64–6, 77, 81, 190, 337–8see also fire, funerary pyre

Crowland 88crypt 84–8, 142see also tomb, vault

cultactivities 8, 71, 170, 270–81places 103, 219, 238, 269–80, 297

culture-historical 259Cunctos populous 239

Dagda 60Danevirke 47dangerous 88, 241Danu (goddess) 6, 60decolonization 287deity 24, 128–31, 177see also god, goddess

Demeter (goddess) 271, 277dendrochronology 39deposition 11, 56–69, 89, 104, 177–80,

255, 269, 277, 300D’Er Bé 168–70Derry 57descent 279, 310–15, 332see also ancestor, Ansippung,dynasty, genealogy, lineage,noble house

destruction 57, 107–9, 134, 143,237–43, 267

Diablintes 151Dionysus (god) 253displacement 143, 234divine 24–6, 30, 171, 213

see also god, goddessDjebel Mazela 289–99dolmen 142, 168–70, 185–9, 196,

206–18, 288–300see also megalith

Domitian (Emperor) 169–71dragon 78–94, 335draugr 88dromos 278druid 110Duke of Richmond 122Duma na nGiall 58durability 7, 13

see also continuity, endurance,permanency

dynasty 3, 60–2see also ancestor, Bourbon, Brega,descent, genealogy, lineage, noblehouse, Salian, Staufen

earthwork 82, 109–13, 335see also barrow, mound, tumulus

Easter 60Edict of Toleration (Constantine’s) 238Egypt 22Ekman, Pehr Niclas 317El Kef 288, 290El Ksour 11, 291–302El Médéïna 290–2

see also AlthiburosEl Puerto de Santa María 189–90Elijah 24elites 66–70, 77–8, 109–11, 143, 192,

217, 302Ellès 289Empire, Ottoman 250Empire, Roman 22, 68, 70, 166–77, 210,

300–2, 338enclosure 38–51, 65, 68–9,

101–2, 146endurance 13, 55

see also durability, permanencyengraving 4, 7, 187, 195–7, 206, 236–41

see also epigraphy, inscribed,inscription, rock art

Ephesus 28

346 Index


epigraphy 193–7, 213–19, 240see also inscription, Latin script,ostraca, rune-stone, south-westernscript, stela, writing

Episcopal 250episode 65, 192, 230–6Epona (goddess) 166erection 102–3, 129, 180, 234, 252,

291, 337ethnic, identities 301–3Eulalia, St 210–16Europe, Atlantic 57, 144–76, 217,

331, 336evoke 227, 308–9Évora 320

Falle, Philip (antiquarian) 136Favila (King) 3–4, 213–14feasting 77–9, 299see also food consumption

Felipe VI (King) 3–4fertility 9, 132, 218figurine 9, 170–9, 266–77see also goddess, statuette, Venus

Finistère 123–4, 142–65fire 60, 88–9, 107–9, 234, 237see also Brandopferplätze, cremation,funerary pyre, hearth

flaking 232, 234–5Flavia Solva 313food consumption 297see also feasting

forebears 216, 310see also ancestor

forhistorisk 318Forkbeard, Sven 48foundation 211, 250, 258, 296fragmentation, stone 230Frederik II (King) 36, 50Frederik IV (King) 36Frederik VI (King) 36Frederik VII (King) 36funeral 50, 79–94funerarycounter- 86–7monuments 291–303practices 64, 77, 149, 184–9, 220, 273,294–300

pyre 254, 257significance 151, 190, 197, 273stelae 209–21

Fyrkat 43–7

Gaia (goddess) 171Galician 195Gallo-Roman 144–73, 176Garci Méndez de Sotomayor

(nobleman) 195Gaudiosa (Queen) 214–18Gaul 9, 151, 172, 174, 179Gaulish 168–79Geblütsheiligkeit 310

