1 PAPER-II CURRICULUM DESIGNING, ADAPTATION & EVALUATION (SES MR 02) B.Ed. Spl. Ed Bachelor of Special Education Self Learning Material Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University
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PAPER-II CURRICULUM DESIGNING, ADAPTATION & EVALUATION
(SES MR 02)
B.Ed. Spl. Ed
Bachelor of Special Education
Self Learning Material
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University
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Bachelor of Special Education
B.Ed. Spl. Ed.
A Collaborative Programme of
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University
&
Rehabilitation Council of India
MADHYA PRADESH BHOJ (OPEN) UNIVERSITY
RAJA BHOJ MARG (Kolar Road), Bhopal (M.P.) - 462 016
Ph. 0755-2492095, Fax 0755-2424640
Email:[email protected]
www.bhojvirtualuniversity.com
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© Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University. The views expressed in this SIM are that of the author(s) and not that of the MPBOU. Further information on the Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University Special Education courses may be obtained from the University’s office of the Department of Special Education at Raja Bhoj Marg (Kolar Raod) Bhopal - 462016. Tel: (0755) 2492095. Fax: (0755)-2424640.
email: [email protected] website : http://www.bhojvirtualuniversity.com
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CURRICULUM DESIGNING, ADAPTATION & EVALUATION (SES MR 02)
Block 1: Curriculum Designing
Unit 1: Meaning, Definition, Concept and Principles of Curriculum Unit 2: Types and Approaches of Curriculum Designing Unit 3: Curriculum Domains - Personal, Social, Academics, Recreational and Community
living Unit 4: Steps in developing curriculum, challenges of developing curriculum for inclusion Unit 5: Curriculum evaluation, Implementation in inclusion
Block 2: Curriculum at Pre-School and Primary School level
Unit 1: Significance of Early Childhood Education and School Readiness Unit 2: Early Childhood Education Curricular domains – Enhancement of domain in
Motor, Personal, Cognitive and Communication areas Unit 3: Curriculum Domains for Early Childhood Education and Sensory Mechanism Unit 4: Sensitization of family, involvement in pre-school and primary level Unit 5: Implication of pre- school and primary levels for Intervention, documentation,
record maintenance and report writing Block 3: Curriculum at Secondary, Pre-vocational and Vocational level
Unit 1: Curriculum domains at Secondary level Unit 2: Curriculum domains at Pre- vocational level Unit 3: Curriculum domains at Vocational level Unit 4: Rehabilitation of PwIDs under National Skill development Scheme (NSDS by
MSJ&E) Unit 5: Implications of placement for inclusion in Community, Documentation, Record
Maintenance and Reporting Block 4: Curriculum Adaptations
Unit 1: Need for Curricular Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification Unit 2: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Pre –academic Curriculum Unit 3: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Academics Curriculum Unit 4: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Co-Curriculum Unit 5: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for School Subjects
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Block5: Curriculum Evaluation Unit 1: Concept, Meaning, Definition of Curriculum Evaluation Unit 2: Types and Approaches of Evaluation Unit 3: Emerging trends in evaluation –CCE, Teacher Made Tests, Grading System Unit 4: Differential evaluation of PwID in inclusive setup Unit 5: Implications of evaluation for inclusion
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Block 1: Curriculum Designing
Unit 1: Meaning, Definition, Concept and Principles of Curriculum
Unit 2: Types and Approaches of Curriculum Designing
Unit 3: Curriculum Domains - Personal, Social, Academics, Recreational and Community
living
Unit 4: Steps in developing curriculum, challenges of developing curriculum for inclusion
Unit 5: Curriculum evaluation, Implementation in inclusion
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Unit 1: Meaning, Definition, Concept And Principles Of
Curriculum
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Causes
1.3 Identification Of Mental Retardation In India
1.4 Placement Options
1.5 Curriculum
1.6 Principles Of Special Education
1.7 What Are Special Educational Needs?
1.8 Curriculum Development For Students With Mental Disabilities
1.9 Flexibility Of Provision
1.10 Whole-School Approaches
1.11 Ncca Structures For Curriculum Development In Special Education
1.12 A Strategy For Curriculum Development
1.13 Summary
1.14 Check Your Progress
1.15 References
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1.1 Introduction
The concept of mental retardation is continually changing and these changes can be seen
as a reflection of a change in the perspective of individuals with mental retardation based both on
research and a clearer understanding of the issues involved in defining the concept. For example
the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), a professional organization founded
in 1876, recently drafted a new definition of mental retardation which not only maintains a
functional perspective on retardation but also focuses on the relations among capabilities,
environments, and functioning (Luckasson, Coultier, Polloway, Reiss, Schalock, Snell, Spitalnik,
& Stark, 1992). According to this definition, mental retardation refers to substantial limitation in
present function. It is characterized by significantly subaverage intellectual functioning existing
concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skill
areas: Communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health
and safety, functional academics, leisure and work. Mental retardation manifests before age 18
(1992). In addition to the perception ofmental retardation with respect to a person’s functioning
in daily life according to his or herpractical, social, and conceptual intelligence, the AAMR lists
four essential assumptions to becarefully considered in the application of this definition. Without
going into a lengthyelaboration of this definition, it is important to note that it has far reaching
implications whichhave not been addressed. The more widespread definition of mental
retardation is the AAMR’s sixth definition used in the American-based Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
Under IDEA mental retardation is defined as significantly sub-average general intellectual
functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the
developmental period (Grossman, 1983 p.11) that adversely affects a child’s
educationalperformance. Significantly sub-average intellectual functioning is defined as a score
that is atleast two standard deviations below the mean on a test of intelligence. Based on the
American
Association on Mental Retardation (Grossman, 1983) and the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) and using intelligence
(IQ) test scores, mental retardation occurs on the four levels of mild (score 50 through 55 to
approximately 70), moderate (score 35 through 40 to 50 through 55), severe (score 20 through 25
to 35 through 40), and profound (20 through 25).
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Adaptive behavior is an indication of independence and social competence. It refers to an
individual’s ability to meet the social requirements of his or her community that are appropriate
for his/her chronological age. Standardized tests such as the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale
(Lambert, Nihira, & Leland, 1993) and the Vineland Adaptive Scales are used to determine an
individual’s adaptive skills. Using the sub-average intellectual functioning and the adaptive
behavior skills deficits an individual would only be identified as having mental retardation if
their IQ scores and their adaptive behavior skills scores were below average.
In India a mentally handicapped child is one who has a limited level of intelligence and
deficits in adaptive behavior. This condition usually arises between conception and 18 years of
age (Ministry of Education, 1995, p.6 ). The India Ministry of Education, in its handbookon how
to handle children with special needs goes on to note that mentally handicapped children are
usually categorized according to severity of mental impairments as mildly, moderately, severely,
or profoundly handicapped; or as educable, trainable, severe, and profound in terms of their
measured intelligence scores on IQ tests. The classifications of educable and trainable are
referred to by other authors (e.g.,Bernie-Smith, et. al., 1998). Itwould appear that the definition
of mental retardation used in India has some parallels withthe IDEA definition used in the United
States.
1.2 Causes The various factors associated with incidences of mental retardation in India as well as
most other countries are pre-, peri-, and postnatal, and environmental. Although research (e.g.,
McDermott, 1994) indicates that a majority of incidences of mental retardation are attributed to
environmental factors, environmental factors need to be viewed as interacting with psychosocial
and genetic or biological factors (Office of Special education Programs, 2000 & Schettler, Stein,
Reich, Valenti, & Wallinga, 2000). Hence, such factors as lack of early exposure to intellectually
stimulating experiences, inadequate health care, adverse living conditions, and nutritional
problems when, associated with mental retardation can not be said to cause the condition but
individuals who are exposed to these factors are at a greater risk for demonstrating low cognitive
abilities.
Prenatal factors include disorders associated with chromosomes, metabolic disorders, and
infections of the mother during the period of pregnancy. An initial infection of cytomegalovirus
(CMV), for example, can be potentially very dangerous to the unborn child posing risks for brain
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damage, hearing impairments, and mental retardation. Toxoplasmosis, (Centers for Disease
Control & Prevention, 2003), another maternal infection, may be contracted through
consumption of undercooked or raw meat and eggs or exposure to cat feces. Initial infection
during pregnancy puts the unborn baby at risk for very serious complications including
blindness, jaundice, cerebral palsy, enlarged liver and spleen, microcephaly, and mental
retardation. Sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea, syphilis, and the acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS) are other causes of mental retardation and other problems. These
viruses are able to cross the placenta and attack the fetus’s central nervous system. Along with
attacking the central nervous system of the developing fetus, the AIDS virus also damages the
fetus’s immune system leaving it at risk for opportunistic infections. Research indicates that
pediatric AIDS is both the fastest growing infectious cause of mental retardation (Baumeister,
Kupstas, & Klindworth,1990) and the single most preventable type of infectious mental
retardation (Cohen, 1991).
German Measles (Rubella) is another infection that has been linked to mental retardation
and other birth complications such as low birth weight, heart defects, and vision and hearing
problems especially if infection occurs during the first trimester of pregnancy. The Rhesus
factor, a disease caused by blood group incompatibility between a mother and her unborn child
(Beirne-Smith, Ittenbach, & Patton,1998 & March of Dimes, 1997d), often leads to serious
complications for the unborn fetus. These include mental retardation, cerebral palsy, and
epilepsy. Incidences of German measles infections have greatly decreased since the introduction
of a rubella vaccine in 1969. An injection of the Rh immune globulin within 72 hours of
delivering an Rh positive baby, greatly reduces problems in any future pregnancies.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) and galactosemia are two inborn errors of mentabolism associated with
mental retardation and whose effects may be greatly reduced by dietary restrictions (Dyer, 1999
& Koch &De la Cruz, 1999). Galactosemia is a disease that results from an infants inability to
process galactose, a form of sugar that is usually found in products such as milk.
Phenylketonuria results from an inability to process phenylalanine, a protein found in milk and
other products. An accumulation of phenylalanine in the blood stream leads to brain damage and
mental retardation which is often severe. Galactosemia is manifested by cognitive impairements,
vision problems, vomiting, retarded development, liver damage, jaundice, and greater risks for
infections (Drew, Hardman, & Logan, 1996).
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About 5 percent of all people with mental retardation have Down syndrome. While some
individuals with Down syndrome may have almost average intelligence, most have mild through
profound mental retardation and others have associated conditions such as leukemia, vision and
intestinal problems and a susceptibility to thyroid problems (March of dimes, 1997a). Distinctive
physical characteristics are also often observed in individuals with Down syndrome (March of
Dimes, 2003). These include short fingers, reduced muscle tone, an enlarged and protruding
(sometimes) tongue, flat nose, short stature, and an upper slant of the eyes. While people without
Down syndrome have parallel lines, people with Down syndrome have a single crease-called a
Simian crease- on the palms of their hands. Fragile X, one of the leading inherited causes of
mental retardation, results from a weakness or fragility in the structure of the X chromosome of
the twenty-third pair. More at risk for this condition are males because, unlike females who have
two X chromosomes, they have one X and one Y chromosome in each pair (Kozma & Stock,
1993). This condition affects 1 in 750 males and 1 in 1250 females (Kozma & Stock, 1993).
Individuals with Fragile X syndrome may have autism and they may manifest attention disorders
(Beirnie-Smith, et al., 1998 & Santos, 1992), speech and language problems, and self-stimulatory
behavior. Distinctive physical characteristics for these individuals may include prominent
forehead, large head circumference, a long narrow face and large ears, and enlarged testicles at
puberty (Rogers & Simensen, 1987).
Mental retardation may also result from unsafe behaviors of mothers during pregnancy.
Consumption of alcohol before or during pregnancy can lead to severe effects on the baby, a
condition referred to as Fetal alcohol syndrome (Bauer, 1999 & Jones, Smith, Ulleland, &
Streissguth, 1973). Infants with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), now a leading cause of mental
retardation in the United States could have a damaged central nervous system and brain damage.
These infants have mild to moderate mental retardation, attention deficits, behavior problems,
physical deformities, heart defects, low birth weight, and motor dysfunctions. Fetal alcohol
effects (FAE) are milder forms of the effects of a mother’s alcohol consumption during
pregnancy on the infant. These include mild learning disabilities and problems paying attention
(Melner, Shackelford, Hargrove, & Daulton). Some prenatal causes of mental retardation are
unknown. Conditions such as encephalocele, anencephaly, microcephaly, and hydrocephalus can
not be explained. All these conditions affect the brain in some way. Encephalocele involves an
opening in the skull from which part of the brain material protrudes. Anencephaly is a condition
in which a large portion of the brain fails to develop properly. An unusually small head and
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severe mental retardation characterize microcephaly. In hydrocephalus, a large amount of
cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the brain area leading to an enlarged cranial cavity and
compression of the brain with dire consequences for the affected infant. A shunt inserted into the
cranial cavity removes the excess fluid from the brain area and minimizes the impact of the
consequences. Among the perinatal factors associated with mental retardation are low birth
weight, prematurity, and other neonatal complications. Low birth weight (less than 5 pounds, 8
ounces) and premature birth (birth prior to 37 weeks of gestation) are two gestational disorders
associated with mild to severe mental retardation. It is important to keep in mind that not all
infants with gestational disorders will have a disability or even have learning difficulties. Other
perinatal events include neonatal complications neonatal complications which can result from
prolonged and difficult deliveries or damaged umbilical cord. These events can result in a fetus
being completely or partially cut off from oxygen. Indeed, anoxia has been implicated in as
many as one out of every five births that result in mental retardation (McLaren & Bryson, 1987).
Breech presentation, quick deliveries (lasting less than two hours), hypoxia, and birth trauma are
all perinatal factors that may lead to various degrees of mental retardation.
In breech presentation, rather than the typical head-first birth procedure, the fetus exits the birth
canal rear first. This increases the risk of damage to the umbilical cord and a greater risk of
injury to the infant’s head resulting from the greater intensity of uterine contractions later in the
birth process. These risks also exist when a rapid short duration birth process occurs.
Drew et al 1996--notes that a rapid birth precludes the chances for the gentle molding of the head
increasing the risk for tissue damage and mental retardation. Improper use of forceps and
application of vacuum procedures during the delivery process can cause brain damage t an
infant and the possibility for mental retardation exists.
Mental retardation may also result from factors occurring postnatally. These include infections,
such as meningitis and encephalitis, intoxicants, environmental factors. Lead poisoning (Centers
for Disease Control & Prevention, 2003), which results from ingesting lead, can affect the central
nervous system and cause seizures and mental retardation. Meningitis is a viral infection that
causes damage to the meninges or tissues covering the brain. Meningitis can result from typical
childhood complications such as mumps and measles. This infection causes seizures, damages
the brain, and has a possibility of resulting in mental retardation. Encephalitis, on the other hand,
is an inflammation of the brain tissue and may also result from complications of infections
associated with childhood. This infection can cause brain damage and has the possibility of
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leading to varying degrees of mental retardation. As in other parts of the world, the above factors
are major causes of mental retardation and other developmental disabilities in India.
1.3 Identification Of Mental Retardation In India
If mental retardation is very severe, a child may be identified as having mental
retardation very early in his/her life. In some cases, determination of this condition is made at the
moment of birth. Less severe cases of mental retardation may not be that easily identified. Earlier
in this paper, it was mentioned that children with mental retardation in India are usually
categorized according to severity of mental impairments as mildly, moderately, severely, or
profoundly handicapped or as educable, trainable, severe, and profound in terms of their
measured intelligence scores on IQ tests. It would appear that intelligence tests are used in
determining the level of mental retardation of students suspected of having intellectual
disabilities in India. However, whether these tests are actually used with children who have
mental retardation in placement decisions is not clear. It is important to understand that in India,
students who are labeled as having mentalretardation are those who have such significant and
obvious limitations in their cognitive and adaptive behaviors that administration of standardized
tools may not be deemed necessary
Such students may also have other disabling conditions. Given that at least 10% of a
population have disabilities according to United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO,1994) it would appear that there are many more students with mental
retardation than the ones currently receiving services. A majority of students with mental
retardation are those with mild mental retardation. Identification of these students may consist of
observations for pointers of low intellectual functioning and deficits in adaptive behavior. These
characteristics may be indicated by an impaired ability to learn, acquire and generalize concepts,
process, understand and respond to information, and apply knowledge in various settings such as
school and community. It is also important to note that the learning and social behavioral
characteristics of students with mild mental retardation, learning disabilities, and those who are
unmotivated low achievers are often so similar to observers that misdiagnosis occurs often. In
any case, services for students with learning disabilities and mild mental retardation are not yet
developed in India and in many cases these children may not be recognized as having a
disability.
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The India Ministry of Education, in its guidelines on students with disabilities (1995),
notes that children with mental retardation: develop more slowly than other children, learn
moreslowly than people of the same age, have low attention abilities, lack motivation, have
poormemory, have problems with language and other social skills, experience low
academicachievement, have personality and behavioral problems, experience low
academicachievement, are withdrawn and experience difficulties in making friends, lack self-
helpskills, lack work adjustment skills, may be aggressive, may have physical defects
andassociated disabling problems such as autism, epilepsy, and cerebral palsy (p.6-7). This may
be another way in which students with mental retardation are identified.
1.4 Placement Options
Given that their condition is in most cases never identified or recognized as a
disability,children with mild mental retardation in Indian schools are educated with students
withoutdisabilities in regular schools and classrooms (Mutua & Dimitrov, 2001) with no
supports,adaptations, or modifications. Students with moderate to severe forms of mental
retardationare educated mainly in units in regular education schools and in special schools
andresidential settings for children with mental retardation (Kiarie, 2005 & Mutua &
Dimitrov,2001). Whether they are in the units, special schools, or residential settings, their
educationalservices are specialized in that they do not follow the academic curriculum. Services
for theseindividuals in specialized settings date back to 1948 when two schools, later merged
into theJacaranda Special School, were established. Programs for these students have continued
to grow as enrolment has continued to increase. In the mid 80s, students with mental retardation
were served in 52 programs which included 17 schools, 30 units, three pre-vocationalschools,
and one sheltered workshop (Ndurumo, 1993, p. 20).
As was the case in the United States before the enactment of the Education for all Handicapped
Children Act (1975), (Ryndak & Alper, 1996), it is very likely that majority of children with
profound mental and other disabilities do not receive any educational services in India. These are
the children and youth most likely to be denied access to the schools as they are deemed unlikely
to benefit from any education or be hidden away (Dorothy, 2003) by their parents. The absence
of a zero reject principle, the equivalent of the one embodied in the American-based Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) means that even though parents may recognize education
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as a right for every child and rise above society’s negative attitudes, they can not require that
schools open their gates to all children. Schools can still decide that some children are
ineducable and therefore do not belong in the school environment.
1.5 Curriculum
In the general education settings, students curriculum is very academic oriented and all
students are exposed to the same subjects. This orientation illuminates the disadvantage at which
students with mild mental and other intellectual disabilities are placed. As Mutua and
Dimitrov further note India’s educational system is characterized by entrance examinations that
are used to predict academic success. Non-successful students are often retained in grades until
they are deemed successful, drop out, or are too old to stay in the same grade.
One of the government’s objectives in educating students with disabilities is the
acquisition of literacy and numeracy skills. However, in the separate settings, other than very
elementary basic skills, the curriculum is geared towards functional education and life skills
training (Mutua & Dimitrov, 2001). Teachers for individuals with mental retardation in separate
facilities for students with mental retardation focus on teaching their students how to
communicate their needs, employ self-care skills for basic hygiene, maintain appropriate\
behavior, employ functional academics, be safe, and employ appropriate social skills (Mwangi,
Kerre, Wabuge, & Mugo, 1989). To realize their objectives, teachers are required to use task-
analysis in which they break learning tasks into smaller sequential skills which they
systematically teach to the students until they master. These are recommended in a guidebook on
handling students with special needs published by the India Ministry of Education (India
Ministry of Education, 1995). Other instructional considerations recommended by the India
Ministry of Education for use with this population include:
Modeling, drills and practice to promote over-learning, attention to relevance and applicability to
the students’ lives, short learning activities, generous use of prompts and rewards, use of
concrete materials as much as possible, use of visuals to promote understanding of concepts, and
explicit teaching of such self-care skills as toileting, dressing, and grooming.
Teachers of students with mental retardation in India can benefit from exposure to current
literature on meeting the needs of these students. This literature emphasizes the need for teachers
to plan their materials well, have clear goals and objectives, teach to their objectives, and assess
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students directly and frequently. Since individuals with mental retardation experience difficulty
in maintaining the skills and knowledge they have acquired, they require frequent opportunities
to practice new academic and functional skills. Not only must curriculum focus on skills that
these individuals need to use frequently in school, at home, and in the community but teaching
functional skills in the natural contexts in which they are performed is necessary.
It is important to note that the curriculum in units and separate schools and residential settings
for students with mental retardation in India does not seem to be consistent. Muuya (2002) found
that rather than the more appropriate curriculum combining literacy and numeracy with
functional academics and life skills training discussed earlier, programs for these children
focused more on behavioral control and containment and moral behavior. Due to certain factors,
the curriculum orientation of a certain program, although guided by the need for the children to
acquire skills in self-reliance among others, are largely dependent on the goals and orientations
of the funding religious, private, or other organization.
1.6 Principles Of Special Education
The principles underlying education for students with special educational needs do not
differ from those that are relevant to all students. The introduction to the Primary School
Curriculum (1999) states that:
all children have a right of access to the highest-quality educationappropriate to their needs.
This includes children whose disabilitiesor circumstances inhibit their effective participation in
the educationthat is normally provided for children of their age … It is importantthat a range of
educational provision is available that is flexibleenough to cater for the special needs of
individual children at thevarious stages of their development.
The White Paper on Education (1995) defines the term “curriculum” as encompassing the
content, structure and processes of teaching and learning, whichthe school provides in
accordance with its educational objectivesand values.
This includes the knowledge, concepts and skills that students acquire as well as the factors that
inform the ethos and general environment of the school.
The broad aims of education for students with special educational needs include
• enabling the student to live a full life and to realise his or her potential as a unique individual
through access to an appropriate broad and balanced curriculum • enabling the student to
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function as independently as possible in society through the provision of such educational
supports as are necessary to realize that potential.
The student’s wider environment is, of course, a powerful factor in his or her learning. This
begins in the home; and the skills and knowledge that all students bring with them to school are
of vital importance to their future development. Close co-operation between home and school is
essential if the student is to experience the full benefit of his or her education. Curriculum, then,
encompasses the whole range of learning experiences, both within and outside of the school.
1.7 What Are Special Educational Needs?
A precise definition of special educational needs is difficult. Different sources use
different descriptions and different categorisations. Some experts believe that all students may, at
some time in their lives, have some form of special educational need. This may range from a
physical disability to exceptional or gifted ability in a particular area. Such a broad definition has
implications for practice and also for the essential resources required by individual students.
However, the general understanding of students who have special educational needs is that they
encounter barriers to learning. Their difficulties may be specific to language or mathematics or
can come from a physical impairment that affects their movement, sight, or hearing, or from a
complex combination of several disabilities. Some of these may be addressed by the provision of
alternative teaching methods, suitable materials, appropriately adapted equipment, or
personalised tutorial support. However, this approach tends to focus on the difficulties of the
student rather than on his or her individual needs. It is necessary also to look at the curricular
options available to all students. The Report of the Special Education Review Committee
(SERC) (1993) defines areas of special educational needs under four broad headings, which
embrace a wide range of special educational needs and include
• general learning disabilities
• emotional and behavioural disturbance
• language and communication difficulties and disorders
• physical and sensory disabilities.
In the SERC report, special education is defined as any educational provision which is designed
to cater for pupils withspecial educational needs, and is additional to or different from
theprovision which is generally made in ordinary classes for pupils ofthe same age. (p.18)
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In recent years attitudes to disability have changed, and the labelling of students as
“handicapped” has been replaced by broader descriptions of their learning needs. All students
have common needs, which include a sense of belonging, being respected as an individual, and
being challenged as a learner.
Some students, however, may have complex individual needs that arise from particular
characteristics that are different from all others.
The SERC Report proposed a number of principles on which the future development of special
needs education in Ireland should be based. These principles stated that
• students with special educational needs have a right to an appropriate education
• the needs of the individual student are paramount in decisions relating to their education
• parents should have an active role within the system
• a continuum of educational services should be provided and, where practicable, appropriate
education should be provided in ordinary schools for all students with special educational needs
• only in exceptional circumstances should a student have to live away from home to avail of an
appropriate education
• the state should provide adequate resources to enable students with special educational needs to
avail of an appropriate education.
The NCCA acknowledges the validity and importance of the findings of the
SERC Report and recognises that the whole area of special needs is both complex and wide-
ranging. However, since students with general learning disabilities form by far the most
numerous student cohort in special needs education, the development of curriculum guidelines
for this group will be the initial concern of the NCCA.
1.8 Curriculum Development For Students With Mental Disabilities
Teachers and other professionals involved in special education have always embraced
innovation. In recent times, the changing nature of the student population and increased
integration of students with special needs in mainstream education has demanded even greater
flexibility and creativity from teachers. Teachers in special schools and centres have also
contributed greatly to the process of curriculum development, very often with inadequate support
and resources. In devising curriculum guidelines, the NCCA proposes to draw on the wealth of
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experience and knowledge of teachers and other professionals in both mainstream and special
settings.
The Special Education Review Committee (SERC) drew attention to gaps in curriculum
development as one of the deficiencies in the system of special education in Ireland. The lack of
specific curricular guidelines for students with special educational needs in post-primary schools,
for students with mild general learning disabilities in special and mainstream schools and for
students with severe and profound general learning disabilities was identified as a significant
shortcoming by the Review Committee. The Committee stated that curriculum development and
review, for students with disabilitiesand special educational needs, should be the ongoing
responsibilityof the NCCA.
It recommended that these areas should be examined as a matter of priority. In this context and in
the light of the Education Act, 1998, the NCCA has taken the first steps in the development of
curriculum guidelines for students with special educational needs in Ireland.
Current research indicates that there is no simple answer to the provision of curriculum for
special needs. The curriculum in Irish schools encompasses subjects and methodologies, the
reasons why the subjects are taught, and the educational outcomes for the learner. It also includes
the formal programme of lessons and the hidden curriculum that is inferred by the children from
the general ethos of the school and its organisation. The White Paper (1995) further states that
“the way in which the curriculum is defined, planned, implementedand evaluated crucially
influences the quality of education provided.”
This statement gives considerable flexibility to schools in planning their own curriculum.
At school level the responsibility centres on the development of a comprehensive school plan,
and a recently published booklet by the Department of Education and Science, Developing a
School Plan, echoes the White Paper in its definition of curriculum.
The curriculum consists of all the learning experiences designed or encouraged by the school as
its programme to promote the educational aims and objectives of the school for its pupils (p. 32).
The Introduction to the Primary School Curriculum, which has recently been revised, states that
the breadth and flexibility of the curriculum, the choices it offers inthe selection and sequencing
of content and its focus on thedevelopmental needs of children ensures its adaptability to
thediversity of children’s circumstances and experiences.
In the conclusion it also states that “these goals will only be achieved if the philosophy, aims and
objectives of the curriculum are realised in its implementation.”
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One of the defining features of the curriculum is the importance of planning.
“Within the framework of the curriculum schools are afforded flexibility to plan a programme
that is appropriate to the individual school’s circumstances and to the needs, aptitudes and
interests of the children”. It clearly statesthat the curriculum assumes that schools will “adapt
and interpret the curriculum where necessary to meet their own requirements. It seescurriculum
development as a dynamic process, which is evolving rather thanestablished.
However, these worthy aims must be translated into more specific goals and practical,
manageable objectives if they are to meet the needs of individual students.
How, then, are children designated as having special educational needs any different? It is quite
clear that although students will have common needs, there will be some who have complex
additional needs and will therefore require additional goals. The difficulties they have are real
and must be addressed. In identifying individual learning needs, therefore, we must look at what
exactly those needs are.
In the past, children with special educational needs were seen as being separate from the
mainstream system of education and the responsibility of specialist teachers and medical staff. In
a study of provision for pupils with special educational needs by the European Agency for
Development in Special Needs
Education (1998) it was indicated that adaptations have been made to legislation relating to
students with a disability throughout Europe during the past decade.
This study did not include Ireland but did include England and Wales. The main areas of concern
that emerged were teacher training, teachers’ attitudes, and the less developed nature of second-
level systems in dealing with special educational needs. The role of parental choice was also seen
as significant, as was the use of individual education plans. The categorisation of special
educational needs into anything up to ten different divisions, often based on IQ scores or
categories of disability, has often led to more rather than less segregation.
All children have individual needs, not just those with disabilities, so there is a need for
variety in both curricular content and teaching approaches, as is enunciated in the Primary
School Curriculum. Realistic and flexible approaches to learning are required for all students,
and these include activity-based learning, self-directed learning, practical hands-on approaches,
thematic approaches to topics, open-ended tasks, and a greater emphasis on the development of
oral language. This will entail much more than a watered-down version of mainstream curricula.
The proposed guidelines will enable teachers and schools to establish significant and flexible
21
connections between the key skills and knowledge in the curriculum guidelines and the content
of mainstream curricula.
1.9 Flexibility Of Provision
The educational experience of students with special educational needs should reflect what
is available to their non-disabled peers. In particular, co-operative and group work that
encourages peer learning is very important. Students should increasingly begin to take control of,
and responsibility for, their own learning.
Students with special educational needs should be enabled to make choices and decisions, and
this can be achieved only through an accepting environment that celebrates diversity and
individuality while acknowledging the importance of peer learning and group interaction.
The curriculum the student experiences will allow for both age and stage of development.
However, flexibility is required if it is to be mediated in the most effective way. This must allow
for a full-time curriculum experience in mainstream education or in special education but also for
a combination of parttime experience in both where this is appropriate. It must also take account
of the practicalities involved in providing both group and individual experiences for students
who may have multiple and complex needs.
1.10 Whole-School Approaches
Instead of treating the individual student with special needs in isolation, it is necessary to
plan for the class or group as a whole and to identify the learning opportunities that exist for all
children. Whole-school approaches to planning, both in mainstream schools and in special
settings, could maximise the educational opportunities available for students. These opportunities
should be based on learning need, not learning difficulty, and the student should be involved in
identifying those needs where appropriate.
The necessary balance between mainstream curricula, developmental curricula and
additional curricular areas varies according to the strengths, needs and circumstances of the
particular student. Flexible multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches involving
22
teachers, parents and other professionals must keep the student at the centre of the educational
process.
Where all students are striving to realise their own potential, age-related and ability-
related levels of attainment become a reality, and curriculum-based assessment becomes
meaningful. What is needed both at primary and at post-primary levels are innovative approaches
to assessment. The Junior Cycle programme at post-primary level marks the end of compulsory
schooling. It is based on the curricular principles of breadth and balance, relevance, quality,
coherence, continuity, and progression. However, Ireland is the only developed country that uses
wholly external terminal examination at this stage of schooling. Many students with special
educational needs, both in special and in mainstream schools, are now seeking national
certification. In a recent review of the Junior Cycle programme (1999) the inadequacy of the
range of modes and techniques of assessment for Junior Certificate is highlighted. “There is an
ongoing mismatch between the aims and principles of the Junior Certificate programme and the
modes and techniques currently in use for the formal assessment of that programme.”
(p. 32). So while students are engaging in a broad and balanced curriculum based on eight areas
of experience they are not being assessed on some of the areas. There is an over-emphasis on the
assessment of product and little assessment of the affective development of the student.
A booklet entitled The Junior Certificate: Issues for Discussion (1999), published by the DES,
states that when the assessment leads to certification which is school-focusedand learner-centred
then the participation of teachers in theassessment of their own students can only add to the
validity of thatassessment and support the placing of assessment as part of teachingand learning,
rather than as a ritual which takes place when theteaching and learning is complete.
This will not happen automatically but will require whole-school policies and in-service training
to develop in teachers shared understandings, shared intentions and shared interpretations of
professional roles
1.11 Ncca Structures For Curriculum Development In Special Education
Initially the NCCA will focus on the development of curriculum guidelines for students
with general learning disabilities at both primary and post-primary levels. Three broad groups are
23
identified for this initial phase. These groups are the largest numerically and are catered for in
the broadest range of settings. The NCCA Special Education Steering Committee proposes to
• develop curriculum guidelines for students with mild general learning disability
• review and develop the existing provision for students with moderate general learning disability
• develop curriculum guidelines for students with severe and profound general learning
disability.
The following structures have been established by the NCCA to develop curriculum guidelines
for these three groups:
• a widely representative steering committee (appendix II)
• three working groups, which will identify the essential skills and processes required to provide
broad curriculum opportunities and experiences for students in the three specified areas. Each
working group comprises teachers, parents, and a representative from the Department of
Education and Science. (appendix III). Structures have been established to ensure wide
consultation with other relevant and interested parties.
1.12 A Strategy For Curriculum Development The development by the NCCA of curriculum guidelines is part of a strategy in which curricula
for students with special educational needs will be addressed.
This strategy will
• provide an overall structure for curriculum development for students with special
educational needs
Because of the diversity and complexity of needs within schools and classes, any curriculum
development at national level must be in the form of curriculum guidelines.
• draw on best practice, national and international, in the development of the guidelines
Curricula must allow for differentiation within a school or class relative to the needs, abilities
and aptitudes of the students. This will necessitate wholeschool planning, regular review, and the
development of cross-curricular skills. If a student is operating below his or her chronological
age, he or she should be taught using age-appropriate methods, approaches, and resources.
Guidelines that offers broad descriptions of outcomes rather than a prescription of content is
therefore likely to be appropriate. The guidelines should be flexible enough to be relevant to a
wide variety of school and class types within each sector. Curriculum development should also
take account of the complex learning styles of all students.
24
• facilitate linkages to mainstream curricula where appropriate
There is a need to explore how a coherent relationship between mainstream and special curricula
can be achieved and how relevant this relationship is for students at both primary and post-
primary levels. The proposed curriculum guidelines will consider core competences, academic
achievement, and the continuing need for an emphasis on life skills and independence training.
The overall aim should be that the students acquire skills that are relevant to their lives, both as
young people and as adults. The extent to which elements of mainstream curricula can contribute
to this will be explored thoroughly.
• take account of the resource implications of any curriculum guidelines
It will provide a context and an opportunity to address the issues of the relevant human and
physical resources that will be necessary in making the strategy effective.
1.13 Summary Issues affecting other areas of special education services in India also affect the area of
services for students with mental retardation. Foremost among this is lack of vital human and
material resources (Kiarie 2005). Another is the lack of a law that mandates funds and enforces
educational and other services for all students with disabilities. In the education of students with
disabilities a law is needed to provide and enforce services for this population.
Without laws and national mandates, and ways for ensuring that schools abide by these laws,
many students with disabilities are likely to be locked out of the educational arena.
Development of a transition-based service provision model is vital especially for students with
severe mental retardation. Students with disabilities need to be taught with attention to what,
where, and how they are going to live and work as adults. This aspect is lacking in the education
of students with disabilities in India. In view of the above and other barriers quite evident in the
education of students with disabilities in India, it is safe to say that although a lot remains to be
done, India is making steps in the right direction with regard to services for students with
disabilities. With awareness of the rights of individuals with disabilities being raised by the most
recent act, the Persons with Disabilities Act passed in 2003, it is reasonable to expect that
services for children, youth, and adults with disabilities in India will continue to improve, albeit
very gradually.
25
1.14 check your progress
1. Explain Causes
2. Explain Identification Of Mental Retardation In India
3. Explain Placement Options
4. Explain Curriculum
5. Explain Principles Of Special Education
6. Explain What Are Special Educational Needs?
7. Explain Curriculum Development For Students With Mental Disabilities
8. Explain Flexibility Of Provision
9. Explain Whole-School Approaches
10. Explain Ncca Structures For Curriculum Development In Special Education
11. Explain A Strategy For Curriculum Development
1. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.2.1. Points for discussion
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45. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
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Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
51. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
52. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
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31st – Sept 3rd.
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Chicago: Chicago University Press.
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children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
56. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
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infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
58. Connell, R. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics.
California: Stanford University Press.
59. Corsaro, W. (1997). The sociology of childhood. California: Pine Forge Press.
33
60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
Anning, C., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
61. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
62. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
63. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
64. Department of Education and Science. (1998). Report on the national forum for early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
65. Department of Education and Science. (1999a). Ready to learn: White paper on early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
66. Department of Education and Science. (1999b). The Primary School Curriculum. Dublin,
Ireland: The Stationary Office.
67. Department of Education and Science. (2004). The education for persons with special
educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
68. Department of Education, Training and Employment and Catholic Education, South
Australia (2001). South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability
Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
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Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
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Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
72. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
73. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
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York: Teacher’s College Press.
34
75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
76. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
35
Unit 2: Types And Approaches Of Curriculum Designing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Aligning The Goals Of Curriculum With The Apsn Vision
2.3 Desired Outcomes
2.4 Apsn Curriculum Development Process
2.5 Features Of Revised Syllabuses
2.6 Three Major Emphasis For The Education Of The Mildly Intellectual
Disabled
2.7 Core Subjects
2.8 Types
2.9 Some Promising Teaching Strategies And Approaches
2.10 Tips For Teachers: Mental Retardation
2.11 Designing Instruction.
2.12 Teaching Differently To Make A Difference
2.13 A Strategy For Curriculum Development
2.14 Summary
2.15 Check Your Progress
2.16 Reference
36
2.1 Introduction
Education is a powerful instrument of social change, and often initiates upward
movement in the social structure. Thereby, helping to bridge the gap between the different
sections of society. The educational scene in the country has undergone major change over the
years, resulting in better provision of education and better educational practices. In 1944, the
Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) published a comprehensive report called the
Sergeant Report on the post-war educational development of the country. As per the report,
provisions for the education of the handicapped2, were to form an essential part of the national
system of education, which was to be administered by the Education Department. According to
this report, handicapped children were to be sent to special schools only when the nature and
extent of their defects made this necessary. The Kothari Commission (1964–66), the first
education commission of independent India, observed: “the education of the handicapped
children should be an inseparable part of the education system.” The commission recommended
experimentation with integrated programmes in order to bring as many children as possible into
these programmes (Alur, 2002).
The government’s agenda to universalize elementary education, and its commitment to
the Directive Principles of the Constitution, are guided by the recognition that a new universal
system of education should be based on equity, the redressal of past imbalances, and the
provision of access to quality education, especially for marginalised groups. Recent educational
developments and the Seventy Third and Seventy Fourth Constitutional Amendments outline the
possibility of entrusting basic education to the local elected bodies in towns and villages. This
would allow for community participation in education at the elementary level and would
introduce radical change, leading to the empowerment of learners with Special Educational
Needs (SEN). Until the 1970s, the policy encouraged segregation.
Most educators believed that children with physical, sensory, or intellectual disabilities
were so different that they could not participate in the activities of a common school (Advani,
2002). Christian missionaries, in the 1880s, started schools for the disabled as charitable
undertakings (Mehta, 1982). The first school for the blind was established in 1887. An institute
for the deaf and mute, was set up in 1888. Services for the physically disabled were also initiated
37
in the middle of the twentieth century. Individuals with mental retardation were the last to
receive attention. The first school for the mentally challenged being established in 1934 (Mishra,
2000). Special education programmes in earlier times were, therefore, heavily dependent on
voluntary initiative.
The government’s (Department of Education) initiatives after independence were manifested in
the establishment of a few workshop units meant primarily for blind adults (Luthra, 1974). These
units later included people who were deaf, physically impaired, and mentally retarded
(Rohindekar and Usha, 1988). While some provisions existed in the States, it was considered the
best course to assist and encourage voluntary organisations already working in the field (see the
First Five Year Plan, 1951–1956 on http: www.planningcommission.hic.in/plans/planrel/five
Yr/7th/vol2/7v2ch10.html).
The welfare approach continued in government programmes. Support was provided to
voluntary organisations for the establishment of model schools for the blind, the deaf, and the
mentally retarded. The government set up the National Library for the Blind, the Central Braille
Press, and employment exchanges for the disabled. It also made provisions for scholarships, for
prevention and early identification of disabling conditions, for the development of functional
skills, and for aids and appliances for the disabled.
2.2 Aligning The Goals Of Curriculum With The Apsn Vision
Aligning with the APSN vision, the curriculum review aims to revise the curriculum to
develop students to their fullest potential so that they can lead dignified, fulfilling and
independent lives as integral members of society. APSN students are expected to demonstrate
various functional roles that an individual must assume to lead independent lives, such as:
A resident of a home;
A worker;
A participant in the community;
A consumer of goods and services and
A participant in leisure experiences.
2.3 Desired Outcomes
38
Thus, the ultimate aim of the curriculum is to prepare these students with mild intellectual
disabilities with the necessary relevant skills essential for daily living and integration into
today’s community so that they can be responsible not only to themselves and their families but
also to their community and country at large. In the process of learning, they will also incalculate
the right attitudes, skills, values and knowledge necessary for life in today’s knowledge-based
economy e.g.
discern between right from wrong;
learn to care and share;
develop resilience in times of trials;
have a positive mindset;
be responsible in what they do;
learn to develop self-control;
develop assertiveness;
cultivate good healthy habits and lifestyles;
love their country.
2.4 Apsn Curriculum Development Process
In planning, revising and organizing the curriculum, each subject committee composes of
teachers from different APSN schools with an advisor who is a subject specialist from the
National Institute of Education as well as an APSN principal who chairs the subject committee.
The subject specialists provide the current philosophy and practices in teaching the subject. The
teachers provide their knowledge of student learning capabilities as well as their perception of
the functional needs of the students. Two curriculum officers serve all the committees.
The review committees make reference to the Ministry of Education (MOE) syllabuses for
schools, MOE instructional guidelines for students with special needs and two papers submitted
by Dr Jessie Ee and Dr Soh Kay Cheng on the needs of students in APSN schools.
2.5 Features Of Revised Syllabuses All APSN schools use the same revised syllabuses.
The syllabuses except Life Skills are aligned with the syllabuses provided by the Ministry of
Education.