see also descent, lineageGeijer, Erik Gustaf 316–18genealogy 312–18, 332

see also ancestor, Ansippung, descent,dynasty, lineage, noble house

genii 239Geometric, period 267–72geophysics 64, 113German occupation 50, 274Germanicus 169Germany 142, 155, 217, 311Germersheim 311Gesta Danorum 50

see also Grammaticus, Saxogod, God 19–30, 85, 219goddess 24, 60, 127–8, 166–79, 328

see also figurinegold 40, 70, 86–7, 214, 252–3, 266Gorm (King) 35–51Gortyna 266, 277Gospel, of Matthew 24Gosselin, Joshua (antiquarian) 128Grammaticus, Saxo 50

see also Gesta Danorumgrave 40–7, 65, 79–86, 105, 122–3, 168,

175, 256–8, 294–7, 313, 332, 335grave goods 39, 47, 64, 66, 184–5, 255Graz 313Gregory, Pope 26, 28Grendel 79–86Grimesditch 89Güeña (river) 206, 216Guidel 123–4Guthlac, St 87–8

habitation 80–91, 270continuous 281

Habsburg (House of) 309–13see also dynasty, noble house

Hadrian (Emperor) 300Hallstatt plateau 289–99

see also radiocarbonhaouanet 288

Index 347


healing 85, 128, 214heaven 21–7Hector of Troy 312Hedeby 47Hellenicculture 253period 268, 279

Hellenistic 267, 272, 288Hénansal 142Heorot 79, 86–7heretic 239Herm 120hermitage 26, 88hero, heroic 77–9, 81, 88–9, 94, 281,

310, 332Heylyn, Peter (antiquarian) 136hierarchization 281Hildebrand, Bror Emil

(antiquarian) 318Hill of Slane 59–60hilltop 252–8History 12of Denmark 50of Guernsey 128of Jersey 136

hlaw 83hoard 86–93Hofkirche 313Höglander, Nils Gustaf 317Hougue Bie 122, 142Hr Mided 289, 299Hrothgar (King) 79–80, 86–7Hugo, Victor 120human-evoking 227see also statue-menhir

human remains 57, 83, 103, 122, 184,187, 252, 281, 294, 296, 307,319, 337

see also body, skeletal remains, skullhydria 253–4Hypogée des Dunes 91hypogées 81, 84, 123see also tomb

Iceland 27–8iconoclasm 237Idaean (cave) 270identitycollective 219, 265discrepant 302local 338–40national 319

ideologicallegitimacy 217, 319significance 6, 198, 230, 237, 278–9

ideologyCopper Age 225imperial 279nationalist 3religious 110

idol 131, 195, 210, 237, 243idolatry 25, 28, 131, 238, 240Ile Gaignog 165Ille-et-Vilaine 142, 145Illyrian-Greek 252image 44–5, 253

see also imageryimagery 89, 227–43

see also motif, statue-menhir, stela,rock art

imperial, see Empireinhumation 63–4, 66, 296

see also burial, funerary, humanremains

Innsbruck 311, 313inscribed 93, 100, 193, 197, 214

see also inscriptioninscription 41–6, 192, 214, 270, 314, 332

see also epigraphy, Latin script,ostraca, rune-stone, south-westernscript, stela, writing

interpretatio 238Iron Age 8, 64–71, 103, 141–58, 164–79,

185–97, 225–40, 252–61, 268, 281,314, 328, 331, 333–4, 338, 340

Jacob 134Jelling 10, 12, 35–52, 332–3, 335

see also North Mound, South MoundJersey 120–36, 142Jesus 24

see also ChristJethou 120jewellery 239, 252–3, 255John (King) 120Jublains 151Juktas 266, 269Julian calendar 314Julius Caesar (Gaius) 9, 132, 171–2, 177

Kamilari 266–81Keiller, Alexander

(archaeologist) 102–15Kerhan 143

348 Index


Kermené (statue-menhir) 123–4Kervazic 164kingdomof Asturias 3, 205–21Beowulf ’s 79–80of Denmark 47, 51Geatish 81, 328of Spain 3, 214Visigothic (of Toledo) 3, 211, 216

kingdomsAnglo-Saxon 77Numidian 301

kings, Anglo-Saxon 332Kings, Irish High 59, 331kingsof Knowth 60, 62legendary 310of Tara 60, 62

Kings’ Highway 131kingship 59–60, 62, 328sacred 328

kinship 171, 309–10see also ancestor, descent, dynasty,genealogy, lineage, noble house

Knossos 266–81see also Monastiriako Kephali, NorthCemetery

knowledgelocal 177, 179, 265–6lost 341reproduction 7resilient 14, 329

Knowth 8, 10, 13, 55–71Koldinghus Castle 36Kore 277Korybantes 270Koumasa 266–80Kraemer, Robert von 315–16Kronos (god) 171

La Barca (tholos) 197La Bienvenida (stela), see Sisapo 184, 193La Cour du Lihou 131La Fontaine de Bellouse (spring) 128La Hougue Bie 122La Vilaine (river) 168La Ville Bélanger (passage grave) 142Landes de Lanvaux 147landscape 6, 55, 94, 119, 175, 267,

269–70, 279, 328, 335, 339ancient 70Anglo-Saxon 78–9, 88

anomaly 281approach 58changing 337cultural 8, 180foci 60funerary 81poetic 81polis-oriented 281referencing 134reinterpretation 27, 178sacred 27, 135setting 64, 80, 149, 183, 280

Lanester 168–9, 179Largantea 57larnax 273–4Lasithi 270Last Survivor 80, 86Latin script 192–3Latona 169Latronus (buried person) 193Le Câtel (statue-menhir) 11, 126–30Le Déhus 122–4, 134Le Gardien du Tombeau 125Le Grand Mont à Saint Gildas de

Rhuys 165, 172Le Petit Mont 168–80, 332Le Tombeau des Maîtres 168, 179Le Trévoux Laniscat 123Lebena 272–80legitimation 71

see also symbolic capitalLeibnitz 313–14Leon 151Les Fouaillages 125, 134Leuhusen, Baron Gustaf

Wilhelm 316–18Libyan 301Life of Saint Guthlac 87–8life-histories 13, 57, 119

see also biographyLihou 120–1, 131Lincolnshire 88lineage 35, 62–6, 171, 217

see also ancestor, descent,genealogy

literacy 12see also oral literature

liturgy 220see also worship

Livari 266, 272Lóegaire (King) 60Loire (river) 151, 163

Index 349


Loire-Atlantique 142, 149Longstones 102longue durée 21, 114, 320looters 294see also robbers

looting 68, 276, 282see also plundering, robbing

Lostmarc’h 165Lourdes 28Louth 56Lukis, Frederick Corbin

(antiquarian) 136Lund 318Lythe 91

Magnentia 219Magnus Brahe 315–16Maine-et-Loire 142Makthar 289Málaga 185–6, 195Mallia 266, 271mana 230mandrí (pen) 236Mané, er Hroëk 176Mané, Rétual 168–70, 176manipulationhuman remains 83material culture 180monument 7, 9, 165, 190, 235, 243

Margrethe II (Queen) 35, 51Markdanner, Caspar 36Marne 123Martin (Bishop of Tours) 238martyrdom 214, 216, 238Massi 240materiality 6, 14, 80–91, 279see also agency

Maximilian I (Emperor) 312–14, 319Maximus, Fabius 171Mayenne 151Mead of Poetry 318meaninginterpretation 22, 70persistent 134, 196–7shared 191symbolic 171, 177

Medieval 60–71, 77–95, 105, 122–3, 136,142, 168, 188–9, 192, 197, 206–18,240, 250–61, 310, 339

see also Middle AgesMediterranean 4–5, 13, 23, 25–6, 192,

330, 336

megalith 188–9, 206, 209, 213, 216–18see also dolmen

memento 99–115, 330memorial 87, 142, 251, 326memory 41, 44, 65, 81, 114–15, 219, 302,