39
Special efforts are made to link learning activities of all subjects to Life Skills. The contexts
used are relevant to everyday living.
English Language and Mathematics are aligned to achieve P3/P4 level in MOE schools after
seven years of APSN education. Outcomes of each subject are defined and are delineated into
modules.
The secondary and senior level curriculum aims to benchmark their literacy and numeracy
programme to the mainstream EM3 standards as an alternative to the soon to be obsolete BEST*
& WISE* exams. Many
Tanglin teachers found the BEST syllabus uninteresting, limiting and nondevelopmental.
To monitor individual learning and student performance of each outcome of every subject will
be recorded in the I.E.P.
Effective instructional strategies (cognitive strategy instruction, cooperative learning
structures and multiple intelligences) are adopted to increase probability of student learning.
2.6 Three Major Emphasis For The Education Of The Mildly Intellectual
Disabled
During their early elementary years, the curriculum will emphasize more on providing
them readiness skills. In the later elementary years, the emphasis will be more on life skills and
during late adolescent to young adult life, the emphasis is on transitional skills to prepare them
for vocational and integration in society.
40
2.7 Core Subjects 2.7.1 Language
The literacy programme aims to develop listening, speaking, reading and writing skills, the
foundation and prerequisites for functional literacy which prepares them to use language in the
contexts of the home, community, at play and work.
The whole language approach where whole, meaningful texts are the instructional materials and
not isolated words or sounds will be used to develop the generic framework for the literacy
programme with Direct Reading Activity as the teaching strategy used to extend and strengthen
the students’ reading abilities. To provide this comprehensive literacy programme, the English
Language syllabus includes three areas of language use:
1. Language for Information
2. Language for Literary Response and Expression
3. Language for Social Interaction
Each of the above area is further organized into:
1. Listening & Speaking
2. Reading
3. Writing
The Language for Information and Social Interaction sections refer to life skills as contexts.
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The Shared Book Approach and the Language Experience Approach have been recommended as
effective approaches for the teaching of listening, speaking, reading and writing skills.
Cooperative learning structures and cognitive strategy instruction e.g. mind mapping and
pictogram are some strategies used in Language for Social Interaction and Information.
For purpose of class placement, our pupils were administered an initial reading screening test.
This test is linked to the reading programme that is progressively designed for different reading
levels. Children showing further problems with reading will be referred to the psychologists and
therapists for in-depth assessment and therapy.
2.7.2 Mathematics
The framework is aimed at building basic mathematical readiness skills as well as
practical mathematical problem solving in real life situations. Besides the development of these
mathematical concepts which are broadly organized into 3 main strands: numerical concepts,
geometrical concepts and statistical concepts, pupils are taught to use mathematics skills e.g.
computational skills, estimation and mental calculation. The framework is organized in spiral
progression such that concepts taught are revised at increasing levels of difficulty.
As research has found that thinking skills should be explicitly taught to the mildly intellectually
disabled, the curriculum and resources provide exercises to teach thinking skills e.g. classifying,
comparing, sequencing etc as well as heuristics for problem solving e.g. act it out, using a
diagram or model, look for patterns etc. Pupils are also exposed to metacognitive processes e.g.
seeking alternative ways of solving the problem and checking the reasonableness of answers.
As many special needs pupils have poor motivation in learning mathematics, the curriculum also
incorporates components to develop the enjoyment in doing mathematics as well as the
perseverance in solving a problem through CD maths games, 3-minute challenge and cooperative
group work. In the teaching of mathematical concepts, teachers are advised to present materials
using the multi-sensory approach with emphasis on kinesthetic, concreteness and pictorial before
symbols. When pupils have understood mathematics at the symbolic level, teachers are advised
to consolidate the written symbols.
2.7.3 Life Skills
42
The life skills curriculum will integrate the different subject areas in tandem to achieve
the desired outcomes aim to prepare our pupils for independent living and vocational skills. The
framework for the life skills curriculum is broadly organized into four domains: Home,
Community, Work and Leisure/Recreation. The curriculum includes character education, moral
and social skills. Values such as manners, tolerance, self control are included. Real life contexts
are used so as to facilitate smooth transfer from class to real life situations. The primary life
skills curriculum includes the following main subareas : 1. Self-Help skills
2. Family Life Education
3. Value Education
4. Career Education
The secondary life skills curriculum transits from the primary skills to include
subcompetencies from the Life Centered Career Education (L.C.C.E.) curriculum
:
1. Daily Living Skills
2. Personal Social Skills
3. Occupational Guidance & Preparation
L.C.C.E. provides the prevocational foundation for our pupils whilst job-specific skills requires
the incorporation of national skills competencies e.g. National Skills Recognition System
(N.S.R.S.). More able pupils can apply to gain entrance to the Vocational School for the
Handicap (VSH) and the Institute of Technical Education (ITE).
2.7.4 Physical Education
The aim of the physical education curriculum is to develop the physical, intellectual,
social and emotional capacities of students through a variety of physical activities and games.
These skills will thus help pupils to acquire a positive attitude towards physical activities and
provide them with the basic knowledge and skills to live a healthy lifestyle.
The knowledge, skills and attitudes desired for each student were addressed in the development
of objectives across the levels under the four domains: the psychomotor, fitness, cognitive and
affective domains. The framework for physical education includes the following components:
1. Fundamental skills
2. Fitness activities
43
3. Dance movement
4. Games
5. Track & Field
Different percentages of time were delineated for each component for different age groups
guided by developmental principles of physical education. Generic outcomes and activities were
identified for each age band. Activities that teaches life skills during physical education are also
identified. As our pupils will need physical fitness as a good worker, physical fitness
programmes and test are developed to improve the fitness levels of our pupils.
2.7.5 Art
The aim of the Art curriculum is to prepare our pupils to appreciate colour and enhance
their artistic skills so that they can use their leisure effectively besides empowering them with a
good eye sense for the aesthetics.
The Art curriculum framework consists of seven core types of art forms, namely, art readiness,
drawing and design, papercraft, printmaking, collage, textiles and three-dimensional art. The
outcomes for the art curriculum outline the element and principles of art that needs to be taught.
The Art curriculum supports learning of other academic subjects and life skills.
2.7.6 Music
The music curriculum should develop the students’ aesthetic appreciation and response to music
as well as to develop their self-esteem and confidence besides aligning with APSN’s desired
outcomes.
The outcomes framework is organized in four aspects of musical experiences:
44
1. Performing – develop knowledge and skills about musical concepts through performing as a
means of self-expression, interpreting musical symbols and developing solo and ensemble
techniques.
2. Composing – develop knowledge and skills about musical concepts through composing as a
means of self-expression, musical creation and problem-solving.
3. Listening – develop knowledge and skills about musical concepts through listening as a means
of extending aural awareness and communicating ideas about music in social, cultural and
historical contexts.
4. Appreciation – value and appreciate the aesthetic value of all music and the enjoyment of
engaging in performing, composing and listening. Musical outcomes are aligned with age
appropriate activities and selected outcomes are readjusted to include life skills activities.
2.8 Types Behavioural modelsof learning focus on observable outcomes of learning as influenced
predominately by the key principles of reinforcement theory in different learning contexts. This
theory considers all behaviour is learned according to rules which shape, change or sustain it.
Cognitive-behavioural approaches take account of the capacity of individuals to understand and
reflect on their behaviour. The advantages of this model lie primarily in the positive, practical
outlook, the clear signs of success, and the ways in which the setting of specific targets allows all
those involved in teaching and learning to understand the goals and expectations for individuals
and groups of pupils. However these approaches have been criticised for an overly narrow focus
on measurable learning outcomes, when it is known that many aspects of knowledge and
understanding are not directly observable and measurable in the required form. There is also an
acknowledged danger of pupils’ coming to rely on extrinsic rewards for achieving success.
Constructivist models of learning are those in which children are seen as active participants in
the processes of seeking out knowledge, making sense of their experiences and gaining intrinsic
satisfaction from learning and solving problems. Constructivist learning is seen to be a
transformative experience which opens up opportunities for further learning as children gain
greater depth of understanding and increasingly flexible ways of representing their knowledge
and dealing with new information. Related to this approach is social constructivism or
sociocultural theory. Here children’s active role in learning is set in the context of their
45
membership of social groups and communities (such as classrooms and schools) which jointly
create knowledge through their engagement in purposeful and valued activities.
Ecological models of learning focus less on the individual learner and more on the interaction or
‘goodness-of-fit’ between the learner and his or her environment. Ecological models operate
within a concept of ‘nested systems’ or ‘levels’ often referred to as bio, micro, meso, macro exo,
chronosystems (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). In such a model the learner is situated in the
centre of the system interacting at various levels each of which are part of a larger system, for
example, the level of the classroom (micro level), the level of the school not involving the child
directly (macro level) and society (macro level). Teaching strategies and approaches often focus
at a micro level but acknowledge or incorporate activity at broader levels. The mesosystem refers
to the relationships between two or more settings in which the child participates. Such an
approach allows consideration of the role of such things as school or community culture in
learning.
2.9 Some Promising Teaching Strategies And Approaches The literature highlights what seem to be some promising approaches to teaching, as well as
examples of good practice. These include:
• Early identification and intervention Early intervention is key to implementing successful
teaching strategies for pupils with ASD as well as children with language impediments (Fraser,
1998).
• Involvement of parents and families in a collaborative partnership. See, for example, the work
of Shields (2001) in relation to children with ASD, and the account of the Hanen
Programme (e.g. Manolsen 1992) for those with SLCN.
• Collaborative working with other agencies in a child centred approach. This is particularly
important since support services may have differing foci on the form and purpose of the
intervention they envisage (see Wright and Kersner 1998; Law, Lindsay, Peacey et al., 2000;
Law, Lindsay et al., 2001 for children with SLCN).
• Teaching approaches that adopt additional (visual) reinforcement strategies to supplement
verbal instruction (see Chiat, Law and Marshall, 1997 for children with SLCN; Siegel 2000for
children with ASD) and be conducted alongside typically developing peers (e.g.
McConnell 2002 for children with ASD).
46
• An emphasis on teaching language and cognitive process, and the strategies needed for
effective generalisation through varying degrees of structure designed to match the child’s needs
(see, for example, Adams and Conti-Ramsden 1995 for children with ‘SLCN’).
2.10 Tips For Teachers: Mental Retardation -Learn as much as you can about mental retardation.
-Recognize that you can make an enormous difference in this student's life! Find out what the
student's strengths and interests are, and emphasize them. Create opportunities for success.
-If you are not part of the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP) team, ask for a copy
of his or her IEP. The student's educational goals will be listed there, as well as the services and
classroom accommodations he or she is to receive. Talk to specialists in your school (e.g.,
special educators), as necessary. They can help you identify effective methods of teaching this
student, ways to adapt the curriculum, and how to address the student's IEP goals in your
classroom.
-Be as concrete as possible. Demonstrate what you mean rather than just giving verbal directions.
Rather than just relating new information verbally, show a picture.
And rather than just showing a picture, provide the student with hands-on materials and
experiences and the opportunity to try things out.
-Break longer, new tasks into small steps. Demonstrate the steps. Have the student do the steps,
one at a time. Provide assistance, as necessary.
-Give the student immediate feedback.
-Teach the student life skills such as daily living, social skills, and occupational awareness and
exploration, as appropriate. Involve the student in group activities or clubs.
-Work together with the student's parents and other school personnel to create and implement an
educational plan tailored to meet the student's needs. Regularly share information about how the
student is doing at school and at home.
2.11 Designing Instruction. For many students with disabilities, carefully designed instruction plays an integral role
in successful learning. Instructional design begins with prioritization. All 50 states now have a
set of content standards that represent what students need to learn. However, not all standards are
equal in their importance. For example, in reading and language arts, understanding that different
47
texts types (e.g., narrative, descriptive, compare-contrast) have different text structures is an idea
that is considerably more important for all students to learn than specific reading vocabulary
(e.g., the meaning of particular story-specific words).
Thus, in planning to differentiate instruction teachers need to consider which content standards
are of the highest priority and invest more time teaching those standards.
Prioritizing instruction for students with disabilities is, in part, related to learner characteristics.
To enhance learners’ capacity to retain and retrieve information, teachers should emphasize
instruction that (a) explicitly highlights connections between important content, (b) helps
learners to categorize information and (c) links new information to what they already know. In
order to assist students with disabilities to be more strategic in their learning teachers should
emphasize instruction that teaches the necessary prerequisite information for strategy use
including all of the steps of the strategy. Moreover, teachers should model how to use learning
strategies and when strategies should and should not be applied. For example, a common strategy
that many readers employ for understanding text is to predict what the text is going to be about
based on salient text features (e.g., title, overview). As proficient readers read, they constantly
revise this prediction to accommodate new information. Because we know this is an effective
strategy employed by skilled readers, teachers should emphasize the use of such a strategy by
modeling how and when to use it and giving students ample opportunities to use the strategy
across stories and expository text.
To address difficulties students often experience in vocabulary development, teachers
should strategically identify words that are critical to understanding instructional texts. These
words should be taught directly and encouraged to utilize the words in other appropriate
contexts. Teachers can also categorize and teach words as those that students need to know at a
basic level (i.e., those that may appear infrequently in texts but are important to understanding a
story or an expository passage), and those that need to be understood at a deeper level (i.e., those
that are likely to appear frequently in children’s texts and are likely to be encountered often).
Finally, teachers should capitalize on the amassing evidence that coding language phonologically
is important for successful reading development (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; National
Reading Panel, 2000). Being able to manipulate the phonemes or individual sounds in words
facilitates word analysis which, in turn, leads to more fluent reading. While fluent reading does
not guarantee successful comprehension, it does increase the likelihood that a learner will enjoy
48
reading, read more, and develop a richer vocabulary and more sophisticated reading strategies
(Baker, Kame’enui, & Simmons, 1998).
In addition to prioritizing instruction, several principles of instructional design and
delivery play an important role in providing curricular access. First, teachers should consider the
scaffolds that can be put in place to assist students in their learning of new materials. Generally,
scaffolds can be thought of in two forms, material or personnel. Material scaffolds are tools that
help the learner successfully employ a strategy or part of a strategy that they might not otherwise
be able to successfully use. For example, in using the writing process, many students with
disabilities are unable to plan effectively for writing. One material scaffold that assists them in
this process are “think sheets” (Englert). This tool is structured with the elements of the type of
text students are expected to generate (e.g., narrative) so that students can plan for their writing.
Personnel scaffolds, teachers and peers, provide more proficient models and prompts to less
proficient students as they develop their independence. For example, peer-assisted reading has
been used successfully to assist students to enhance their reading fluency and comprehension
(Arreaga-Meyer , Simmons). As a consequence of their persistent memory difficulties, many
students with disabilities profit from extended opportunities for practice, additional examples,
and carefully planned opportunities for review. For example, after modeling how skilled readers
summarize their reading of an expository text passage, all students need opportunities to apply
this strategy when they read in other passages. For many students with disabilities these
opportunities need to be carefully planned with ample practice soon after the strategy has been
taught.
Additionally, ongoing feedback to help learners refine their use of the strategy, and sufficient
review opportunities to ensure that the strategy eventually becomes part of the learner’s
repertoire.
2.12 Teaching Differently To Make A Difference
Many teachers believe that working with students with disabilities means making
extensive accommodations to their instruction. While a few students with disabilities present
very unique learning needs, they are by far the exception. Most students who are identified for
special education share similar learning characteristics, difficulties with memory retention and
retrieval, strategy use, vocabulary development, and language coding. As students transition to
49
the middle level, the need to address these areas of difficulty grow increasingly important. By
carefully designing instruction of priority areas supported by scaffolds and ample practice and
review we can maximize student understanding. In addition, by differentiating instruction in
terms of the pace of newly introduced material, frequent monitoring of student progress, and
flexible grouping, the majority of students with disabilities can access the general education
curriculum meaningfully and maintain their knowledge and skills. Meeting this goal will make
all the difference.
2.13 A Strategy For Curriculum Development The development by the NCCA of curriculum guidelines is part of a strategy in which curricula
for students with special educational needs will be addressed.
This strategy will
• provide an overall structure for curriculum development for students with special
educational needs
Because of the diversity and complexity of needs within schools and classes, any curriculum
development at national level must be in the form of curriculum guidelines.
• draw on best practice, national and international, in the development of the
guidelines
Curricula must allow for differentiation within a school or class relative to the needs, abilities
and aptitudes of the students. This will necessitate wholeschool planning, regular review, and the
development of cross-curricular skills. If a student is operating below his or her chronological
age, he or she should be taught using age-appropriate methods, approaches, and resources.
Guidelines that offers broad descriptions of outcomes rather than a prescription of content is
therefore likely to be appropriate. The guidelines should be flexible enough to be relevant to a
wide variety of school and class types within each sector. Curriculum development should also
take account of the complex learning styles of all students.
• facilitate linkages to mainstream curricula where appropriate
There is a need to explore how a coherent relationship between mainstream and special curricula
can be achieved and how relevant this relationship is for students at both primary and post-
primary levels. The proposed curriculum guidelines will consider core competences, academic
achievement, and the continuing need for an emphasis on life skills and independence training.
The overall aim should be that the students acquire skills that are relevant to their lives, both as
50
young people and as adults. The extent to which elements of mainstream curricula can contribute
to this will be explored thoroughly.
• take account of the resource implications of any curriculum guidelines
It will provide a context and an opportunity to address the issues of the relevant human and
physical resources that will be necessary in making the strategy effective.
2.14 Summary
The report concluded that questions about whether there is a separate special education
pedagogy are unhelpful given the current policy context, and that the more important agenda is
about how to develop a pedagogy that is inclusive of all learners. The report considers how the
strategies identified from the review as having the potential to raise achievement might be
usefully organised in a typology that could be used to create a multi-method response to teaching
pupils with special educational needs.
The report contains recommendations for further research. A second phase of this
research programme should involve systematic, long-term development work across a range of
sites and settings, which also allows for the examination of the impact of the innovations upon
achievement. Such research is necessary to advance knowledge about teaching and learning, and
to understand how combinations of teaching approaches might be used in different contexts and
for different purposes. Such a research programme should examine teaching and learning in real
settings as it will need to take account of the ways in which teachers do their work in relation to
the wide variety of situations they face.
2.15 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Aligning The Goals Of Curriculum With The Apsn Vision
2. Explain Desired Outcomes
3. Explain Apsn Curriculum Development Process
4. Explain Features Of Revised Syllabuses
5. Explain Three Major Emphasis For The Education Of The Mildly
Intellectual Disabled
6. Explain Core Subjects
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7. Explain Some Promising Teaching Strategies And Approaches
8. Explain Tips For Teachers: Mental Retardation
9. Explain Designing Instruction.
10. Explain A Strategy For Curriculum Development
11. Explain Teaching Differently To Make A Difference
3. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.4.1. Points for discussion
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67. Department of Education and Science. (2004). The education for persons with special
educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
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Australia (2001). South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability
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Office.
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Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
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Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
72. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
73. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
74. Dewey, J. (1959). My pedagogic creed. In M. S. Dorkin (ed.) Dewey on education. New
York: Teacher’s College Press.
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75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
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Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
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81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
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Lancashire County Council.
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infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
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Unit 3: Curriculum Domains - Personal, Social, Academics, Recreational
And Community Living
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Personal Management Strand
3.3 Communication Domain
3.4 Social Domain
3.5 Communication
3.6 Independent Living Domain
3.7 Technology/ Computer Skills Strand
3.8 Summary
3.9 Check Your Progress
3.10 References
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3.1 Introduction
Career development is a lifelong, ongoing process through which learners integrate their
personal, family, school, and community learning experiences to facilitate career and lifestyle
choices (Cahill, 2001). Career entails the totality of one’s life experiences over one’s lifespan
and career development refers to the factors and influences that help shape one’s life story
(Career Development 2201 Curriculum Guide, p.1) Career education should be considered
learning for life rather than learning for school. It ought to be a planned process, designed and
delivered in a holistic rather than fragmented manner that attends to all needs of the individual
with the aim to facilitate good mental health, as well as economic well-being. The best career
exploration programs are developmental, linking learning to life.
In short, career education is viewed as the totality of life’s experiences through which an
individual learns about, prepares, and engages in work. This means that the career development
domain does not stand alone within a functional curriculum. Rather, many of the outcomes of the
career domain also appear in the domains of personal management/interpersonal skills,
independent living, functional academic development. It is vital that we look at these similar
outcomes through the lens of career if students are to be educated and supported in this domain.
Career development is divided into three strands:
Personal Management
Career Exploration and Awareness
Career Preparation and Experience
These strands, like the functional curriculum strands, are inter-related and supportive of each
other. As well, outcomes for these three strands can be found in many strands of the other
domains. For example, the functional skills identified for building relationships and those
outlined in the citizenship strand of this domain are similar to the outcomes of the social
development strand of the personal development/interpersonal skills domain. Therefore, the
outcomes listed below for all strands under the career development domain are not extensive in
nature as many of the outcomes are found in other strands in each of the other domains. As
mentioned earlier in this guide, some outcomes are not exclusive to one strand or one domain;
rather, they are imbedded across a number of domains. Offered below are just some of the
outcomes that fit within the career development domain.
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3.2 Personal Management Strand The purpose of the personal management strand is to enable students to develop skills
conducive to keeping a job and being a productive member of society. Any career development
program designed to educate and prepare students for work has personal management skills as its
foundation. These personal management skills provide a bridge between behaviours in the
classroom, the community, and on-the-job that are conducive to being a productive member of
society.
The importance of social relationships, friendships, school community and work to a
person’s quality of life cannot be overemphasized. To deny students these essential components
is, in essence, to deny them the opportunity to live a rich, full life. It is critical that educators
address these issues as part of the curriculum. It is particularly important that educators focusing
on career education build meaningful, collaborative relationships with parents, families and
community members (Wehmyer, 2002).
Personal Management includes themes such as managing behaviour and conduct, social
skills, sensory awareness and management, self-awareness, self-esteem, personal safety, time
management, building relationships, citizenship, self-advocacy, organization and personal
hygiene.
Personal Management Strand
Functional Skills Outcomes
Managing Behaviour and Conduct
Student will:
recognize appropriate social and workplace boundaries
call to report absence
understand the importance of consistent attendance
consistently attend school or work
have an understanding of work expectations and responsibilities
accept constructive criticism
accept and correct errors
take responsibility for own actions
accept the consequences of own actions
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understand what casual dress means in the workplace
Social Skills
Student will:
recognize the needs of others
exhibit empathy for others
make eye contact
initiate conversation
share with others
complete a task which involves another person
use socially appropriate greetings
use socially appropriate language
understand socially inappropriate behaviour (e.g., hands in pants, fingers in nose or mouth,
hitting, throwing, spitting)
demonstrate appropriate telephone skills
Sensory Awareness and Management
Student will:
demonstrate an awareness of sensory needs
choose strategy to address sensory needs
use strategy to address sensory needs
learn several strategies to address specific sensory needs
independently choose appropriate strategy to address sensory need when a number of choices are
presented
independently use appropriate strategies to address specific sensory needs in many environments
apply self-regulation of sensory needs
Self-awareness
Student will:
recognize his/her likes and dislikes
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communicate his/her likes and dislikes
recognize personal strengths
communicate personal strengths
recognize personal needs
communicate personal needs
recognize emotional strengths
* refer to self- awareness/self-esteem strand in the personal development/interpersonal skills domain for
additional outcomes
Self-esteem
Student will:
identify positive characteristics of self
recognize his/her place in the family
identify how family members show that they care for him/her
identify how he/she contributes to the family
recognize friend connections
identify how friends show that they care for him/her
identify how he/she shows caring for friends
recognize ways he/she is a good friend
recognize that he/she can do things
talk about what he/she does well
recognize ways he/she is helpful to neighbours
identify ways her/she contributes to the community
identify things he/she is proud of
* refer to self- awareness/self-esteem strand in personal development/interpersonal skills domain for
additional outcomes
Personal Safety
Student will:
identify safety, survival, directional, and environmental signs (e.g., exit, wheelchair, washroom, slippery
floor, hard hats).
identify WHMIS (Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System) signs
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follow safety rules specific to their work environment (e.g., safety check list)
remain in designated work zones
recognize and appropriately respond to environmental cues (e.g., fire alarms, sirens)
Time Management
Student will:
arrive on time for school or work
leave on time from school or work
be punctual for meetings, classes, etc
be punctual for activities
demonstrate an understanding of time management at school, home and work
identify tips for organization of time at home,
identify tips for organization of time at school
identify tips for organization of time at work
demonstrate knowledge of beginning and ending of a task
know when to move from one activity to another
keep a daily schedule
learn to create a ‘to-do list’
* refer to the social development strand in personal development/interpersonal skills domain for
additional outcomes
Building Relationships
Student will:
respond to a social greeting
vocalize in response to attention
reciprocate greetings and farewells
say name during introductions
engage in socially appropriate behaviours in the work place
talk about subject matter appropriate to the situation
initiate group activities and conversations
identify the qualities of a friend
identify a friend in the work place
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identify ways to make and keep friendships
identify how one’s personal behaviours affect others
* refer to social development strand in personal development/interpersonal skills domain for additional
outcomes
Citizenship
Student will:
develop community awareness
know name of his/her community
state his/her own address
identify ways to take care of his/her community
give examples of appropriate ways to dispose of waste in his/her community
understand the importance of recycling
identify ways people can help keep the environment clean
demonstrate awareness of community services for homeless and neglected animals
give examples of poaching
identify community services to meet specific needs (e.g., health agencies, leisure and recreation
services, fire department)
* refer to the citizenship strand in personal development/interpersonal skills domain for additional
outcome
Self-advocacy
Student will:
identify activities he/she would like to do
identify activities he/she has no interest in doing
communicate his/her personal needs to another individual
express the desire to participate in making decisions about himself/herself
recognize the right to speak out and be heard about issues concerning himself/herself
identify his/her right to services
speak out about his/her right to services
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identify people to speak with if his/her rights are being violated
demonstrate an understanding of the right to citizenship and community involvement
Organization
Student will:
recognize and care for personal belongings
recognize personal work space and the work space of others
keep an accurate record of work (e.g., punch clock, check list)
recognize task completion
recognize beginning and end of task
recognize time limits on task
recognize start and finish times
recognize when to move from one task to another
recognize a schedule
read a schedule
follow a schedule
participate in the development of a schedule
use appropriate technology to complete a task (e.g., on/off switch)
Personal Hygiene
Student will:
recognize the importance of presenting a clean appearance in the workplace
identify behaviours inappropriate to the workplace and in the presence of others (e.g., hands in
pants, fingers in nose)
use napkin to clean hands and face after eating
brush teeth after a snack or a meal
wash hands after using washroom facilitates
do not talk about body functions in the presence of co-workers
cover nose with a tissue when sneezing
clean up own work place and eating area
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recognize appropriate social and workplace boundaries
* refer to personal care strand of personal development domain for additional outcomes
3.3 Communication Domain Today methodologies, specific to each type and degree of disability have been
developed/made available as part and parcel of an integrated educational system to aid
communication, support activities of daily living and to enhance learning. Computer-assisted
instruction can help in many areas, including word recognition, mathematics, spelling and even
social skills. Computers have also been found to promote interaction with nondisabled peers.
Staff training and service providing organizations are enabled, both in government or non-
government sectors, to develop programs beginning from early detection/intervention to adult
independent living by means of audio-visual presentations, education satellite communication
network, available freely and in local languages. Distance mode education programs have also
been made accessible through this communication system.
The distance mode of education provided by Indira Gandhi National Open University
(IGNOU), the Rehabilitation Council of India with M.P. Bhoj Open University, Centre for
Advanced Computing (C-DAC) provide quality educational material in all the local languages, a
commendable national initiative. Technology is available in local languages, though not yet, at
low cost or no cost. Based on the socio-economic need and the affordability of the persons with
disability, many more products of utility in the public domain need to be made available on large
scale.
3.4 Social Domain
The Social and Emotional Behavior Domain focuses on working in groups and developing
interpersonal relationships. Functioning effectively in formal and informal group situations
requires that individuals understand the implicit and explicit rules and expectations. Using
effective interpersonal skills is the key to success in this area.
Social Skills
Social skills can be broadly defined as any responses that are interactive with another person.
Many of the personal care, home living, community and employment skills are interactive. Some
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social skills are more specifically related to influencing others and developing friendships. There
are four primary social interactions that should be addressed:
• social initiation
• social responsiveness to others
• turn taking
• duration of social interaction
Planning for Problem Behavior
A functional assessment is a process used to determine how problem behavior functions in the
student’s environment. A successful functional assessment will provide:
• an operational definition of the behavior
• identification of variables that will predict when the behavior will occur
• hypotheses about the consequences that are maintaining the behavior
• verification of the predictors and consequences
A functional assessment is key to behavior change. The information gathered from a functional
assessment is used to develop a positive behavioral support plan that will rely primarily on
antecedent strategies to prevent the occurrence of the problem behavior.
3.5 Communication Communication skills are among the top priorities for students with developmental
disabilities. Effective communication skills enable students to express their thoughts and needs
and respond to interactions with others. To be able to communicate with peers facilitates social
interactions in all settings. Without an effective means of communication, individuals with
moderate and severe disabilities are not able to make choices and therefore relinquish control of
their daily lives. Knowing how to participate in discussions and conversations with others will
enable students to make effective use of communication. Competencies related to
communication and language are also described in the curriculum and leaning environment and
social and emotional behavior domains of the Sunshine State Standards for Special Diploma.
3.6 Independent Living Domain Gaining independence at home, at school, in the community and/or in the workplace is central to
the development of self-reliance, confidence and daily functioning in society. Independence
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provides opportunities to interact and participate in daily activities that would otherwise be quite
limited. Promoting independence starts in the pre-school years and continues throughout life.
The focus of curriculum in relation to independent living will change as the student matures and
reflects level of cognitive and physical functioning. It is important for students to be able to meet
their potential and not be restricted by dependence on others in whatever choices they make
throughout their lives. The transfer of independent living skills to everyday functioning is vital in
order to become a self-sufficient and contributing member of society.
The strands of the Independent Living Domain include:
Personal Care
Domestic Skills
Money Skills
Safety Skills
Personal Care Strand
Being able to take care of one’s needs not only enhances independence
but, in the process of learning these skills, it can provide many
opportunities for the person to exercise self-determination. These skills,
primarily in the areas of grooming and personal hygiene, eating and
drinking, dressing and undressing, toileting, orientation/mobility/travel
and assistive technology, are considered to be among the most important
skills for individuals with severe needs. The acquisition of these skills
enhances self-esteem, self-confidence and the development of
independence. Personal Care Strand
Functional Skills Outcomes
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Grooming and Personal Hygiene
Student will:
turn water on
turn water off
regulate water temperature
wash hands
dry hands
soap a washcloth
wash face
dry face
brush teeth
use mouthwash
use dental floss
comb hair
brush hair
use hairstyling products
style hair
blow nose into tissue
dispose of tissue
use mirror to assure daily neatness
fill a bath tub
take a bath
shampoo and rinse hair
condition and rinse hair
take a shower
wash hair
towel dry hair
dry hair with blow dryer
demonstrate basic eye care
use (unscented) deodorant
comply with scent free environment
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clean eyeglasses
keep nails clean
keep nails trimmed
polish nails
tweeze eyebrows
apply makeup
follow shaving routine
follow menstrual hygiene routine
recognize appropriate/inappropriate grooming
identify when to make an appointment for a hair cut, medical
check up, etc.
take necessary steps to obtain an appointment
explore hairstyles and communicate to hairdresser
Eating and Drinking
Student will:
indicate the need/want for food
request specific foods or snacks
eat finger foods
drink through a straw
drink from a cup
chew foods
keep mouth closed while chewing
identify eating utensils
use a spoon
use a fork
use a knife
use a napkin
use salt and pepper shaker
stir foods
pour a drink
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pour solid foods
open food containers
close food containers
obtain food from serving containers
drink from a water fountain
ask for food
refuse food
indicate when full
remain at the table throughout a meal.
Dressing and Undressing
Student will:
initiate undressing activity
initiate some dressing activity
identify articles of clothing by name
identify the function of articles of clothing
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put on hat
take off hat
put on socks
take off socks
remove footwear
put on footwear
put on mittens and gloves
remove mittens and gloves
remove coat
put on coat
hang up coat
put on a pullover shirt
put on pull-up pants
distinguish front and back of clothing
identify when clothing is inside out and correct
remove articles of clothing at appropriate times
straighten and adjust clothing items
unsnap a garment
snap a garment
unzip a garment
zip a garment
unbutton a garment
button a garment
untie clothing
tie clothing
insert a belt in loops
unfasten a belt
fasten a belt
take belt out of loops of pants
tie shoelaces
lace shoes
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put on tights and panty hose
remove tights and panty hose
put on and remove a bra
put on a pre-tied necktie
remove a necktie
tie a necktie
choose and wear accessories
use a purse or wallet
choose clothing appropriate to given situation, weather and/or activity
select clothing that matches and/or “goes together”
select own clothing items
ensure privacy when dressing and undressing
put on clothing correctly
name own clothing size and shoe size
Toileting
Student will:
indicate the need to change wet/soiled pants
recognize the need to use the washroom
indicate the need to go to or be taken to the washroom
understand difference between needing to urinate and needing to have a bowel movement
ensure privacy when using the washroom
ensure toilet paper on roll
use a toilet for urine
use a urinal
use a toilet for bowel movements
use toilet paper
flush the toilet after every use
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put toilet seat down after using
wash and dry hands after toileting
exhibit bladder control
exhibit bowel control
identify washroom signs (i.e. male/female)
identify where the washroom is located in school
locate the appropriate washroom in unfamiliar places
use community bathroom facilities
care for toileting needs independently
plan ahead for bathroom needs
Orientation, Mobility, and Travel
Student will:
sit in a wheelchair
move the wheelchair forward
move to the left in a wheelchair
move to the right in a wheelchair
stop the motion of a wheelchair
move the wheelchair in a backward motion
push/pull a door while in a wheelchair
open/close a door while in a wheelchair
control speed of wheelchair when moving up or down a ramp
transition in and out of wheelchair with support
stand upright using a walker
walk forward using a walker
turn to the left using a walker
turn to the right using a walker
walk around an object using a walker
walk backward using a walker
walk through a doorway using a walker
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push/pull a door while using a walker
open/close a door while using a walker
negotiate stairs using a walker
transition from sitting to walker
demonstrate safe outdoor travel skills (i.e., using a walker, wheelchair)
demonstrate safe indoor travel skills (i.e., using a walker, wheelchair)
walk up and down a staircase
leave vehicle and enter the school
leave school and enter the vehicle
demonstrate use of a crosswalk
understand simple traffic signs (i.e., walk, don’t walk)
manoeuvre around classroom
maneuver around school grounds
use motorized wheelchair
use elevators
use escalators
use revolving doors
use automatic doors
follow directions to arrive at a destination
travel to one destination in neighbourhood
travel to more than one destination in neighbourhood
cross a street and intersection safely
plan a travel route in school and community
physically locate self in specific areas relevant to daily schedule inside/outside of the building
identify modes of transportation for moving people from place to place
locate entrances/exists/restrooms in public buildings
use public transportation
Assistive Technology
Student will:
Computer Access
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use key guard
use arm support
use track ball/track pad/joystick with on-screen keyboard
use alternate keyboard
use pointing options
use switch with Morse code
use switch with scanning
use voice recognition software
use word prediction software
use a screen magnifier
Writing
use pencil or pen with adaptive grip
use adapted paper
use slant board
use prewritten words/phrases
use templates
use computer software
Recreation/Leisure
use toys adapted with Velcro, magnets, handles, etc. use toys for single switch operation
use adaptive sporting equipment use universal cuff or strap to hold crayons, markers, etc.
use modified utensils use arm support for drawing/painting use electronic aids to control
TV, VCR, CD player, etc.
use software to complete art activities
use computer games
Activities of Daily Living
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use non-slip materials to hold things in place
use universal cuff/strap to hold items in hand
use color coded items for easier locating and identifying
use adaptive eating devices
use adaptive drinking devices
use adaptive dressing equipment
use adaptive devices for hygiene
use adaptive bathing devices
use adaptive equipment for cooking
use light switch extension
use interface and switch to activate battery operated devices
use interface and switch to turn on electrical appliances
Positioning, Seating and Mobility
use standard seat at correct height and depth
use non-solid surface on standard seat to prevent slipping
use bolster, rolled towel, blocks to assist in positioning
use adapted chair, sidelyer, stander
use alternate chair, sidelyer, stander, custom fitted wheelchair or insert
use walker
use grab bars and rails
use manual wheelchair
use powered mobility toy
use powered scooter or cart
use powered wheelchair with joystick or other control
Vision and Hearing
use glasses
use magnifier
use large print books
use screen magnification software
use screen color contrast
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use enlarged or tactile labels for keyboard
use alternate keyboard with enlarged keys
use hearing aids
store leftovers properly
wash and dry dishes by hand or dishwasher
prepare a bagged lunch
identify and sort food items that are refrigerated
identify and sort food items that are non-refrigerated
identify the materials and ingredients necessary to prepare various foods
observe the function of basic kitchen appliances, tools, and utensils
illustrate why food must be properly stored and prepared
identify basic terms used in food preparation
use simple electric appliances
prepare foods using a stove top
prepare foods using an oven
prepare foods using a microwave
use an outdoor grill
identify basic liquid and solid measures
follow instructions on cans or boxes of packaged foods
follow written and/or verbal directions to prepare a recipe
Shopping
Student will:
indicate need for specific items before going shopping
indicate where to purchase item
use flyers to make a shopping list
make shopping list
shop for items
select items in store from shopping list
exhibit appropriate behaviour in stores
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locate products in different areas of stores
identify salesperson
request assistance from a salesperson when needed
use shopping cart
use shopping basket
buy an item
pay for item prior to leaving store
keep the receipt of item purchased
understand how to return an item to the store
verbalize information about types of stores
Housekeeping
Student will:
empty garbage
change garbage bag
clean garbage can
identify recyclable materials
dispose of recyclable materials in proper place
sweep floor
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mop floor
wash and rinse dishes
dry dishes
operate dishwasher correctly
sort and put away utensils
put away dishes
clean sink
clear and wipe counter
wipe appliance surfaces
clean refrigerator
clean freezer
clean an oven
make bed
change the bedding
hang pictures, mirrors or curtains
put dirty clothes in hamper
hang clean clothes in closet
put clean clothes in drawer
pick up personal items
put items on a shelf
clean and organize a closet
water household plants
use a vacuum cleaner
vacuum carpet/rug
use common household cleaning products
dust furniture
polish furniture
clean windows and mirrors
clean bathtub/shower
clean toilet
clean sink
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clean windows
clean walls and woodwork
hang towel/facecloth on rack
replace bathroom supplies when needed
perform simple yard work
use yard tools
water a lawn and outdoor plants
Laundry and Clothing Care
Student will:
identify dirty clothing items
distinguish between dirty and clean clothing
put dirty clothing in a basket
collect clothing for washing
sort the clothing for washing
use the care label for simple directions
demonstrate safe and proper use of cleaning supplies for clothes
identify stains
understand stain removal methods
understand temperature of water
hand wash clothing items
set dials on a washing machine
use a washing machine
remove clothes from washer
put clothes into the dryer
operate a clothes dryer
hang clothes on line to dry
fold clothes
hang clothes on hangers
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hang clothes on bar in closet
put clothes in drawer
iron clothes
store out of season clothing
use a sewing machine
use a needle and thread
sew on a button
do a simple mend
use a laundromat
use a commercial dry cleaner
First Aid
Student will:
recognize when first aid treatment is required
describe symptoms to an adult
ask for help
clean a simple scrape, cut, etc.
put on a band-aid
treat a burn
take temperature with thermometer
take medication with supervision
self-medicate (e.g., aspirin)
identify first aid kit and its contents
follow an emergency plan
call 911 for an emergency
Telephone Skills
Student will:
recognize components of telephone
recognize use of telephone
associate written telephone numbers with appropriate numbers on telephone pad
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manipulate the telephone receiver
manipulate telephone dial pad
make a telephone call
hold a brief telephone conversation
answer telephone
terminate telephone conversation
use several types of telephones (i.e. cell, cordless, pay phone)
carry home a telephone number (on a card)
recite own telephone number from memory
recognize a busy signal
relay simple telephone messages
record a telephone message
use telephone for social calls
understand long distance calling
make an emergency telephone call
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identify emergency telephone list
Home Maintenance
Student will:
define the word “maintenance”
make a list of maintenance problems which occur frequently in the home (e.g., leaking faucet,
short in electrical cord)
construct a bulletin board of common household tools used in maintenance
demonstrate the appropriate use of basic tools
decide which tools to use and how to use them to complete simple home repairs, (e.g., tightening a
screw, using a hammer)
develop a scrapbook depicting appropriate use of tools
visit a hardware store or tool center; review basic tools and how they are used
develop a “go-together” game (e.g., hammer goes with nails; screwdriver goes with screws)
identify who is responsible to perform various maintenance problems
replace light bulbs
check and replace batteries in smoke detector
hang a picture
7.3 Money Skills Strand
Money is an integral part of everyday life. Learning to use money in meeting basic needs is an
important step towards independence. Themes related to money skills include purchasing,
budgeting, planning and banking.