308, 326, 331cultural 100, 308individual 308limits of 327places of 141social 77–8, 280–1

menhir 123–5, 134, 142–58, 230, 237,241, 319, 333, 335

see also monolith, obelisk, standingstone, stela

Merovingian 312–13Mesolithic 114, 153Messara 276metaphor 115, 309Meudon 143Mián (dolmen and chapel) 210–20Middle Ages 10, 27, 90, 94, 143, 183–97,

210–20, 319see also Medieval

Migourdie (dolmen) 165, 169, 176Minerva (goddess) 166, 170, 179Minoan 265, 268, 277missionary 60, 239mnemonic 7, 13–14, 81, 183, 308Modern period 241modification 307, 336Molbech, Christian 318monarchy

Asturian 209–19Danish 35Spanish 4

Monastiriako Kephali 272see also Knossos

Moni Odigitria (tholos) 266, 272monolith 190, 227–43

see also menhir, obelisk, standingstone, stela

Monte da Tera 158monumentality 6–14, 267–8Morales, A. de 220Morbihan 11, 123, 142–56, 163–80, 333mortuary

chapel 83–4drama 81monuments 91–2practices 66rite 64, 68

350 Index


Moses 24motif 195, 210, 232, 241see also imagery

mound 36–51, 58, 66–8, 70, 78–94,172–3, 188, 314–18, 335

see also burial mound, earthwork,tumulus

Mound of the Hostages 8, 62–71Mount 24mountain 8, 21, 23–30, 56, 205–6,

210–11, 227, 266, 269–70Moustoir 176Mozarabic 196Mudejar 195mysticism 20myth 109–10, 112, 122, 230mythical 105, 112, 211, 218–19, 281,

313, 318, 330mythology 28, 91, 114, 318

N-transforms 260Namnetes 164narrative 60, 86, 94, 111, 165, 250, 326narthex 252–4, 258, 261National Museumof Denmark 36–8, 50of Stockholm 10, 314

necropolis 11, 190, 218, 252, 256,291–302

see also cemeteryNeolithic, activity 64, 66, 69,

220, 270–1Neolithic, Early 21, 122Neolithic, Late 64, 66, 69, 122, 125Neolithic, Middle 122, 125, 154Neolithicmonuments 4, 8–9, 21, 55, 60, 66, 71,79–80, 82, 93–4, 123, 141–2, 158,166, 177, 183, 189, 196, 214, 216,319, 331–3, 335

period 4, 7, 56, 62, 103, 198, 209,291, 340

Newgrange 8–9, 12–13, 58–71niche 256, 261Nidha Plateau 270noble house 310see also Bourbon, dynasty,Geblütsheiligkeit, Habsburg,Trastámara

Nolan, Christopher 99Non Valley 238Nonnebakken 47

Nordic 44, 51, 329Normandy 120, 122, 131Norse

culture 318deities 332mythology 91, 318past 317, 319religion 327sagas 328

North Cemetery 271–4see also Knossos

North Mound 36–50see also Jelling

Norway 44, 47, 314Notre Dame de la Clarté 122Novi Pazar 249–62Numidian

elites 301–2states 288–9, 299

obelisk 22, 101see also menhir, monolith, standingstone

Obélix 142obliterate 236–7, 241O’Connell, Daniel 10Octavian 171Old English 79–88Old Ras 250old-wood, effect 188, 234

see also radiocarbonolpe 253oral literature 6, 327, 329–31, 340–1

see also memory, literacy, traditionOrcomenos 9Ordnance Survey of Ireland 55orientalization 12origins 107, 171, 301, 310orthostat 123, 187Orwell, George 9Osismes 164Ossimo Anvòia 11, 13, 225–43Ossimo Pat 226–7, 240ostraca 300

see also epigraphy, Punic languageOttoman 250–1, 258Ottpert 313Ouranos (god) 171Ourense 193Overton Hill 101Oviedo

cathedral 214

Index 351


Oviedo (cont.)court (royal) 211

ownership 301, 309see also property

‘pagan’beliefs 11, 217, 240, 333epic 335kings 6, 60monuments and sanctuaries 10, 12,38, 44, 46, 143, 218, 239, 241