Money Skills Strand
Functional Skills Outcomes
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Purchasing
Student will:
indicate desire to make a purchase
identify that a purchase needs to be made
recognize the need to have money for purchasing items
recognize that items in a store have different values
identify different coins and bills
make choices about a purchase
locate the check out
ask store clerk for assistance
use manners when making a purchase
identify cashier
place items on counter
give money to cashier
accept change and/or receipt
take purchased items
use vending machine to make a purchase
Budgeting & Planning
Student will:
save money to make a specific purchase
plan purchases for an activity
estimate the amount of money for a purchase
identify amount of money for purchase
give examples of recurring needs for a budget
set priorities to make future purchases
save money for later purchases
estimate amount of money required for purchase
participate in discussion on when to use money
keep a record of allowance or income
keep a simple record of expenditures
prepare a simple budget for a period of time (week, month, etc)
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pay monthly bills
Banking
Student will:
describe common procedures at a bank
open a bank account
endorse a cheque
deposit cash/cheques using counter service inside a bank
write a cheque
use a debit card
withdraw cash using counter service inside a bank
use an ATM machine to deposit cash/cheques
use an ATM machine to withdraw cash
pay a bill at a bank
demonstrate skills for banking by telephone
participate in discussion of how much money is in their account
participate in discussion on what to use their money for
demonstrate privacy issues regarding banking (i.e., PIN #)
identify persons responsible for safety in the community
− follow safety practices associated with the Internet
3.7 Technology/ Computer Skills Strand Technology and computer skills can provide an individual with a sense of empowerment when
used to enhance skills in mobility, communication, learning, play, daily living, etc. This strand
focuses on skills involved in learning to use common-place and student specific devices for
90
functional or recreational purposes. Themes within this strand include computer skills,
keyboarding, using the Internet and using common technological devices.
3.8 Summary Technological advances in general education and more so in special education is of recent
occurrence. The Department of Education launched a pilot project on computer literacy in 1985
in a number of regular schools. Presently in a number of States, regular school education
includes computer literacy as part of curriculum (Dutta, 1986).
Word processor programs in Indian languages have been developed for wider reach. Production
of adapted peripherals and add-on devices with indigenously developed software are rapidly
increasing to suit the need of the persons with disabilities.
3.9 Check Your Progress 1. Explain Personal Management Strand
2. Explain Communication domain
3. Explain Social domain
4. Explain COMMUNICATION
5. Explain Independent Living Domain
6. Explain Technology/ Computer Skills Strand
5. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.6.1. Points for discussion
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98
60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
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and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
61. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
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education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
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Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
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Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
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DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
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York: Teacher’s College Press.
99
75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
76. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
100
101
Unit 4: Steps In Developing Curriculum, Challenges Of Developing
Curriculum For Inclusion
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ncca Structures For Curriculum Development In Special Education
4.3 A Strategy For Curriculum Development
4.4 Inclusive Education
4.5 Inclusive Preschool !
4.6 Curriculum Guidelines: Outline Of The Framework
4.7 Enabling Skills
4.8 Life Skills
4.9 Elaboration Of The Key Learning Areas
4.10 Communication And Language
4.11 Adapting Curriculum For Children With Retardation
4.12 Curricular Issues And Concerns
4.12.1 The Purpose
4.12.2 Early Intervention And Preschool Programme For Children
With Sen
4.12.3 Planning And Managing An Inclusive Curriculum In Schools
4.12.4 Access To An Inclusive Curriculum
4.12.5 Teaching Practices
4.12.6 Content Areas
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4.12.7 Staff Development
4.13 Summary
4.14 Check Your Progress
4.15 References
103
4.1 Introduction
For the purpose of this document, inclusion is defined as providing specially designed
instruction and supports for students with special needs in the context of regular education
settings. It means that all students in a schoolÕs attendance area are full members of that school
community and each student participates equitably in the opportunities and responsibilities of the
general education environment. Those involved in inclusion efforts understand that classrooms
are becoming more and more diverse and that the teacherÕs job is Òto arrange instruction that
benefits all studentsÐeven though the various students may derive different benefitsÓ (Rogers,
1993, p. 4). Past assumptions about special education and general education as separate systems
are giving way to a challenge to work together (Moore, 1996). After looking extensively at the
research on placement of students with disabilities, Hocutt (1996) concludes that instruction, not
setting, is the key to achievement of success as measured by student outcomes. Further, she
reports that case-by-case approaches are the best way to make decisions about student instruction
and placement. Intensive and reasonably individualized instruction, close cooperation between
general and special education teachers, and careful, frequent monitoring of student progress are
very important (p. 97). Special education is not a place. It is specialized instruction and
supplementary aids and services provided to students with disabilities who need specialized
instruction. Some students (labeled as receiving special education or not) may need, or want, to
spend some of their time learning in a quieter place with fewer people or with additional help
from others. The vignettes that are placed throughout this booklet illustrate how special
education services are being delivered in more inclusive ways in actual schools and classrooms
in Alaska and Oregon. ÒInclusionÓ looks different in each case. The vignettes demonstrate
some of the salient features of good inclusion. At the conclusion of the document resources are
available that may help you as you work toward quality special education in Alaska.
4.2 Ncca Structures For Curriculum Development In Special Education
Initially the NCCA will focus on the development of curriculum guidelines for students
with general learning disabilities at both primary and post-primary levels. Three broad groups are
identified for this initial phase. These groups are the largest numerically and are catered for in
the broadest range of settings.
104
The NCCA Special Education Steering Committee proposes to
• develop curriculum guidelines for students with mild general learning disability
• review and develop the existing provision for students with moderate general learning disability
• develop curriculum guidelines for students with severe and profound general learning
disability.
The following structures have been established by the NCCA to develop curriculum guidelines
for these three groups:
• a widely representative steering committee (appendix II)
• three working groups, which will identify the essential skills and processes required to provide
broad curriculum opportunities and experiences for students in the three specified areas. Each
working group comprises teachers, parents, and a representative from the Department of
Education and Science. (appendix III). Structures have been established to ensure wide
consultation with other relevant and interested parties.
4.3 A Strategy For Curriculum Development The development by the NCCA of curriculum guidelines is part of a strategy in which curricula
for students with special educational needs will be addressed.
This strategy will
• provide an overall structure for curriculum development for students with special
educational needs
Because of the diversity and complexity of needs within schools and classes, any curriculum
development at national level must be in the form of curriculum guidelines.
• draw on best practice, national and international, in the development of the guidelines
Curricula must allow for differentiation within a school or class relative to the needs, abilities
and aptitudes of the students. This will necessitate wholeschool planning, regular review, and the
development of cross-curricular skills. If a student is operating below his or her chronological
age, he or she should be taught using age-appropriate methods, approaches, and resources.
Guidelines that offers broad descriptions of outcomes rather than a prescription of content is
therefore likely to be appropriate. The guidelines should be flexible enough to be relevant to a
wide variety of school and class types within each sector. Curriculum development should also
take account of the complex learning styles of all students.
• facilitate linkages to mainstream curricula where appropriate
105
There is a need to explore how a coherent relationship between mainstream and special curricula
can be achieved and how relevant this relationship is for students at both primary and post-
primary levels. The proposed curriculum guidelines will consider core competences, academic
achievement, and the continuing need for an emphasis on life skills and independence training.
The overall aim should be that the students acquire skills that are relevant to their lives, both as
young people and as adults. The extent to which elements of mainstream curricula can contribute
to this will be explored thoroughly.
• take account of the resource implications of any curriculum guidelines
It will provide a context and an opportunity to address the issues of the relevant human and
physical resources that will be necessary in making the strategy effective.
4.4 Inclusive Education
The National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE) (2000), brought out
by the NCERT, recommended inclusive schools for all without specific reference to pupils with
SEN as a way of providing quality education to all learners According to NCFSE:
Segregation or isolation is good neither for learners with disabilities nor for general learners
without disabilities. Societal requirement is that learners with special needs should be educated
along with other learners in inclusive schools, which are cost effective and have sound
pedagogical practices (NCERT, 2000)
The NCFSE also recommended definitive action at the level of curriculum makers,
teachers, writers of teaching–learning materials, and evaluation experts for the success of this
strategy. This precipitated a revision of the IEDC scheme. This revision is in progress and has, to
a certain extent, gained ground in the country. Internationally, until the end of 1980s, integration
remained the main issue whenever discussions were held regarding the rights of disabled persons
to an appropriate education. Whereas, in India, integration was a major reform of the 1970s, the
need for inclusive education became evident from the fact that despite complete financial support
under the IEDC scheme, for integrating learners with special needs into the educational system,
only 2–3% of the total population of these learners was actually integrated into the regular
schools. Dissatisfaction with the progress towards integration, consideration of costs involved,
and the advantages of an inclusive environment in bringing about increased acceptance of
learners with SEN, led to demands for more radical change. The constant use of the medical
106
model of assessment, wherein educational difficulties are explained solely in terms of defects in
the child, led to a re-conceptualisation of the special needs (SN) task as requiring school reforms
and improved pedagogy. This re-conceptualisation at the both the international and national level
helped in the emergence of an orientation towards inclusive education. In the 1990s, inclusion
captured the field after the World Conference on Special Needs Education in Salamanca in 1994,
with the adoption of the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs
Education. This statement, which was adopted by the representatives of 92 governments and 25
international organisations in June 1994, has definitely set the policy agenda for inclusive
education on a global basis (UNESCO, 1994). To quote from the Salamanca Statement:
We the delegates of the World Conference on Special Needs Education…hereby reaffirm our
commitment to Education for All, recognising the necessity and urgency of providing education
to children, youth, and adults with SEN within the regular education system, and further hereby
endorse the Framework for Action on SNE, that governments and organisations may be guided
by the spirit of its provisions and recommendations (UNESCO, 1994: 8)
Though, in India, there is no formal or official definition of inclusion, it does not only mean the
placement of students with SEN in regular classrooms.
The Draft Scheme on Inclusive Education prepared
4.5 Inclusive Preschool !
School A is from Nursery to Class X, with two to three sections per class. It has about
800 students. It employs both English and Hindi as the medium of instruction and has a
maximum of 30 students per class.
If you visit the nursery school, you will find children playing, learning, and having fun.
You will observe children with SEN in each class. The SEN are because of intellectual, hearing,
and vision impairments and neuromuscular and attention deficits disorders. But they are so well
integrated in the group that one cannot identify them from the rest. If you talk to the teacher
about inclusion of such children in the class, you will hear her say that they are like any other
children. How has this happened?
This has happened very naturally. For example, when a teacher spotted a child not
singing along with other children, she asked the child to stand next to her and repeat the rhyme
along with her, while she prompted him. By a happy coincidence, the student trainees of the
107
Diploma in Early Childhood Education were carrying out teaching practice at that very school.
The trainees discussed the strategies that could be adopted for enhancing the participation of
children in learning process, and the teachers’ realised the relevance of these strategies in the
education of children with SEN and incorporated them in their own practice.
Thus, they began using three-dimensional teaching–learning materials, masks, and puppets for
storytelling, using classmates as a peer tutors during rhymes, games, and the like. This new
approach proved a rewarding experience and promoted close bonding among the students in each
class.
By virtue of this experience, the school has adopted an open policy for admissions to its Nursery
class.
The teachers have no hesitation in accepting children with SEN, and the peer group readily
welcomes them. by the MHRD (2003) uses the following definition:
Inclusive education means all learners, young people—with or without disabilities being able to
learn together in ordinary preschool provisions, schools, and community educational settings
with appropriate network of support services (Draft of
Inclusive Education Scheme, MHRD, 2003) .
Inclusion means the process of educating children with SEN alongside their peers in mainstream
schools.
The feasibility of inclusion of such children in schools, however, has been an issue that has been
discussed and debated extensively at various national and international fora.
Inclusion remains a complex and controversial issue which tends to generate heated debates…
there is a great deal of uncertainty about the definition of inclusion… it is difficult to find
research evidence that can provide definitive guidance as to where policy and practice should be
heading…. In this climate some schools express increasing reluctance to admit and retain pupils
whose presence could have a negative impact on their overall profile of results…there is a
growing movement in education towards differentiated provision—a trend that seems
incompatible with an inclusive philosophy
4.6 Curriculum Guidelines: Outline Of The Framework
International experience has shown that developing curricula for students with special
educational needs is particularly challenging. Curricular provision, both in content and
108
methodologies, should minimise rather than emphasise difference while at the same time
facilitating integration in mainstream education where this is appropriate.
Moreover, those involved in special education, either in mainstream or in special schools, need a
common vocabulary with which to describe the educational experiences of students and to
facilitate communication between parents, teachers, and other professionals.
The guidelines developed to cater for students with mild, moderate and severe and profound
general learning disabilities will be flexible enough to be accessed by a broad variety of school
and class types. They will allow for choice and have a practical life-skills orientation that
addresses both the present and the future needs of the student. They will also address assessment
issues with a view to providing an accurate record of the student’s cognitive and attitudinal
strengths and to identifying clearly opportunities for future learning.
The curriculum guidelines will incorporate the development of key skills within broad content
areas. Cross-curricular skills will be developed within an enabling curriculum that is oriented
towards life skills. There will be a continuum of curricular provision that recognises and
addresses students’ appropriate levels of achievement and takes due account of needs, ability and
age-appropriateness. The guidelines will be adaptable for use in different circumstances and be
capable of extension and refinement.
The structure will cover broad areas of content but take into account the fact that the child is an
individual whose age and developmental stage must be considered. The importance of early
work in language and communication, preacademic skills, life skills and enabling skills will be
emphasised. Strategies for long-term and short-term planning will be incorporated, and authentic,
performance-based assessment and review will be seen as an integral part of the teaching and
learning process.
4.5.1 Structure
The structure of the curriculum guidelines will include:
• broad principles and aims of education for students with general learning disabilities
• the identification of realistic, time-referenced targets
• the use of individualised education programmes
• the use of a variety of assessment tools
• lines of development in the skills areas, with short exemplars illustrating how they can be
developed
109
• new content and linkage points to national curricula at both primary and post-primary levels
where appropriate
• whole-school and classroom planning approaches that will facilitate schools and teachers in
developing and implementing an appropriate education policy for students with special
educational needs
• a range of multi-disciplinary approaches in the education of students with special educational
needs.
When students reach post-primary level, those capable of participating in mainstream post-
primary curricula for certification can do so. For those who require more specialised provision it
is suggested that appropriate use of the structure of the Junior Cycle areas of experience could
provide such a framework.
The proposed curriculum guidelines for students with general learning disabilities will
encompass the following:
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*At primary level the development of a curriculum for religious education remains the
responsibility of the various church authorites.
4.6 Key Skills As Developmental Processes There are particular skills that enhance lifelong learning. For students with general
learning disabilities, these skills must be frequently reinforced. The student must be enabled to
use them in many different circumstances and to see their relevance in real-life situations.
Progress, however small, must always be recognised and valued. The skills will be developed
through age-appropriate content, methodologies and approaches. The three curriculum guidelines
will elaborate on this development, from their earliest applications to their use in education,
employment, and leisure.
111
Each area will be developed on a continuum, but individual schools and teachers will take
account of the age and ability of individual students in their own planning.
4.7 Enabling Skills These skills underlie all areas of a student’s education. For students whose interaction
with their environment is in the early stages, an appreciation of causality (cause and effect) and
means-end behaviour is essential. The ability to exert control over the environment is an
underlying aim of the curriculum guidelines.
Certain skills are essential to all learning: these include attending, responding, and interacting. At
the earliest stages they include the ability to attend and to use the senses in order to become
aware of the presence of people and objects in the immediate environment. These can be
developed to encompass
• responding to and interacting with people and objects
• social interaction with others
• taking part in group activities
• focusing on tasks
• understanding, collecting and organising information.
The main purpose of developing these skills is to enable the student to become an independent
learner who can use these skills in both leisure and work activities.
4.8 Life Skills Life skills are those that cross the boundaries of subjects and the school day.
They are essential for all facets of a person’s life and include the following:
Communication skills
These skills range from awareness of people and the environment, making eye contact and using
gesture, signs and symbols to listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Personal and social skills
These skills range from basic personal hygiene and self-help skills, feeding and dressing,
awareness of own feelings and body, and social interaction with others, both individually and
collectively, to conflict resolution and understanding and dealing with moral issues.
Aesthetic and creative skills
112
The broadening of experience and the raising of levels of awareness to expression through the
visual arts, music and drama and expressing ideas and thoughts in a creative manner are included
in the development of aesthetic and creative skills.
Physical skills
These skills range from basic mobility and positioning and physical activation through an
understanding of spatial awareness, and fine and gross motor skills to specific skills required for
a purpose, for example writing, sports or leisure skills.
Mathematical skills
These are the skills needed to develop sensory awareness, perception of colour, pattern, shape
and position, reaching out, sorting, grouping, and classifying, through to practical problem-
solving involving a variety of mathematical skills and social mathematics, including time and
money.
The following grid elaborates on the continuum of provision in the key learning areas of the
curriculum guidelines. This is followed by a brief outline of the developmental approach that
will be taken in each key learning area.
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*The review of the Junior Cycle being undertaken by the NCCA suggests that language and
literature may be amended to language, literature and communication and that mathematical
studies be amended to mathematical studies and applications.
114
*At primary level the development of a curriculum for religious education remains the
responsibility of the various church authorities. At post-primary level church authorities offer a
syllabus to schools, but from the year 2000 schools will have the option of a state syllabus for
assessment in the Junior Certificate examination.
4.9 Elaboration Of The Key Learning Areas The detail of the content will be developed at school level as appropriate to the particular
students, but the general vocabulary used to describe the content will be common to all. This will
make planning easier for schools, especially if they have students with complex and diverse
disabilities.
Important issues in the development of the guidelines include:
• the provision of relevant, age-appropriate content, methodologies and approaches that address
both the present and the future needs of the student
• the use of ICT as a cross-curricular tool
• the contexts in which learning takes place, both in schools and in the community
• the incorporation of appropriate, time-referenced objectives, using
individualised education plans where applicable, and the development of continuous and
cumulative forms of assessment and evaluation of progress that stress the unique strengths and
needs of students.
4.10 Communication And Language
Communication is an essential element of the education of students with general learning
disabilities. Early learning in this area includes sensory, perceptual, physical, social, emotional
and cognitive development directed at enabling the student to make sense of and to interact with
the immediate environment. The ability to gain control over the environment opens up a world of
opportunity for the student. Central to such development is an interactive approach that
stimulates the desire to communicate and acknowledges that every effort to communicate is
valuable.
As in mainstream curricula, the importance of oral language will be pivotal, and the language
needs of children will be seen as central to the development of the oral language programme,
both at school and class levels. An emphasis on the social function of language and the
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development of a social sight vocabulary, the ability to read for meaning and functional writing
skills will be integral to most students’ education.
Effective assessment of the strengths and needs of the student is an essential factor in developing
a functional means of communication for individual students. The contribution of more than one
discipline may be required, and parents should be involved at all stages.
The framework of the communication curriculum includes the following areas; but other areas
such as developing cognitive abilities through language and emotional and imaginative
development through language will also be included.
Receptiveness to communication
This will range from alerting the student to the immediate environment through stimulation of
the senses, to enabling him or her to understand symbols, hand signs, oral language, and written
language. Perceptual and discrimination activities will bring the students towards an
understanding of symbolic representation and lead to reading both for enjoyment and for
information. Oral language activity in response to listening to stories, to texts read aloud and to
texts read by the student will be directed at developing first the simple comprehension skills and
then some of the higher comprehension skills.
Competence and confidence in communicating
This will begin with the student’s first attempts at reaching out to people and objects and will
then develop towards competence in the use of verbal or nonverbal methods of expressive
communication. Activities for developing understanding of concepts such as object permanence,
causality, purposeful problem-solving, spatial relationships and imitation of actions and sounds
will be suggested. Fine-motor activities that lead to the development of written communication
will also be included.
Strategies for encouraging meaningful written work, which include the use of
ICTs will also be explored. As reading and comprehension skills develop, the child will be
enabled to read and write independently and to use these skills in both functional and
imaginative situations.
4.10 Mathematics (including early mathematical activities)
116
Mathematics education provides all students with a wide range of knowledge and skills
that help them to develop an understanding of the physical world and social interactions. It
provides a variety of experiences and opportunities for all students to develop their sensory
awareness and their ability to reach out, to explore and to solve problems and in this way to
comprehend basic mathematical concepts. Exploration and development of the senses through
the use of a wide range of three-dimensional materials will be an important part of this area of
mathematics.
Students should have opportunities to develop the communication skills necessary for the
formation of early mathematical concepts and to use mathematical language accurately.
Play is an essential part of the student’s early mathematical development. He or she should be
given opportunities to develop and apply their early mathematical skills and understanding in
both undirected and structured play.
The social value of mathematical education is of prime importance to students with general
learning disabilities; and activities that encourage the use of social mathematics in real-life
situations and in solving real problems will be included.
For older students, managing money, reading timetables and using functional mathematics will
help their transition to the world of work and leisure.
4.11 Adapting Curriculum For Children With Retardation
A student can be defined as having a mental disability if he/she exhibits certain learning,
social and behavior patterns to a marked extent and over a prolonged period of time. Such
patterns may include:
• A consistently sub-average intellectual level
• Impaired adaptive functioning in such areas as social skills, communication and daily living
skills
• Consistently slow rate of learning and as a result their level of development resembles that of a
younger child
• Delays in most areas of development
Some common characteristics of a mild mental disability that may be observed by the teacher
over a period of time include:
• academic underachievement
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• difficulty with abstract concepts
• difficulty generalizing learned concepts to new situations
• social isolation or withdrawal
• poor social relationships
• anxious and worried, excessive fears and phobias
• easily frustrated even when confronted with a simple task
• resistance to change
• short attention span
However, students who are mildly mentally disabled learn in the same way as normal students.
However, adaptations and a variety of techniques need to be utilized. Consequently, certain
behaviors should be targeted as priorities when dealing with mentally disabled children in the
classroom. These target areas include:
• Functional academics
• General Work Habits
• Career awareness
While the mentally disabled child may exhibit many or all of these areas, the teacher should try
to focus on one area at a time. Patience, fairness, nurturance, humor and a sense of conviction in
maintaining boundaries are all aspects required by the teacher in these situations.
4.12 Curricular Issues And Concerns To make inclusive education possible, and to better accommodate students with different
learning abilities, the present education system, educational structure, and educational practices
need to become more flexible, more inclusive, and more collaborative.
4.12.1 The Purpose The purpose of inclusive education,
• Is NOT the same as for a student without
SEN—that is, it IS NOT to bring students with SEN up to the level of, or maintain their grades at
the same level as, students without SEN.
• It IS to meet the individualised goals of students with SEN, within the context of general
educational settings and activities.
The following questions need to be addressed while making adaptations to the curriculum.
Can a student with SEN participate in the classroom
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• Just like his/her classmates?
• With environmental adaptations?
• With instructional adaptations?
• With adapted materials?
• With adapted expectations?
4.12.2 Early Intervention And Preschool Programme For Children With Sen The identification of SEN of children at an early age is crucial to helping them cope with
challenges in later life. Thus, the sensitisation, orientation, and training of parents, caretakers,
and other stakeholders becomes imperative. As per the NSSO (2003), 8.4% and 6.1% of the total
estimated households in rural and urban
India, respectively, are reported to have at least one disabled person. Therefore, orienting
Anganwadi and
Balwadi workers, caregivers, and institutional authorities in early childhood education
programmes is highly desirable and needs to be built into the ICDS
programme.
The provision of resources and the involvement of the community in identification and
intervention in the child’s own milieu need emphasis and focus. The benefits of existing
knowledge and skills in conjunction with technology can be made to reach the needy through the
involvement of local bodies. For example, the Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for Hearing
Handicapped (AYJNIHH) has played the role of a catalyst at Badlapur Kulgaon Nagar Palika
where the
Town Panchayat has resolved to collect Rs 10 per property per year to help persons with
disabilities. As a result, the Town Panchayat collects about Rs 2,25,000 per year through its
22,500 properties. An Apang Samiti, consisting of Persons With Disabilities (PWDs) schools,
banks, station masters, post masters, etc. was formed which decides the priorities of the PWDs,
including Children with SEN. Empowering the Town
Panchayat through a catalyst can be critical for the success of the Early Identification and
Intervention
Programme. A strong parent/caregiver professional partnership should be developed for the
networking and strengthening of intervention programmes.
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At the preschool level, a multisensory approach should replace oral and rote learning, facilitate
language learning, develop pre-academic skills, and provide for remedial measures in all areas of
development.
Appropriate diagnostic and remedial assessment should be made available to identify, “at risk”
children.
Already developed curriculum packages (Mohite,
1994) for preschool children in communication skills, self-help skills, social skills, and specific
motor skills may be used. Audio-visual packages for promoting skills in physical, motor,
affective, cognitive, and language development of children “at risk” and with SEN may be
utilised.
4.12.3 Planning And Managing An Inclusive Curriculum In Schools Developing inclusive schools that cater to a wide range of pupils in both urban and rural areas
requires: the articulation of a clear and forceful policy on inclusion together with adequate
financial provision; an effective public information effort to combat prejudice and create
informed and positive attitudes; an extensive
programme of orientation and staff training; and the provision of necessary support services.
Changes in all the following aspects of schooling, as well as many others, are necessary to
contribute to the success of inclusive schools: curriculum, buildings, school
organisation, pedagogy, assessment, staffing, school ethos, and extracurricular activities
[UNESCO, 1994:
21 (The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education)].
An inclusive curriculum means one curriculum for all students rather than a separate curriculum
for students without SEN and another for students with SEN.
According to Quinn and Ryba (2000) an inclusive curriculum is recognition that under the
principle of social justice, participation in education should not involve discrimination on the
basis of gender, ethnicity, indigenous group, socio-economic status, and ability or disability. An
inclusive curriculum, recognises the need that schools be organised, with the individual
differences of students in mind and allow for scope and flexibility to enable all students to
achieve their goals.
Though the National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE) (2000) (NCERT,
2000), does mention the education of learners with SEN under the sections “Curriculum
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Concerns” and “Managing the System”, it does not address the SEN of learners under various
other sections, such as, “Organisation of Curriculum at Elementary and Secondary Stages”,
“Organisation of Curriculum at Higher Secondary Stage”, “Evaluation”, etc. As stated by
Loreman and Deppeler (2001),
Educators are misinformed and confused about inclusion… We believe that inclusion, by its very
nature, cannot exist in environments where some children are educated separately or
substantively differently to their peers. It is perhaps easier to provide examples of what is not
inclusion.
Educating children part time in special schools and part time in regular schools is not inclusion.
Educating children in special, mostly segregated, environments in regular schools is not
inclusion.
Educating children in regular classes, but requiring them to follow substantially different courses
of study in terms of content and learning environment to their peers, is also not inclusion (unless
all children in a class follow individual programmes).
Inclusion means full inclusion of children with diverse abilities in all aspects of schooling that
other children are able to access and enjoy. It involves regular schools and classrooms genuinely
adapting and changing to meet the needs of all children, as well as celebrating and valuing
differences. This definition of inclusion does not imply that children with diverse abilities will
not receive specialized assistance or teaching outside of the classroom when required, but rather
that this is just one of many options that are available to, and in fact required of, all children.
4.12.4 Access To An Inclusive Curriculum Booth (2000) has pointed out that access to education is only the first stage in overcoming the
exclusion of persons with disabilities from the mainstream. More challenging is the task of
bringing about a shift in public perspective and values, so that diversity is cherished.
However, it is difficult to say whether the first barrier has as yet been overcome in our country.
It is believed that the fundamental right to education will bring more pupils with SEN into
ordinary schools, and that this will provide the impetus for change. As stated this will regime a
number of innovations in teaching–learning processes, and will also provide pupils with SEN
access to a full curriculum in appropriate ways. To facilitate this access, it is important to provide
information in Braille, on tape, through sign language, and in simple and straightforward
language.
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Access to the content of the curriculum is further highlighted later in this paper.
4.12.5 Teaching Practices In India, the concept of Inclusive Education has not yet been linked to a broader discussion of
pedagogy (Anita, 2000) and quality education (Taneja, 2001). Any broad reform in education
cannot be implemented without taking the inclusion of learners with SEN into consideration.
In a study on practitioners’ perspectives in some inclusive schools carried out by Singhal and
Rouse
(2003), many teachers who were interviewed stated that:
…there have been no changes in their teaching.
Some justified this status quo by stating that the included children do not have less IQ, hence
they can fit into the existing classroom procedures.
Teachers also argued that many existing constraints did not allow them to make significant
changes in their practices. These constraints included large class sizes, task of maintaining
discipline—hallmark of a good teacher, vast amount of syllabus, and the fact that the included
student was just one of many in class.
However, there are many teachers all over the country who do make small modifications in their
teaching in accordance with the principles of inclusive education. The strategies used by them
are: group learning, peer tutoring, speaking slowly and clearly, looking at the hearing-impaired
child while speaking so that they can lip read, writing on the blackboard, etc. Most teachers are
aware of such techniques for classroom management of learners with SEN. In this connection,
they often consult the special educator for support.
An extensive review of research on learner and teacher characteristics (Cronbach and Snow,
1977), concluded that children with difficulties in learning need a mixture of teaching
approaches with a bias towards fairly structured methods. Krishnaswamy and Shankar
(2003), point towards differentiated instruction as an approach for the teacher to weave
individual goals into the classroom content and instructional strategies.
Valmiki (2003) emphasises culture specific pedagogy and culturally responsive teaching as
major initiatives in making education culturally inclusive. Mani and Mulharah (2003) have
talked about creating effective classrooms through cooperative learning. According toMalhotra
(2003) teachers should be provided flexible syllabi, which would give them more time and
freedom.
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Work over the last decade has end eavoured to identify specific sub-groups of specific learning
difficulties, and there is evidence that it may be valid to distinguish between children with
language, visualspatial, or “mixed processing deficits” (Tyler 1990).
However, even if we could make these kinds of distinctions with certainty, there remains the
question of how best one can teach these various groups of children. As yet there are no
unequivocally “best” methods. Careful monitoring of the child’s learning and the encouragement
of a broad range of learning strategies remain important characteristics of effective teaching for
all children. Lewis (1991) has stated: “In teaching, effective teachers adjust their styles to
individual learners.” She highlighted the importance of focusing on topics, which match the
child’s interest level for planning parallel tasks of similar difficulty for different interests (for
example, matching teacher’s questions with children’s cognition levels), varying the presentation
of activity, and varying children’s modes of responses (for example, oral instead of written).
Evans (1997), giving a description of the theoretical elements and assumptions related to
structuring the curriculum for pupils with learning difficulties points out that since learning is a
social process and involves the structuring of knowledge, it calls for the teacher’s mediation
between the child and the environment. He goes further to state:
The child’s education cannot be achieved through only one teacher but must reflect a whole
school approach in which all members of the staff are involved in the development of agreed
goaldirected, problem-solving strategies. In order for this to work, there needs to be a structuring
of this whole environmental system, that is, through the development of the curriculum, its
pedagogy, and its organisation. In this way children’s special learning needs can in principle be
met.
4.12.6 Content Areas The goals of education are the same for all children provided that these goals are balanced and
brought in harmony with the individual needs of each child.
Applebee (1998) stresses the importance of instituting conversational domains in planning
curricula.
According to him:
In schools these domains have been preestablished and take the form of disciplines such as
language, mathematics, social studies, and science. A more appropriate emphasis might be
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domains that are culturally specific and imbue a natural facilitation for conversation centred
around “living traditions”. In order to accomplish this end, participation is key and students are
actually “doing” science or social studies instead of simply reading or being told about [them].
Singh (2001) reported differences in the educational needs of children with SEN. She found
that all the stakeholders, including children with SEN, opined that the curricula followed were
not relevant.
There was repetition in the content of the sciences, social sciences, and general knowledge. The
excessive textual burden and the bulk of exercises in most of the subjects were also found to be
irrelevant. The components of extra-curricular and co-curricular activities, such as, games and
sports, drawing and painting, craft and cultural activities should be an essential part of the
curriculum.
The SEN may emanate from a number of reasons.
In this paper we concentrate on SEN stemming from disability conditions. Not all children with
disabilities have SEN at the elementary level. They learn along with their peers with the help of
aids such as wheelchairs, hearing aids, optical or non-optical aids, educational aids like Taylor
frames, the abacus, etc. However, there may be students who may require the following: •
Additional time and a suitable mode for the successful completion of tests.
• Modification, substitution, and disapplication of the curriculum because it presents specific
difficulties for them.
• Provision of adapted, modified, or alternative activities in different content areas.
• Accessible texts and materials to suit their ages and levels of learning;
• Appropriate management of classrooms (for example, management of noise, glare, etc.)
• Provision of additional support by using ICT or video.
As mentioned earlier, inclusion is all about providing effective learning opportunities to all
students. Therefore, it depends on whether teachers modify the National Curriculum programmes
of study whenever necessary in order to provide relevant and challenging work to students. It
means being flexible and choosing content from a lower level or higher level if necessary. There
may be students who may perform below the expected level. For these students a greater degree
of differentiation may be necessary. On the other hand, students whose performances exceed
those of others within one or more subjects may need suitably challenging work. What is
important is that no matter how they learn or perform, they should experience success and not
failure.
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4.12.7 Staff Development The effectiveness of the curriculum depends, in the long run, on the skills and attitudes of
classroom teachers. The Open File on Inclusive Education
(UNESCO, 2001) suggests that the following demands be placed on teachers from the
perspective of inclusive curricula:
• They have to become involved in curriculum development at the local level, and they have to
be skilled in curriculum adaptation in their own classrooms.
• They have to manage a complex range of classroom activities.
• They have to know how to support their students’ learning without giving them predetermined
answers.
• They have to work outside traditional subject boundaries and in culturally sensitive ways.
Sharma (2002) analysed the attitudes of teachers towards the disabled, how these attitudes relate
to various background factors, and the ways of bringing about a change in the attitudes of
teachers. She reported that:
1. The willingness of teachers to include children with SEN in the general class depended on the
children’s disabling conditions. Teachers had positive attitudes towards some children with
specific disabilities like visual and hearing disabilities.
Attitudes were least positive towards the intellectually impaired and those with
behavioural problems.
2. The severity of problems in case of locomotor and intellectual disabilities negatively
influenced their attitudes towards the inclusion of children with disabilities in their classroom.
3. The majority of the teachers felt the need for change in the school and classroom
infrastructure.
4. The attitudes were found to be inversely related to the age and experience of the teachers
teaching ordinary children. However, experience of working with the disabled was positively
related to the attitudes of the teachers.
5. Female teachers were more positive towards the inclusion of the disabled in their classes than
their male counterparts.
6. Science teachers had a more positive attitude towards inclusion than those teaching humanities
subjects.
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7. The higher the confidence in the use of teaching strategies, the more positive the attitude of
the teacher towards the disabled.
8. All teachers reported that they needed more information on the types of disabilities,
curriculum adaptation, educational implications, and skills and strategies required for meeting
the needs of students with SEN.
Studying the teacher education curriculum of the
District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) from the perspective of learners with SEN,
Julka (2004) has implicated a need for all Teacher Education
Institutes to ensure inclusive education theory and practice strategies in their programmes. At
present, there are no specific provisions in the form of trained teacher educators, resource
materials, and standardized inputs on learners with SEN in the in-service
programmes of the DIETs. In the pre-service programme, only one optional paper or one unit in
a compulsory paper are the inputs provided. Training
programmes under DPEP, and now the SSA, cover this component, but it needs to be
strengthened and made more relevant to the needs of the teachers from the perspective of
inclusive education.
4.13 Summary For years the education system has provided special education and related services to
students with SEN and systematically developed a dual service delivery system comprising
different settings, different curricula, different services, and different service providers for
students with and without SEN. But now in the context of the struggle to affirm and guarantee
the rights of the disabled, the ethics of the dual system are being questioned. The common
system, which would bring “all” onto a common platform, is being thought of as a better option.
It is, therefore, important to bring about a number of reforms at various levels in order to develop
a “school for all” having an inclusive curriculum. The curriculum needs to be balanced in such a
way that it is common for all, and yet takes account of the individual needs of all learners. It is
also important to take into consideration pedagogical issues. The curriculum should be accessible
to all children and for this specialist support would be required. Care then has to be exercised to
ensure that learners with SEN are not segregated from the mainstream by providing this
specialist support. How the school organises itself to be an effective school that takes care of the
individual needs of all pupils is another issue to be considered. While being flexible in the
126
timetable and delivery of the curriculum, the school should also provide for the resource support
needed in the form of special educators, assistive devices, and teaching–learning material. The
professional development of teachers and educators is an important issue and must incorporate
attitudinal change, and the knowledge and skills necessary to lead to an inclusive society.
Finally, no initiative towards inclusive education would be complete without collaborating with
parents and without the external support of NGOs and special schools for providing inputs on
training, curriculum delivery, assessment, etc.
4.14 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Ncca Structures For Curriculum Development In Special Education
2. Explain A Strategy For Curriculum Development
3. Explain Inclusive Education
4. Explain Inclusive Preschool !
5. Explain Curriculum Guidelines: Outline Of The Framework
6. Explain Key Skills As Developmental Processes
7. Explain Enabling Skills
8. Explain Life Skills
9. Explain Elaboration Of The Key Learning Areas
10. Explain Communication And Language
11. Explain Adapting Curriculum For Children With Retardation
12. Explain Curricular Issues And Concerns
7. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.8.1. Points for discussion
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guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
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education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
63. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
66. Department of Education and Science. (1999b). The Primary School Curriculum. Dublin,
Ireland: The Stationary Office.
67. Department of Education and Science. (2004). The education for persons with special
educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
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Australia (2001). South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability
Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
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Office.
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Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
71. Department of Health and Children. (1999). Children First: National Guidelines for the
Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
72. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
73. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
74. Dewey, J. (1959). My pedagogic creed. In M. S. Dorkin (ed.) Dewey on education. New
York: Teacher’s College Press.
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75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
76. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
136
Unit 5: Curriculum evaluation, Implementation in inclusion
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Inclusiveness Of Ncf, 2005
5.3 Cce In Inclusive Classrooms
5.3.1 General Tips For Planning Cce In An Inclusive Classroom
5.3.2 Identifying Prior Experience Of Children Helps The Teacher To
Select The Appropriate Teaching-Learning Method/ Approaches.
5.4 Inclusion Of Learners With Mental Disabilities
5.5 . Benefits Of Inclusion
5.6 Challenges Of Inclusion
5.7. Teachers’ Views On The Inclusion Of Learners With Mental Disabilities
5.8. Strategies To Enhance Inclusion
5.9 Planning And Managing An Inclusive Curriculum In Schools
5.10 Access To An Inclusive Curriculum
5.11 Inclusive Primary School
5.12 Evaluation
5.13 What Are Teachers’ Perceptions About The Benefits Of Inclusion Of
Learners With Mental Disabilities?
5.14 Summary
5.15 Check Your Progess
5.16 Refernces
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5.1 Introduction
Considering that a lot of work goes in to help students learn, it is important that the
teaching as well as the classrooms are organised in a way to enable each child/student to hear
encouraging words that convey to them a sense of individualised attention, reaffirm a positive
self-image and communicate personal goals to strive for (NCF, 2005). The expectations of the
RTE Act, 2009 have already been discussed. The fundamental intent of RTE Act 2009 is to
ensure that elementary education reaches all children. Further, with a goal of improving the
teaching-learning processes, the Act also specifies certain requirements to help make the schools
and classrooms effective foundations for these processes. Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation
(CCE) is one such requirement, implemented for each child in elementary classrooms (NCERT,
2012).
As per NCF 2005, CCE is frequently cited as the only meaningful kind of evaluation.
CCE requires careful thinking about when it can effectively be employed in a system. Such
evaluation places a lot of demand on the teachers’ time and ability to maintain meticulous
records for meaningful execution and reliability as an assessment tool. If this simply increases
stress on the children by reducing all activities into subjects of assessment, or aids to make them
experience the teacher’s ‘power’, then it defeats the very purpose of education.
CCE, as the term suggests should be continuous and on-going. These are not formal tests;
rather they should be planned to help assess the student’s on-going progress towards the
teaching-learning goals. Planning and designing the evaluation should thus be an essential
component of teaching. An advantage of CCE, if planned appropriately, is that it helps to check
for student’s learning, allowing the teacher to intervene as needed and offer guidance, if
necessary. Evaluations are helpful to understand how the student is learning, to what extent and
whether the teaching and curriculum goals are reaching the students.
5.2 Inclusiveness Of Ncf, 2005
At the stages of Classes I and II, assessment must be purely qualitative judgments of
children’s activities in various domains and an assessment of the status of their health and
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physical development, all based on observations through everyday interactions. On no account
should they be made to take any form of test, oral or written. At Classes III to VIII of the
Elementary Stage, a varietyof methods may be used, including oral and written tests, and
observations.
The previous section presented some suggestions, strategies, ideas and examples to help
you create an inclusive classroom when there is/are student/s with disabilities in the classroom.
This section presents some suggestions for implementing CCE in an inclusive setting, and
prompts you to develop new ways to engage in CCE.
5.3 Cce In Inclusive Classrooms CCE can be incorporated in the inclusive classroom while engaging teaching through a
variety of activities including the suggestions presented in the previous sections. Incorporating
strategies for attending to diverse needs in classrooms would be particularly useful in developing
CCE processes for the classroom. NCERT’s CCE guidelines, in its publication for primary
classrooms, offers indicators of assessment as follows; however, any of the approaches explained
earlier, or a combination can be utilised to develop a plan for the CCE in an inclusive classroom:
1. Observation and Recording: Reporting, narrating and drawing, picturereading, making
pictures, tables and maps;
2. Discussion: Listening, talking, expressing opinions, finding out from others;
3. Expression: Drawing, body movements, creative writing, sculpting, etc.;
4. Explanation: Reasoning, making logical connections;
5. Classification: Categorising, grouping, contrasting and comparing;
6. Questioning: Expressing curiosity, critical thinking, developing questions;
7. Analysis: Predicting, making hypotheses and inferences;
8. Experimentation: Improvising, making things and doing experiments;
9. Concern for Justice and Equality: Sensitivity towards the disadvantaged or differently-abled,
showing concern for environment; and
10. Cooperation.
Source: From NCERT (2013) CCE in Environmental Studies Classrooms, p. 66
5.3.1 General Tips For Planning Cce In An Inclusive Classroom
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While planning your lesson and especially for CCE, it is good to remember that assessment
occurs throughout the teaching of a lesson. This allows you, the teacher, to recognise and plan
the following steps in teaching of the topic. Assessment at the end of your teaching of the lesson
helps you to understand how far your lesson and teaching objectives are realised.
Following are some suggestions for planning CCE of a student with impairments in the inclusive
classroom
◘◘ In a mixed ability group encourage varied responses for a question and give clear instructions
and pause after asking a question to give adequate time to respond. We must remember that
activities done for explaining the content can be used again for assessment. Following are some
general suggestions:
◘◘ Allow flexibility in choosing answers, for instance, recognition and identification rather than
recall, coloring the correct answer, cut and paste, matching, pointing the odd one out. For
example,
−− for responses requiring auditory processing, accept responses in monosyllables.
−− replace tracing of alphabet activities in the textbook exercises
with cut-outs of alphabets allowing the student to explore the contour and shape of an alphabet
more closely.
−− alternatively allow students with speech processing delays to demonstrate learning by use of
pictures or stamps, for example, in evaluating a student’s ability to identify key vocabulary work
discussed in a lesson – For the Class 1
English lesson Mittu and the Yellow
Mango, provide the student with stamps of parrot, crow or mango, asking them to stamp
appropriate picture in response to the teacher’s calling out the specific word/s. An illustration on
how such an activity may be conducted with matching cards and right/wrong stamps is given
here.
−− allow the student to point to picture/s as demonstration of learning.
◘◘ Use flash cards, word cards (for example, to introduce words or to construct a grammatically
correct sentence), pictures, real objects, to get response rather than only verbal or written
response. For example, ask the child to pick up the flash card when you call the name of an
animal. Activities such as matching or checking answers can be done with the help of real
objects.
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◘◘ Objective type questions or multiple choice questions can be asked by breaking longer
questions into smaller parts.
◘◘ Assessment can be carried out individually or in small groups. Group activities can help
assessing child’s all round development, and peer support can be utilised whenever required. For
example, arrange a play based on a story and assess the child on the basis of involvement and
enactment. Ensure participation of all children or make small groups.
◘◘ Children with attention problems can be assessed in steps by breaking down the content.
5.3.2 Identifying Prior Experience Of Children Helps The Teacher To Select
The Appropriate Teaching-Learning Method/ Approaches. ◘◘ Informal discussion with children revealed that some of them could name some plants as well
as identify a few parts and uses of some plants. They are able to relate these with their
surroundings. A child could even relate plants with daily life to further work on the desired
concepts that s/he intended to take up.
◘◘ To make the students’ understanding deeper, s/he thought of providing children a hands-on
experience, as the topic was about plants which were available in plenty in their surroundings.
◘◘ S/he decided to take up this lesson through a nature walk to a nearby area rich in natural plant
diversity.
5.4 Inclusion Of Learners With Mental Disabilities Current practices in the education of learners with mental disabilities emphasize their inclusion
in ordinary schools and exposure to the regular education curriculum. Inclusion can be viewed as
the placement of a child with mental disabilities in a general education classroom with
supplemental supports and adaption that allow the child to benefit from that placement
Inclusion involves participation of learners with mental disabilities in all the activities of the
classroom or school done by non-disabled peers.
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The inclusion of students with mental disabilities in ordinary school settings is supported by the
findings of studies that show that student achievement in regular schools depended on the
combined effects of teaching methods used for all students and those used to meet the unique
learning needs of individual students (Darling- Hammond 1996; McDonnell 1998; Du Toit and
Forlin, 2009). The need to individualise teaching to take into account the learning needs of
students with mental disabilities is a matter of best teaching practice rather than a result of
having a learner with a disability in a class (McDonnell, 1998).
Teaching strategies that accommodate learners with mental disabilities that have been proposed
by Ainscow (2003) include regular methods with no adaptations, material adaptations, multi-
level curriculum and substitute curriculum. A wide variety of teaching methods and strategies
can be employed in the teaching so as to cater for learners’ individual needs. Task analysis can
be very useful in teaching learners with mental disabilities in inclusive settings Slavin, 1996;
Mpofu, 2000; Forlin, 2006).
5.5 . Benefits Of Inclusion
Hayden and Thompson (2000) suggest that the presumed benefits of inclusive education
for students with mental disabilities include that they will achieve at a higher level due to the
higher demand and expectation of regular education programs. Students with mental disabilities
benefit from exposure to students without disabilities who would model acceptable behavior and
adaptive skills to students with mental disabilities. The social acceptance of students with mental
disabilities increases through social contacts with a greater number of classmates and school
mates without disabilities.
On the other hand, children are catered for in a continuum of skills and abilities. Hayden
and Thompson (2000) advance that an inclusive approach facilitates and encourages staff team
work, caters for individual learner’s rights, works towards eradication of stigmas and provide
opportunities for special needs children to function in the real world and to demonstrate their
strengths. Inclusion develops relationships and creativity that would not be possible in
segregated situations. Winter (2006) posits that students from inclusive schools speak warmly of
increased opportunities and learning through diversity, challenging traditional views that special
needs children in mainstream classes lower the overall standards. Forlin (2008) advances that
familiarity and associated tolerance reduces fear and rejection of those with mental disabilities
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hence inclusive schools better prepare mainstream children for living in an inclusive society. The
society provides a wide range of learning opportunities develops emotional intelligence and
fosters empathy, respect generosity, self-confidence compassion caring and responsibility- all
necessary ingredients for the adult of the twenty first century (Ainscow, 1999; Hayden and
Thompson, 2000; Forlin, 2008). Ainscow (1999) points out that encouraging mainstream student
to face challenges and not run away from them, leads to learning outcomes for such students
which cannot be generated from a book. Vlachou (1997) found out that all teachers who
commented positively about inclusion saw major benefits for children’s social education.
Inclusion was perceived as mechanism for promoting socialisation between disabled and non-
disabled students (Forlin, 2008).
5.6 Challenges Of Inclusion
Despite, the good things about the inclusive education Bradley (1998) cited by Hayden
and Thompson (2000) posit that it needs to be pointed out that there are many difficulties in
implementing inclusion. It is time consuming and requires a high level of human resources.
Inclusive education has to be carefully monitored and well planned in order to cater for the needs
and not just the rights of special needs children. In this situation, it may not be economically
viable. Ainscow (2003) advances that most importantly; the introduction of an inclusive
education requires input and support from those who are committed to its ideology and values.
Badza and Tafangombe (2010) cited challenges to inclusion as funding, policy issues, large class
numbers and negative attitudes towards learners with mental disabilities. Lack of qualified
personnel and lack of supervision, monitoring and evaluation of the system cause problems in
the inclusion of learners with mental disabilities.
Teachers with special education qualification are still insufficient to make an impact in
the country. This affects the proper implementation of inclusive education. Teachers trained for
the regular school find it difficult to teach the child with mental disabilities to use the toilet as a
lesson (Chimedza & Peters, 2001). He or she would consider reading or writing as the lesson
rather than teaching self- help skills. Thus regular school teachers may not consider or value the
teaching of self-help skills to learners with mental disabilities which in turn should lead them to
acceptance, independence and functionality in their lives.
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5.7. Teachers’ Views On The Inclusion Of Learners With Mental Disabilities
A study by Santoli, Sachs, Romey, and McClurg (2008) found that despite the fact that
almost all teachers interviewed were willing to make necessary accommodations for students
with disabilities, the majority of those teachers felt that students with disabilities should not be
educated in general classrooms no matter what the simplicity or severity of the disability,
especially students with behavioural disorders and/or mental retardation. However, the majority
of the teachers had a positive attitude toward inclusion which could only be successful with
enough training and administrative support.
On the other hand, Vlachou (1997) found out that regular school teachers feel that they
have nothing much to offer students with mental disabilities in inclusion setting as compared to
specialist teachers. In agreement, Avramidis and Norwich (2002) established that some teachers
have the conviction that special schools have more to offer and that they can relieve students
from the stress of continuous performance pressure of failure and under achievement in regular
schools.
As such these teachers have negative unsupportive attitudes towards inclusion.
Ainscow (2003) points out that the majority of teachers feel they have got a difficult enough job
without having to think about learners with mental disabilities who are viewed as an extra
burden.
These teachers are not comfortable with the large numbers, poor working conditions and
remuneration; hence their resistance against the inclusion of learners with mental disabilities in
ordinary classes. The same arguments are provided by Avramidis and Norwich (2002) teachers
cannot promote inclusion while they experience conflicting constraints and expectations,
insecurity and a general lack of encouragement.
5.8. Strategies To Enhance Inclusion
Studies have advocated for clear policies that specifically cater for the Special Needs
Education. In Zimbabwe, for example, there is no specific policy on Special Education
(Nziramasanga, 1999; Chiswanda in Chimedza and Peters, 2001). There is also need for
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improvement in funding of Special Needs Education to make inclusive education a success
(Badza and Tafangombe, 2010). This would enable motivate teachers, uplift the standards in
regular schools, minimise attrition of professionals and make inclusive education a success.
Training of teachers in preparation for inclusion is recognized as a crucial factor in addressing
attitudes and in promoting a greater commitment to inclusion, hence there is need for training
teachers to handle learners with special needs in inclusive settings (Forlin, 2008; Mavhundure in
Chimedza and Peters, 2001; Badza and Tafangombe, 2010). Avramidis and Norwich (2002)
assert that some teachers resist inclusion less when teachers have obtained special education
training/qualifications. However, Winter (2006) noted that some newly qualified teachers in
many jurisdictions still suggest that they are unprepared for working in inclusive schools, and
many enter the profession with little understanding of inclusion.
There is also need for providing innovative programs that encourage and support pre-service
teachers working with students with disabilities and providing opportunities for them to engage
with self- advocates within the community are approaches that have been adopted successfully
(Ainscow 2003; Engelbrecht, Green, Naicker and Engelbrecht, 1999). Teachers must also be
skilled in a variety of teaching approaches to accommodate all children in inclusive settings
(Kisanji 1997). Badza and Tafangombe (2010) found out that- government has put efforts
towards training of teachers. Ainscow (2003) advocates for forms of training such as school-
based development workshops and seminars that may assist teachers to gain additional
knowledge and skills, clarity about individual strengths, vulnerability and needs.
Collaborative approaches to teaching are also critical in equipping teachers for inclusion. Badza
and Tafangombe (2010) suggest that there is definitely a need for each school to take up
responsibility for the professional development of its own staff rather than relying on pre-service
training. Some studies have advocated for collaborative relationships among teachers and
stakeholders for the success of inclusion as this would encourage empowerment of individuals
and teams for the success of inclusion (Sharma et al, 2008; Roffrey, 2001; Welch, 2000). Other
researchers agree that collaboration is needed to support students with disabilities in general
education settings (Wehmeyer et al., 2003). Team work and collaboration between teachers,
administrators, parents and other stakeholders is crucial for the success of inclusive education
(Smith and Hilton, 1997). Forlin (2006) advocates for a highly individualized education
plan/program for learners with mental disabilities. There is need for teachers to draw up the
Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for each learner to cater for individual learner’s needs. The
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goal of education in inclusion is to enhance the child’s successful functioning in society. The
social component of the curriculum emphasizes this aspect.
However, some studies carried out elsewhere report frustration of respondents over the
lack of time to collaborate with special education teachers regarding appropriate interventions
and modifications that could grant further exposure to the general education curriculum. Some
respondents felt they had little to no input on the instructional activities and content meant for
students with disabilities (Downing & Peckham-Hardin, 2007; Matzen et al., 2010).
5.9 Planning And Managing An Inclusive Curriculum In Schools
Developing inclusive schools that cater to a wide range of pupils in both urban and rural
areas requires: the articulation of a clear and forceful policy on inclusion together with adequate
financial provision; an effective public information effort to combat prejudice and create
informed and positive attitudes; an extensive programme of orientation and staff training; and the
provision of necessary support services. Changes in all the following aspects of schooling, as
well as many others, are necessary to contribute to the success of inclusive schools: curriculum,
buildings, school organisation, pedagogy, assessment, staffing, school ethos, and extracurricular
activities [UNESCO, 1994: 21 (The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special
Needs Education)].
An inclusive curriculum means one curriculum for all students rather than a separate curriculum
for students without SEN and another for students with SEN.
According to Quinn and Ryba (2000) an inclusive curriculum is recognition that under the
principle of social justice, participation in education should not involve discrimination on the
basis of gender, ethnicity, indigenous group, socio-economic status, and ability or disability. An
inclusive curriculum, recognises the need that schools be organised, with the individual
differences of students in mind and allow for scope and flexibility to enable all students to
achieve their goals.
Though the National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE) (2000) (NCERT,
2000), does mention the education of learners with SEN under the sections “Curriculum
Concerns” and “Managing the System”, it does not address the SEN of learners under various
other sections, such as, “Organisation of Curriculum at Elementary and Secondary Stages”,
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“Organisation of Curriculum at Higher Secondary Stage”, “Evaluation”, etc. As stated by
Loreman and Deppeler (2001),
Educators are misinformed and confused about inclusion… We believe that inclusion, by
its very nature, cannot exist in environments where some children are educated separately or
substantively differently to their peers. It is perhaps easier to provide examples of what is not
inclusion. Educating children part time in special schools and part time in regular schools is not
inclusion. Educating children in special, mostly segregated, environments in regular schools is
not inclusion.
Educating children in regular classes, but requiring them to follow substantially different
courses of study in terms of content and learning environment to their peers, is also not inclusion
(unless all children in a class follow individual programmes).
Inclusion means full inclusion of children with diverse abilities in all aspects of schooling
that other children are able to access and enjoy. It involves regular schools and classrooms
genuinely adapting and changing to meet the needs of all children, as well as celebrating and
valuing differences. This definition of inclusion does not imply that children with diverse
abilities will not receive specialized assistance or teaching outside of the classroom when
required, but rather that this is just one of many options that are available to, and in fact required
of, all children.
5.10 Access To An Inclusive Curriculum
Booth (2000) has pointed out that access to education is only the first stage in
overcoming the exclusion of persons with disabilities from the mainstream. More challenging is
the task of bringing about a shift in public perspective and values, so that diversity is cherished.
However, it is difficult to say whether the first barrier has as yet been overcome in our country.
It is believed that the fundamental right to education will bring more pupils with SEN into
ordinary schools, and that this will provide the impetus for change. As stated this will regime a
number of innovations in teaching–learning processes, and will also provide pupils with SEN
access to a full curriculum in appropriate ways. To facilitate this access, it is important to provide
147
information in Braille, on tape, through sign language, and in simple and straightforward
language. Access to the content of the curriculum is further highlighted later in this paper.
5.11 Inclusive Primary School
School B, is a neighbourhood school, serving children of daily-wage employees residing
in the slum areas of a city. The school was established by a well-wisher, who is a teacher living
in the same neighbourhood. This teacher wanted to achieve the goal of “education for all”. She
believed that no child should be excluded from school. When challenges were seen in
accommodating children with SEN because of large class enrollments and limited resources, she
sought support from special education specialists. Technical support was extended for
assessment, educational programming, adapting teaching methods, and Teaching–Learning
Materials (TLM), for including children appropriately [from Upper Kindergarten (UKG) to Class
III]. It was necessary to interact with parents on a weekly basis in the school, and ensure support
for transferring learning to home conditions. Worksheets, teaching materials, and simplified
techniques using practical methods were introduced. After providing constant support for six
months through teacher trainees placed in the school, it was rewarding to see parents start to
attend meetings regularly and ask for clarifications about helping the child at home and actively
supporting the child in completing home tasks. Simultaneously, teachers expressed satisfaction at
the children’s performance at school and found parents motivated in reporting children’s
progress at home tasks such as completing homework. This exercise enabled parents and
teachers to realise the importance of closer collaboration and its benefits in monitoring the
child’s performance in academics by using simple teaching materials and practical methods for
teaching functional academics in primary classes, thus leading to the inclusion of children with
SN. The teachers reported that the literature and manuals developed by experts, such as, the
resource book for teachers on educating children with learning problems in primary schools,
functional academics for students with mental retardation, the inclusive preschool package, and
the school’s readiness to accept children with SN, were very useful in gaining the knowledge and
skills to teach these children.
5.12 Evaluation
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The NCFSE (2000) was critical of the present evaluation system. Singhal (2004),
studying the existing practices at the school level has stated that teachers regard the mainstream
as curriculum-oriented and examinationdriven, with pressures of “high achievement”. She noted
“teaching in India stands subordinated to examination and not examination to teaching.” Thus,
the focus is on the completion of a rigid and vast curriculum.
Quinn and Ryba (2000) have suggested collaborative forms of assessment for inclusive
classrooms. According to them collaboration between, and consultation with, the student,
parents, caregivers, and other relevant people enable educators to gain a good understanding of
the students’ strengths and needs. They summarise the difference between traditional assessment
methods and collaborative forms of assessment as shown in the table on the left.
Flexible strategies for assessment and accreditation have been recommended by the Open File on
Inclusive Education (UNESCO, 2001). Appropriate assessment enables,
• Students who are talented and gifted to move at their natural learning pace.
• Students who progress more slowly than their peers to move at their own pace whilst still being
part of the content of themes and lessons.
• Students experiencing specific learning problems to receive creative and effective support to
maximise their success.
The open file gives examples from various countries with the following strategies:
• They break or weaken the link between assessment and progression.
• They relate assessment to broad objectives on which the curriculum is based rather than to the
making of specified content.
• They develop flexible forms of accreditation.
5.13 What Are Teachers’ Perceptions About The Benefits Of Inclusion Of
Learners With Mental Disabilities?
Respondents were asked whether they thought inclusion of learners with mental
disabilities was beneficial. Figure 3 shows that 32(64%) respondents supported the idea that
learners with mental disabilities benefit from inclusion. The other 18(36%) disagreed with the
idea that such children benefit from inclusion. In support of the majority of the respondents,
several research studies have revealed that most teachers in inclusive classrooms recognise the
positive social benefits for both special and general education students can be attained through
149
inclusion (Downing & Peckham-Hardin, 2007; Fisher & Meyer, 2002; Matzen et al., 2010). This
is in light of the more benefits accruing to inclusion as presented in the data in Table 1 below.
Table 1 shows that 30(60%) respondents indicated that inclusion paved way for modelling of
acceptable behaviour while only 2(4%) stated that learners had high achievement at a higher
level. Contrary to the views of the of many, Hayden and Thompson (2000) state that learners in
inclusive classes will achieve at a higher level due to the higher demand and expectation of
regular education programmes. Six (12%) indicated that there was improvement in school work
while 32(64%) stated that there was improved socialisation and social acceptance of the included
learners. According to Vlachou (1997) and Forlin, 2008) teachers commented positively about
inclusion as it benefited in children’s social education. According to them, inclusion promoted
socialisation between disabled and non-disabled students.
Twenty-five (50%) respondents stated that inclusion made way for the eradication of stigma and
some 25(50%) indicated that functioned normally in the real world as a result of inclusion. The
findings are in support of those by Hayden and Thompson (2000) both in terms inclusivity
having to eradicate stigma and providing opportunities for special needs children to function in
the real world. Development of creativity and relationships and development of emotional
intelligence accounted for 11(22%) and 20(40%) respectively. Twenty-eight (56%) perceived
150
inclusion as fostering personal daily life and self care skills and this is in line with previous
findings
(Ainscow, 1999, Hayden and Thompson, 2000, Forlin, 2008). The findings also support those by
Hardman et al (1999) who established that children with mental retardation were equipped with
daily living or self-care skills for them to function independently in their lives.
5.14 Summary
In light of the analysis and discussion of the research findings presented above the
following conclusion can be deduced. While teachers can define the concept of inclusion, they
have scanty knowledge of the issues obtaining in special needs education more so in inclusion of
learners with mental disabilities. In spite of the scanty knowledge, most teachers agree with the
idea that inclusive education is the ideal placement for learners with mental disabilities.
Respondents feet that students with mental disabilities do not have learner support they need for
learning in inclusive settings due to unavailability of resources. Learners with mental disabilities
benefit in a number of ways from inclusion. Teachers feel that learners with mental disabilities
benefit educationally and socially from inclusion.
Respondents perceive that learners with mental disabilities are not readily accepted by
their peers in inclusive settings while teachers are very forthcoming.
In spite of the fact that teachers readily accept learners with mental disabilities, they feel they
have nothing much to offer these students in light of the conflicting constraints and expectations
they face. There is no inclusive education policy to fully cater for the educational needs of
learners with mental disabilities in inclusive settings. There are many challenges that influence
teachers’ perceptions towards the inclusion of learners with mental disabilities in the regular
classrooms which include lack of expertise, inadequate resources, lack of policy direction and
lack of supervision. Teachers perceive pre-service training at college, in-service training as well
as staff development at school level as important for them to successfully implement inclusive
education.
5.15 Check Your Progess
1. Explain Inclusiveness Of Ncf, 2005
151
2. Explain Cce In Inclusive Classrooms
3. Explain General Tips For Planning Cce In An Inclusive Classroom
4. Explain Identifying Prior Experience Of Children Helps The Teacher To
Select The Appropriate Teaching-Learning Method/ Approaches.
5. Explain Inclusion Of Learners With Mental Disabilities
6. Explain Benefits Of Inclusion
7. Explain Challenges Of Inclusion
8. Explain Teachers’ Views On The Inclusion Of Learners With Mental
Disabilities
9. Explain Strategies To Enhance Inclusion
10. Explain Planning And Managing An Inclusive Curriculum In Schools
11. Explain Access To An Inclusive Curriculum
12. Explain Inclusive Primary School
13. Explain Evaluation
14. Explain What Are Teachers’ Perceptions About The Benefits Of Inclusion
Of Learners With Mental Disabilities?
9. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.10.1. Points for discussion
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161
Block 2: Curriculum at Pre-School and Primary School level
Unit 1: Significance of Early Childhood Education and School Readiness
Unit 2: Early Childhood Education Curricular domains – Enhancement of domain in
Motor, Personal, Cognitive and Communication areas
Unit 3: Curriculum Domains for Early Childhood Education and Sensory Mechanism
Unit 4: Sensitization of family, involvement in pre-school and primary level
Unit 5: Implication of pre- school and primary levels for Intervention, documentation,
record maintenance and report writing
162
Unit 1: Significance of Early Childhood Education and School
Readiness
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Section 1: What Is School Readiness?
1.3 School Readiness Defined
1.4 1a. Children’s Readiness For School
1.5 1b. Schools’ Readiness For Children
1.6 1c. Families’ Readiness For School
1.7 Section 2: Significance Of Early Childhood Education
1.8 2a. Intrinsic Benefits Of School Education
1.9 2b. Instrumental Advantages Of School Readiness
1.10 Summary
1.11 Check Your Progress
1.12 References
163
1.1 Introduction
Through a combination of national social policies and international articulations
including the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Education for All (EFA) goals and
the World Fit for Children (WFFC) targets, countries are working to ensure universal access to
quality basic education. However, worldwide evidence highlights the persistence of inequity in
enrolment, attendance, learning outcomes and achievement based on gender, poverty,
geographical location, ethnicity, health status, conflict and natural disasters which all play a role
in defining which children attend what kind of school and for how long. Most early dropouts and
repeaters at school are disadvantaged students. In addition, the intersection of poverty, location,
disability, the lack of a formal identity and HIV/AIDS have created multiple and complex
barriers to school entry and learning. Growing concerns at the crux of these alarming issues
centre around three fundamental questions: Are all children entering school with the social and
cognitive skills and competencies needed to achieve in school? Are schools equipped and ready
to provide optimal learning environments for all children? Are families and communities ready
to help their children make a smooth transition into school?
Globally, school readiness is gaining currency as a viable strategy to close the learning
gap and improve equity in achieving lifelong learning and full developmental potential among
young children. It does so by considering all children, especially the vulnerable and
disadvantaged, including girls, children with disabilities, ethnic minorities and those living in
rural areas. School readiness supports the adoption of policies and standards for early learning,
expanding the provision of opportunities beyond formal centre-based services to target those
who are excluded. School readiness has been linked with positive social and behavioural
competencies in adulthood as well as improved academic outcomes in primary and secondary
school, both in terms of equity and performance. In addition, school readiness has been garnering
attention as a strategy for economic development. Approaches to economic growth and
development consider human capital as a key conduit for sustained and viable development, the
inception of which begins in the early years. The simplicity of the term ‘school readiness’ belies
the complexity of the concept and its relevance for development. In part, the challenge of
understanding school readiness lies in the exponential expansion of the science and knowledge
on the topic. But this growth in information has not been disseminated equitably or widely, and
164
many regions of the world do not have access to the latest information. The lack of equitable
access to new information has led to multiple understandings of school readiness, and at times, to
practices based on outdated models. Efforts are required to cull the latest knowledge and
circulate it widely in an equitable, timely and effective manner to influence practice and policy
around school readiness.
The global audience needs a clear, comprehensive explanation of school readiness that
considers its increased importance for individual and societal development, the burgeoning of
knowledge on the topic and the current inequitable distribution of this knowledge. The quality of
school readiness programmes is also an equity issue. There are profound benefits to future
employment prospects but without attention to quality school readiness in marginalized settings,
it will be difficult to close the gap in access and learning achievements within countries. Quality
does not have to be massively unaffordable and can be cost-effective. It depends on the
interaction between facilitators, parents and particular dynamics within the organized learning
centers. Poverty may undermine the ability of a family to support an early childhood
development (ECD) programme but socio-economic status needs to be seen in context. The aim
of this paper is to provide the latest evidence and knowledge on school readiness within an easily
understandable framework that has relevance to the lives of young children in the majority of the
world. To that end, this paper focuses on three basic yet critical questions: What is school
readiness? Why is school readiness important? And what are the consequences of inaction?
Section 1 provides a definition and description of the multifaceted nature of school readiness.
Section 2 lays out the evidence and arguments in favour of school readiness, especially its
benefits for marginalized children. Section 3 presents a series of scenarios and potential
outcomes, at individual and societal levels, that have been linked with inaction or neglect of
school readiness. These questions are answered at an aggregate or population level, as opposed
to an individual level. The primary difference is that an individual perspective on school
readiness is useful for understanding how to promote and support preparedness of school for a
single child. A population-level perspective addresses children collectively and cannot be used to
make individual-level decisions. There are different implications for the programmes and
policies that serve children.
This paper does not cover the interventions, practices and measurements of school
readiness. These important issues merit individual focused attention. Therefore, a subsequent
165
series of papers should be forthcoming on the topics of school readiness practice and assessment.
The focus of the current paper is to present a clear and comprehensive model of school readiness
built on the latest knowledge, with the aim of ensuring relevance in the majority of the world.
1.2 Section 1: What Is School Readiness?
Historically, participants in the field of early childhood development have been reluctant
to define school readiness (Saluja, Scott-Little and Clifford 2000). The trend has changed
considerably, and there are close to 150 definitions of school readiness suggested by the
‘Google Scholar’ search application. The definition of children’s readiness for school has
undergone major shifts during the past four decades. It has changed from a primarily
maturational definition to a more socially constructed concept. Former approaches stressed the
maturity level of the child that would allow for quiet, focused work as the primary indicator of
school preparedness (Gesell, Ilg and Ames 1974; Pandis 2001). More recent approaches stress
the bi-directionality between the child and her or his environment (Murphy and Burns 2002). As
per these newer perspectives, it is the ‘goodness-of-fit’ between the child and the environment
that supports and promotes optimal development (Graue 1992; Meisels 1995). In other words,
school readiness is a product of the interaction between the child and the range of environmental
and cultural experiences that maximize the development outcomes for children.
Similarly, the educational approaches in defining school readiness have also undergone a
shift during recent years. Some systems use a narrow ‘pre-primary’ educational approach that
stresses literacy and numeracy skills that would align with a primary school curriculum. Other
approaches use a ‘social pedagogic’ approach that stresses a broader preparation for life beyond
a school-based curriculum (OECD 2006). The second tradition, found in some Nordic and
Central European countries, promotes broader development of children while simultaneously
supporting families.
The United Nations World Fit for Children (WFFC) mission statement of 2002 is an
excellent example of more current concepts of school readiness, namely, a good start in life, in a
nurturing and safe environment that enables children to survive and be physically healthy,
mentally alert, emotionally secure, socially competent and able to learn. The WFFC goals
166
highlight the importance of a caring, safe and stimulating environment for the holistic
development of young children.
1.3 School Readiness Defined In this paper, school readiness is defined by two characteristic features on three dimensions.
The characteristic features are ‘transition’ and ‘gaining competencies’, and the dimensions are
children’s readiness for school, schools’ readiness for children, and families’ and communities’
readiness for school (see Figure 1, page 7).
The three dimensions of school readiness are:
(1) Ready children, focusing on children’s learning and development.
(2) Ready schools, focusing on the school environment along with practices that foster and
support a smooth transition for children into primary school and advance and promote the
learning of all children.
(3) Ready families, focusing on parental and caregiver attitudes and involvement in their
children’s early learning and development and transition to school.
All three dimensions are important and must work in tandem, because school readiness is a time
of transition that requires the interface between individuals, families and systems.
The term ‘transition’ has several meanings, depending on the setting, the nature of the cultural
and psychosocial adjustments involved, and the role of the actors in shaping their transition
(Fabian and Dunlop 2006; Vogler, Crivello and Woodhead 2008). With respect to school
readiness, transition is defined as children moving into and adjusting to new learning
167
environments, families learning to work with a sociocultural system (i.e. education), and schools
making provisions for admitting new children into the system, representing individual and
societal diversity. In school readiness, the three dimensions are interlinked, building
competencies and preparedness in children, schools and families.
Prior to presenting a detailed description of the three dimensions, this paper will address two
considerations – culture and public policy – to enhance understanding of the interrelationships
between the dimensions. Children, families and schools exist in a larger ecological system
(Bronfenbrenner 1979 and 1989) that needs to be considered in the conceptualization of school
readiness because of its strong influence on these three dimensions.
This paper’s definition of school readiness understands the child, family and school as
embedded within social, cultural and historic influences (Rogoff 2003). Rather than seeing
culture as a correlate of school readiness, this definition takes a more cultural perspective in
which school readiness is understood within the broader, more dynamic sociocultural context
(Gardiner and Kosmitzki 2002). By acknowledging the diversity in defining childhood as well as
in child contexts, the role of culture is seen as a powerful influence on the school readiness
paradigm. Without going into critiques of cultural constructions of children, which would be
beyond the scope of this report, the description of school readiness presented here is sensitive to
culture, context and diversity (Bornstein, in press; Pence and Nsamenang 2008).
A second influence on the three dimensions of school readiness is a country’s public
policy landscape. National social policies guide government decisions and actions around a
particular set of social issues or problems pertaining to human welfare, public access and social
programmes (Alcon, Erskine and May 2002). Typically, health and education systems, as guided
by sector policies, have the most direct link to early child development and education (UNESCO
2007). These policies guide provisions for access and quality of programmes, standards,
certification and training of staff, and resource allocation to education systems.
A range of social policies also has an indirect impact on the lives of young children.
Employment, parental leave, labour, immigration and welfare policies, for example, have all
been linked to child outcomes (Kamerman et al. 2003; McCartney, 1990; Minujin, Delamonica
and Komarecki, 2006). These policies – at a more central or decentralized level depending on the
country’s governance system – directly or indirectly influence access to education services for
168
families; determine school curricula and resources; and ensure the quality of services by
establishing and promoting credentials. Consequently, school readiness is a product of both the
immediate interaction of the three dimensions, and the cultural and policy influences.
1.4 1a. Children’s Readiness For School
What does being ready for school imply? The response varies by the respondent. Parents
typically stress pre-academic skills and knowledge (Diamond, Reagan and Bandyk 2000;
UNICEF 2004), while primary school teachers tend to stress social and emotional aspects
(Docket and Perry 2003). This variation in emphasis suggests that a broad range of
developmental skills and abilities encompass ‘ready for school’.
Children’s readiness for school in this section refers to all children, especially the vulnerable and
disadvantaged, including girls, children with disabilities, ethnic
minorities and those living in rural areas. In addition, readiness for school is different from
readiness to learn.1 While readiness for school implies being prepared to succeed in a structured
learning setting, readiness to learn is a characteristic from birth. All children are born ready to
learn
(Kagan 1999). This learning occurs prior to entering school and extends beyond the walls of a
classroom to daily life.
The three levels of definitions for children’s readiness for school are: the basic minimum
skills, holistic conceptualization and the latest research. By the simplest definition, a child who is
ready for school has the basic minimum skills and knowledge in a variety of domains that will
enable the child to be successful in school. These minimum standards set the bar for what
children should know and be able to do, so they enter school ready and eager to learn, thereby
enabling a successful transition into a primary school learning environment (Lara-Cinisomo and
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others 2004). Success in school is determined by a range of basic behaviours and abilities,
including literacy, numeracy, ability to follow directions, working well with other children and
engaging in learning activities (Rouse, Brooks-Gunn and Mclanahan 2005).
Broader definitions of school readiness are holistic and include five domains linked with
later school performance and behaviour: physical well-being and motor development; social and
emotional development; approaches to learning; language development; and cognition and
general knowledge, including mathematics (Kagan, Moore and Bredenkamp 1993).
Aspects of the social and emotional domain include sustained attention, emotional
regulation, following directions, social relationships and social cognition (McCabe et al. 2004;
Raver 2004).
Language and literacy take oral language and emerging literacy into account (Britto,
Fuligni and Brooks-Gunn 2003; Snow, Burns and Griffin 1998; Whitehurst and Lonigan 1998).
And math skills include early understanding of mathematical concepts, measurement logic and
prenumeracy skills (Ginsburg, Lee and Boyd 2008; Sophian 2004).
Attitudes towards learning, such as task persistence, attention, creativity, initiative,
curiosity and problem solving, are also known to be important for school readiness. Based on
these concepts, school readiness is a holistic way of looking at children’s preparedness for
school. Not limited to one area of development or functioning, readiness embraces the
interrelationships between skills and behaviours across domains of development and learning
(Denton 2000; Schoen and Nagle 2004).
More recent data on school readiness stress the importance of understanding the
interrelationships between the domains and not just the domains themselves. This evidence
emphasizes the time-sensitive relationship of the development of these skills to a child’s later
school achievement (Snow 2007) and underscores the importance of taking into consideration
more global perspectives on readiness. It should be noted, however, that the data upon which
these recent conceptualizations are based primarily comes from the United States of America
(Kammerman 2008), except for the global perspectives trend.
Contemporaneous associations between domains of school readiness, based on
correlational data, suggest either a high degree of association between domains, for example,
reading and mathematics, for which r=0.732 (Denton and Geremino-Hausken 2000) or mediated
association, in which a third factor contributes to competence in two areas (Snow 2007). For
example, neurophysiological maturation plays an important role in young children’s adjustment
170
to school due to its influence on executive functions such as being able to regulate behaviour and
control emotions (Blair 2002). As per these data, school readiness is a combination of three
domains: learned behaviours such as knowing colours and shapes, counting numbers and saying
letters of the alphabet; attitude and emotional competence, as in listening to directions, being
interested in learning and behaving in a socially acceptable manner; and developmental
maturation, including fine and gross motor development and sitting still for an appropriate period
of time.
A second aspect of the newer concepts of school readiness is temporality, or
understanding of the developmental trajectory of the foundational skills described above. School
readiness skills are considered to be cumulative in that there exists a hierarchy of achievement
based on mastering earlier goals, i.e., they build on earlier learned skills and behaviours. In this
sense, readiness combines learning and development because achieving simpler skills allows for
the acquisition of higher and more complex skills (Bowman, Donovan and Burns 2001).
Children entering primary school, for example, need to have a working vocabulary in order to
master reading skills. In other words, learning achievement in school is the product of a process
of acquiring skills from birth. Advanced skills build upon the mastery of former skills.
A third aspect of the newer concepts is the inclusion of global considerations. In a preliminary
analysis of school readiness standards conducted through the Going Global project on the Early
Learning and Development Standards (ELDS) on data from N= 5 countries, new domains of
development and learning in addition to the traditional set of domains were noted. In particular,
moral development, national pride and appreciation of diversity are included as important
aspects of children’s readiness for school (Kagan and Britto 2007) that have not been seen in
traditional models of school readiness. It is important that these global contributions to the
conceptualization of children’s readiness for school are recognized, because they indicate a
broader preparation for school and highlight the unique characteristics that cultures and countries
deem important for children to adapt and succeed in larger education contexts.
1.5 1b. Schools’ Readiness For Children
The second component of the school readiness paradigm is schools’ readiness for
children, also known as ‘ready schools’. Schools’ readiness for children is defined in terms of the
aspects of the school environment that support a smooth transition for children (and their
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families) into primary school and advance learning for all children (Pianta and Kraft-Sayre
2003). Although this component is the most recent addition to the school readiness model, it is
gaining rapid importance for the reasons listed below.
Education experiences prior to primary school are varied and disparate across the globe
(UNESCO 2007). But they do have one characteristic in common: Most early childhood care and
education programmes differ greatly compared to the education philosophy, teaching style and
structure of primary school. Creating continuity and maintaining learning expectations for
children between early learning and primary school environments is a defining characteristic of
ready schools (Lombardi 1992). The greater the gap between the early childhood care and
education system and the primary school system, the greater the challenge for young children to
transition from an early learning to a primary school environment.
Overall, it is the quality of the school environment3 that has been linked with higher rates of
student retention and lower drop-out rates from primary school, especially for girls (Lloyd,
Mensch, Clark, 2000). Quality is defined by several characteristics linked with ready schools,
including sufficient time devoted to learning in the classroom, adequate supply of learning
materials such as books and teaching aids, and effective teaching, pedagogic practices and
172
teachers’ competence. Research studies have demonstrated that the most positive perceptions of
classroom structure and overall school environment by children in Grade 1 have been linked with
greater academic engagement, a mediator of preventing dropout (Valeski and Stipek 2001). In
the least developed countries where a majority of the world’s children reside, it is estimatedthat
only 65 per cent of students who enrol in Grade 1 reach Grade 5 (UNICEF 2006). In part, this
consequence has been linked to poor-quality primary school environments. Poorly trained
teachers, poor facilities and the oldest classrooms have been linked with drop-out rates in Grades
1 and 2. Improving the quality of ready schools is an important aspect in maintaining school
enrolment.
Other important characteristics of quality include the practices schools use to bridge the
cultural divide between home and school cultures (Shore 1998). This divide is the greatest for
children whose first language is not the same as the language of instruction at the school.
Research from several countries has demonstrated the importance of the medium of instruction
in determining a child's education attainment; most societies are multilingual, and the education
system uses the official government language as the medium of instruction (UNESCO 2003 and
2005). In environments characterized by poverty, the problems of learning are compounded
when the language used in school is not a child’s first language, and the chances of dropout
increase correspondingly – particularly affecting, for example, low-income, minority and
vulnerable children (Auerbach 1989; Ladd 1996). In countries with higher rates of illiteracy, if
the medium of instruction in school is a language that is not spoken at home, the chances of
dropping out increase substantially. These children may be most at risk for poor education
outcomes because of the poor connections between home and school cultures (Jencks and Philips
1998; Lapointe, Ford and Zumbo 2007). Schools can bridge this gap by working with parents
and incorporating culturally responsive practices, including using the first language of the child
(Villegas and Lucas 2002).
Ready schools share several characteristics with UNICEF’s child-friendly schools (CFS)
(UNICEF 2009). Common to both is the mission of providing all children with a high-quality
learning environment that offers appropriate levels of instruction and is safe, secure and
inclusive. In an approach similar to CFS, ready schools promote a social learning environment
where the relationship between teachers and children is critical for the development of social,
173
ethical, emotional, intellectual and physical competencies (Shore 1998). The specific aspects of
the teacher-child relationship might vary across cultures, but it has been proposed that
responsive, mutually respectful and reflective teaching is always a central element for enhancing
child learning outcomes.
Finally, child-friendly schools are child-centred and focus on characteristics that are most
beneficial for children’s holistic development and comprehensive learning. CFS environments
are child-centred in teaching and learning; healthy (incorporating nutrition, deworming and
vaccination programmes); hygienic (providing clean water and environments and sanitation);
safe (regulating school construction and playgrounds); protective (banning punishment, abuse, or
violence) and particularly gender-sensitive. Child-friendly schools are inclusive, stemming from
the principle that all children have the right to education, thereby ensuring school practices are
fair, transparent and non-discriminatory in order to reach the most marginalized children.
These schools seek to involve the child’s environment – family and community – thereby linking
the three dimensions of school readiness.
1.6 1c. Families’ Readiness For School
The third dimension of the school readiness paradigm is families’ readiness for school.
Prior to entering school, the family is the most important context for development. The family, as
an institution, has been broadly defined as a co-residing social unit. With reference to school
readiness, family is understood as those members who co-reside with the young children,
including biological and non-biological caregivers, siblings and extended family members. In
understanding the issues of families’ readiness for school, the most studied factors have been
parenting practices, attitudes and knowledge, which are summarized below.
Supportive parenting and stimulating home environments have been shown to be among
the strongest predictors of school performance during primary school and beyond (Bradley and
Corwyn 2005; Burchinal et al. 2002; Morrison and Cooney 2002; Richter 2004; Rogoff 2003;
Werner and Smith 2001; Whiting and Edwards 1988). Although the school readiness literature
typically focuses on a couple of years prior to primary school entry, families prepare their
children for school right from birth4 (Brazelton and Greenspan 2000). The care provided for
development through antenatal visits, breastfeeding and early stimulation behaviours for
174
newborns and infants are early indicators of parenting practices that promote the learning and
development of children (WHO 1999).
In this section, the most prominent characteristics of families linked with school
readiness are presented. Poverty, a strong co-factor of parenting practices, is discussed in its
relationship to school readiness. Other family characteristics are described in terms of parenting
beliefs, attitudes and practices. Also discussed is the importance of acknowledging the role of
fathers in the transition to schooling.
Poverty’s effect on a young child’s development is strongest during the earliest years and
when impoverished conditions persist. Some evaluations suggest that at school entry, children
from disadvantaged backgrounds could already be years behind their more economically
advantaged peers (Brooks-Gunn, Britto and Brady 1999). But such effects on school readiness
are mediated through several factors, including the home environment (Duncan and Brooks-
Gunn 1997).
Given the strong influence of the home on young children’s learning and development, a
breakdown in the abilities of low-income families to modify the effects of poverty may inhibit
school readiness. Children may not receive the stimulation they need or learn the social skills
that prepare them for school (Hart and Risely 1995; UNICEF 2009a). Problems may appear
when consistent daily routines, supervision and care for siblings are absent (Hyman 2006;
McLoyd 1998). The parents of these children may also lack support.