practices 11, 198, 238, 241reinterpretation 237worship 25–6, 30, 195, 239, 243

‘paganism’ 27, 35, 44, 122, 136, 238–40,334, see ‘pagan’

pagi 239pagi civium Romanorum 301palace 35, 192, 271, 280palimpsest 100, 110, 114–15, 261palisade 36–51, 63Paris Basin 123past 9, 99creating links with 62, 65, 68, 70, 274,278, 281–2, 313

distant 330, 340enduring 163, 179evoking 308genealogical 68manipulation 14, 221, 278, 282mythical 105, 112, 211, 218,268, 330

in the past 71, 81, 163, 178, 198,261, 268, 278–9, 308, 317,325–41

power of 218, 337–38, 340‘present’ 259–60recollecting 308remembering 308revitalizing 66traces of 71, 100, 114, 258, 334–5

Patrick, St 60Pavia 320Pays de la Loire 168peak sanctuaries 269–70see also Mount, mountain

Pearce, Guy 99peasants 11, 36, 302Pelayo (Pelagius, King) 3–4, 207–19permanency 13–14, 57see also continuity, durability,endurance

Phoenician, colonization 291Picos de Europa 205Pikkety, J.B. 143pilgrimage 85pillar 134, 232pithos 273–4place 7

ancestral 4, 11, 103, 135appropriation 12, 180, 310biography 6, 12cult 21, 269–71, 277of fame and infamy 78–80liminal 24, 80meeting 113, 314of memory 4, 141, 173names 78, 89, 123, 227, 332, 334natural 21, 25, 266sacred 3, 10, 26, 66, 70, 91, 187, 195,197, 205, 221, 230, 237

significance of 11, 70, 328–9, 341Plouaret 320Plouarzel 151Plougonvelin 151plundering 297, 300

see also looting, robbingpoetry 6, 77–94, 317–18, 327–41

see also oral literaturePointe du Petit Mont 172polis 280, 330political

legitimacy 4, 10, 217, 319, 332manipulation 9–10, 12, 48significance 211, 214

Pompeii premise 259power

ancestral 4, 211, 217malign (magica persuasio) 237mythological 60of the past 218, 338, 340political 90, 217, 219sacral 250supernatural 26symbolic 70

practicecult 8, 71emulation 339–40mortuary 66, 77, 209–10, 220, 300‘pagan’ 11, 198reinterpretation 192, 232ritual 11, 28, 104, 299social 4, 6–8, 77, 106–7, 109, 132, 144,184, 192, 197, 279, 328–9, 333

352 Index


pre-Christian 85, 90, 219–20, 261, 314pre-Roman 287–91, 297, 301, 331pre-Romanesque 251Prehistory 196, 227, 318preindustrial 308Presqu’île de Rhuys 172Prince of Asturias, see Felipe VIprincely grave 258prokrossos 91Proleek 56property 301, 309, 320see also ownership

Protaeidus (buried person) 193protohistoric 155, 158, 183, 294Psychro (cave) 266, 270Puertas de Vidiago 195Punic 288, 294, 300–1language 300see also ostraca

quarry 236qubba 197

radiocarbon (dating) 102, 185–8,206, 230–6, 289, 337

see also old-wood effectRáith na Rig 65Raška (Medieval State of the Serbs) 250re-erection 22, 102–3, 134, 232–7reactivation 217, 237reappraisal 241, 333rearrangement 307recall 64, 192, 308, 335recollecting 308Reconquest 195, 211, 214, 221recycling 143reinterpretation 8, 10, 13, 57, 70, 112,

177–8, 180, 189, 192, 232, 237, 318religion 19–29, 47, 214, 217, 327, 333,

339–40religiousattitudes 19–30beliefs 9institutions 330practices 11, 261significance 66, 107, 134, 216, 219, 270syncretism 239

remembering 308see also memory

remodelling 307Rennes 164, 178repackaging 234

resizing 236reuse

as evocation 308practices of 78, 80, 104, 176–7, 183,189, 191–2, 197–8, 237, 276–7, 279,308–9, 331, 339