Parents’ education goals for their children and their beliefs, attitudes and commitment to
education are considered to be crucial for school success (Alexander, Entwisle and Bedinger
1994). Children of mothers with higher education do better at school. Parental beliefs and
expectations are often cited as two explanations for the link between maternal education
achievement and child learning outcomes (Bornstein and others 2003; Haveman and Wolfe
1995). Parents’ perceptions of what their child should be able to do at the age of school entry are
frequently oriented towards academic accomplishments such as counting and knowing the letters
of the alphabet. Parental commitment to ensuring on-time enrolment for their young children is
being recognized as an important aspect of successful school transition (Perez and
Gauvian 2009).
The learning environment provided in the home – as indicated by parents’ engagement
with their children in learning activities such as singing, reading books, telling stories and
playing games – is considered to be one of the characteristics of ready families (Britto, Fuligni
175
and Brooks-Gunn 2002; Forget-Dubois et al. 2009; Bradley, Corwyn and Whiteside-Mansell
1996).
In the United States, children who live in homes with greater verbal engagement,
interaction, stimulation and support do better in school than those lacking the same degree of
interaction (Hart and Risley 1995; Pianta, Smith and Reeve 1991).
Another aspect of family readiness is how responsive parents are to children’s needs and
requests for attention. Data from several developing countries indicate that young children whose
mothers are more responsive to their developing needs have a larger vocabulary and better
cognitive skills, enthusiasm and persistence for learning compared to children whose mothers do
not demonstrate the same degree of responsiveness
(Eshel et al. 2006). Supportive and responsive relationships within the family are the
building blocks of children’s social and emotional development required for success in school.
As described above, direct interactions between key caregiving adults in the family and young
children have been studied extensively. But less is known about the links to school readiness and
the psychological adjustment of individual family members, transmission patterns across
generations and children’s relationships with older siblings (Cowan et al. 2005). Most studies
have focused on children’s adaptation to school with less complex family-functioning models,
where associations between school readiness and single dimensions such as parenting or
maternal mental health are examined (for exceptions, see Werner and Smith 1992). The
associations, however, are far more complex and involve several domains of functioning within
the family, stressors and supports outside the family, and relationships among family members
and community.
176
Although primary caregiving roles throughout the world are usually assumed by the
female head of the household, most typically the mother, the father’s involvement in early
childhood is increasingly being acknowledged (Britto, Engle and Alderman 2007; Cabrera et al.
2000).
Fathers of today are seen on a continuum from cohabitating biological fathers to social
fathers or father figures (Hernandez and Brandon 2002; Palm and Fagan 2008; Roopnarine
2003). The father’s involvement in the young child’s development ranges from traditional roles
such as primary provider of income for the child’s education, to more contemporary roles in
direct caregiving such as bathing, feeding and consistent interactions (Pruett 2000). Patterns of
greater father involvement in early childhood development have been linked with children’s
language skills, cognition, academic achievement, and social and emotional competence
(Cabrera et al. 2007; Downer 2007; Flouri and Buchanan 2004; Lamb 2003). These trends
suggest the need not only for more investigation into this association (Cabrera and Garcia Coll
2003), but also the imperative of acknowledging the importance of fathers when considering
family readiness for schools.
1.7 Section 2: Significance Of Early Childhood Education
School readiness is a powerful framework for improving equity in access to education
and in learning outcomes, especially for marginalized children. Evidence from UNICEF Multiple
Indicator Cluster Surveys 3 shows that the threats to early development are greatest among
children living in the poorest households (UNICEF 2012). Such children are less likely to
receive support for early learning at home and up to 10 times less likely to attend early childhood
education programmes. The importance of such improvement in equity is evident at the
individual and global levels. At the individual level, evidence from multiple perspectives
(developmental, economic, social constructivist) implicates school readiness5 as an important
factor in education achievement; children’s development and learning; school completion
including primary school; and ultimate success in adulthood. At a global level, another claim that
can be implied from the school readiness and education research is its instrumental value in
sustaining and promoting the social and economic development of a country.
177
Therefore, evidence in this report on the significance of school readiness is presented in
two sections: intrinsic benefits and instrumental benefits. Intrinsic benefits address the direct
gains to the recipients, i.e., children, families and schools. Instrumental benefits address gains
towards the broader development goals of social equity and economic development, mediated by
school readiness.
1.8 2a. Intrinsic Benefits Of School Education
The largest body of work on the intrinsic benefits of school readiness has focused on
children’s readiness for school, as opposed to ready schools or ready families. Consequently, that
is the most detailed information presented in this paper.
Research6 has indicated that school readiness is linked to learning, school completion, later skill
development, and acquisition of academic competencies and non-academic success (Arnold
2004; Jaramillo and Tietjen 2001; Kagitcibasi, Sunar and Bekman 2001; Pianta and McCoy
1997; Reynolds 2000; Rouse, Brooks-Gunn and Mclanahan 2005). Children who enter school
‘ready to learn’ are more likely to succeed at school, stay in school and achieve learning
(Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development 2008). As indicated in the
definition of school readiness, learning is a result of a sequential process of skill acquisition.
Therefore, academic achievement is based on building on existing skills and mastering new ones.
The benefits of school readiness are described at three developmental time points: when the
transition to primary school is considered complete, typically around Grade 3, or 8 years of age;
in high school or adolescence; and during adulthood.
With respect to primary school outcomes, two sets of results are examined: reduction in
dropout rates, and increased academic achievement and engagement. Initial test results from
school readiness interventions in several developing countries demonstrate reduction in primary
school drop-out rates. For example, the Government of Cambodia piloted a school readiness
programme in the first two months of Grade 1 of primary school that demonstrated positive
results for student learning and a reduction in drop-out rates (Nonoyama-Tarumi and
Bredenberg 2009). The programme resulted in improved learning, measured by a standardized
test. In Myanmar, primary school enrolment was 13 per cent higher for children who had
attended early childhood programmes compared to those who had not participated (Save the
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Children 2004). In Nepal, participation in school readiness programmes was linked with a
substantially lower repetition rate in first grade for children compared to the national average
(Save the Children 2003).
Data from several studies in developing countries, including Guatemala and South
Africa, have demonstrated a positive association between school entry ability and academic
performance in primary school and later academic achievement (Liddle and Rae 2001; Stith,
Gorman and Choudhury 2003). The multi-site international study uses large longitudinal data
sets and examines the association among various aspects of children’s readiness for school:
academicskills; ability to pay attention; social and emotional development; and reading and
mathematics achievements from Grade 3 and/or 8 years of age and beyond. Across the six
studies, the strongest predictors of later achievement were reading and mathematics skills and the
ability to pay attention.
These results make a compelling case for promoting school readiness, not only because
the associations between school entry and later achievement are so strong in particular for
disadvantaged students, but also because the statistical models were controlled for family
background and socioeconomic variables typically associated with later achievement.
Therefore, the study demonstrated that above and beyond factors known to link to later academic
achievement, mathematics, reading and attention skills are a significant correlate of academic
achievement (Duncan et al. 2007).
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School readiness programs have a great impact on primary school equity outcomes in
particular. Evidence abounds that disadvantaged students are those making the most dramatic
gains from ECD programmes and in turn from school readiness programs (Arnold et al. 2007).
In Brazil, girls from low-income families who attend community-based preschool programmes
are twice as likely to reach Grade 5 and three times more likely to reach Grade 8, as compared to
girls who don’t attend preschool. In Nepal, the implementation of Early Childhood and Care
Education (ECCE) increased the girls to boys school ratio from 0.6 to 1 in Grade 1 (Arnold et al.
2007).
With respect to high school outcomes and academic achievement, the links to school
readiness have also been established (Rouse, Brooks-Gunn and Mclanahan 2007). Data from
several developing countries, including Brazil, Jamaica and the Philippines, indicate a strong
association between early skills and later high school completion, controlling for a host of
influencing factors such as family income and education (Grantham-McGregor et al. 2007).
These results implicate early childhood and school readiness interventions in sustained positive
school achievement outcomes. High-quality preschool experiences have been linked with
improved high school graduation rates (Reynolds et al. 2001). These results are reported from a
longitudinal study of close to 1,000 low-income African-American families and children who
took part in the Chicago Child-Parent Centers. The results indicate that children who participated
in this early education programme stayed in school slightly longer and were more likely to
graduate from high school.
The links to later primary school and high school with school readiness can be
understood based on the conceptualization of school readiness, i.e., the high degree of
interrelatedness between domains of development and the temporality of their convergence. With
respect to academic achievement, children who do poorly in kindergarten and primary grades are
more likely to do poorly in high school, which influences high school graduation (Nagin and
Tremblay 2001; Brooks-Gunn, Rouse and Mclanahan 2007). Poor academic functioning in
school has been associated with such behaviour problems as class disruption and difficulty in
socializing with peers, which in turn affects students’ ability to benefit from the learning
environment.
With respect to adulthood, similar research has been clear in demonstrating that children
who enter school ready to learn and transition smoothly into a primary school learning
environment are more likely to be employed as adults (Rouse, Brooks-Gunn and Mclanahan
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2005). This longitudinal evidence has been generated from early childhood and pre-primary
programmes that have shown long-term effects of economic productivity and good health in
adulthood linked to school readiness (Schweinhart et al. 2004). These results are made even
stronger when we take into consideration the population that participated in this pre-primary
programme: low income African-American children who were assessed to be at high risk of
school failure and longer-term poor education and employment outcomes. The pre-primary
intervention demonstrated the power of school readiness by improving education and economic
performance for a population at risk. Giving children a good start not only counters the worst
effects of poverty, but may also be the most effective means of halting cross-generational
poverty (Arnold et al. 2007).
1.9 2b. Instrumental Advantages Of School Readiness Thus far, this section has focused on the significance of school readiness for children
through their academic careers and adulthood. We now turn our focus to discerning the
significance of school readiness for economic development and social equity in society. By way
of introduction, the arguments in favour of school readiness are prefaced by a brief introduction
to the human capital approach to economic growth theory.
As the central mechanism for sustained growth and national economic development,
economic theories that grew out of the Great Depression and World War II have focused on the
role of production and the stock of human capital rather than physical or structural capital
(Azariadis and Drazen 1990; Lucas 1988; Nelson and Phelps 1966; Mankiw, Romer and Weil
1992).
Human capital is expressed primarily in the combination of two factors: health and
education,7 which are closely linked (UNDP 2004). For example, greater health capital improves
education outcomes – as child health is one of the main predictors of school readiness
(Grantham- McGregor 1995; Pascoe et al. 2007) – and returns on investment – as a result of an
educated workforce. By the same argument, greater educational capital improves health
outcomes because education is needed for the development of basic health skills and for the
training of health personnel. In addition, demographic trends show countries with lowered health
and education capital also are among the least developed in the world. Therefore, the
interrelationship between health, education and development is intimate and linked at several
181
levels. This interrelationship begs the question of how a country builds human capital. School
readiness is proposed as one such strategy, as described by the evidence-based logic model.
Return on investment can be estimated for such factors as reduction in education costs, increase
in human productivity and income, and benefits to society. Investment in school readiness has
been linked with internal efficiency of primacy school education costs (Consultative Group
2008). Given that children who attend preschool are more likely to succeed in school and less
likely to repeat grades, drop out or require special education, cost reductions in education
budgets are realized. With newer costing models, investment in school readiness has been linked
with less waste of resources in primary school.
With respect to earning profiles, productivity and participation in active citizenship, the
school readiness return on investment in human capital has been quite substantial in developing
countries. For example, the earnings profiles by levels of education increase on a linear
trajectory, after taking into consideration the direct and indirect costs.8 Income gains from higher
levels of education have been established in the developing world (Psacharopoulos 1994).
Studies from 51 countries demonstrate on average a 9.7 per cent increase in wages with each
year of schooling (Grantham-McGregor et al. 2007). This data is supported by the evidence
presented in the previous section that school readiness is one of the main predictors of later
school achievement and learning. School readiness clearly demarcates the path for individuals to
higher education, leading to earnings benefits. A greater earning citizenry contributes to the
economic growth of a country.
Societal benefits, in general, have also been calculated based on school readiness. Data
from three of the largest developing regions of the world, sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Latin
America, demonstrate high rates of return on investment in education. These social returns on
investment for primary school education, i.e., benefits to society accounting for public costs of
education, are 24 per cent for sub-Saharan Africa, 20 per cent for Asia and 18 per cent for Latin
America compared to 14 per cent for the developed world (Psacharopoulos 1994).In summary,
when equity in access to early education and learning is improved, greater economic benefits
accrue to individuals themselves and collectively to society. Societal benefits of school readiness
include promotion of the universal right of all individuals to education, a greater social justice
and social cohesion, a better efficiency of education systems, better health outcomes, poverty
reduction and higher growth. Those societal benefits can only be partially economically valued;
therefore, we would expect the actual social returns on investment to be even higher.
182
School readiness lays the foundation for educational success and achievement. Consequently, the
significance of school readiness is noted both as an intrinsic benefit in improving education
outcomes for children by completing primary school, staying in high school and productivity in
later adulthood. In addition, instrumental benefits are noted for society as the result of human
capital created through a strong foundational start.
1.10 Summary
In summary, school readiness encompasses children, schools and families as they acquire
the competencies required for a smooth transition and interaction with the other dimensions of
the paradigm. Of the three dimensions, children’s readiness for school is probably the most
studied.
The focus of ‘ready children’ has been broadly on holistically defining skills, abilities and
attitudes that children require to succeed at school, and the greatest benefits of such interventions
accrue to the most disadvantaged children. In terms of ‘ready schools’, the focus has been on
quality and practices that support a smooth transition for children and their families.
It should be noted, however, that these practices are primarily derived from and based on school
systems in Western and high-resource countries. Little is presently known about the
characteristics of ready schools in low-resource and developing countries where the issues of
schooling are dissimilar to developed countries. Families’ readiness for schools is part of
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parenting beliefs, attitudes and practices, from birth, that need to be understood within a
socioeconomic and cultural context as having implications for children’s school success.
1.11 Check Your Progress
1. What Is School Readiness?
2. School Readiness Defined
3. Explain Children’s Readiness For School
4. Explain Schools’ Readiness For Children
5. Explain. Families’ Readiness For School
6. Explain Significance Of Early Childhood Education
7. Explain Intrinsic Benefits Of School Education
8. Explain Instrumental Advantages Of School Readiness
11. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.12.1. Points for discussion
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27. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. (2006). Síolta: The National
Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood
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the Proposed Referendum on Children’s Rights. Dublin: Children’s Rights Alliance.
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30. Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline. Cambridge, MA:
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32. Corsaro, W. (1997). The sociology of childhood. California: Pine Forge Press.
33. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
Anning, C., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
34. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
35. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
36. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
37. Department of Education and Science. (1998). Report on the national forum for early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
38. Department of Education and Science. (1999a). Ready to learn: White paper on early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
39. Department of Education and Science. (1999b). The Primary School Curriculum. Dublin,
Ireland: The Stationary Office.
40. Department of Education and Science. (2004). The education for persons with special
educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
41. Department of Education, Training and Employment and Catholic Education, South
Australia (2001). South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability
Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
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45. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
46. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
47. Dewey, J. (1959). My pedagogic creed. In M. S. Dorkin (ed.) Dewey on education. New
York: Teacher’s College Press.
48. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
49. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
50. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
51. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
52. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
53. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
54. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
55. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
56. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
57. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
58. Connell, R. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics.
California: Stanford University Press.
59. Corsaro, W. (1997). The sociology of childhood. California: Pine Forge Press.
191
60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
Anning, C., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
61. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
62. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
63. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
64. Department of Education and Science. (1998). Report on the national forum for early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
65. Department of Education and Science. (1999a). Ready to learn: White paper on early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
66. Department of Education and Science. (1999b). The Primary School Curriculum. Dublin,
Ireland: The Stationary Office.
67. Department of Education and Science. (2004). The education for persons with special
educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
68. Department of Education, Training and Employment and Catholic Education, South
Australia (2001). South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability
Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
69. Department of Health and Children. (1991). The child care act. Dublin: The Stationary
Office.
70. Department of Health and Children. (1996). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
71. Department of Health and Children. (1999). Children First: National Guidelines for the
Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
72. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
73. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
74. Dewey, J. (1959). My pedagogic creed. In M. S. Dorkin (ed.) Dewey on education. New
York: Teacher’s College Press.
192
75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
76. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
193
Unit 2: Early Childhood Education Curricular Domains –
Enhancement Of Domain In Motor, Personal, Cognitive And
Communication Areas
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Early Learning And Development
2.3 Motor Skills
2.4 Opportunities To Use Motor Skills
2.5 Motor Skill Functions
2.6 Cognitive Development
2.7 Personal
2.8 Communication And Language
2.8.1 Language As A Cultural Tool
2.8.2 Learning And Developing Using Communication And Language
2.8.3 Holistic Development In Curricula
2.8.4 Holistic Development In The Framework For Early Learning
2.9 Summary
2.10 Check Your Progress
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2.11 References
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2.1 Introduction
Ireland has enjoyed profound economic, demographic, cultural and social change since
the 1980s. An improvement in public finances, lower inflation, economic growth, manufacturing
output and export growth have become hallmarks of life in Ireland at the beginning of the
twenty-first century. The Central Statistics Office (CSO, 2005) observes that the population in
Ireland has increased by over twelve per cent to more than four million in the period 1995-2004.
The Office noted the employment rate in Ireland rose from fifty-four per cent in 1995 to sixty-
five and a half per cent in 2004 with a reversal of the trend of emigration toward immigration
contributing to an increasingly diverse and multicultural society. However, as the National
Economic and Social Forum (NESF, 2005) report highlighted, in spite of our healthy economy,
social deficits - including educational disadvantage, limited childcare and barriers to full
engagement in society for people with a disability – require more attention. With increased
participation in employment by women - from thirty-five per cent in 1990 to over forty-nine per
cent in 2004 (CSO, 2005) there is a growing demand for childcare places. In addition, according
to the Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE, 2005, p. 6), parents are
increasingly interested and concerned with their children’s holistic development, including their
cognitive, emotional and social development.
The changing nature of childhood itself in the 21st Century has become a persistent
public concern. In response to a debate which emerged in the United Kingdom (UK) regarding
the escalating incidences of childhood depression and children’s behavioural and developmental
conditions Murray (The Irish Times, September 2006) reported that there was cause for real
concern. Responsible parents and professionals in Ireland have also issued warnings about the
stresses on children, the erosion of innocence, the sexualisation of children and the influence of
inappropriate media images on the heart and mind of the child (Daly, 2004; Murray, September
2006). Furthermore there is anxiety regarding the rise of obesity, diabetes, anorexia and bulimia
among children, the emergence of the child consumer with a disposable income, and the increase
in substance and alcohol abuse, violence, and self-harm amongst young people. These problems
are complex, and without a ready solution. While the forthcoming National Longitudinal Study
of Children in Ireland launched in January 2007 (Growing Up in Ireland, led by the Economic
and Social Research Institute and Trinity College, Dublin) will give some insights into children’s
lives, we need to engage in authentic debate about how we are going to improve children’s well-
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being. Rather than bemoaning the demise of childhood it is vital that we celebrate the benefits
we have gained regarding educational opportunities, dental and health improvements, greater
gender and social equality which are greatly superior to those experienced by children in the
past.
Murray (The Irish Times, September 16, 2006) advised that we can challenge what is
inappropriate to their developmental needs. Children have a need for play, for space to initiate
their own creative, imaginative, symbolic worlds, not just be passive recipients of prefabricated
fantasy. Children need time and limits. Children also have a human right to be protected from the
mental violence of age-inappropriate media exposure, uncensored chat rooms and internet
marketing. The Children’s Rights Alliance (2007) advocated that the expected referendum on
children’s rights within the Irish Constitution should result in an amendment whereby the
Constitution includes a statement highlighting that the State values and respects childhood and
will facilitate children to reach their full potential and be protected from all forms of physical,
emotional, sexual abuse and from exploitation. As a society we must ensure that children’s
developmental needs are met and their rights protected.
This research paper Children’s early learning and development responds to the question -
how should we understand the child as a young learner? Informed by traditional and
contemporary literature on education, health sciences, sociology of childhood, anthropology,
cultural studies, and philosophy, a range of perspectives on how children learn and develop are
explored. The paper situates the discussion on how children learn and develop in early
childhood, in Ireland. In doing this, it draws particular attention to relevant legislative and policy
developments. The paper then explores key features of the processes through which children
learn and develop. As part of the preparatory work for the Framework for Early Learning1,
theNational Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) developed a document entitled,
Early Childhood Framework, Background Paper (2001). This document presented a review of
literature concerning how children learn and develop, and a review of early childhood curriculum
materials used nationally and internationally. During the development of the paper and later the
consultative document, Towards a Framework for Early Learning (2004), the NCCA identified
common principles of early childhood care and education. These principles are reflected in the
headings used to organise this research paper on how children learn and develop. The paper
looks at how we should conceptualise the child before going on to discuss equality and diversity,
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active learning and meaning making, relationships, language and communication, the learning
environment and play. The paper then looks at the whole child in context and at early childhood
curriculum. The concluding comments clarify and summarise the key messages from across the
paper.
2.2 Early Learning And Development
As outlined earlier, in the document Early Childhood Framework, Background Paper (2001),
the NCCA highlighted common principles which underpinned the curriculum materials shaping
early childhood practice in Ireland. These principles emerged from a review of the literature in
the field of early childhood research, and from curriculum guidelines including the Infant
Curriculum as part of the Primary School Curriculum (Department of Education and Science,
1999b). This paper provides a more detailed review of the research literature and uses the
principles as lenses to highlight important messages which inform contemporary thinking about
how children learn and develop. The headings used to guide the discussion are:
equality and diversity ■■
active learning and meaning making■■
relationships■■
communication and language■■
the environment■■
play■■
the whole child in context■■
early childhood curriculum.■■
One of the oldest and most central theoretical debates within psychology and philosophy
concerns whether children’s learning and development is as a result of their genetic inheritance
(nature) or the influence of the environment in which they find themselves (nurture). What is
clear is that both genetic and environmental factors play vital roles in a child’s life chances
(French and Murphy, 2005). Children’s experiences in their early years have a profound impact
on their later social, emotional and cognitive development (Home-Start International, 2002).
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2.3 Motor Skills
It is hard to imagine any functional routine that does not involve some motor activity.
Whether playing a game at home with friends, dining in a restaurant, or stapling newsletters in an
office, participation involves numerous motor skills. Although motor skills traditionally have
been viewed in relation to the normal motor development of a young child, it is useful to
consider the functions that motor skills serve. For example, in the routines we just listed, people
use motor skills to travel from one geographic location to another. This may involve walking,
climbing the steps of a bus, or driving a car. Once at the home, restaurant, or office, the
participants use mobility skills to walk between rooms and between areas within rooms. Then
they assume and maintain positions that are functional for the activity.
They probably sit to eat, but might sit or stand to staple. The functional positioning for
the game depends upon whether they are playing cards, croquet, or Twister. Finally, they
participate in the core of the activity, which requires motor skills to visually scan and gaze at
materials, to manipulate materials, and to eat. Even performing the simplest of the embedded
social and communication skills involves some type of motor kills (e.g., smiling when greeted,
pointing to a choice).
When we think about the ways we typically perform these functional routines, it seems
that participation requires an extensive repertoire of sophisticated motor skills. If we concentrate
on the functions that motor skills serve in the activities, however, we can see many more
possibilities. We know that the mobility function of walking can be fulfilled by crawling or
driving a wheelchair. We know that positioning can be assisted through a variety of adapted
equipment. And we know that participation can be elicited through systematic prompts, partial
participation, and adaptations. Focusing on the functions of motor skills allows us to see how
students with even the most severe physical disabilities can participate in activities. This does not
suggest that students do not need to learn or improve motor skills. Generally, walking is faster
and more versatile than crawling or driving a wheelchair. Assuming, maintaining, and changing
positions independently, and as personal comfort or preference dictate, are preferable to having
another person expend time and energy lifting and positioning in costly adapted equipment
according to a schedule. And performing at least parts of a routine independently reduces
reliance upon personal assistance and adaptations, which are not always available. Therefore,
individualized education programs (1BPs) need to achieve a balance between assisting students
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to fulfill the motor functions that will maximize participation today, and teaching students the
motor skills that will increase their independence in the future.
Many children with moderate and severe disabilities achieve the typical "motor
milestones" at a slower rate, but follow the normal sequences. It is fairly common for these
children to receive motor skills instruction incidentally and in functional contexts. Other children
have more severe or multiple physical disabilities, including cerebral palsy, in which motor
development is disorganized as well as delayed. Spasticity, hypotonia, and primitive reflex
patterns interfere with experiencing and practicing normal movement, and hinder motor skill
development. Unfortunately, therapists and teachers tend to exclude children with severe and
multiple physical disabilities from activities in which they could develop motor skills, because
the children do not already perform the motor skills that constitute the activity. Such circular
reasoning can produce three outcomes. First, children and adults with severe and multiple
physical disabilities receive instruction in "prerequisite" movements and motor skills in isolated
and nonfunctional contexts where there is no clear purpose for performing the tasks. Second,
instruction is episodic, so they do not have enough practice to learn the motor skills. Third, they
rarely reach the criterion skill levels, so they never "earn" the right to participate actively in
integrated community environments. There is evidence that children with physical disabilities
become more interested in activities when they are given a means to participate actively, and
when they achieve some control over their environment (Hulme, Poor, Schulein, & Pezzino,
1983). Therefore, whether a student has moderate motor skill deficits or severe and multiple
physical disabilities, it is essential that teachers and therapists provide frequent opportunities for
him or her to learn and practice functional motor skills through meaningful activities in normal
environments.
2.4 Opportunities To Use Motor Skills
While motor sequences help determine which motor skills the student can realistically
achieve, and in what order, natural routines and the functions of motor skills help to define the
scope of the curriculum. The routines that occur in the home, for example, present endless
opportunities to teach motor skills. When arising in the morning, a person rolls out of bed,
assumes an upright position, travels to the bathroom, assumes some functional position in front
of the sink, and manipulates faucets, washcloth, soap, toothbrush, toothpaste tube, and other
implements. The person travels back to the bedroom, opens and closes drawers and closet doors,
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removes sleep eat, and puts on clothing for the day. Breakfast may entail cooking, setting the
table, and cleaning up, as well as eating. The motor functions of positioning, mobility,
manipulation, vision, and eating are clear in these routines.
Family members are important in defining the motor curriculum, since they can describe
how motor functions are fulfilled at home, which ways are satisfactory, and whether proposed
alternatives will be acceptable. The means used to fulfill motor functions at home may be
different from those used in the community. For example, York (1987) found that adults with
physical disabilities typically walked (if they could) when in or near their home, but used a
wheelchair to travel in the community. The same people often crawled on the floor in their home,
especially in the bedroom and bathroom, because crawling was safer and more functional.
Parents remind us that adapted mobility and positioning equipment sometimes does not fit the
space or atmosphere of a home. Parents also can identify the routines where teaching the child
functional motor skills would be most beneficial, and when family members have time to teach.
Keeping a log of 2 or 3 days' activities is an effective way for a family to identify their priorities
and time constraints (Rainforth & Salisbury, 1988). As the child grows older, the family can
provide important information about the motor skills the child has used in the past, and about the
methods and adaptations that have been tried.
In community environments and activities, every routine should be examined for
opportunities to use or teach motor functions. How does the child travel to the school, workplace,
or other community environment? How does the child travel through the building, and within
rooms in the building? Is the child encouraged to use or develop independent mobility? What
positions does the child use when participating in the activities? Is the child encouraged to use
and improve postural control? Would other positions improve the quality of participation? How
does the child participate in the activity itself, and in the set up and clean up? Is the child
encouraged to use or improve manipulation, eating, and vision skills? Could/should the activity
or materials be adapted to increase participation?
2.5 Motor Skill Functions
Development of motor skills is considered to follow certain sequences. There are specific
skill sequences that delineate the many steps from developing head control to learning to walk,
and from grasping objects with a fisted hand to writing with a pencil. These sequences are often
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analyzed or described in terms of more general patterns of development, which are thought to
follow certain progressions: head to foot, gross to fine, weight bearing to non weight bearing,
and proximal to distal (near the body to farther from the body). The "head to foot" pattern
reflects the progression of control from the head, to the trunk, and finally to the legs. The "gross
to fine" pattern reflects the development of large body movements, such as walking, before
refined movements, such as buttoning and writing.
The "weightbearing to nonweightbearing" pattern describes that children learn to prop up
on their arms before they become skilled at reach and grasp. The "proximal to distal" pattern
reflects development of control at the shoulders and hips before control at the hands and feet, as
illustrated in the other examples above.
Because the skill sequences in motor development have been studied so extensively,
many therapists and teachers now consider the sequences to be prescriptive. with earlier skills in
the sequences viewed as prerequisites for teaching later skills. For typical children, however,
great variations in the rate and sequence of motor development are considered normal (e.g.,
learning to walk without ever crawling). Furthermore, motor development does not always
follow even the general patterns described above (Horowitz & Sharby, 1988; Loria, 1980). Loria
found that children simultaneously worked on proximal and distal, weightbearing and
nonweightbearing, and gross and fine motor development in the arm and hand. She also found
that children achieved the corresponding motor skills in varying sequences. Although the
sequences and patterns that typically occur still provide useful guidelines, such research findings
of variations in motor development support motor skills instruction for children with physical
disabilities that can and should focus on many areas and levels of development simultaneously.
Although we caution against letting "normal" motor development sequences dictate prerequisites
for teaching other motor skills, there are other types of prerequisites to which therapists and
teachers need to attend. For example, locomotion, eating, looking, and handling objects all
require stabilization of some body parts while coordinating movement of other body parts. If
there is insufficient stabilization of body parts or coordination of movement, the student will be
unsuccessful in performing the motor components of the task.
In this sense, stabilization and coordination are prerequisites to the task. One way to view
motor development sequences is that they reflect progressive improvements in stabilization and
coordinated movement, which tend to follow the patterns described above. Positioning, handling,
and prompting augment the child's internal motor control, and are faded as the child learns to
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stabilize and coordinate various body parts. The motor skill functions chart (Chart 12.1) reflects
a combination of this stabilization-coordination orientation and the "normal" sequences of motor
development. It is organized into these major functions: positioning, mobility, manipulation, oral
motor functions, and visual functions.
The motor skill functions chart includes only basic information about motor skill
development. Other considerations, such as strength, speed, rate, power, and stamina, are not
covered here. Factors such as range of motion, muscle tone, and primitive reflexes, which may
limit acquisition of motor skills, have been discussed only briefly. For more extensive
information and methods, consult with the physical or occupational therapist assigned to your
team or school district.
2.6 Cognitive Development
I. Thematic Lessons from Cognitive Development
The core notion of cognitive development is that children develop skills and abilities in
more or less predictable sequences. While not all children develop at the same rate, they do all
pass through common phases of cognitive, physical, and social development. Although we will
not explore here all of the many well-known theorists who have contributed to our understanding
of this idea, we can boil down all of those theories to a series of thematic findings that are most
relevant to teachers in the classroom. The following five themes (adapted from Jeanne Ormrod’s
Educational Psychology: Developing Learners) serve as founding tenets of cognitive
development and provide important background for teachers:
(1) At different ages, children think in different ways. Cognitive psychologists study students’
perceptions and analyses of the world around them. Generally speaking, children become
increasingly capable of handling more complex and abstract ideas. For example, younger
children may have difficulty interpreting figurative language. And, over the course of
adolescence, students generally can handle more and more sophisticated problem solving. As
teachers, we should encourage students to think about and describe the strategies they are using
to access knowledge.
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(2) Children actively construct meaning. Cognitive development theorists generally agree that
children are not passive receivers of knowledge, but instead are active meaning-makers. That is,
information does not simply seep into a child’s brain; children are immediately processing new
ideas—putting them into categories, making connections to other pieces of information they
already know, and asking questions to develop an interpretation of the world around them. This
theory of “constructivism” further states that students need first-hand experience, rather than
simply a teacher’s explanation, to abandon preconceived notions they have. As a result, rather
than always being a “sage on the stage,” an effective teacher should consider when it is
appropriate to be a “guide on the side,” crafting activities and openended questions that allow
students to explore their world first-hand. On a cold day, younger students might believe their
sweaters and hats produce heat; for some students, only through testing this notion with
thermometers will the misconception be debunked. The act of watching students explore their
own approaches for solving a problem—rather than simply telling them “the” way to do it, or
letting them “discover” without any supervision or guidance whatsoever—gives a teacher
insights into how the child thinks and how then to clarify any misunderstandings.
(3) A child’s cognitive development builds on prior knowledge. Another theme
runningthrough all cognitive development theoriesis that very little, if any, knowledge isactually
written on a “blank slate.” Newknowledge must be built on prior knowledgefor students to
achieve understanding. Thatis, no new idea can be explained forsomeone unless that person has
somestarting place for the explanation. Asteachers, this concept reminds us to do allwe can to
build that prior knowledge. Again,we must expose our students to a vast arrayof experiences and
ideas, as they will serveas foundations for more experiences andideas.
(4) Challenging student thought promotes cognitive development. While there are
disagreements among theorists as to the relative influences of natural, internal development and
externally-driven cognitive “exercise,” cognitive development does tell us that pushing the rigor
of students’ cognitive experiences does affect students’ general cognitive development. This idea
encourages us as teachers to know our students’ cognitive comfort zones and to teach just
beyond those comfort zones. Easier said than done, since each child comes to the classroom with
different prior knowledge and readiness levels.
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It becomes the educators’ mission to structure lessons so that everyone is challenged. One way to
do so is by scaffolding assignments so that all students receive the amount of assistance they
need to complete a task.
(5) Social interactions enable cognitive growth. There is an entire branch of cognitive theory
devoted to social learning. These scholars focus on the ways in which people learn through
observation. By seeing someone model a task, succeed or fail during an attempt, and get
rewarded or punished for a behavior, learners make decisions about what they will do—and how
to do it. Teachers should then provide modeling in both academic and social situations. One
effective strategy is “thinking aloud,” where the teacher talks about his or her thought-processes
when demonstrating a skill requiring decision-making.
This allows students a window into the types of questions they should ask themselves when
pursuing the same task. From the constructivist perspective, students should also have many
opportunities to share their ideas, perspectives, beliefs and thought-processes with peers and
adults. Students who share and debate ideas will gain skills in seeing multiple perspectives and
different ways of thinking, as well as help them discover flaws and gaps in their understanding.
II. Grade-Specific Lessons from Cognitive Development
Having outlined the most general lessons of cognitive development for teachers, we will
now turn to specific insights that cognitive development has for teachers. We must begin with
the obvious disclaimer that these lists of characteristics are merely generalizations. It is
impossible to say with any certainty that all ten-year olds have any particular characteristic, other
than being ten years old. A whole range of factors including developmental differences,
environmental differences, and children’s personalities can have a significant effect on whether a
student meets the generic list of characteristics describing children of that age. A teacher should
expect exceptions to the generalizations posed in this chapter:
No matter how children are grouped chronologically or by grade, there will also always
be a wide spread in normal developmental differences. A two-year span in development is
205
normal in any area of a child’s development—physical, social, language or cognitive growth.
Thus, a child who is ten years old chronologically may still be exhibiting social behaviors more
typical of a nine-year old. A five-year old may display the physical prowess of a six-year old. A
seven-year old child may be reading at a fifth-grade level, but have trouble making friends like
other seven-year olds.7
Thus, it is difficult if not impossible to say that there is some “average” or “normal” eight-year
old. And yet, knowing what is “typical” is helpful to a teacher who is designing a classroom for
academic achievement.
A. Primary Grades (Pre-K–3)
Children in the first several years of school are experiencing rapid conceptual and language
development as they learn to read and write. In terms of their cognitive development, they tend
to be literalists, still developing the ability to think abstractly. As a result, concrete ideas and
objects are most appreciated and understood.
In terms of physical development, students in this age range show a wide variation in physical
development, even within the same grade. They are rapidly refining gross motor skills and more
slowly refining their fine motor skills. (In younger grades, girls are often ahead of boys in fine
motor skills and language.) Children between the ages of 4-9 may have high amounts of energy
(relative to most of the rest of us) and have difficulty concentrating on things that do not interest
or make sense to them (again, even more than us, because they haven’t developed self-
regulation), which may translate into a short attention span.
B. Upper Elementary (Grades 3–6)
The transition to upper elementary school (which some might say occurs at third grade) is
marked by the enhanced ability to perform logical operations with concrete materials, like math
manipulatives. In the later elementary grades, children begin using abstract concepts more often
and adeptly but still do so rarely (through rudimentary algebra, for example). Meanwhile,
children’s communication skills, both verbal and written, are rapidly improving. During the
third, fourth, and fifth grade, teachers report that differences in cognitive styles (including
learning disabilities) become more pronounced and recognizable.
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Upper elementary students experience slow and steady physical growth and become
increasingly concerned with physical looks, coinciding with their social inclinations to start
looking to peers as the key locus of influence instead of adults. Sometime toward the end of
intermediate grades, some students (more often girls at this age) experience “growth spurts” with
the onset of puberty. Female students may begin to menstruate, a concept that some may not
understand (or have heard of) until they actually experience it. Physical fitness is also a key issue
at this age.
The social lives of upper elementary students are increasingly dominated by issues of status
within groups (both socially and academically). And research tells us that students are
developing a sense of academic self-worth that will usually stick with the child through later
schooling.
C. Junior High School (Grades 7–9)
During the junior high years, students’ cognitive skills are experiencing qualitative
changes as they become fully able to think abstractly, systematically, hypothetically, and
deductively. They are experiencing significant growth spurts and showing dramatic differences
in physical maturation during puberty. Both female and male students will begin to smell
differently and may not realize they need to start wearing deodorant, and you may need to relax
your “no bathroom” policy for female students who are menstruating.
Seventh, eighth, and ninth graders are also experiencing deepening social relationships as they
form, and experiment with, personal identity and preferences in dress and appearance. This new
interest in appearance, fueled by physical changes, can lead students at this egocentric phase to
think that all eyes in a room are on them—what psychologists call “the imaginary audience.”
Adolescents continue to look to peers as the key influence in their lives, and mutuality and
loyalty of friendships increase. Students group themselves in same-sex friend groups, and some
more intimate one-on-one relationships begin to form. Above all, students are concerned with
“fitting in.
Not coincidentally, this is also the stage in which students develop a generalized “self-
concept.” Adolescents begin to see themselves as having certain characteristics (“popular,”
“sporty,” “different”), based on their previous performance and behavior, their position relative
to others around them, and the ways in which they are treated by adults and peers. These
207
definitions tend to fuel future behavior, so be conscious of how you are reinforcing a student’s
negative self-image. Communicate how much you like your students as human beings, even
when you express disapproval of their choices.
Deem poor behavior as “not like you,” and seize opportunities to help children see themselves as
capable and successful in school.
Males and females experience challenges during adolescence. National studies have indicated
that the academic performance of female students begins to slip as these students enter
adolescence, particularly in math and science; they may begin to internalize societal stereotypes
about women and suppress their ability to express their point of view or assert themselves.8 Male
students are likely to have more self-confidence and higher career aspirations, but they are also
less likely to graduate from high school.
D. High School (Grades 10–12)
During the last few years of high school, students are generally demonstrating full, adult,
abstract reasoning. Most students have reached full physical maturity as well (although some
males may continue to grow taller). Students continue to focus on the importance of peer
relationships, with male and female cliques interacting with each other, and students show an
increasing interest in individual, intimate relationships. Adolescent peer groups during these
years tend to be highly correlated with socio-economic status and plans for the future. Sadly,
adolescence can be an emotional and psychological roller coaster for some, and psychiatric
disorders, while rare, become more prominent
(i.e., eating disorders, schizophrenia, depression).
2.7 Personal
Piaget (cited in Wood, 1998) believed that all children pass through a series of
developmental stages before they construct the ability to perceive, reason and understand in
mature rational terms. Piaget and Inhelder (1969) claimed that the essential nature of human
beings was their power to construct knowledge through adaptation to the environment. Thus,
through assimilation and accommodation the child is in a continual process of cognitive self-
correction. The goal of this activity is a better sense of equilibrium. Equilibration is fundamental
208
to learning (Krogh and Slentz, 2001). Piaget’s key contribution to child development is his
teaching that learning is a continual process of meaning making. It is not a linear input/output
process as favoured by behavioural theorists (Pavlov, Skinner). Information is not simply
absorbed into a memory bank but must be worked on by the child in order for it to make sense in
terms of the learner’s existing frame of reference. For example, deliver us from evil becomes
deliver us from eagles which makes sense to the listener (Robson and Smedley, 1996). This
example highlights the negative impact of learning experiences which are abstract and removed
from the child’s everyday experience (Donaldson, 1993). Children’s thinking is embedded in a
context which has some meaning to them whereas much school activity …is ‘disembedded’
(Moyles, 2001, p. 14). Activities such as ‘filling in the blanks’, worksheets and ‘colouring in’ are
often removed from meaning and purpose for the child and therefore make the process of
learning more difficult (Moyles, 2001, p. 14).
In contrast, first hand learning experiences fuel children’s imagination and unquenchable
thirst for understanding. This type of learning occurs in everyday contexts when children engage
in activities which matter to them (Rich and Drummond, 2006). In designing an involvement
scale for assessing children’s learning and development, Laevers (1997) identified signs of
individual active engagement such as concentration, energy, complexity and creativity, facial
expression and composure, persistence, precision, reaction time, verbal expression, and
satisfaction. Children need to be involved in their learning and it has to be real and meaningful to
them.
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2.8 Communication And Language
Most children are naturally disposed to communicate. This enables them to establish and
maintain social relationships with others, to express and share their thoughts and feelings, to
represent and to understand the world around them (NCCA, 2004, p. 29). As the Primary
School Curriculum (Department of Education and Science, 1999b) notes, language has a vital
role to play in children’s development. Much learning takes place through the interaction of
language and experience (Introduction, Department of Education and Science, 1999b, p. 15).
This section explores the importance of supporting children’s language and communication as
part of their learning and development in early childhood. Significantly, Egan (1997, p. 67), re-
conceives education as our learning to use particular intellectual tools such as language and
literacy, which shape how we make sense of the world as ours is a peculiar languaged
understanding of the world (author’s emphasis).
2.8.1 Language As A Cultural Tool
Children’s development of both receptive and expressive language impacts on other
domains of development (MacWhinney and Bornstein, 2003) particularly intellectual functioning
and later literacy. According to Wood (1998), Vygotsky emphasised activity in learning but
placed language and communication (and hence instruction) at the heart of personal and
intellectual development. A key principle in Vygotsky’s view was the individual’s internalisation
or appropriation of culture. Especially important to this process is language, which both encodes
culture and is a tool for participating in culture. Vygotsky argued that language and other sign
systems (for example, writing, film, and so on), like tool systems (for example, material objects
like machines) are created by societies over the course of history and change with cultural
development. Thus, argued Vygotsky, children, through their acquisition and use of language,
come to reproduce a culture that contains the knowledge of generations.
Bruner (1990), like Piaget, emphasised the importance of biological and evolutionary
constraints on human development. However, in keeping with Vygotsky he also stressed the way
culture forms and transforms the child’s development. Social interaction, language and
instruction are central in forming the mind. He used the language of information processing in
formulating his ideas grounded in a theory of culture and growth. Through language, the child
reflects on his or her actions, integrates new experiences into an existing knowledge base, and
seeks the co-operation of others in his/her activities (Hohmann, Banet and Weikart, 1979).
210
2.8.2 Learning And Developing Using Communication And Language
In order to provide appropriate scaffolding for the child in learning and developing, a
shared context of meaning and experience must be established. This is especially important in
the first years of life, and is particularly relevant to children who do not speak Gaeilge or English
as their first language or who have a specific language delay. In the early years the child’s ability
to communicate is not fully developed and the adult often needs to interpret or expand on the
child’s utterances or gestures. Through shared experiences, the child gradually makes sense of
the world and of adult meaning. The adult provides the bridge between the familiar and known to
the unfamiliar and yet to be known, and responsibility is gradually transferred to the child
(Smith, 1999, p. 96). This process requires a close and nurturing relationship between adult and
child.
Egan (1997) offers a summary of the human formation of language and the kind of
understanding of the world and experience that stimulation and development of language
capacities entail. Some level of language development occurs naturally by children being
brought up in a language-using environment, but fuller development of language and its
associated intellectual capacities requires deliberate teaching. Egan (1997, p. 68) has suggested
that the most important, dramatic, and vivid stories of our world and of human experience can
provide an appropriate curriculum for the earliest years. The issue of language development is
critically linked to important educational questions of teaching (how much adult direction versus
child initiation) and the consequences of literacy for participation in society (Wood, 1998). As
advocated by the Primary School Curriculum (Department of Education and Science, 1999b),
Wood (1998) suggests that, oracy (verbal expression by children) should be an important part of
the curriculum.
2.8.3 Holistic Development In Curricula
That children learn and develop holistically is acknowledged by many educationalists
(Froebel, Steiner, Malaguzzi, Montessori, Weikart). Steiner in particular exemplified the ‘whole
child’ approach. Like Piaget he developed stages for human development which had cognitive
211
implications for teaching and learning. However, this is only one part of the Steiner focus;
through his philosophy of anthroposophy, the journey for the soul and spirit was equally if not
more important (Krogh and Slentz, 2001, p. 89). Steiner placed great emphasis on cultivating a
sense of aesthetics, empathising with fellow human beings, thinking and developing observation
skills (a view shared with Montessori) and promoted children’s engagement in rhythm, language,
music, and movement. This emphasis on physical development is an important message (Penn,
2005). Blenkin and Kelly (1994) advocated experiential learning and sensory-based activities as
opposed to pre-determined school knowledge to be taught to young children.
Some curricula emphasise the use of domains of development and correspondingly
present the learning for young children as the physical self, the psycho-social self and the
thinking self (South Australian Curriculum and Standards and Accountability Framework,
2001). The Primary School Curriculum (Department of Education and Science, 1999b) presents
learning through curriculum areas such as language, mathematics, social, environmental and
scientific education and so on, and recommends the use of topics and areas of interest
particularly in infant classes to present learning in an integrated way. For the young child, the
distinctions between subjects are not relevant: what is more important is that he or she
experiences a coherent learning process that accommodates a variety of elements (Department
of Education and Science, Introduction, 1999b, p. 16). A thematic approach to understanding and
supporting children’s learning and development as presented in the Framework for Early
Learning developed by the NCCA, bridges the gap between the developmental domains and a
more holistic and integrated approach.
2.8.4 Holistic Development In The Framework For Early Learning
The Framework for Early Learning’s thematic approach to presenting children’s learning
and development conveys successfully the integrated and holistic development of the young
learner, and the totality of his/her learning needs (NCCA, 2004, p. 22). Bruce (1997) suggested
that subjects such as mathematics and art cannot be separated; young children learn in an
integrated way and not in neat, tidy compartments. Katz and Chard (1989) proposed project work
(an in-depth study of a particular topic that one or more children undertake) as an ideal way of
supporting learning in an integrated way. Projects can be ‘going to the hospital’ or ‘building a
house’. The thematic approach such as the NCCA’s (2004) proposed themes of Well-being,
Identity and Belonging, Communicating, and Exploring and Thinking bridges the developmental
212
domains and moves towards a more integrated way of thinking about how children learn and
develop. This new way of thinking continues to support children to grow and develop socially,
linguistically, physically, cognitively, creatively, and so on but in a way which is more natural,
more meaningful and enjoyable for children. Children’s interests and needs are at the centre of
what and how they learn. An effective curriculum acknowledges that children learn and develop
holistically.
2.9 Summary
This section has looked at how different theorists consider children’s understanding and
construction of language. Research paints a positive picture in relation to young children’s
language acquisition as a foundation for learning and development. Children do not think in
isolation; thinking is an everyday social activity and is culturally determined (Rogoff, 1990).
Experiences with others play a formative role in the development of communication skills and a
rich physical environment provides numerous language opportunities.
2.10 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Early Learning And Development
2. Explain Motor Skills
3. Explain Opportunities To Use Motor Skills
4. Explain Motor Skill Functions
5. Explain Cognitive Development
6. Explain Personal
7. Explain Communication And Language
8. Explain Language As A Cultural Tool
9. Explain Learning And Developing Using Communication And Language
10. Explain Holistic Development In Curricula
11. Explain Holistic Development In The Framework For Early Learning
13. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.14.1. Points for discussion
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223
Unit 3: Curriculum Domains for Early Childhood Education and Sensory
Mechanism
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Four Developmental Domains For Curriculum Planning
3.3 Essential Curriculum Planning Components
3.4 Performance Standards
3.5 Learning Context
3.6 How Play Contributes To Development
3.6.1 Play Also Has An Important Role In Learning
3.7 Independence And Movement
3.8 Outdoor Environment
3.9 Cognitive Development.
3.10 Assessment Embraces All Domains Of Development
3.11 Aesthetic And Physical Domains
3.12 Sensory Mechanism
3.13 Summary
3.14 Check Your Progress
3.15 References
224
3.1 Introduction
Early childhood educators have always relied upon their knowledge of child development
and maturational heories. More recently, it has become equally important to understand the vital
roles that experience, culture and responsive adults play in the emergence in children of skills
and abilities in each developmental domain. In the last 30 years numerous studies have
demonstrated that children are more able to learn and develop lasting relationships when they
have learning experiences with individuals who are knowledgeable and responsive to their
individual capacities. Vygotsky (1978) describes how children’s problem-solving abilities can be
strengthened when they are guided through tasks under adult supervision. Gobbo and Chi (1986)
demonstrate that when teachers provide children with knowledge in a content area or about a
specific topic, the children are better able to use this new information, act on it and continue in
the learning process. Such research shows how capable children are of learning a great deal when
they are in environments that provide stimulating experiences and responsive adults to support
their development.
Responsive adults influence not only cognitive learning, but also children’s social-
emotional competence (peer relations and teacher/child relations). Howe and Smith (1995) have
written about how children who are emotionally secure in their relationships with their teachers
will use this base to explore the classroom, engage in pretend play, anticipate learning and
promote their own self-regulation behaviors and peer relations.
The importance of children’s cultural knowledge has become a major theme in the study
of children’s learning. Because culture supports children’s thinking, the activities, toys, materials
and social events introduced to children in their home environments shape their thought
processes and performances.
Culturally competent teachers can better prepare environments for learning, choose
materials, and plan experiences that are respectful, stimulating and valuable for all.
Developmental continuums and profiles are excellent tools for planning curriculum and
experiences that fit children’s developmental strengths and abilities. Numerous profiles are
available to early childhood professionals. Each program should use the tool preferred by
teachers and staff members. Presenting characteristics of children’s growth, development and
learning profiles suggest some predictable ways that young children interact with and make
sense of their world. Although children follow predictable patterns of development, the rate, pace
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and actual manifestation are unique to each child. Ages and stages information are guidelines,
not fixed facts. Research continues to reveal new information regarding children’s
responsiveness to environments and adult behaviors.
This guide serves as a reminder of the importance of individual differences. Gender,
temperament, learning styles, native languages, special needs and culturally diverse backgrounds
contribute to variability in the attainment of developmental milestones. The theory of
differentiated instruction is an important educational strategy for young children. When teachers
use information from developmental profiles, observations and information obtained from the
family, they are able to:
• create environments that meet individual needs;
• provide varied materials for different skill levels so all learners can achieve success;
• plan so time is flexible, and individual children’s needs are a priority;
• offer learning experiences in a variety of group settings, large, small and individual;
• screen and assess learning in multiple ways over time;
• identify when there is an exception to the normal pattern of development; and
• foster active, two-way communication with parents that develops partnerships and shared
goals.
The complexity of teaching preschool children requires the ability to be reflective, active
and enthusiastic in providing a setting that is cognitively challenging, engaging and appropriate.
This guide is the third of three tools the Connecticut State Department of Education has created
to support the work of early childhood professionals in Connecticut. Released earlier were:
• Connecticut’s Preschool Curriculum Framework, which provides information on appropriate
curricular goals and performance standards for the range of skills and knowledge of 3- or 4-
year-old children; and
• Connecticut’s Preschool Assessment Framework, which provides a curriculum-embedded tool
for assessing children’s performance in order to inform teaching.
Connecticut’s Preschool Curriculum Framework should be used as an important guidepost when
planning for children’s learning. It incorporates information and perspectives from a wide array
of resources, including:
• national reports and consultation with experts;
• federal standards, e.g., Head Start program performance standards, British Columbia standards,
and standards from other states, including Minnesota and Maryland;
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• nationally recognized assessment protocols, e.g., work-sampling system, child observation
record; and
• Connecticut Department of Education curriculum frameworks.
Planned intentional curriculum and appropriate teaching strategies can lead children to
achievement of the performance standards identified in Connecticut’s Preschool Curriculum
Framework. Consonant with principles promoted by the National Research Council, its teaching
implications include the following:
• Early learning and development are multidimensional.
• Developmental domains are interrelated.
• Young children are capable and competent.
• There are individual differences in rates of development among children.
• Children will exhibit a range of skills and competencies in any domain of development.
• Knowledge of child growth and development, and consistent expectations are essential to
maximizing educational experiences for children, and to developing and implementing programs.
• Families are the primary caregivers and educators of their young children.
• Young children learn through active exploration of their environments, through child-initiated
and teacher-selected activities.
The performance standards are organized within four domains:
• personal and social development;
• physical development;
• cognitive development; and
• creative expression and aesthetic development.
This Guide to Early Childhood Program Development provides direction and support for
using the performance standards. Connecticut’s Preschool Curriculum Framework provides
examples to assist in interpreting each performance standard. And Connecticut’s Preschool
Assessment Framework provides methods for monitoring progress and improving practice.
Together, these three resources will support early childhood professionals in the continual
process of planning and implementing challenging and engaging programs that build strong
foundations for Connecticut’s children.
3.2 Four Developmental Domains For Curriculum Planning
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Teachers use curriculum to intentionally plan ways for children to construct knowledge in
order to make sense of their experiences. Appropriate curriculum content focuses on all four
developmental domains: cognitive (language and literacy, mathematical, and scientific thinking);
physical; social and emotional; and creativeaesthetic expression.
A meaningful curriculum is integrated so that learning experiences encompass many content
areas.
It must be based on children’s interests and presented in a context that stimulates children
to invest in their work. Learning takes time. Children need to interact with the curriculum – to
explore it, utilize it, question it and evaluate it in their own way of learning. Children’s
engagement ensures purposeful and sustained learning.
Curriculum also must provide opportunities for children to see and explore who they are within
the context of their family life and culture (Curtis and Carter, 2006).
Family involvement must be promoted and encouraged, with respect and appreciation for the
value of the home culture. This enhances children’s self-esteem.
3.3 Essential Curriculum Planning Components 1. Performance standards or objectives for children
2. Ongoing assessment of children’s skills, development and abilities
3. Content in language and literacy, mathematical concepts, and scientific inquiry
4. Processes and experiences in a learning context that capture the energy of thechildren’s
curiosity
5. Teacher interaction that balances teacherdirected and child-initiated behaviors and strategies
6. Organization of the environment, schedule and materials
There are four aspects of curriculum when it is created to be challenging and achievable:
• content worth knowing;
• specific indicators for children’s performance;
• attention to developmental characteristics; and
• meaningful experiences built on children’s natural curiosity (Katz and Chard, 1989).
In addition, ongoing daily interactions where teachers observe and assess children’s thinking and
progress help teachers set learning goals and plan instruction. Observation, reflection and
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assessment provide information for adjusting the teaching environment to individual as well as
group needs.
When assessment focuses on performance standards the teacher can provide a scaffold within
each learning experience appropriate to the child’s emerging abilities.
Educators define curriculum as “an organized framework that delineates the content that children
are to learn, the processes through which children achieve the identified curricular goals, what
teachers do to achieve these goals, and the contexts in which teaching and learning occur”
(Bredekamp and Rosegrant, eds.,1995).
A report from the National Research Council (2001) describes three principles of learning that
are directly applicable to teaching:
• Children develop ideas and concepts early on. Therefore, teaching strategies mustfoster
connections between new learningand existing ideas.
• The learning environment must foster both skills and conceptual understanding to make
knowledge usable. Therefore,planning must take performance standardsinto account, providing
both contentknowledge and experiences that use theinformation gained in meaningful ways.
• Children need guidance to learn how to monitor their thinking, to be able to understand
what it means to learn and how to do it. Planning must include strategiesthat promote the
development of thinkingskills, attitudes and dispositions (NationalResearch Council, 2001).
Early childhoodteachers know that young children needenvironments that are active and social,
andinclude caring teachers. Time for explorationand play is not enough. Teachers also
mustsupport children’s growth and learning tohelp them reach new levels of competence
(Bredekamp and Rosegrant, 1995). Keeping in mind Vygotsky’s theory on teaching and
learning, the teacher plays an integral role in scaffolding a child’s learning by using varied
teaching behaviors and strategies to nudge the child toward discovery and understanding. No one
teacher behavior or strategy is best or used all the time. Piaget points out that the context of the
experience and an environment with many opportunities to explore materials is fundamental to
the learning process. These considerations are interrelated. All are essential in creating a
curriculum plan that is dynamic, engaging and successful.
Although there are many possible learning contexts, this guide focuses on play-based learning
center environments and the thematic/project approach. This section will discuiss the decisions
teachers make in planning curriculum. It will:
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• highlight how children’s performance standards are used as the framework fordeveloping
curriculum;
• point out the value of assessment in driving teaching and learning goals;
• discuss the primary choices for the learning context: play-based learning centers or the
thematic/project approach;
• explore the decisions teachers make with regard to their degree of involvement in the learning
experience, and possible strategies to use with individual children and experiences;
• present a step-by-step curriculum planning process;
• examine how to create well-organized environments by choosing appropriate materials and
carefully considering scheduling and timing of experiences and routines; and
• discuss how the influences of a positive classroom climate can provide a base for all teaching
and learning.
3.4 Performance Standards
Preschool curriculum is integrated when the content and experiences cut across
developmental domains. Individual performance standards are not considered in isolation. A
single learning experience will be built with knowledge of the child’s abilities and interests
across several domains, and often involves more than one performance standard.
Each child arrives at his or her desired level of understanding, knowledge or skill as a result of
carefully selected and planned curriculum experiences. Children engage in learning in ways
appropriate to their individual levels of development. In planning curriculum, the full range of
abilities, including those of children with disabilities, must be considered. Performance standards
are the same for all children; however, a child with a disability may need specific teaching
strategies and additional support to achieve the same level of success.
3.5 Learning Context
Play is the first and most important defining behavior of a young child. Research shows
that play cannot be replaced by any other activity (Bodrova & Leong, 1996).
Play contributes to and enhances all areas of development in young children. When children are
working in playbased learning centers they play with materials and ideas and interact with peers.
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Through play, children construct their understanding of the world, re-create their knowledge,
employ their own rules, make ideas part of their reality, and discover solutions to complex
problems. Children learn cooperation, problem solving, language, mathematic and scientific
concepts, and to express and control emotions. Children need opportunities for extended, self-
directed, uninterrupted play, both indoors and outdoors, where the environment has been
intentionally prepared by a teacher who is able to guide and support each child’s learning.
As we watch a 3-year-old climb a jungle gym, or use a magnifying glass to see a pollywog, or
observe a 4- year-old count out the number of crackers for a snack, or create a sign for the latest
block building, we understand the value of the time, energy and skill involved in each activity.
Vygotsky pointed out that children develop through play (Berk & Winsler, 1995), thus teachers
must be prepared to follow each child’s lead.
The ability of children to construct meaning from their play should not be underestimated. How
excited they become when they first discover how to make purple by mixing other colors, or sing
a song that plays with words and sounds. Whether building a home for the guinea pig, or
participating in a game with others, playing alone and with others contributes to the development
of self, and provides a forum for the development of independence, self-confidence and problem
solving (Wassermann, 1990).
3.6 How Play Contributes To Development Play is vital in cognitive development. Children who play freely with designated
materials exhibit more thinking skills and problem-solving abilities than those not given
opportunities to play. They are also more goal-directed and persistent (Sylva, Bruner, et al.,
1976).
Children who have opportunities to “re-create stories among themselves” during play have
greater abilities to understand and retell stories.
Play also fosters creativity and imaginative thinking. As children mature, their thinking and
actions grow in flexibility. Materials and objects are used in many ways. The symbolic play of
children lays the foundation for their understanding of the written symbols of language and
mathematics. Play lays a foundation for reading success (Gentile and Hoot,
1983). In play, children use visual perception, eye-hand coordination and symbolic
representation. Additionally, play develops the power to analyze, make judgments, synthesize,
formulate and see causal relationships.
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3.6.1 Play Also Has An Important Role In Learning physical and perceptual skills (Sponseller, 1974).
Complex learning tasks depend upon well-integrated neurological development, which is
supported by playful activity. Sensory motor skills must be developed before the activities of
reading, writing and arithmetic can be mastered.
Play is the principal activity through which social interaction is facilitated in the early childhood
classroom (Gullo, 1992). Erikson (1964) suggests that play is of prime importance in the mastery
of emotionalneeds. Through play, children gain confidence and learn to trust others. They learn
to give, receive, share, express ideas and feelings, make choices, express friendship, see the
perspectives of others, and include others. Through dramatic play, children plan cooperatively
with others, use language to shape their interactions, solve problems and identify with a variety
of societal roles.
Children who play are more flexible and versatile (Sutton-Smith, 1974). Versatile people
are easier to work with and make more competent leaders. Teachers and parents who provide
plenty of opportunity for children to play are cultivating adults who are more likely to respect
themselves and make positive contributions to the lives of others.
The influences of Dewey are evident in playbased learning centers, especially when they provide
opportunities for problem solving with materials and peers in an integrated curriculum. Most
early childhood environments use learning centers as vehicles for prompting play on various
levels. Centers are generally of two types.
• Curriculum centers include manipulatives and materials to foster development in the cognitive
areas of mathematics, language and literacy, and science.
• Interactive learning centers provide materials and experiences that focus on children’s
dispositions to explore and investigate by using drama, blocks, sensory integration (sand/water)
and creative arts. Centers are typically prepared in advance by the classroom teacher or
assembled in reaction to children’s interests, questions and abilities. Effective centers:
• provoke interest;
• encourage exploration and inquiry;
• change throughout the year depending on interests; and
• provide for independent thought and activity.
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3.7 Independence And Movement Space should be adaptable, welcoming and organized.
It must allow children to make choices and easily access materials. This allows children to feel
some control over their learning.
• For each center, plan the best number of children to comfortably work in the space.
• Create areas that can serve more than one purpose at different times of the day.
• Eliminate visual clutter. Plan carefully what will be placed on boards and wall space.
• Use clear containers for storage, so items are visible and easily organized.
• Use shelves, dividers, carpet and tables to create discrete yet flexible work areas that allow
children to work alone or in small groups, without concern that their work will be disturbed.
• Find opportunities to place mirrors and natural elements in different locations to spark interest
or a “new use.”
• Give each child a defined and labeled place for personal belongings.
• Ease transitions by guiding children when changes to the environment are made.
3.8 Outdoor Environment The outdoor environment is essential to accomplishing learning outcomes and fulfilling
the need of children to be active. Outside, children have the advantage of fresh air, sunshine,
room to move about and be loud.
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Outdoor activities can foster the development of gross motor skills, stimulate
spontaneous play with friends, and strengthen emerging abilities in all developmental domains.
These outdoor learning experiences also present natural opportunities for scientific inquiry.
Suggestions for outdoor experiences that promote physical growth, contribute to
social/emotional growth, and promote cognitive development follow. Physical Growth.
Encourage children to dig and explore. Even the smallest area of grass offers a wide array of
possibilities for discovery and collecting. Helping children to realize that living things are
everywhere is a way to spark discussion about care and respect for our environment. Bring balls,
buckets, hoops and ribbon outside. Engage children in creating, throwing, catching and other
cooperative games to challenge upper and lower muscles. Social/Emotional Growth. Create a
box of props for the outdoors. Include hoses, hard hats, vehicles, boxes and fabric to stimulate
dramatic play possibilities.
From time to time suggest a favorite story as a possible theme for outdoor play. Bring a
tape player, sticks, cymbals, class-made instruments, balloons, streamers, etc. Children love to
make music and to march.
3.9 Cognitive Development. Bring reading and writing materials outdoors. Take advantage of what is happening near
the school to link literature, drawing and research. For example, children who love construction
vehicles might eagerly draw a bulldozer or find the exact piece of equipment in a resource book.
Use outdoor space for movement experiences. Create cooperative games in which children can
experiment with speed, directionality and other large-muscle movement, such as skipping, leap-
frogging or crawling.
3.10 Assessment Embraces
All Domains Of Development To gain information on the whole child, educators must consider a tool that assesses all aspects
of development: physical, social, emotional and cognitive. Such tools may help to uncover and
document information on how children think and learn, as well as their dispositions toward
learning.
Assessment Is Carried Out
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With As Little Disruption As Possible
Most young children do not have the ability to understand rules of formal testing. Therefore, they
should have an opportunity to share their ideas and talents in a natural and comfortable setting.
The teacher observes within a child’s usual context, gathering information in varied situations in
order to discover patterns and understand each child’s behaviors and processes of learning.
“The very young are, by definition, less familiar with the whole notion of and the materials used
for assessment, so that creating a more flexible and responsive environment that promotes the
physical and emotional comfort of the child is likely to produce a more accurate picture of the
child’s knowledge, skills, achievement or personality” (Meisels, with Atkins-Burrett, 1994).
Assessment Is Conducted
By Familiar Adults
Children who are evaluated by an unfamiliar adult are likely to be tense and anxious, and often
are not able to respond in ways that accurately demonstrate their strengths and skills. It is
important that the teachers with whom the child is most familiar carry out the assessment or
screening. Teachers need training on the specific tools they will be expected to use, as well as
ongoing information related to assessment in general.
Teachers also need to be provided with the time to reflect and interpret information collected
alone and with colleagues.
Assessment Is Conducted
Regularly And Periodically
Learning and development occur rapidly in young children. Interval assessments used only
yearly are unlikely to accurately represent a child’s growth patterns. Furthermore, an assessment
limited to a onetime observation may not accurately reflect the child’s abilities because a child’s
performance at a particular time depends on a variety of factors, including how he or she feels at
that moment. The goal in assessment is to use a variety of settings and times so that findings are
representative of progress over time. The resulting evidence of growth provides “moments in
time” which children, parents and teachers should celebrate.
3.11 Aesthetic And Physical Domains
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Young children learn through active exploration of their environments. Curriculum must
include both handson and minds-on experiences. In early childhood curriculum planning art,
music, movement and drama are woven together throughout projects, themes and centers in the
classroom. Engaging children’s senses, using more than one avenue for learning, and physical
involvement allow young learners to make connections with previous experiences and build
bridges to new learning. Whether performance standards are tied to dance, music, movement,
visual arts or physical skills, the child is making decisions, solving problems, communicating
and representing. When early childhood curriculum plans provide varied experiences that
acknowledge the aesthetic and physical developmental domains, each child (with his or her
learning style, intelligence, culture, language and ability) is given an opportunity to understand
and represent his or her learning.
“We know people truly understand something when they can represent the knowledge in more
than one way”
(Checkley, 1997). Early childhood educators in Reggio Emilia observe and reflect on the
“languages” of the child. “Languages are the multiple ways in which the child understands,
interprets and represents his or her learning. Each provides the child with an opportunity to
express him or her self. They are, in fact, drawing, dancing, speaking, moving, singing and many
more.
Active use of these forms also paves the way for the child to use verbal language, to read and to
write”
(Edwards, Gandini and Forman, 1998). Teachers must guide children in understanding their
strengths and the many avenues available for representing their learning.
Each of these disciplines (art, music, movement and drama) offer children opportunities to
express their thoughts and abilities in ways that are unique to who they are as learners. When
teachers plan with aesthetic and physical performance standards in mind children are provided
with:
• language to represent their thinking;
• opportunities to use more than one avenue for learning;
• chances to collaborate and problem-solve with peers;
• avenues for integrating their experiences;
• ways to communicate, in addition to their verbal responses; and
• opportunities to think about their learning, make decisions and connect information.
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Although there are many connections, this guide presents the aesthetic and physical domains as
separate disciplines, each with its own body of knowledge and skills. The following chart
outlines preschool development in these domains and their connections with Connecticut’s
K-12 curriculum frameworks.
3.12 Sensory Mechanism
Discussion of current practice and theory in early childhood education would not be
complete without recognizing the foundation built from the outstanding work of those who came
before us. A tremendous debt of gratitude is owed to pioneers in the field of early childhood
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education, who with dedication and passion contributed ideas that are still influential today. Four
of these educators have been particularly significant in their influence on early childhood settings
and practices in Connecticut.
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) created one of the earliest curriculums for early childhood
education.
Her work has stood the test of time and is still used in many early childhood settings. Her
theory focused on the relationship between the child and the environment as a framework when
developing her materials and teaching strategies. She believed that teachers should carefully
observe children at work and play to determine what teaching and materials are appropriate for
their next phase of learning. Montessori materials were designed to be didactic, self-correcting
and appealing to the senses as the basis for intellectual development.
She considered children’s needs with regard to furniture and materials, even constructing tables
and chairs to better accommodate young children (Goffin and Wilson, 2001).
John Dewey (1859-1952) believed that education should contribute to children’s
personal, social and intellectual growth, and that learning occurs by creating an environment
based on shared experiences. Dewey viewed children as active beings, eager to interact and
explore their world. This type of learning, according to
Dewey, occurs best in the context of problem solving and investigation within experiences that
are meaningful to children. He saw knowledge and growth as ongoing
– as one question is answered another springs forward
– and identified three levels of activity:
• developing sensory abilities and physical coordination;
• using materials that stimulate creative and constructive interests; and
• discovering new ideas.
Dewey believed the ideal school to be one where administrators, teachers and children planned
the curriculum together (Ornstein, 2000). His contributions can be witnessed in early childhood
settings which focus on providing direct experience with materials and peers, and encouraging
the pursuit of individual interests and questions.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) also believed in the need of children to explore their
environments. Piaget organized growth and intelligence into four stages of sequential
development. Each of these stages depends and builds on the preceding. His work guides the
practice of providing stimulating, informal learning experiences with multiple opportunities for
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children to grow and develop. Piaget believed that appropriately planned learning experiences
encourage children to explore and experiment at their own levels in environments where they can
use objects to construct relationships and understandings. According to Piaget, the major impact
of carefully chosen materials and a well-prepared environment is to enable the child to gather
physical and logico-mathematical knowledge.
Although Piaget emphasized that children must make discoveries independently, he did not
suggest that children can be left on their own in a carefully planned environment. According to
Piaget, the teacher plays an integral role in modeling, providing examples and carefully
developing questions that engage and support the learning process (Kamii and DeVries, 1993).
He also recognized that social interaction, like the environment and materials, provide impetus to
learn (Sowers, 2000).
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) emphasized the power of social interaction and the value of
authentic cultural experiences for children. According to his theory of development, children’s
growth is influenced by biological growth patterns, culture and important individuals within their
experiences. Vygotsky theorized that cognitive development does not occur in isolation for the
child. He described three levels of learning:
• Level 1: unable to do the task without an adult or mature learner;
• Level 2: able to do the task but needs assistance from an adult or mature learner; and
• Level 3: able to complete the task independently.
Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Development” theory suggests that teachers observe and are
prepared to assist the child’s learning experience at Levels 1 and 2, so he or she can become
independent at that particular task or learning experience (Sowers, 2000; Berk and Winsler,
1997).
Quality early childhood programs are “highly organized and structured environments that
teachers have carefully prepared and in which teachers are in control” (Bredekamp & Rosegrant,
1995). Teachers do teach in early childhood environments. They employ a variety of teaching
strategies, modifying and adjusting tasks, setting expectations, demonstrating, assisting and
facilitating (Berk and Winsler, 1997). Sometimes all of these teacher behaviors occur within the
same learning experience (Bredekamp and Rosegrant, 1995).
Stressing that educators should focus on the strengths and capabilities of children,
Vygotsky suggested that all children be educated in group settings. Social interaction and
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discourse with peers has a powerful effect on a child’s development, and mixed age groups
provide learners with additional resources beside the teacher and environment.
These educational pioneers shared a belief that the child constructs knowledge through
interactions with the physical and social environments. This model of interaction and
construction provides a solid framework for decisions about teaching strategies, content,
performance standards, environment and materials.
Based on a foundation built by these educators, this guide serves to support
knowledgeable teachers who seek to create early childhood settings where playbased learning is
viewed as paramount in children’s experiences; problem-solving opportunities occur within the
context of genuine questions and investigations; interactions are cultivated; and appropriate and
rich materials are selected and provided according to the individual interests of children.
3.13 Summary
To bring the investigation to a conclusion, the children and teacher debrief on what has
been learned and accomplished. Children organize information gathered and present reports,
including exhibits, to their classmates, children from other classes, families and other interested
persons. This process clarifies and consolidates the knowledge children gained from their study,
and enables the children and their teacher to evaluate the project work (Katz & Chard, 2000).
3.14 Check Your Progress The following questions should be asked when creating centers for themes or projects:
• Will centers be offered all day, every day, part of the day?
• Will the number of children involved in each center be limited at any point in time?
• How will children access each center?
• What type of management system will allow for independent use in each area?
• What type of arrangement will provide movement from one center to another?
• Will the children’s choice of centers and frequency of use be recorded?
• What evidence will be collected on learning outcomes?
• How many centers can be open at one time to assure order and allow teacher interaction when
necessary? • How will varying abilities and interests be accommodated?
15. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.16.1. Points for discussion
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60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
Anning, C., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
61. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
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62. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
63. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
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educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
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Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
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Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
72. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
73. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
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77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
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(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
250
Unit 4: Sensitization of family, involvement in pre-school and
primary level
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types Of Homework Assistance Children Get From Parents
4.3 Extent Of Parental Involvement In Homework
4.4 Descriptive Statistics And Linear Regression Models On The Effect Of
Parental Involvement In Homework On Academic Performance
4.5 The Child And Family
4.6 The Child And Practitioner/Childminder Relationships
4.7 Family Relations
4.8 A Role For Early Care And Education Programs
4.9 The Six Partnership Standards And Sample Activities
4.10 Families In Need Of Special Services
4.11 Communicating
4.12 Parent Conferences
4.13 Summary
4.14 Check Your Progress
4.15 References
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4.1 Introduction
Mental retardation is a condition characterized by low general intellectual functioning
and deficits in adaptive behavior Ndurumo (1993). The American Association on Mental
Retardation definition state that mental retardation is a disability characterized by significant
limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual,
social and practical adaptive skills. This disability originate before age 10 (Luckasson et al.,
2002,p.1). All children are unique individuals and stereotypes or suggestions certain children are
a “type” must be avoided. Deborah(1992) notes that, children with intellectual challenges exist in
our communities and we should accept the challenges of living and working with them.
Special education has evolved over the years through many stages or ages. Before 17th century,
people with disabilities all over the world were considered less socially and physically less
capable. Children born with disabilities were not easily accepted and then were regarded as a
burden to the family and to the society at large Randiki (2002). For instance, the Greek and
Roman societies were highly advanced and civilized, but the treatment of children with
disabilities by today’s standard would be considered cruel and barbaric. Serchreenbergs (1983)
detailed account of the history of mental retardation reveals that in the city square of Sparta
which placed a premium on physical strength and intellectual ability, eugenics and infanticide
were common, everyday occurrences. Only the brightest and strongest
Of citizen were encouraged to have children. Newborns were examined by a council of
inspectors, and babies thought to be defective or inferior were thrown out from a cliff to die on
the rocks below. The fall of Roman Empire in A.D 476 herald in a period of the Renaissance in
the 1300s, religion became a dominant social force which brought in more humane treatment of
individuals with disabilities. Churches established monasteries and asylums as sanctuaries for
persons with intellectual disabilities. Infanticide was rarely practiced because the agrarian
societies required many workers in the field. In some instances, individuals thought to be
mentally retarded found their way into castles where, though protected and shown favor, they
served as buffoons and court jesters entertaining the nobility (Gargiulo, 1985). At the same time,
it was an era in which fear and superstition ran rampant. People with mental retardation were
frequently thought to be filled with Satan and were possessed with demonic power, which often
led to torture and death for practicing witchcraft. The beginning of the modern period in the
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history of mental retardation started in the early 19th century. Jean- Marc Itard (1774- 1838) and
Edouard Seguin (1812-1880) attempted at educating learners with intellectual challenges. They
established first school for learners with mental retardation in Paris. Later, Seguin established
residential facilities in United States of America. Early 20th century witnessed the development
of large institutions for learners with mental retardation. However, due to overcrowding and
understaffing of personnel, disillusionment, fear and pessimism set in (Morrison and Polloway,
1995). There was sifting of mission from institutional based practice which tended to protect
victims from the society to a new custodial role with an aim of normalization of the person living
conditions. This in effect means that making available to the mentally retarded patterns and
conditions of everyday life which are as close as possible to the norms and patterns of the
mainstream of the society. Normalization was the time where learning and social environment
were normalized to suit the interest of all learners (knoblock, 2006).
Inclusion period is the last stage of historical development of special education. The
concept of inclusion education enjoys a high profile around the world by virtue of its
incorporation into the policy documents of the numerous international organizations, most
notably the United Nations. Standards of UN policies such as those embodied in the UN
Convection on the Rights of the Child (1989), the UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of
Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities(1993) and the UNESCO (1994) Report on the
education of children with disabilities (Salamanca statement) all affirm the right of all children to
equal education without discrimination within the mainstream education system. Inclusion
means recognizing individual differences thereby enabling them obtain a good quality life in
their environment. Inclusion describes the process by which a school attempt to respond to all
pupils as individuals by reconsidering its curricula organization and provision (sebba, 1996).
Giangreco (1997) identified common features of schools where inclusive education is reported to
be thriving. These features are; Collaborative team work, a shared framework, family
involvement, general education ownership, clear role relationship among professionals, effective
use of support staff, meaningful individual education plans (IEPs) and procedures for evaluating
effectiveness.
Educational assessment refers to the gathering of information about the learners learning
levels, styles and skills in order to make instructional decisions about meeting their needs
(Alberto,2010). Assessing learners with mental retardation not only depends on intelligence tests,
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but also on measures of personality, educational achievement, social interactions, aptitudes as
well as educational development measures and information supplied by parents, teachers, social
workers and professionals. Payne and Mercer (1975) listed the following signs as possible
indicators of mental retardation in the early childhood: Delayed speech, delayed motor
development, delayed psychomotor development, delayed development of common sense and
delayed academic development. Educational assessment should be conducted by multi-
disciplinary team comprising a group of professionals such as audiologist, physiotherapist,
parents, social worker, special education teachers and psychologist (Deborah, 1992). The
educational assessment can serve the following purposes; to ascertain individual development
pattern, to determine whether a child needs special attention, to identify learners who needs
additional assessment, for curriculum planning, for proper placement and to monitor the progress
of the learner. The family members of the retarded learners undergo a big trauma both
psychologically and socially.
The period immediately following the diagnosis, is extremely crucial and may have
deciding influence on the parents handling of the child and therefore family counseling is
necessary for creating the necessary acceptance of the child ((Biswas, 1980). A parent is the
primary helper, monitor, co-coordinator, observer and decision maker for the child (Hobbs,
1998). The provision of special education must give strong consideration to the parents to: Give
equal opportunities to education to exceptional children, teach their mentally retarded children
adaptive skills, advocate for the rights of their children, promote social interactions among the
peers and friends, take their children for excursion to improve their self esteems among many
others. Educationally, mentally retarded children are classified into three categories; namely,
educable mentally retarded, trainable mentally retarded and severely or profoundly retarded.
Klein et al (1979) state that educable mentally retarded fall under mildly retarded and trainable
mentally is under moderately and severely retarded. The children who were once known as
dependent retarded fall under severely whereas life supported falls under profoundly mentally
retarded.
Robinson and Robison (1976) state that children with the lowest IQs were once known as
custodial mentally retarded. The government has a role to play in the management of mental
retardation. The government of Kenya has established assessment centre across the country with
a view of coordinating all the activities related to learners with disabilities including mental
retardation. These centers are staffed with qualified personnels to assess, sensitize the public and
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make referrals for placement. Government also trains and post special needs educators to all
public schools. For profound and severe cases the government has established special schools
with special educational facilities to cater for learners special needs which are not available in
general education classrooms.
There has been a marked increase in with the number of people with disabilities in
Kenya. This has been associated with various factors as the increase in fatal accidents in our
roads, congenital disorders, diseases and poverty leading to malnutrition. The problem caused by
disabilities affects the performance of an individual (Kombo, 2006). Various efforts have been
made to address the issue of disabilities especially in managing accidents rate however, very
little is being done to manage mental retardation among learners in Kenya public schools.
Madaraka zone is made up of ten primary schools. The enrolment of learners with mental
retardation in these schools is very low. The factors that contribute to this trend have not been
established. Most of the schools are found within the slums and/or within coffee and flowers
plantations. The area is riddled with all sort of social vices including high rate of crime,
drunkenness and poverty. The performance of schools was dismally low. For instance, report
form zonal education office showed that in 2013, class seven district exam for the end of the year
indicate that almost all schools mean scores was below average. In addition, K.C.P.E national
examination result showed that none of the schools within the zone scored above average. The
results pattern over the year in schools under study shows that almost a quarter of the candidates
from each school on average scored less than 100mark in national exam. This is an indicator that
there could be experiencing learning difficulties and/ or retardation. This gloomy statistic led the
researcher to seek to establish the role parents play in education of learners with mental
retardation in Madaraka zone in Thika sub-county. The purpose of the study was to establish the
role parents play in enrolling learners with mental retardation in schools and their academic
performance.
4.2 Types Of Homework Assistance Children Get From Parents
One of the objectives of this study was to establish the type of assistance children get
from their parents while doing homework. Parental assistance in homework creates a school like
environment that allow a child to complete the task at hand as well as gain better understanding
therefore complimenting the teacher’s effort. The respondents were asked what type of
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assistance they get. The percentages calculated and presented in figure 1 indicate that popular
homework assistance children get was reading (66%). Only 4% were assisted in writing parents
compared to 30% assisted in solving difficult problems. Additional data on this aspect was
collected by asking the children to state who actually was involved in his or her homework.
The findings presented in table 2 show that children were mainly assisted in doing homework by
female mothers, 189 (87.5%). Fathers seem to be less concerned with children’s home since only
2.7% were involved
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This is consistent with research findings. Ogoye-Ndegwa (2007) says that active homework help
was primarily a ‘mother’s responsibility. However, there is a contradiction with Lamb et al.
(1987) who reported that in
Kenyan homes, mothers and female guardians were primarily concerned with children’ s hygiene
and talking to their children about transition stage rather than assisting them in school work.
4.3 Extent Of Parental Involvement In Homework
The other objective of this study was to establish the extent to which parents were
involved in children’s homework. This would determine whether the assistance was meaningful.