Roman 173, 177revival 9, 301–3reworking 6, 71, 130, 230, 236, 336Rextvgenos 174Rhaetian culture 237Rhea (temple) 271Riduna, see Alderneyritual

activity 104, 122, 170, 177,228, 277

practices 28, 64, 103–4, 219, 237structure 192

robbers 276, 278robbing 240, 272, 278

see also looting, plunderingRocher (dolmen) 168, 170, 179rock art 7, 189, 195, 334

see also engraving, imagery, motifRoman, chapel 130, 135Roman Britain 66, 68Romanesque 196

see also pre-RomanesqueRomano-British 103–4Romanticism 318Rosenstein, Carl von 316Roskilde 47Rotense Chronicle 218Royal Swedish Academy

of Letters, History andAntiquities 317

of Sciences 317Rudolf I (King) 319Rudolph I (King) 310rune-stone 35–51, 332–3

Sabinus, Quintus 175Saint-Just 145Saint-Michel (tumulus and

chapel) 142, 154Saint Peter (church) 250–60Saint Peter’s square 22saints 26, 85, 197, 216, 310Salian (dynasty) 311San Bartolomé de Ucero (chapel) 196sanctuary 173, 192, 216, 218, 270, 280

see also altar, shrine, temple

Index 353


Santa Cruz (dolmen and chapel) 4, 10,206–20

Sark 120saxorum veneratio 240Scandinavia 37, 48, 77, 318, 335secular 142, 144, 278Sella (river) 205–19Sept Saints at Vieux-Marché (chapel) 142sepulchral 287, 300see also tomb

Shelby, Leonard 99ship-setting 38–51see also Jelling

shrine 27, 70, 173, 277, 280see also altar, sanctuary, temple

sigillata 173significancechanging 330–41cultural 57enduring 8, 70, 131, 136, 198, 209ideological 6political 211, 219pre-existing 179, 189, 192religious 66, 134, 270sacred 3, 10, 189–90, 197social 158traumatic 179

Silbury Hill 103, 111Singilia Barba 185Sion 232Sisapo 184, 193skeletal remains 294see also body, human remains, skull

skull 256, 261, 294see also body, human remains, skeletalremains

Slavic period 256Sligo 55smashing 236–7, 243socialarenas 278competition 274, 278, 281differentiation 66–7, 143, 278, 299history 14institution 310, 329–30interaction 12, 192landscapes 11life 6, 8, 14, 114, 183processes 12, 103, 319status 4, 64, 66, 87, 211, 255,281, 310

taboo 103, 105

Société Polymathique du Morbihan 172Society of Antiquaries of London 126Soria 196South Mound 37–48

see also Jelling‘south-western’ script 190–2Speyer 311–12spiritual

connection to 23significance 134, 177, 209, 279worlds 28–30

spring 29, 128see also water

stānbeorh 79standing stone 21, 146, 158, 333

see also menhir, monolith, obelisk,stela

state 51, 217, 250, 258, 260,301, 318

church 239statue 4, 127, 131, 179, 238, 313, 319,

335–6statue-menhir 11, 119–36, 189–97,

225–42statuette 166–74, 176–80

see also figurineStaufen (dynasty) 311stela 141, 158, 164, 189–90, 192–3, 195,

197, 210see also epigraphy, menhir, monolith,standing stone

Stivel (dolmen) 142Stockholm 10, 314–16stone

circle 69, 101, 103, 336–40durability 7masons 153materiality 6sarsen 101sculpture 89–91setting 62, 102, 104, 111see also architecture, barrow, burial,destruction, rune-stone, standingstone, vault