Thirty head teachers and 192 teachers were asked to rate the extent of parental involvement in
homework in their schools. Their rating was measured on a scale of 1 to 10 where; 1=Not
involved at all and 10=fully involved. Each head teacher’s rating was then matched with an
individual teacher’s rating in a sampled school. This procedure yielded 192 pairs of scores that
were used to run the t-tests for related measures to test the significance of the difference between
head teachers and teachers rating of the extent of parental involvement in homework. The head
teachers rated parental involvement in homework at 5.875 higher than the teachers’ rating of
3.797. With t=10.2759, degrees of freedom=191 and p<0.0001, the researcher rejected the null
hypothesis and concluded that there was a statistically significant difference of 2.078 between
the two means. The argument that could be advanced for this is that since teachers dealt with
pupils’ homework on a daily basis, it was highly probable that the teachers’ rating was more
genuine compared with that of the head teachers. Despite there being a difference in the rating,
the results suggest that parental involvement in homework was fairly low. This is supported by
some parents interviewed. One parent blatantly said; “I don’t see why children should carry
school work home. I feel that after school children should assist us! After all they go to school all
days including weekends so when will they help us? This is shared by a parent in another school
who said; “I really don’t have time to assist my son in homework, what I know is that a child can
perform well with or without my assistance. Both of these parents express views implying that
they are least involved in their children’s homework. Another finding of this study of serious
concern is that parents give them domestic chores most of the time thereby having to time to do
homework. This conforms to findings by Atieno and Ayodo(2011). Finally the study sought to
examine the association between parental involvement in their children’s homework and school
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academic performance. The analysis incorporated both descriptive and inferential statistics
involving both bivariate and multivariate techniques. The hypothesis being tested was; H0: There
is no statistically significant relationship between parental involvement in their children’s
homework and school academic performance. The results of the correlation indicated that school
academic performance has a weak correlation with the involvement of parents in children’s
homework, r (n=30) = .3444, p=.0623. The results were however significant at 10%. Despite the
result, the relationship was pursued further in a robust linear regression to account for effect sizes
when other covariates are accounted for.
4.4 Descriptive Statistics And Linear Regression Models On The Effect Of
Parental Involvement In Homework On Academic Performance
The mean for the outcome variable was 234.47 with a standard error of the mean and
standard deviation of 4.83 and 26.45 respectively. The mean for Parental involvement in
homework was 5.875, std. err 0.44, standard deviation 2.41. One of the assumptions of linear
regression requires that the dependent variable be normally distributed. Figure 1 presents a
Kernel density estimate for the dependent variable q25.
Figure 3 indicates that the average KCPE mean-score (q25) as estimated is very close to a
normal distribution.
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The regression results are presented in table 1. As can be seen in table 1, model 1 indicates that
parental involvement in the homework has a positive effect on school academic performance.
That on a 10-point scale where 1=not involved at all and 10=deeply involved, a one-point
increase in parental involvement in the homework predicts a 3.78-point increase in school mean-
score although the result is only significant at α=.10 (p=.093). In perspective, this result suggests
that if parents do not participate in the homework of their children at all, their school would have
a mean-score of 212.91.But a one unit increase on a 10-point scale in the level of parental
participation in homework predicts a mean-score of 216.69 (212.91[constant] +3.78[coefficient]
= 216.69). This result implies that Parental involvement in homework explains 8.7% of the
variation in school KCPE mean-scores (adjusted R2). While the R2 squared shows the amount of
variance of Y (dependent variable) explained by X (predictor), the adjusted R2 is a function of
the number of cases and the number of variables. When the number of variables is small and the
number of cases very large, then the adjusted R2 is closer to R2.
As a result the adjusted R2 is a more honest association between X and Y. The positive
effect of parental involvement in homework was expected since previous studies have
established the same outcome. Epstein’s model upon which this study is anchored also predicts
that children’s academic achievement is enhanced when parents get involved in their homework.
Table 1 also shows that the significant effect of q9 on q25 disappears when parental payment of
PTA levies (q26) and mean percentage of parents attending meetings (2010-2012) (q49) are
introduced in the model(see model 2). Both variables have a positive effect on school mean
scores of 0.32 (p=.074) and 0.63 (p=.018) respectively. For instance, if all the parents invited for
schools meetings attended, KCPE mean score for that school would increase by 63 points
holding other predictors in the model constant. This result means that a one-percentage increase
in attendance predicts a 0.63 increase in school KCPE scores. With model 2, the
R2 improves to 22.5%.
4.5 The Child And Family
The crucial role of the family as the natural and primary educator of the child (Article 42.1
of the Constitution [1937]) with rights and duties to active participation in the child’s education,
is reflected in legislation and policy in Ireland. This role necessitates the development of strong
working relationships between parents/family and practitioners/childminders based on a shared
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sense of purpose and mutual respect in order to create environments for children to support their
optimal learning and development. The evidence strongly suggests that participation of parents
in their child’s care and education improves children’s cognitive and social development and
motivation and leads to higher adult expectations and increased parental confidence and
aspirations (Schweinhart, Montie, Xiang, Barnett, Belfield and Nores, 2004; Taggart, 2007). The
National Early Years Network’s (1997) research in the US revealed that greater involvement by
parents in their children’s care and education leads to:
more sharing of information between parents and practitioners/childminders ■■
parents spending more time in the setting■■
parents improving their knowledge of parenting and child development generally ■■
family values and beliefs being understood and taken account of by the
practitioner/childminder■■
a more emotionally secure environment for the child■■
parents being viewed as valuable resources bringing added value to the setting ■■
parents feeling more confident about engaging in dialogue regarding their children’s later
education. ■■
Guided by the collective purpose of supporting the child, parents and
practitioners/childminders bring different but important and complementary skills to caring for
and educating children. Supportive and trusting relationships between parents and
practitioners/childminders are therefore critical in supporting children’s learning and
development.
4.6 The Child And Practitioner/Childminder Relationships
Adults’ development of supportive relationships with babies, toddlers and young children
is especially significant for children’s emotional and social development. The importance of
babies’ attachment to their parents (mothers and fathers) has long been acknowledged (Bowlby,
1988). The part of the brain that deals with memories and coincides with the child’s growing
awareness of and attachment to caregivers, develops between the age of six and eight months.
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The experience young babies have of forming relationships at this time influences all future
relationships (Perry, 1995; Karr-Morse and Wiley, 1997). Attachments between children and
adults are critical in assuring the baby he/she will be taken care of, building in him/her a basic
trust in others and giving the baby the sense that s/he is worth caring for. As articulated by
Goldschmied and Jackson (1994, p. 37)
The young children with whom we work, and who do not yet have language to express
what they are experiencing, need to have these special relationships too, and deeply need
to have them in a very immediate and concrete way. … We can never remind ourselves
too often that a child, particularly a very young and almost totally dependent one, is the
only person in the nursery who cannot understand why he is there. He can only explain it
as abandonment, and unless he is helped in a positive and affectionate way, this will
mean levels of anxiety greater than he can tolerate.
In general, babies depend on adults to meet their needs, and cope with little discomfort or
distress. Toddlers rapidly acquire physical, social, reasoning, and language skills, but these skills
still need a lot of practice. Through the development of positive relationships and problem-
solving skills, young children begin to understand how to respect the needs/rights of others while
meeting their own needs/rights (Gartrell and King, 2004). They also begin to see that there is not
always a right side to the argument, that the feelings of others are important and that it is
possible to solve conflicts in such a way that both parties can be satisfied. Corsaro (1997) noted
that developmental psychologists have long stressed the importance of conflict and challenges
for creating new cognitive structures and skills. When adults facilitate problem-solving children
learn to collaborate, discuss details of problems (number; space; time) and discover there are
many possible solutions to problems (Evans, 2002).
4.6 Social-Emotional Development In The Family
While children are developing as individuals and as members of a group, they are
immersed in learning the social rules and values of their cultures and families.
Ethnicity, race, religion, region, social class, gender, sexual orientation and physical abilities
make up some of the dimensions of the human experience that we know as culture.
The customs, traditions and values of children’s families and cultures shape and influence their
classroom experiences. Culture affects how we communicate with each other. We interpret all
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we see or hear through the lens of our own beliefs, values and experiences. It is common to
misinterpret or misunderstand the communication style of someone from another culture. Each
culture has its own defined communication system, including actions, gestures, words, postures,
facial expressions, tones of voice, and ways of handling time, space, materials, work and play.
Children learn the rules and norms for communicating and interacting from their families.
Cultivating a deeper understanding of children in the context of their family cultures may prevent
misunderstandings.
Teachers must take into account family values regarding behaviors and rules, and
develop an understanding of how relationships with adults in authority are perceived in various
cultures. These expectations affect the child’s responses within the classroom, and
misunderstandings can create confusion and discomfort. For example, certain cultures frown
upon children looking directly at an adult during a conversation.
Others encourage dependence on adults, for example, in feeding or decision making, beyond
Western expectations.
Teachers who understand children’s home cultures are able to more fully understand their
learning needs, and are better able to make all children feel safe and supported in the classroom.
The importance of family relations is addressed in the next section.
4.7 Family Relations
Early childhood teachers play an especially important family support role. By building
relationships with parents and other significant adults in their students’ lives, teachers contribute
to the creation of safe and healthy learning environments for children. The ultimate goal is for
the significant adults in each child’s life to work together more effectively as partners to promote
the child’s development and learning.
This type of partnership must reflect the different roles, attitudes and needs in multiracial
and socioeconomically diverse populations. In a partnership, all partners share rights and
responsibilities, power and decision making, and mutual trust and respect. Schools have long
sought parental involvement. Using the term partnership rather than involvement captures the
idea of shared responsibility for children across the three contexts of home, school and
community.
262
In recognition of the importance of partnerships that support early learning the
Connecticut State Board of Education adopted a Position Statement On School-
Family-Community Partnerships in August 1997. A
“Guide to Using the Position Statement” explains the role of early care and education in
fostering socialemotional development as follows:
4.8 A Role For Early Care And Education Programs
Every early care and education program can develop effective strategies to involve all
families in the education of their children. Partnerships with parents have been a primary focus
of the early care and education field since its inception. However, based on national surveys,
families indicate that they would like more information and opportunities to be actively engaged
in their child’s education. Early care and education programs can offer
a comprehensive school-familycommunity partnership program that makes some connection
with all families.
Not all families can take advantage of all partnership activities, but every family can be involved
in some way.
Early care and education programs can provide training and support to staff and
administrators in the areas of setting partnership goals and effective practices as well as
strategies for monitoring progress to learn which practices are most successful.
Because early childhood educators have a holistic view of young children, they are uniquely
positioned to assist families in connecting to resources in the community. To make these
connections, early childhood educators can become knowledgeable about community resources
by contacting local organizations and state information sources such as Infoline (available by
dialing 211). Finding out about community resources that are available to families is the first
step. Bringing the needs of young children and families to the attention of the wider community
is the next step. Early childhood educators can be a pivotal force for encouraging community
collaborations that support a unified vision of positive development for children.
4.9 The Six Partnership Standards And Sample Activities 1. Parenting – Programs promote and support parenting skills and the family’s primary role in
encouraging children’s learning at each age and stage of development.
263
Activities may include: providing parent education programs, transportation, family social
activities, parent rooms and spaces, on-site Internet access for family use, social service referrals,
and parent resource libraries; developing parent leadership training and parent support groups;
and accompanying parents to the school district’s
Planning and Placement Team meetings.
2. Communicating – Staff and families participate in ongoing, clear, two-way communication
about the program and children’s progress.
Activities may include: preparing parent handbooks and newsletters; providing audio/ video
tapes; maintaining regular communication through phone calls, home visits, daily
communication sheets, homeschool notebooks, or e-mail; translating all information into parents’
languages (if parents speak a language other than
English); and conducting parent meetings and conferences.
3. Volunteering – programs provide opportunities and appropriate training to involve families in
activities both in the program and at home.
Activities may include: encouraging and supporting parents to volunteer to telephone other
parents when needed, construct playground equipment, assist in the classroom or library,
coordinate other volunteers, assist in planning activities, act as “buddies” for new parents, raise
funds, lobby, and share talents, hobbies and interests with children and other parents.
4. Learning at home – programs help families engage in learning activities at home that are
coordinated with the goals and objectives of the educational program.
Activities may include: providing book and activity bags to use at home; gathering information
about educational activities in the community, including ideas in the newsletter for extending
classroom learning at home; loaning parent resource and informational materials; making home
visits; creating opportunities for parents to share ideas with other parents; and encouraging
parents to be role models for lifelong learning.
5. Decision making – programs provide opportunities for all families to develop and strengthen
their leadership role in program decisions through participation in parent organizations, advisory
councils, school boards, or other decision- making committees or groups.
Activities may include: involving parents in curriculum development; inviting parents to staff
meetings; including parent participation in staff interviewing committees; supporting parents to
advocate for the program with funders or policy-makers; asking parents others on advisory
boards; and providing opportunities for parents to train other parents in leadership skills.
264
6. Collaborating with the community
– programs provide coordinated access to community resources for children and families and
serve as a resource to the community.
Activities may include: helping parents identify resources and support for child and family
needs; collaborating with other health and human service providers; engaging in joint activities
with other community organizations such as senior citizen centers; developing a resource
directory; linking parents with adult education programs (for high school completion, English for
speakers of other languages or job training); providing service to the community for the benefit
of others; and working together with community members to create greater access, availability
and quality of early childhood programs. The six standards for school-familycommunity
partnerships are not exclusive or distinct categories. One practice can activate several standards
simultaneously.
For example, assisting a family and child with the transition to kindergarten can involve giving
parents information about their child’s developmental characteristics and appropriate
expectations for kindergarten (parenting and communication). The early childhood program can
arrange a meeting between the family and kindergarten teacher to assist them in developing a
relationship to support the child’s transition into a new environment (collaboration and
communication). A parent may help gather together other families whose children are also
transitioning to kindergarten to talk with kindergarten teachers about activities families can do at
home (volunteering and learning at home). Families who develop leadership skills by serving on
committees at the preschool level may be interested in continuing that type of involvement in the
public school and may become advocates for education in the community (decision making and
collaborating with community). The six standards for partnerships can guide the development of
a balanced, comprehensive program that includes opportunities for involvement at school, at
home and in the community.
The results will depend on theparticular types of involvement that are implemented as well as the
quality of the implementation.
Note: Throughout this document the words parent(s) and family(ies) are used in the broadest
sense to mean those adults with primary responsibility for children.
From A Guide to Using the Position
Statement on School-Family-Community
Partnerships, Connecticut State Board Of Education, 2000.
265
4.10 Families In Need Of Special Services
Children have diverse abilities and needs with individual rates of development, often
exhibiting a wide range of skills and abilities. There are also some children who have special
needs that warrant the individual attention of early childhood programs in different ways. Key to
addressing a child’s special needs is the ongoing communication and partnership with families.
Families know their children best. Most often, families have acquired the expertise, knowledge
and skills to address their child’s special needs. Early childhood programs can benefit from the
information that families have to share.
A child’s special needs can be defined as any need that requires special attention from an
early childhood program. For example, it could be a child’s special health care need, such as
asthma, diabetes or a life-threatening allergy. A special need also could be a delay in the child’s
development which may be caused by lack of experience or opportunities. A special need also
could be that the child has a diagnosed or undiagnosed disability.
Early childhood staff members who have questions or concerns about a child should first
share their concerns with the child’s family. Families and program staff members can benefit and
learn from each other. For example, a program concerned about a child’sv allergy to nuts can
jointly think of ways to modify the program to ensure that the child is safe, and plan for an
unanticipated emergency.
Early childhood staff members who have concerns about a child’s developmental and
functional progress should discuss their concerns with the child’s family. Initial strategies can
focus on what needs to be done differently in the classroom that can support the child’s learning
and success. This might mean an environmental change, a change to the curriculum and
instruction, a change in child grouping or the implementation of a behavior plan for the program.
Programs also may wish to pursue obtaining special outside expertise. This expertise could come
from the program’s educational consultant or from an expert with special skills and knowledge.
When program concerns have been identified and shared with families, and, despite
modifications or adaptations in the classroom the child continues to appear to be challenged by
the teaching and learning environment, it is time to look for more formal expertise.
266
Help Me Grow, at Infoline United Way of Connecticut, is a statewide system available to parents
and early childhood programs. Help Me Grow is designed to identify children who are at risk for
developmental or behavioral problems and is able to connect children and their families to
existing community resources.
Examples include the Connecticut Birth to Three System, special education provided by school
districts, a child development monitoring program, and referral to health and medical services.
Families and early childhood programs can contact Help Me Grow by dialing 211.
4.11 Communicating
Effective communication skills and strategies serve as the basis for building all other
relationships. When young children observe positive and genuine communication between their
parents and teachers, they feel that their two worlds are connected. Formal communication is
needed when everyone must receive the same information and when accuracy is required.
Suggestions include a parent bulletin board, weekly messages, journals and a parent handbook.
Informal communication with parents should happen every day. It occurs naturally when
children are brought to the program and/or when they are picked up. Although most exchanges
are casual, planning can help to maximize such opportunities. Jotting down something a child
has done so it can be shared with parents at the end of the day is one way to make these brief
moments more meaningful and establish ongoing relationships.
4.12 Parent Conferences
While a great deal of valuable information can be shared in daily, informal
communication, parent conferences provide time for more in-depth exchanges of ideas and for
problem solving when needed. Conferences are excellent times for teachers to ask parents to
share information that will help them meet individual needs. Conferences also provide good
opportunities to help parents better understand a program’s goals and objectives, and how their
child is progressing. Helpful guidelines for conducting parent conferences include the following:
• Prepare parents in advance. Share the purpose of the meeting, its anticipated length and who
will be present. Solicit parental input on topics for discussion.
267
• Organize your thoughts and be prepared with examples and work to help parents understand
your perspective.
• Establish a relaxed and open tone for the meeting. It is important that all participants know that
their contributions are valued.
• Solicit parent perceptions, hopes and goals.
Be sure to provide time to address their concerns and questions.
• Be descriptive. Celebrate the child’s growth and avoid labeling or judging.
• Share the curriculum and performance indicators with parents and provide examples of their
child’s performance in the various domains.
• Approach the conference as an opportunity to problem-solve with parents. Prepare, in advance,
some possible strategies but remain open and willing to search together for answers.
• Seek opportunities to agree on goals. Use the conference to work together on an action plan of
steps for home and school in order to achieve these goals.
• Set a time to talk again, even if by phone, and take responsibility for keeping parents informed.
4.13 Summary The authors firmly believe that the approach to teacher development outlined in this paper will
help create reflective teachers who adopt problem-s o l v i n g approaches in the classroom. It
will also develop l e a r n e r-centred teaching. Ultimately, through teacher education and
curriculum reform, this approach will facilitate the meeting of special needs within the general
school system and ensure that this is accepted practice. The authors hope that this approach,
including the materials, will be absorbed into the teacher education system in India with support
from the Ministry of Human Resource Development and state governments during the current
Five Year Plan.
It is the only way to realise the goal of education for all, including those children who have
special educational needs.
4.14 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Types Of Homework Assistance Children Get From Parents
2. Explain Extent Of Parental Involvement In Homework
268
3. Explain Descriptive Statistics And Linear Regression Models On The Effect
Of Parental Involvement In Homework On Academic Performance
4. Explain The Child And Family
5. Explain The Child And Practitioner/Childminder Relationships
6. Explain Family Relations
7. Explain A Role For Early Care And Education Programs
8. Explain The Six Partnership Standards And Sample Activities
9. Explain Families In Need Of Special Services
10. Explain Communicating
11. Explain Parent Conferences
17. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
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After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.18.1. Points for discussion
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278
Unit 5: Implication of pre- school and primary levels for Intervention,
documentation, record maintenance and report writing
5.1 Introduction
5.2 In General, IDEA Requires Occupational Therapists (Ots) To:
5.3. Iep Documentation
5.4. Service Process
5.5. Confidentiality Laws And Student Records
5.6 Rationale
5.7 Structure Of The Primary School English Curriculum
5.8 Research On Curriculum Implementation
5.9 Report Writing
5.10 Summary
5.11 Check You Progress
5.12 References
279
5.1 Introduction
This chapter seeks to establish a context for the current paper by examining a number of
significant documents with implications for children’s oral language development, including: the
1999 Primary School English Curriculum (PSEC) (DES/NCCA, 1999a, b); studies on the
implementation of PSEC in subsequent years (2000-2001 in English-medium schools and 2001-
2002 in Irish-medium schools) (NCCA, 2005; DES, 2005a, b). Aistear (NCCA, 2009a, b), a
curriculum framework for early childhood (birth to 6 years of age); SÍOLTA, the national quality
framework for early childhood education (Centre for Early Childhood Development and
Education, 2006); and the National Strategy to Improve Literacy and Numeracy among Children
and Young People 2011-2020 (DES, 2011). Implications of national assessments of English
reading for language development are also considered as are implications of recent technological
developments for children’s oral language development.
In addition to meeting federal and state requirements, documentation is an important
communication tool between schools and families. All professionals involved should collaborate
to document at least quarterly, and provide reports as often as is done for students without
disabilities. Therapists should keep current on documentation guidelines for the profession, as
well as special school-based requirements.
5.2 In General, IDEA Requires Occupational Therapists (Ots) To:
• write a report of the evaluation the OT conducted;
• provide information and recommendations for students’ IEPs;
• write service plans for students, considering: disability, medical diagnosis,
contraindications to therapy;
• help develop IEP goals and determine equipment and personnel/assistance needed to
meet therapy goals;
• prepare periodic status reports; and
• write a report when students discontinue therapy.
The law does not specify how long therapists must keep documentation. Connecticut has a
retention schedule (available from LEAs) for public records which covers education records
280
LEAs maintain. Medicaid requires documentation be retained for at least six (6) years. See
Medicaid regulations.
5.3. Iep Documentation
Based on IDEA and Regulations Concerning State Agencies (RCSA) Sec.10-76d-11(d)
regulations, the Individualized Education Program (IEP) should contain:
1. measurable annual goals and measurable short-term objectives/benchmarks for
students. Annual educational goals describe what students with disabilities “can
reasonably be expected to accomplish within a 12-month period in the child’s special
education program”. Short-term instructional objectives are “measurable,
intermediate steps” between the present levels of educational performance and the
annual goals. They should be written in behavioral terms to describe what the
students are expected to accomplish, in a defined period of time, but not as detailed as
lesson plans [CGS Sec.10-76d-11(c)(3)].
2. the specific special education and related services to be provided, including assistive
technology services or devices.
3. the amount, frequency, and duration of services.
4. the extent to which the students will participate in regular educational programs.
5. statement of the present level of educational performance, including how the students’
disabilities affect involvement and progress in the general curriculum.
6. extent to which the students will be able to participate in regular educational programs,
including an explanation of the extent to which the students will not be participating
with non-disabled students in the general education class, and in extracurricular and
non-academic activities.
7. statement of transition services needed for students, beginning no later than age 14 and
annually thereafter. Before students leave the school setting, include, when
appropriate, a statement of interagency responsibilities for linkages (C.G.S. 10-
76d(a)(6).
Transition services must be based on students’ needs and include instruction,
community experiences, employment and other postschool adult-living objectives
development, and if appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional
vocational evaluation.
281
8. projected date to begin services, and anticipated duration.
9. appropriate objective criteria and evaluation procedures and schedules for determining,
on at least an annual basis, whether objectives are being achieved.
10. notes on annual review and revisions if needed for the students’ IEPs.
5.4. Service Process
In traditional hospital/clinic settings, a unit of service typically lasts fifteen minutes. In school
settings with transdisciplinary or interdisciplinary programs, some OT interventions may be very
modest, such as a few minutes daily. School policies for record keeping should reasonably reflect
the OT scope of service, and cost/benefits of extensive documentation.
Documentation in the following areas is recommended:
1. referral: initial referral including reason, options considered, regular education
interventions, why options rejected. RCSA (Sec. 10-76d-7) requires that referral to
PPTs for special education evaluation be noted on the school district’s standard
referral form.
2. permissions: parents’ or guardians’ written permission for assessment and evaluation,
reevaluation, and special education services; also, notice to parents concerning
reevaluation.
3. test protocol data and summary report: screenings, evaluations, reassessments,
IEPs, annual (periodic) reviews and exit results.
4. intervention: regular occupational therapy interventions. In addition to evaluation
reports and intervention plans, documentation for school occupational therapy
typically includes:
• attendance records: the amount and frequency of service provided students;
• progress notes on services plan and data collection on IEP objectives;
• contacts with vendors and recommendations;
• contacts with parents;
282
• contacts with physicians and recommendations;
• contacts with teachers and recommendations;
• discontinuance reports;
• any additional records Medicaid or other third party payers require.
5.5. Confidentiality Laws And Student Records
These limit disclosure of personal information on health or education records such as IDEA, the
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) and state statutes. Also, therapists in
school settings should comply with confidentiality standards required by their profession, and by
school district policy. Each local educational agency typically requires certain documentation
procedures relevant to consent for sharing information.
A comprehensive system for consistent organization and management of records
throughout the school district will facilitate case management, program development,
coordination, evaluation, and administrative and legal accountability. The system should include
records on individual students receiving occupational therapy, and on the overall program.
Federal and state laws and regulations which address classification, accessibility, review,
challenges, amendments, transfer, maintenance and destruction of student records include:
• Family Educational Rights And Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA) - all students;
• FERPA incorporated into IDEA at legislation for children with disabilities: 20 U.S.C
Sec 1415(b)(1)(A) 34 CFR, 300.500, 300.560, 300.562-300.574
• RCSA Sec 10-76d-18;
• Connecticut Public Records Administrator - retention/disposition schedule.
• Regulations concerning confidentiality of education records.
FERPA defines records, files, documents and other materials containing information directly
related to students and maintained by an educational agency or institution, or by individuals
acting for that agency or institution, as “education records” (20 U.S.C., Sec 1232g(4)(A). This
includes therapy evaluation reports, progress and conference reports, treatment plans, test
283
protocols and therapy materials and any additional records school districts maintain to support
Medicaid payments for services provided under IDEA - whether stored on paper,
audio/videotape or computer. Some third-party records (i.e. from outside agencies or service
providers) are not relevant in their entirety; a summary may be transferred to students’
educational records.
5.6 Rationale
A positive atmosphere of cooperation and trust between parents and local school districts
is contingent upon protecting parents’ rights to privacy, limiting access to personally identifiable
information and fully implementing policies and procedures related to confidentiality. Parents
must be confident that they have control over decisions and information regarding their child.
Required Practices
1. Each board of education shall maintain records concerning children requiring special
education and related services and shall provide for the filing, protection, confidentiality,
classification, review, and when appropriate, destruction of such records (Sec. 10-76d-18).
2. Each board of education shall have policies and procedures to ensure the confidentiality of
education records. All such policies and procedures shall be consistent with the requirements
of pertinent state and federal law and regulation (Sec. 10-76d-18(a)) and (Sec. 10-76d-
18(a)(1)).
3. All such policies and procedures shall be in writing and shall be made known at least annually
to parents of children requiring special education and related services and shall be available
to the public (Sec. 10-76d-18(a)(2)).
4. Policies and procedures shall include those relating to securing parental consent (Sec. 10-76d-
18(a)(3)).
5. Policies and procedures shall include those relating to amendment of information in education
records at a parent’s request, where the board of education agrees to amend such information
(Sec. 10-76d-18(a)(4)).
6. Policies and procedures shall include those relating to the opportunity for a hearing at which
parents may challenge the information in education records (Sec. 10-76d-18(a)(5)).
284
7. Policies and procedures shall include those relating to safeguards to protect the confidentiality
of personally identifiable information at collection, storage, disclosure and destruction stages.
This shall also include a record of access to all education records. (Sec. 10-76d-18(a)(6)).
8. Parents shall have the right to inspect and review any education records relating to their child
which are collected, maintained or used by the board of education (Sec. 10-76d-18(b)).
Source: State of Connecticut Board of Education, “Requirements and Guidelines for Special
Education and Related Services for Children (Ages 3-5) With Disabilities”, 1991. page 30. These
requirements also apply to children 5 through 21 as cited in IDEA.
5.7 Structure Of The Primary School English Curriculum
The 1999 Primary School English Curriculum (PSEC) (DES/NCCA, 1999a) places a
much stronger emphasis on oral language than its predecessors. This is apparent in the
curriculum framework, where each of the original Strands is framed in terms of language, and
each includes oral language as a Strand unit (substrand) (table 1.1).
According to the introduction to the PSEC (DES/NCCA, 1999a), the following ideas underpin
oral language development:
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• The process of language learning is linked with a growing knowledge of the world; language is
therefore a central factor in the expansion of the child’s conceptual framework and body of
knowledge.
• A large part of the child’s learning experience is verbal, and it is through oral language activity
that much of the child’s learning takes place both in and out of school.
• Language learning is an integrated process in which it is difficult to separate the functions of
oral language, reading and writing. All three are intimately related and each interacts with the
others in a myriad of ways.
• Because of its pervasive influence, English is not just concerned with language learning but
also with learning through language.
• In the process of acquiring language skills and in developing the ability to use language, other
crucial elements of the child’s personality and potential are cultivated.
5.8 Research On Curriculum Implementation
In a review of implementation of the PSEC (NCCA, 2005), teachers were generally
positively disposed towards the oral language component. However, some teachers involved in
focus group discussions expressed confusion with the terminology used to describe strands
(receptiveness to language etc.). Although a majority of teachers across all class levels surveyed
in the review felt that the oral language component of PSEC had the strongest impact on
children’s learning, just 30% felt that the teaching of oral language represented their greatest
success in implementing the PSEC (62% chose children’s literacy). Also in 2005, a document,
English Curriculum: Additional Support Material (DES/NCCA, 2005), was released, in which
the main strands in the PSEC were presented as oral language, reading and writing, and the
original strands (receptiveness to language etc.) were presented as strand units. It is unclear to
what extent the restructuring of the PSEC in this way facilitated teachers’ understanding and
implementation of oral language and other aspects of the PSEC.
286
In 2005, the inspectorate of the (then) Department of Education and Science (DES, 2005a)
published their own evaluation of the implementation of the PSEC. The evaluation was based on
focused inspections of the teaching of English in 59 classrooms in 26 schools, as well as focus
group interviews with the teachers in those schools. Key findings of the evaluation for oral
language across all class levels include the following:
• In two-thirds of schools, whole-school plans were deemed to be in need of further development,
as they were general in nature, not specific to the particular school and its environment, not
linked to the structure and focus of the English curriculum (as it was at the time), and lacking
detail regarding the methodologies adopted in the school.
• Four-fifths of teachers used the (then) strand units of oral language, reading and writing as
opposed to the strands as their starting points for classroom planning.
More than half the teachers did not link their individual planning with the school plan, with some
teachers indicating that they used textbooks or commercially-produced materials as a basis for
planning, rather than the content objectives in the curriculum.
• In a quarter of classrooms no reference was made in long-term or short-term planning to the
allocation of discrete time for the development of oral language objectives.
• Oral language was taught effectively in a little over three-quarters of classrooms.
• Receptiveness to language was emphasised in three-quarters of classrooms, with pupils in the
junior classes afforded opportunities to observe simple commands, to play with language, and
to develop an awareness of sounds.
• Three-quarters of teachers made effective use of a variety of approaches for oral language
development including talk and discussion, play and games, story, improvisational drama,
poetry, and rhyme.
• Practice in relation to assessment (of English in general) was good in three-fifths of classrooms
as teachers used assessment information to inform teaching and learning. Records of pupils’
progress were maintained in two-thirds of classrooms.
It is also of interest to note the effects of curriculum implementation in schools with particular
characteristics. In a report on teaching literacy and numeracy in 12 schools designated as
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disadvantaged (DES, 2005b), the inspectorate noted the following in relation to teaching oral
language in such schools:
• Teachers made frequent reference to the fact that children come to school with a significant oral
language deficit, and that the necessary oral skills and competencies that are a prerequisite for
the development of literacy skills had not been established (p. 25).
• In a few schools, attention was given to the development of assessment profiles to monitor
children’s progress in reading and oral language (p. 36).
• Teachers commented that oral language development received much attention, and this
improved classroom learning experiences for the children (p. 45).
The report also noted that lessons gleaned from the Early Start programme should support the
teaching of oral language in community-based pre-school provision in areas designated as
disadvantaged.
Finally, a report on the teaching of English based on incidental visits to primary schools
by members of the inspectorate (DES, 2010) noted that, despite the importance accorded to oral
language in the English curriculum teachers did not facilitate talk and discussion to support
children’s learning in one-sixth of the English lessons observed (p. 5).
In general, the picture is one in which overall implementation of the oral language
component of the English curriculum is deemed to be appropriate, though a sizeable minority of
schools and teachers are viewed as struggling with aspects of teaching, assessment or planning.
The importance of providing a more intensive approach to oral language development in schools
with large numbers of children living in disadvantaged circumstances is also suggested.
5.9 Report Writing
As a necessary condition to determining special education eligibility for a student with an
emotional disability, the PPT must determine that educational performance is adversely affected
as a result of dysfunctional school-related behaviors and/or affective reactions. Evidence must
exist that supports a relationship between the student's school-related behaviors and/or affective
relations and decreased educational performance. While adverse effect on educational
288
performance may imply a marked difference between the student's academic performance and
reasonable (not optimal) expectations of performance, the definition of education performance
cannot be limited to academics. This position is clarified by the Office of Special Education
Programs (OSEP) in a March 8, 2007, Letter to Clark, 48
IDELR 77 where "educational performance" as used in the IDEA and its implementing
regulations is defined as not limited to academic performance. Furthermore, based upon the
IDEA definitions of a child with a disability in 34 C.F.R. Section 300.8(a)(1) and specifically the
definition of a child with an emotional disturbance, along with the definition of special education
found in 34 C.F.R. Section 300.39, it is clear that special education and specialized instruction
encompass more than only academic instruction. Adverse effect on educational performance
cannot, therefore, be based solely on discrepancies in age or grade level performance in
academic subject areas. Rather, when determining if a student's emotional disturbance has an
adverse effect on educational performance, PPTs must consider all aspects of the child's
functioning at school, including academic, social/emotional, cognitive, communication,
vocational and independent living skills. An adverse effect can be manifested through behavioral
difficulties at school; impaired or inappropriate social relations; impaired work skills, such as
being disorganized, tardy; having trouble getting to school on time; and difficulty with following
the rules.
Indicators of educational performance can include present and past grades, report cards
and reports of progress (social emotional and/or academic), achievement test scores and
measures of ongoing classroom performance such as curriculum-based assessment (formative
and summative assessments), work samples and data relative to responses to tiered and targeted
interventions. The appropriateness ofthe school district's educational goals, as reflected in the
curriculum and in the formal grading reports,should also be considered. Various types of
standards must be applied when making judgments aboutstudent progress to determine what
constitutes adverse effect on educational performance. The student'soverall performance should
demonstrate a marked difference between actual and expected schoolperformance. While
determining a student's cognitive abilities and level of academic achievement may beuseful, the
focus should be placed on the student's overall performance in school and his or her responseto
interventions as illustrated in the data resulting from progress monitoring activities. Some
students attainadequate achievement test scores, but do not demonstrate appropriate academic
progress; for example,when a severe and chronic pattern of failing to persevere with tasks and
289
complete classroom assignmentsleads to repeated failure in subject matter courses. In this case,
the student's resulting failure in subjectmatter courses can be considered an adverse effect.
However, it must also be noted, that 34 C.F.R.
Section 300.101(c) states that a free and appropriate public education (FAPE), must be
available to any child with a disability who needs special education and related services, even if
the child has not failed or been retained in a course or grade and is advancing from grade to
grade. Therefore, as is the case for any student with a disability, the determination of whether a
student's emotional status "adversely affects educational performance" must be made on a case
by case basis and is dependent on the unique needs of the particular child (March 8, 2007, Letter
to Clark, 48 IDELR 77).
The documentation of adversely affected educational performance must also substantiate
that the educational deficiencies persist over time in spite of specific alternative strategies that
have been provided within the general education setting. The PPT should have evidence that
tiered interventions, such as positive behavioral supports, home/school collaboration,
attendance/counseling/academic supports, behavioral and emotional supports, contracts and/or
established behavior interventions and approaches, have been implemented with fidelity. (See
section 6, Empirically Supported Prevention and Intervention
Strategies, for suggested tiered interventions.) Evidence of these efforts and their impact should
be considered by the PPT in determining adverse educational performance.
5.10 Summary Current work on understanding language development in young children has been
focused on providing a conceptual framework which can account for interactions between
biological and environmental processes (MacWhinney, 1999). It recognises the role of the
child’s physiological status, cognitive skills and social precocity in language learning, and how
these elements interact, while also recognising caregiver input. The emergentist view is
compatible with socio-constructivist views of knowledge acquisition, in which the contribution
of a knowledgeable adult is considered to be part of the language construction process.
Within an emergentist view it is possible to provide a framework for a language curriculum
which can support the development of a diverse population of young children including children
of diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, children whose development may be inhibited by
290
social/environmental circumstances and children with biological and/or environmental
conditions, resulting in special educational needs.
Recent research has highlighted very large individual differences, among typically
developing children, in onset time, and in rate of growth, for all of the critical components of the
language system: word comprehension, word production, word combinations and sentence
complexity. This challenges the view that language develops in the same way for all children.
Variations observed in children with atypical development represent extensions of the variations
that are also observed in children with typical development (Bates, Dale & Thal, 1995).
In recent years, there has been considerable development in our understanding of the
specific language profiles of children with particular syndromes such as Down syndrome, Fragile
X syndrome and Williams syndrome, as well as autism. Along with stressing the need for
syndrome specific knowledge, this literature points to the importance of adopting a
developmental perspective on the communication and language strengths and needs of children
with disabilities so that, in addition to the child’s overall diagnosis, intervention takes the child’s
developmental level into account.
An emergentist/developmental position is also consistent with accounts of second
language acquisition (e.g. Cummins, 1979,1991,2000). The developmental aspect of second
language acquisition has been demonstrated by research on the stage of acquisition described as
interlanguage. This is the period between when the second language learner starts to use the
language productively and he/she achieves levels of competence characteristic of a native
speaker.
5.11 Check You Progress
1. Explain In General, IDEA Requires Occupational Therapists (Ots) To:
2. Explain. Iep Documentation
3. Explain Service Process
4. Explain Confidentiality Laws And Student Records
5. Explain Rationale
6. Explain Structure Of The Primary School English Curriculum
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7. Explain Research On Curriculum Implementation
8. Explain Report Writing
19. Check Your Progress
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After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.20.1. Points for discussion
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European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
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Block 3: Curriculum at Secondary, Pre-vocational and Vocational level
Unit 1: Curriculum domains at Secondary level
Unit 2: Curriculum domains at Pre- vocational level
Unit 3: Curriculum domains at Vocational level
Unit 4: Rehabilitation of PwIDs under National Skill development Scheme (NSDS by
MSJ&E)
Unit 5: Implications of placement for inclusion in Community, Documentation, Record
Maintenance and Reporting
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Unit 1: Curriculum Domains At Secondary Level
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition Of Children With Mild Intellectual Disabilities
1.3 Some Characteristics Of Mental Retarded Students
1.4. Disability Characteristics.
1.5 Functioning.
1.6 Household Characteristics
1.7 School Programs And Experiences
1.8 How Much Is Explained?
1.9 Looking Back To Nlts
1.10 Forms Of Understanding
1.11 Factors Associated With Academic Performance
1.12 Disability Differences In Students’ Academic Performance Teachers’
Perceptions Of Students’ Academic Performance
1.13 Summary
1.14 Check Your Progress
1.15 References
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
As the learning outcomes of our school curriculum play an important role in the learning
of our APSN children, we need to have higher expectations of our children and recognize that
they can learn. These learning outcomes must not only stay relevant in today’s society but equip
our children with the right attitudes, skills and knowledge relevant to today’s knowledge-based
economy.
There is no question that much is expected from our education system in terms of
preparing future citizens, workers, and leaders. To that end, schools are expected to influence
students’ learning, socialization, and even vocational preparedness. This agenda is perhaps even
more keenly applied for students with disabilities than for those in the general population.
Indeed, NLTS2’s conceptual framework reflects this comprehensive view of educationally
relevant inputs and achievements both in and outside of school.
Despite the attention paid to a broad definition of outcomes, however, academic
performance remains central. Academic instruction is arguably the primary business of
education, and it was poor performance that spawned the recent era of reform after the
publication of A Nation at Risk two decades ago (U. S. Department of Education, 1983). Further,
it is academic performance that is central to the efforts of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
to make schools and school districts accountable for assessing and improving student
performance annually (Linn, Baker, & Betebenner, 2002). Further, limitations in academic
achievement represent the primary implication of disability for most students receiving special
education services, and those limitations, if left unaddressed, constrain their ability to pursue
postsecondary education and well-paid employment after high school.
Although the importance of academic achievement is rarely questioned, reaching
unanimity regarding its measurement has been elusive. The measurement of academic
performance, particularly for students with disabilities, continues to be a controversial topic
among policymakers, measurement experts, and educators (Ahearn, 2000; Elliott, 1998; Johnson,
2000; Koretz & Hamilton, 1999; McGrew, Vanderwood, Thurlow, & Ysseldyke, 1995).
Measuring academic performance can occur at multiple levels and serves multiple purposes. For
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example, classroom teachers often conduct formative and summative tests to evaluate student
mastery of course content and provide grades for students and parents. State tests are designed
primarily to measure progress at the school or school district level. In particular, graduation tests
are used to determine whether a student has mastered the minimum content and competencies
required to receive a high school diploma. Each of these kinds of assessments engenders
significant questions related to test design, types of decisions supported by the results, alternative
assessments, and accommodations (Heubert & Hauser, 1999; Minnema, Thurlow, Bielinski, &
Scott, 2001).
Although this is a time of change in the educational arena, within this evolving
accountability environment, it is crucial to understand the progress of all students, including
those with disabilities, and the factors that contribute to their positive academic performance.
NLTS2 is in a unique position to provide a national perspective on these issues. This chapter
presents both descriptive findings and multivariate analyses of multiple measures of academic
performance. It also compares results of the multivariate analyses with those achieved in similar
analyses as part of the original NLTS.
1.2 Definition of Children with Mild Intellectual Disabilities According to the American Association of Mental Retardation (AAMR, 1992), mental
retardation refers to “substantial limitations in present functioning. It is characterized
bysignificantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently withrelated limitations
in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skillareas: Communication, self-care, home
living, social skills, communityuse, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics,
leisure andwork. Mental retardation manifests before the age of 18.”
This revised definition emphasized the importance of contextual supports to addressing the
limitations in various areas of adaptive functioning. It furthers highlights a three-step system of
diagnosis, classification and systems of support.