Stukeley, William (antiquarian)104–15

Styria 313Sublaines (dolmen) 142supernatural 6, 20–1, 26–8, 60, 114,

219, 328–9superstition 21Svea 318

354 Index


Svein 35Sweden 314–18Switzerland 232symbolic capital 4, 219see also legitimation, power, socialcompetition

syncretism 217, 239

Tara 8, 10, 58–70, 328–31Tejada Páez, Agustín de 187temple 26, 103, 110, 112, 168, 170, 178,

187, 213, 216, 239see also altar, sanctuary, shrine

Theodosius (Emperor) 239theology 23Third Council of Toledo 25tholos 9, 197, 271–2, 274–8see also tomb

Thomsen, Christian Jürgensen36, 318

Three-age system 318Thubursicu Numidarum 301Thyre (Queen) 35–51timeconcepts of 14, 259, 307–8interval 328–9, 340mark 13, 81scales 13, 100, 141

Toledo 3–4, 25, 211, 216tombchamber 87, 94, 122, 168, 173, 274,294, 296

mausoleum 86passage 55–71, 79, 122, 173, 175,331, 335

portal 56, 85rock-cut 272wedge 56–7see also cist, hypogées, tholos,tumulus, vault

tophet 300toponym 218Tornberg, Carl Johan 316–17Toulvern 168, 170, 176, 179Tourtel (chruchwarden) 131Toutonius (buried person) 192traditionmegalithic 56, 58, 122, 158oral 6, 41, 57–8, 70–1, 100, 156see also memory, oral literaturestelae 156, 189–90, 192

Trajan (Emperor) 170, 301–2

Trastámara 312see also dynasty, noble house

treasure 77–94, 252–8treasury, see treasureTrelleborg houses 38–49Trent 238Trentino 238–40

type brooch 235Tressé 176trochalos 266Troy 312Tuatha, Dé Danann 60Tumiac 165, 172tumulus 185–9, 257, 335

see also earthwork, moundTunisian High Tell 289–90Turdetanian 188Turkey 23, 28

Uppsala, Gamla (OldUppsala) 10, 314–19Uppsala, University 317–19

Vadiniense (people) 210–19Val Camonica 11, 225–43Valdecaballeros 197Vale 134Valera, Ruaidhrí de 55–6Valois 312Valtellina 225Valzèl de Fì 238, 240Vandal 297, 302–3Vannes 163–4vault 82, 86, 143, 274

see also crypt, tombVejle Museum 37–8veneration

long term 29mountain 26–28natural places 21, 25Neopagan 320

Veneti 163, 172–5, 179Venetian 278Venus (goddess) 9, 166, 168–71,

173, 176–9Anadyomene (Venus rising fromthe sea) 168–70, 173

see also figurine, statuettevessels 77, 86, 252–3, 255, 300Victorian 12, 79, 82, 94vicup 299Viera 184–5, 188Vigilius 238

Index 355


Viking 35, 37–8, 40, 43, 48, 50, 84, 88,318, 329

see also NorseVillamartín 185Virgin Mary 28, 218–19, 221visibility 7, 287, 303votive 9, 68, 104, 177–8, 300see also Brandopferplätze

Vulcan (god) 24

warrior 255waterbeast 93consecration 26, 29miraculous 27, 29, 218–19sacred 28, 218subterranean 93see also spring

Way, Johan 314–18West Kennet 82, 106, 112Western World 308White Horse, Uffington 89Wiener Neustadt 313Wiglaf 79–93wood, charred 232woodenbuildings 36–7, 40, 44, 50chest 253–5

Worm, Ole 36

worshipancestor 216, 297, 302Christian 21, 26, 29‘pagan’ 25, 195, 239places of 21pre-Christian 220prohibition 29Saturn 238transfer 28Venus 171Virgin Mary 218, 221water of 28

writing 6, 190, 327–8, 332, 335see also epigraphy, inscription, Latinscript, ostraca, rune-stone, south-western script

WWI (World War I) 142WWII (World War II) 274wyrmas 89wyrms 89

Yorkshire 90–1Ypres 142

Zalamea de la Serena 192Zamora 208Zealand 43, 47Zeus (god) 171, 270Zominthos 266

356 Index


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