Step 1 is the diagnosis of mental retardation which is based on an IQ score of approximately 70-
75 or below with concurrent limitations in two or more adaptive skill areas that is manifested
before age 18.
Step 2 is the analysis of the individual in the four dimensions of
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1) intellectual functioning and adaptive skills,
2) psychological and emotional considerations,
3) physical health and etiology, and
4) environmental considerations.
Step 3 describes the profile and intensities of needed supports for each of the dimensions, which
may be intermittent, limited, extensive, or pervasive (Luckasson & Spitalnik, 1994).
Therefore, the intellectually disabled (ID) students in the Association for Persons with Special
Needs (APSN) maybe defined as persons with mild mental retardation who possess learning
difficulties and have an IQ range of 50-70 with varying degrees of deficits in adaptive skills (e.g.
communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and
safety, functional academics, leisure and work) which may require intermittent support within
the mainstream whether it may be in regular homes, schools, work places or other community
settings. The level and intensity of supports varies according to need over time. For example, a
special education teacher who is working with an ID child may need to offer extensive
involvement initially on a daily basis but gradually reduce the assistance to an intermittent “as
needed basis”.
1.3 Some Characteristics of mental retarded Students
Understanding the characteristics of ID students can have potentially crucial impact on
treatment and management programmes for these students. ID students usually learn more
slowly in school and encounter greater difficulties with academic work than other children. Some
common characteristics of ID students include:
Poor Attention / Concentration Span i.e. deficient in selective attention or sustained attention.
By deficient in selective attention, the child is unable to focus on the central stimuli as he/she is
distracted by other extraneous distracting variables in the environment. By deficient in sustained
attention, the child may not be able to attend for an extended period of time on what he/she is
attending.
Poor Memory Skills e.g. poor recall of what was learnt.
Difficulty in Processing Information e.g. tendency to perceive only one attribute at a time.
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Metacognitive Deficits e.g. lack awareness of own strengths and weaknesses and being
unaware of the demands of the task in relation to their capabilities and the strategies that they
have etc.
Poor Communication Skills e.g. poor receptive and expressive communication skills.
Transfer and Generalization of Learning e.g. the need for concrete and relevant teaching of
life skills in order that the learning can be transferred and generalized to other situations.
Poor Social / Adaptive Skills e.g. difficulty in making or keeping friends
Poor Self-Esteem e.g. the frequent academic failure may result in low self-concept resulting in
the lack of confidence etc.
Poor Attributional Beliefs e.g. tendency to attribute success to factors not within their
personal control e.g. luck; and tendency to attribute failure to external factors e.g. ability, task,
teacher rather than accepting personal responsibility for them.
Furthermore, these ID students are often quite able to take care of their own basic self-care and
daily living needs, and are quite capable of being independent in the community, such as
traveling by themselves and living on their own. However, as with all individuals, providing
them the opportunity, skill instruction and practice to perform daily and community living skills
is an important step towards a more independent life. ID students are likely also to have deficits
in cognitive functioning and adaptive behaviors. However, it is important to remember that there
are large within-group differences among them in terms of diverse and unique personalities,
abilities, interests, and needs.
1.4. Disability characteristics. As the descriptive results suggest, disability category is a significant factor in explaining
variations in both grades and skill discrepancies. Controlling for other factors, students with
mental retardation, autism, traumatic brain injury, or multiple disabilities all have significantly
higher grades than peers with learning disabilities (Exhibit 4-9).
The fact that students with mental retardation also have significantly greater academic deficits
than students with learning disabilities reinforces the notion that factors other than academic
performance are taken into account when teachers give grades. In addition, students with these
disabilities also spend a greater part of their school day in special education classes, in which
grading standards can differ from those in general education classes. Although this difference in
students’ school programs is controlled for in the analysis, other program differences may still
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come into play in accounting for variation in grades. Independent of primary disability category,
students who are reported to have attention deficit or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADD/ADHD) receive lower grades than do students whose disability profiles do not contain
that disorder.
The analysis of the number of grade levels that students are behind in reading shows a
different set of disability characteristics to be most relevant. Students with emotional
disturbances or visual or orthopedic impairments are between 1 and 2.4 years closer to grade
level than students with learning disabilities. Students with other health impairments and autism
also are less behind in reading than their peers with learning disabilities but by less than 1 grade
level. There are fewer disability-related differences with respect to mathematics than for reading
performance. Only students with hearing or visual impairments out perform students with
learning disabilities, the comparison group. Students with visual or hearing impairments are 1.5
and .4 years closer to grade level in mathematics than students with learning disabilities, other
factors held constant. With the exception of students with mental retardation, most of the other
groups’ performance is similar to that of students with learning disabilities.
Independent of the nature of a youth’s disability, youth whose disabilities are detected at an
earlier age are more likely to receive lower grades, but this proxy for the severity of disability is
unrelated to actual academic skills. With respect to the number of domains in which youth
experience limitations, youth whose disabilities result in limitations in more areas of functioning
are more likely to be below grade level in reading than those with fewer limitations, although a
similar relationship is not noted for mathematics skills or grades.
1.5 Functioning. All of the aspects of functioning included in the analyses are associated with some
indicator of academic performance—most consistently with grades. Functional cognitive skills
have the widest impact on academic performance of the measures of functioning examined in
NLTS2. Somewhat surprisingly, youth with higher cognitive skills receive somewhat lower
grades, even when differences in school programs and placements are accounted for. However,
more in keeping with expectations, compared with youth with low levels of functional cognitive
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skills, youth with high functional cognitive skills levels are 1.6 and 1.8 years closer to grade
level in reading and mathematics, respectively.
Ratings of social skills also are related strongly to both grades and academic skills, but
the direction of relationships is opposite that for cognitive skills. Youth rated with high social
skills receive significantly higher grades than their socially less adept peers, but they perform at a
lower grade level in reading. Both self-care skills and persistence are related to students’ grades,
but not to their actual academic skills; however, the relationships go in opposite directions.
Youth who are reported to have greater persistence in completing tasks (perhaps including
homework) receive higher grades than less persistent youth do, as expected. However, higher
self-care skills are associated with lower grades, independent of other differences among youth.
Demographics.
Many studies have demonstrated a strong and consistent relationship between students’
demographic characteristics and academic success. For example, African-American students in
the general population tend to receive lower scores in reading and mathematics than white
students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002). In NLTS2 multivariate analyses, age,
gender, race/ethnicity, and using a language other than English at home all are related
significantly to students’ academic performance.
Older youth are significantly behind grade level in both reading and mathematics,
compared with younger peers, suggesting that students with disabilities continue to lose ground
relative to grade-level expectations as they progress through school. With regard to gender,
young women with disabilities receive higher grades than their male peers, independent of other
factors, but perform at a slightly lower grade level in mathematics—a pattern also noted in the
general population (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002). All racial/ethnic groups are
more behind in reading and mathematics than white students. African-American students with
disabilities also receive lower grades than white students, independent of other differences
between groups. Finally, using a language other than English at home is related to a somewhat
lower grade level performance in reading, although no relationship is noted with either
mathematics abilities or grades.
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1.6 Household Characteristics
NLTS2 multivariate analyses show that household income and parental support and
expectations are related to student performance. Coming from a household with a higher income
is associated both with receiving higher grades from teachers and being closer to grade level in
reading and mathematics abilities (Exhibit 4-8). Parents’ expectations for the academic futures of
their adolescent children with disabilities also are consistently related to academic performance.
Students with disabilities whose parents have higher expectations for postsecondary education
receive higher grades and have reading and mathematics test scores that are a year closer to
grade level than those for youth whose parents have lower postsecondary education expectations,
independent of other disability, demographic, or school program factors included in the analyses.
Two scales of family involvement show different patterns of relationships with the indicators of
academic performance. Greater family involvement at home is related to youth’s receiving lower
grades, perhaps reflecting the tendency of parents to provide homework help to lower-
performing students—an important aspect of parents’ involvement at home. In contrast, youth
whose families are involved more at school receive higher grades and are significantly closer to
their measured grade level in reading.
1.7 School Programs and Experiences
The final set of variables included in these analyses relate to school programs and other
school experiences. It is arguably most important to understand the relationships of this set of
factors to academic performance because it includes factors that are amenable to change in
schools and classrooms and that can have direct effects on students.
School programs.
Participation in general academic education classes by students with disabilities has
increased over the past decades, but research conclusions regarding the instructional efficacy of
that participation are mixed. Although participation in general academic education classes can
relate to greater learning, it also has been shown to carry with it a greater risk for course failure
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because of the potential for higher academic expectations in general education relative to special
education classes. NLTS2 analyses confirm this tension between learning and grades (Exhibit 4-
9). Students with disabilities who take more of their classes in general academic education
settings receive somewhat lower grades overall, but also are closer to grade level in both reading
and mathematics than peers who take fewer classes in those settings. Comparing youth who take
three-fourths of their courses in general academic education with those who take only one-fourth
of their courses there, reading and mathematics scores for the former are more than a full year
closer to grade level. These relationships for general academic education participation are
present even when the analyses control for disability, functioning, demographics, and family
support—all factors that correlate with placement (Wagner, 1991c).
NLTS2 analyses indicate that students’ performance gaps in reading and math are smaller
in larger classes. This relationship may result from factors that are not controlled in the model.
For example, as mentioned regarding the finding that students with mental retardation receive
better grades than those with learning disabilities, despite being much farther behind in actual
academic ability, the analyses may not adequately control for differences in general education
and special education settings. General education classes are significantly larger than special
education classes (Newman, Marder, & Wagner, 2003; Levine & Wagner, 2003) and also tend to
include students with stronger academic skills. Alternatively, students in larger classes may have
had smaller classes and/or more intensive support of other types in the past, so that they became
able to be in larger classes and do well. Future NLTS2 longitudinal analyses will be able to
examine the impact of current class size on later performance to help illuminate this issue.
Other NLTS2 findings further illustrate the challenge of identifying the impacts of services,
accommodations, and supports for students with disabilities by using data gathered at a single
point in time. Students who receive some kinds of instructional accommodations often do so
because they have lower levels of achievement. Therefore, although the accommodation may
assist a student in raising performance over time, it may not lift his or her performance in a given
year to the level of a student who did not need it. This situation would result in analyses showing
a negative relationship between receiving accommodations and academic performance, as is
found in NLTS2 analyses. For example, youth who receive a total of five instructional or testing
accommodations (e.g., more time for assignments or tests, shorter assignments, modified grading
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standards) are nearly 1 year farther behind in both reading and mathematics than peers who
receive (and presumably need) no accommodations, other factors held constant.
However, this principle does not appear to apply equally to all types of accommodations
or supports. In contrast to findings for instructional and testing accommodations, youth receiving
presentation or communication accommodations (e.g., help from a reader or interpreter, books on
tape, communication aids) do not achieve at significantly different reading or mathematics grade
levels than students who do not receive such accommodations, other things being equal. The
receipt of tutoring also has no significant relationship to grades or reading and mathematics
grade levels. Perhaps the effect of tutoring is not so much to help youth receiving it outperform
their peers but to keep them from falling behind.
School experiences.
When students miss class, they also miss the opportunity to access new curriculum
content, ask questions, or generally participate in class activities, and those missed opportunities
adversely affect learning. NLTS2 multivariate models support this perspective. Students who are
absent for 5 days or more in a month both receive lower grades and are farther behind in
mathematics (but not in reading) than those who have perfect attendance, other things being
equal. It is logical that absenteeism has a direct effect on grades and only an indirect and modest
effect on grade-level discrepancies in reading and mathematics, in part because teachers
frequently consider attendance and participation in grading students.
Youth who have been declassified from special education receive better grades than those who
continue to receive special education. On the other hand, the gaps between performance on
standardized tests and actual grade level do not differ between students who have been
declassified and those who have not. Contrary to expectations, student mobility is not directly
related to any of the measures of academic performance. However, it may indirectly contribute to
poorer performance through its relationship to higher absenteeism, as noted in Chapter 3.
1.8 How Much Is Explained?
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The amount of variation in grade-level discrepancies (r2) explained by the factors
discussed in this section increases substantially as each set of factors is considered. Disability
and functioning alone account for 22% of the variation in grade-level discrepancies, whereas all
factors combined account for 51% of the variation. In contrast, the individual characteristics
associated with disability and functioning explain approximately 20% of the variation in student
grades; other factors add very little explanatory power to the model.
1.9 Looking Back to NLTS
Although the aspects of academic performance that are assessed in this chapter—grades
and discrepancies between tested and actual reading and mathematics grade levels—were not
subject to multivariate analyses in NLTS, that study did examine the relationships of aspects of
students’ individual, household, and school program characteristics with whether students failed
courses— the ultimate outcome of poor grades. The NLTS2 analysis of students’ grades and the
NLTS analysis of course failure show several similarities in the factors found to relate to those
aspects of academic performance. In both cases, students with visual, orthopedic, or other health
impairments outperform those with learning disabilities. Patterns of relationships for
demographic factors also are similar across the studies: gender relates to performance, favoring
girls, as does minority status, favoring white students. Higher household income also
consistently relates to better academic performance across the studies. NLTS and NLTS2
considered a substantially different set of school program factors in addressing academic
performance, yet the relationship of the extent of inclusion in general education classrooms
remains the same; other factors being equal, students with disabilities who spend more of their
school day in general academic education classes receive lower grades and/or are more likely to
fail courses than those who spend more time in special education settings.
1.10 Forms of Understanding
Knowledge can be categorised based on distinct kinds of concepts and meanings involved
and processes of validation and justification. Each involves its own kind of ‘critical thinking’, its
own way of verifying and authenticating knowledge, and its own kind of ‘creativity’.
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Mathematics has its own distinctive concepts, such as prime number, square root, fraction,
integer and function. It also has its own validation procedure, namely, a step-by-step
demonstration of the necessity of what is to be established. The validation procedures of
mathematics are never empirical, never based on observation of the world or on experiment, but
are demonstrations internal to the system specified by an appropriate set of axioms and
definitions.
The Sciences, like the systems of mathematics, have their own concepts, often
interconnected through theories, and are attempts to describe and explain the natural world.
Concepts include atom, magnetic field, cell, and neuron. Scientif ic inquiry involves observation
and experimentation to validate predictions made by theory (hypotheses), which may be aided by
instruments and controls. Formalisation into theory and model building can sometimes involve
mathematics, but it is only with reference to obser vations and not to mathematical accuracy that
truth is tested. The attempt is to furnish a narrative that in some way ‘corresponds’ to reality.
The Social Sciences and Humanities have their own concepts, for example, community,
modernisation, culture, identity, and polity. The Social Sciences aim at developing a generalised
and critical understanding of human beings and human groups in society. The Social Sciences
concern themselves with description, explanation and prediction in the social world. The Social
Sciences deal with hypotheses that are about human behaviour in collective living, and their
validation finally depends on the observations made in the society.
With regard to the process of knowledge formation, Science and the Social Sciences are
almost identical. But there are two differences that are of great relevance in curriculum planning.
First, the Social Sciences study human behaviour which is governed by ‘reasons’, while nature is
governed by ‘cause and effect’. Second, the findings of the Social Sciences often raise issues of
ethics and desirability while natural phenomena can be understood, raising ethical questions only
when they enter into the domain of human action.
Art and aesthetics have many words in common, such as rhythm, harmony, expression
and balance, though giving them new senses or new ranges of application. Art productions
cannot be judged against reality or investigated for ‘truth’. Although there is ample scope for
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subjective judgement in art, it is also possible to educate the artistic imagination to critically
assess what is good and what is not.
Ethics is concerned with all human values, and with the rules, principles, standards and
ideals which give them expression. In relation to action and choice, therefore, ethics must be
conceded primacy over each of the forms of understanding. Ethical understanding involves
understanding reasons for judgements—for what makes some things and some acts right and
others wrong—regardless of the authority of the persons involved. Furthermore, such reasons
will be reasons for anyone; reason, equality and personal autonomy are therefore very intimately
connected concepts.
Philosophy involves a concern, on the one hand, with analytical clarification, evaluation
and synthetic coordination of the aforementioned forms of understanding in relation to life, and,
on the other hand, with the whole, the ultimate meaning and the transcendent.
The basic capabilities, the knowledge of practice and the forms of understanding are the
core ways in which human experience has been elaborated in the course of history. All but the
simplest kinds of human activity draw upon them—the liberal professions, technology, industry
and commerce. They are central to human culture. Imagination and critical thinking are linked in
obvious ways with the development of understanding and reason, and so are the emotions.
Each of these knowledge areas involves a special vocabular y, concepts, theories, descriptions
and methodologies. Each provides a ‘lens’ through which to view the world, to understand, to
engage, and to act in it. These areas have developed, and continue to grow, through the
contributions of people in the past.
They have also changed in their structure and emphasis.
A variety of intelligence and forms of knowing come into play while learning these areas:
‘formal modes’ of explicit reasoning and articulation; looking for and evaluating evidence;
‘experiential’ and tacit knowing through doing and undergoing the experience; coordinating and
observing; and ‘practical’ engagement, either by oneself or in coordination with others in
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making or accomplishing something, in addressing problems and issues while charting a course
of action.
Creativity and excellence are integral to all these forms of knowledge and knowing.
This accumulation of human culture and knowledge, and ways of knowing and doing
things, is a valuable part of the inheritance of human society. All our children have a right to
access this knowledge, to educate and enrich their common sense, to develop and discover
themselves and the world of nature and people, through these lenses and tools.
1.11 Factors Associated with Academic Performance
To explore the independent associations between academic performance and disability
and other individual and family characteristics, as well as school programs and experiences,
three multivariate models of academic performance were estimated. Dependent variables
include:
• Grades—a 9-point scale ranging from “mostly As” and “mostly As and Bs” to “mostly Ds and
Fs” and “mostly Fs.”
• Tested reading performance compared with grade level—positive values indicate higher test
scores relative to actual grade level; negative values indicate lower test scores relative to actual
grade level.
• Tested mathematics performance compared with grade level—positive values indicate higher
test scores relative to actual grade level; negative values indicate lower test scores relative to
actual grade level.
1.12 Disability Differences in Students’ Academic Performance Teachers’
Perceptions of Students’ Academic Performance
High grades are common for youth in many disability categories. About half or more of
students with hearing, visual, or orthopedic impairments, autism, or multiple disabilities receive
“mostly As and Bs” (Exhibit 4-4). However, at least 25% of students in all other disability
categories also receive these high grades, including students whose disabilities are clearly
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cognitive. For example, both learning disabilities and mental retardation involve cognitive
learning challenges, with mental retardation commonly considered a more pervasive disability.
Yet significantly more students with mental retardation receive high grades than students with
learning disabilities (41% vs. 27%, p<.01). These simple bivariate findings illustrate the
comingling of disability and instructional setting. For example, youth with mental retardation not
only arguably have a more pervasive cognitive impairment than youth with learning disabilities,
but that impairment results in their spending much less of their school day in general education
academic classes compared with students with learning disabilities (i.e., 31% of students with
learning disabilities take all classes in a general education setting, as do 7% of students with
mental retardation, p<.001). The general education academic classes frequented more often by
students with learning disabilities also may have different standards for grading than special
education classes do. Multivariate analyses are needed to disentangle these kinds of complex
relationships.
1.13 Summary
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Student academic performance is a more important outcome for education reform than
ever before, and the move to improve that performance now specifically includes students with
disabilities. The national look at academic performance of secondary school students with
disabilities enabled by NLTS2 suggests that different indicators of performance offer divergent
perspectives on the progress that students are making. Most students with disabilities receive
passing or even exemplary grades, which might indicate successful accomplishment of
curriculum goals. In addition, teachers of general education academic classes report that about
three-fourths of students with disabilities keep up in those classes. However, significant numbers
of students in all disability categories function sufficiently below grade level in reading and math
to raise the question of their ability to complete high school work successfully. And the
correlation between grades and academic functioning is nearly zero, indicating that the two are
largely unrelated. This finding is consistent with the perspective that grades may reflect
engagement and social factors in addition to classroom performance.
Individual, household, and school program factors all contribute significantly to students’
academic performance, with the amount of variation explained in multivariate analyses
increasing substantially with the addition of each set of factors. Although individual and
household characteristics all bear on how well students do, choices made at the school level
regarding programs, services, and supports also are strongly related to student performance.
What schools do can make a difference in the academic performance of students with
disabilities.
Different sets of individual and demographic characteristics are related to grades than to
performance in reading and math. Although students’ primary disability category and severity
play an important role in analyses of both kinds of indicators, different disabilities come into
play. Controlling for other factors, students with sensory or orthopedic impairments or emotional
disturbances are closer to grade level in reading or math than students with learning disabilities,
but do not differ from those with learning disabilities in grades. In contrast, students with mental
retardation, autism, traumatic brain injury, or multiple disabilities all of whom have higher
grades than peers with learning disabilities. Further, students with higher cognitive skills perform
closer to grade level in reading and math than do peers who have lower functional cognitive
skills. Demographic and family background factors also are significantly related.
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African-American and Hispanic students, as well as those from low-income families, score
significantly below white and higher-income peers, respectively, on most measures of academic
performance.
NLTS2 multivariate analyses also show that the involvement and expectations of parents
are consistently related to the academic outcomes that students achieve. Students whose parents
expect their sons or daughters with disabilities to attend postsecondary education receive
significantly higher grades and are closer to grade level in reading and math than peers whose
parents do not hold those expectations. Similarly, students whose families are involved in school
activities also have better performance as indicated by both types of performance measures.
School program factors, too, contribute importantly to understanding variations in student
performance. For example, controlling for other factors, students who take three-quarters of their
classes in general education settings and those who are in larger classes perform closer to grade
level than do peers who spend just a quarter of their time in general education settings or in
smaller classes. However, students who require and receive accommodations in instruction or
testing are farther behind grade level in reading and math than peers who do not require or
receive the accommodations, other factors held constant. This finding suggests that choices
regarding settings, groupings, and supports sometimes relate to performance, but that
determining the effectiveness of specific supports requires longitudinal analysis of the
experiences of individual students, rather than analyses that compare the performance of those
who receive supports at a given time with the performance of others without need of the service.
Future NLTS2 analyses will be able to address these issues.
1.14 check your progress
1. Explain Definition Of Children With Mild Intellectual Disabilities
2. Explain Some Characteristics Of Mental Retarded Students
3. Explain Disability Characteristics.
4. Explain Functioning.
5. Explain Household Characteristics
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6. Explain School Programs And Experiences
7. Explain How Much Is Explained?
8. Explain Looking Back To Nlts
9. Explain Forms Of Understanding
10. Explain Factors Associated With Academic Performance
11. Explain Disability Differences In Students’ Academic Performance
Teachers’ Perceptions Of Students’ Academic Performance
21. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
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After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.22.1. Points for discussion
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California: Stanford University Press.
59. Corsaro, W. (1997). The sociology of childhood. California: Pine Forge Press.
327
60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
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and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
61. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
62. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
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Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
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328
75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
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(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
329
Unit 2: Curriculum Domains At Pre- Vocational Level
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Historical Evolution Of Prevocational Education
2.3. Current Status 3.1. Current Organisation Of Prevocational Education
2.3.1. Enrolment
2.3.2. Teaching Staff
2.4. Critical Analysis Of The System
2.4.1. Negative Perception Of The Prevocational Stream
2.4.2. Student Drop Out Rate
2.4.3. Curriculum
2.4.4. Untrained Teachers
2.4.6. Infrastructure
2.4.7. Absence Of A Formal Certification
2.5. Need For Review
2.6. New Strategy For Prevocational Education
2.7 Domains Of Learning- Prevocational Level
2.7.1 Introduction
2.7.2 Languages (English, French And Other Languages)
2.7.3 Mathematics:
2.7.4 Sciences
330
2.7.5 Technology: Ict, Design And Technology, Home Economics,
Design, Clothing And Textiles:
2.7.6 Health (Home Economics- Food And Nutrition And Human
Development) And Physical Education
2.7.7 The Arts: (Visual Arts, Music And Drama & Dance)
2.7.8 Social Studies: (History, Geography, Sociology)
2.7.9 Cross Curricular Domains Of Learning
2.8 New Strategy For Prevocational Education
2.9 Summary
2.10 Check Your Progress
2.11 References
331
2.1 Introduction
In line with the State s spelt-out guiding principles for curricular reform in Mauritius, as
embodied in the policy document, „Empowering the Nation s Children – Towards a Quality
Curriculum (MOE&HR:2006), this document, the National Curriculum Framework-
Secondary (NCFS), establishes a comprehensive overview of the operationalisation of a new
secondary school curriculum package.
The NCFS aims at taking every single lower secondary school student in Mauritius,
Rodrigues and the Outer Islands on board and providing the optimal conditions for his/her full-
fledged development. To this effect, a survey has been conducted as a prior exercise in some
secondary schools to assess the needs, and to include the expectations and aspirations of the
upcoming generation of lower secondary school students.
The NCFS addresses a category of learners, the adolescents, who are undergoing a
critical phase of transformation in their development. The focus is first on the lower secondary
curriculum (Forms I- III) which has to smoothly take the primary school leaver through an
incremental process of development with regard to knowledge, skills, values and attitudes and
achieve a qualitative entitlement to the upper secondary level. There is also an indication of the
way forward for upper secondary level, Forms IV and V, in each of the different domains of
learning so as to cover the full range of the compulsory school age. This section, covering Forms
IV and V, is provided as an indication so as to facilitate a review and further consolidation of the
upper secondary curriculum.
2.2 Historical Evolution Of Prevocational Education
Prevocational Education has witnessed significant changes since its inception way back
in the nineties, although some action had been initiated to cater for CPE failures in the seventies.
First implemented by the ex-Industrial and Vocational Training Board (IVTB) from 1990 to
1996, its management was transferred to the Technical School Management Trust Fund in 1997,
in the context of the implementation of the 9-year schooling reform in the educational system.
332
On 14 March 2001, the Prevocational Education (PVE) project under the control of the Ministry
of Education was officially launched with the collaboration of other stakeholders, mainly the
Bureau d’Education Catholique (BEC) and the Federation of Managers of PrivateSecondary
Schools, in the then existing 10 State Secondary Schools Vocational, 2 State Secondary Schools
and 38 Private Secondary schools.
The move also meant a shift from the trade-oriented courses in Metalwork, Woodwork,
Home Economics and Bicycle Repairs to more academic ones with the provision of textbooks to
students In 2011, the programme was being run in 50 State-owned institutions (including the 6
State Secondary Schools Vocational) and in 76 Private Secondary Schools.
2.3. Current Status 3.1. Current Organisation Of Prevocational Education
Prevocational Education is provided in secondary schools to those who have failed the
CPE examinations twice. Children who have failed the CPE at their first attempt but who, by
virtue of their age, are not able to remain in a primary school, are channelled to the prevocational
stream of the secondary schools. The aim is to provide three years of additional schooling to
these children to make up for the academic deficit built up during the years of primary schooling
and to enable skills development for further vocational training.
Since 2004, a one-year NTC Foundation Course is being run by the ex-Industrial and
Vocational Training Board (IVTB) to prepare the prevocational year III students to join the first
level of vocational programme (NTC level 3) at the IVTB.
The provision of prevocational education in secondary schools alongside the academic
mainstream is based on the philosophy of an inclusive education with all students going to the
same secondary schools and enjoying the same facilities. This approach which brings the
students to live, learn and share experiences together, allows the children in the prevocational
stream to gain self-esteem and self-confidence without any negative branding.
2.3.1. Enrolment
333
Currently, some 7270 students are following Prevocational classes which represent about 12.5%
of the Form I to III student population of the secondary sector. The enrolment of students in the
prevocational stream of our secondary schools for the past four years stands as follows:
The enrolment has been continuously declining over the recent years, due to the decreasing
population in primary schools as well as a slightly higher pass rate at the CPE. Again, it is
evident that the decrease in enrolment of prevocational students in the SSS has been additionally
influenced by the non-availability of classrooms due to the running of Form VI classes.
2.3.2. Teaching Staff
The teaching force for the prevocational stream in the SSS comes from the TSMTF
where they were employed as Basic Secondary School and then SSSV teachers. They have been
absorbed by the Ministry of Education through a recruitment exercise carried out by the PSC.
Those holding a degree were recruited as EO (Prevoc) and the others as Teacher (Prevoc).
Additionally, some redundant teachers from Private Secondary Schools have been re-deployed in
state schools as prevocational teachers. Some Supply Teachers have been recruited on a
contractual basis to fill in the shortages in state schools. Posting of teachers is done on the basis
on the established teacher-class ratio of 1.5:1. The same ratio is observed by the PSSA for
private secondary schools
334
In 2011 there were some 634 teachers for prevocational education, with 197 working in
the State Secondary Schools that were offering prevocational classes and 437 in the Private
Sector. A more detailed picture is given below:
It is noted that for some subjects like Visual Arts, Physical Education or ICT, it is the same
teachers who work with the children of both streams (academic mainstream and prevocational).
2.4. Critical Analysis Of The System
An objective analysis of the situation in the Prevocational education sector reveals clear systemic
and process-related weaknesses:
2.4.1. Negative Perception Of The Prevocational Stream
The introduction of Prevocational Education (PVE) in 2005 at lower secondary school level to
provide ‘refuge’ for students who had failed the CPE twice, and who by law were obliged to stay
in school till the age of 16, has had a predictable outcome – namely the negative ‘branding’ of
vocational education. It has not been seen as a sector which today is vitally important to the
realignment of the education system to develop the human capital that will enable the country to
335
meet its future economic targets. This has on the contrary reflected on the students who showed a
lack of self esteem and self confidence leading to dissatisfaction.
2.4.2. Student Drop Out Rate
One cause of major concern is the high dropout rate prevailing among students of the
prevocational stream, as indicated by the table below:
2.4.3. Curriculum The learning experiences provided do not really cater for the individual needs and
learning styles of the students while there is a dire lack of support materials in terms of audio-
visual aids to assist the learning process. A curriculum that matches the needs of the students
336
rather than a one-size-fits-all one would be welcome as would the in-built mechanism for a
proper evaluation mechanism to monitor the efficiency of the learning experiences. Nor has the
issue of inculcating “soft” skills been adequately addressed, especially for this group of learners
whose social, communication and behavioural skills, among others, need to be sharpened.
Further, the non-alignment of the curriculum with the New Curriculum Framework (Secondary)
is another point of concern that needs to be addressed.
2.4.4. Untrained Teachers
Many of the teachers ( except for the category called ‘Prevocational Teachers), have no
skills in handling students with behaviour problems nor having the requisite pedagogical skills
needed to teach students with major learning difficulties in literacy and numeracy. This is further
exacerbated by the demotivation of teachers who find themselves with no well-defined career
path and accordingly no promotional prospects.
Inadequate/ insufficient resources
The workbooks provided since 2007 are basically trial materials and in some private secondary
schools, the non-availability of resources for the preparation of support materials is being
strongly felt. In these schools as well access to specialist rooms is limited, if available at all. On
the other hand, there is a scarcity of tools and equipment for trade subjects like Agriculture,
Electricity, Woodwork, Sewing and Cookery while school libraries have no books matching the
needs of PVE students.
2.4.6. Infrastructure
The accommodation in secondary schools caters more for a formal setup than one that is
functionally applicable for the implementation of activity-based teaching. Again, in quite a few
schools, the classrooms for the prevocational stream are far too small or mere outstations with no
access to specialist rooms for practical work.
2.4.7. Absence Of A Formal Certification
337
In the course of the three years of prevocational education, there is no proper recording of
the student’s performance to highlight his/her progression (or regression as the case may be).
Nor is there any portfolio, which, among others, could have served as a means to analyse the
students’ performance and to highlight strengths and weaknesses.
The certificate awarded poses a multi-pronged problem in that it is neither recognised as
depicting a certain level of achievement nor does it have any equivalence that would situate it on
the National Qualifications Framework and accordingly facilitate the transition from
prevocational to further education. Finally, the absence of a formal certification impacts
negatively on the chances for employability and entry into the labour market for this category of
learners.
2.5. Need For Review
The vision of Government to transform the education and training system to make it more
responsive to the present and future needs of society has been adequately captured in the
Education and Human Resource Strategy Plan (2008-2020) that, inter alia, laid down the
foundations for the reform of the Secondary subsector and highlighted the need to revisit the
Prevocational education to make it an integral part of the secondary schooling.
In the context of these reforms, the programme for prevocational education has to be
reviewed to ensure its alignment with the new National Secondary Curriculum Framework
currently being implemented.
More importantly, an in-depth review of Prevocational Education has become an
imperative to address its inherent challenges, improve on its outcomes and make it more
responsive to the needs of our economy which is becoming more skills-driven. As importantly,
such a review will help ensure equity in the distribution of education outcomes while equally
reducing the number of unqualified and unskilled people entering the skills-intensive market.
2.6. New Strategy For Prevocational Education
The new strategy for the prevocational education is based on the following pillars:
338
Pillar 1: Extension of programme duration
In line with the objective to provide for both flexibility of access between programs and
institutions and facilitate transition for a larger number to vocational education and/or the labour
market , the project now makes for provision of 4 years of prevocational education with a
gradual integration of trade skills and entrepreneurial skills right from Year 1. This would enable
students to obtain access directly to the NC1- the first year of vocational education of the MITD.
The 4 year span will hence also cover the whole of the compulsory education period, that is, till
age 16. The proposed new organizational arrangement will be as follows:
Years 1&2: Pre-Voc Education in secondary schools (Public and Private)
Year 3: 3 days in Pre-Voc Education in Secondary schools and 2 days at MITD
Year 4: 2 days in Pre-Voc Education in Secondary schools and 3 days at MITD
Pillar 2: New Curriculum
The National Curriculum Framework- Secondary (2008) has aligned the key competencies of
mainstream as well as the Prevocational sector to a common set of Overarching Learning
Competencies and proposed a Curriculum based on 4 key domains of learning for the
prevocational stream, namely,
i). Communication Skills,
ii). Numeracy and Problem-Solving Skills,
iii).Life Skills and
iv). Livelihood and Trade Skills.
This alignment also keeps in view the demand of knowledge-driven societies to foster the
development of ‘soft’ skills within the learners, right form an early age. It is noteworthy that,
while emphasis will be placed on working in teams, active learner involvement in his/ her own
learning will also be emphasized.
Syllabi for Years 1 to 4 have now been updated and are being developed. The introduction of
new materials in all schools will be effective in a phased manner in 2012 (for Years 1 & 2) and
2013 (for Years 3 & 4).
This new curriculum seeks to do away with gender discrimination that exists at present in
prevocational education, as all learners will be exposed to the same trade skills.
339
Pillar 3: Adapted Pedagogy
With a view to engaging fully the students and enriching their learning experiences, a new
pedagogy with emphasis on the following is being proposed:
i). Activity based teaching and learning,
ii). Social skills
iii).Communication skills
iv).Team work
v). Critical thinking and problem solving skills
vi). Independent working and thinking
vii). Personal organisation
viii). Self study
Modern ICT based pedagogical tools will be used to enhance teaching and learning in
class and make it more attractive to the students.
Students will also visit industries, work organisations, hotels, etc to gain insightful knowledge
into potential areas of future employment.
Moreover, exposure to English and French will continue and Kreol Morisien will also be used as
a support language.
Pillar 4: Bridging the Gap Programme
In the past, many children were not attracted to the Pre-Voc stream because the same approach
and teaching methods based on rote learning and drilling exercises, as in the CPE class, were
used. To enable the child to develop confidence and find schooling meaningful, a Bridging the
Gap Programme will be introduced in Year I.
As per this programme, a new pedagogy based on practical activities such as drawing and
observation, playing, art, computer skills etc will be used for the first two months of Year I. A
student profiling through Bridging the Gap will also be carried out to gauge the level of
competencies attained and the exact needs of the child.
Pillar 5: Capacity Building for teachers and Heads of Schools
340
The Educators of the new programme will be subject to further training where activity- based
learning will be promoted. This new training will be built on the Enhancement Programme
model itself a hands-on pedagogical model that encourages creativity and the practice of
classroom innovation.
A Certificate of Attendance will be awarded to the trainees and some credits will
ultimately be earned and added on to such that these may ultimately lead to the fulfillment of the
requirements for a B.Ed. Possibilities will also be explored for the enlistment of specialists as
resource persons for the promotion of communication and problem-solving skills as well as life
skills. Focussed workshops for Heads of schools will as well be mounted for them to buy-in the
programme and to develop ownership thereof.
Pillar 6: Quality Assurance
It is important to set up a strong Quality Assurance system within this sector to secure internal
efficiency and quality of teaching and learning. Support will be provided to every school for self-
empowerment and ownership and hence enabling it to reflect on its performance and set
measurable goals for improvements to happen.
This element will have to be fully incorporated into the School Improvement Plan (SIP) of every
institution.
Pillar 7: Assessment & Certification
Contrary to the existing situation where Prevocational students do not receive any formal
qualification, the 4th year of Prevocational will lead to a formal certification. Those successfully
completing the 4 years of Prevocational education will be considered as holding a qualification at
par with the CPE (MQA, Level 1 qualification). This is of utmost importance so as to give this
stream an added value, thus motivating students to complete their education and leave school
with a formal qualification.
For this to materialize, the following are proposed:
• Build in a system of continuous evaluation of knowledge & skills throughout the whole cycle.
As such, strong emphasis will be placed on developing strategies for remediation through
appropriate teaching and learning materials and strategies right from Year 1. The continuous
assessment will also be based on portfolios, personal developmental plans as well as oral,
341
practical and written tests. To curb absenteeism and late arrivals, some weighting will also be
given to attendance and punctuality.
• A modular approach, with due attention to practical and applied skills, will be envisaged so as
to cater for the different range of abilities, and to allow for more flexibility, especially for those
who have failed with the traditional examination structure.
This approach will also facilitate identification of competencies developed by each learner. It
will help to devise a system of certification that will provide a record of achievement more in
line with the philosophy of Prevocational education.
The Certificate of PVE would also be recognized by MQA and pitched at a specific level in the
National Qualifications Framework thus allowing for pathways for lifelong learning
The Certificate of Prevocational Education should enable the learner to opt for either:
i). Vocational Education; or
ii). Reintegrate an academic stream; or
iii).Become functional and employable in any sector
As the certification will be designed to provide a statement of achievement in each domain, it
should also allow employers to identify key desirable skills in the future employee. Thus, the
system of certification should make it easier for the holder to testify to her/his knowledge and
skills on the job market.
Pillar 8: Tracking and Monitoring Mechanism to prevent drop-out
Given that the rate of drop-out is generally higher here than in the mainstream, a permanent
tracking mechanism will be established so as to identify students who keep away from the
classes and the school. This mechanism will help towards reinforcing the current statistical
database on drop-outs and will also facilitate the formulation and implementation of concrete
measures to bring them back into the system.
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The student tracking mechanism coupled with an intervention unit which is being set up, will
follow every student who enters the prevocational stream, identify early dropout and take prompt
action for reintegration of dropouts in the schooling system.
Pillar 9: Reinforced psychological back up and support
Psychological back up and support will be provided all throughout the 4 year programme. An
outreach exercise for parents will be conducted with a view to partnering with them to promote
the development of their children.
2.7 Stepping Into The Domains Of Learning
The Curriculum goals, as outlined in the Policy Document “Empowering the Nation s
Children- Towards a Quality Curriculum” (MoEHR: 2006), constitute the government s vision
of the type of general educational outputs of the system, the dimensions of the educated person
and future citizen that are being promoted through the education system. These goals drive the
model.
The general Overarching Learning Outcomes(OLOs) have been worked out to translate
these goals into desirable competencies, knowledge, skills and attitudes that cut across all
learning activities and curriculum areas and experiences in schools. The next stage outlines
specific domains of learning that form part of the Lower Secondary School Curriculum. The
learning areas are grouped according to their inter-relatedness, and general outcomes are
identified for each group, e.g. Languages, Social Sciences, Arts, Science, Technology etc. Each
outcome is further elaborated to ensure clear understanding among curriculum developers and
subject educators.
Thereupon, specific learning outcomes for each subject area/discipline within each domain are
developed, and their relations to the general learning outcomes are specified. They form the basis
on which the level descriptors and competencies will eventually be worked out for each level of
the Lower Secondary Curriculum (Forms I-III), and on which curricular materials will be
designed. An indication of the teaching strategies deemed appropriate for each subject area is
also provided.
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The model adopted is designed to ensure that the subject educators recognizes that her/his
discipline is not to be taught as a separate isolated entity, but as a body of knowledge that is
related to a domain of learning and to the Overarching Learning Outcomes that will contribute to
the achievement of the national goals of education. The outcomes are shown to be mutually
reinforced across different subjects.
The document also includes a general overview of teaching/learning strategies and modes
of assessment that should accompany the new vision of the curriculum.
This document also addresses the Pre-Vocational curriculum reform. Government vision is
translated into general learning outcomes, then into outcomes for domains, and specific areas of
learning, which are further detailed into level descriptors for each year of the Pre-Vocational
cycle.
Furthermore, an indication is provided for the direction that the Upper Secondary (Forms
IV-V) will be taking, thus covering the whole range of compulsory education, that is, till age 16.
However, the way forward for the Forms IV and V should be considered in view of providing
access to alternative examinations/ boards of examiners. This will have considerable implications
for the different domains of learning, especially at the upper secondary level; it will also demand
gradual readjustment of teaching and learning at all levels, including the lower secondary.
Learning and Teaching Strategies as well as modes of assessment are suggested for the specific
learners. The chapter on Teaching and Learning addresses a wide range of issues that will help
us engage in a thorough review of teaching and learning in our schools.
2.7 Domains Of Learning- Prevocational Level
2.7.1 Introduction As enunciated in other parts of the document, the major innovations brought by the NCFS are in
terms of emphasis on process rather than content, on learning outcomes, and on the need to
engage students in meaningful and integrated learning experiences. The core domains of learning
present in the primary curriculum will be extended, taking into account the requirements to
provide adequate scope for learners to make meaning of their world while building incrementally
on skills acquired at the primary level. Some of the elements like sustainable development,
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citizenship, developing and maintaining a culture of peace and coping with stress will cut across
all domains.
The domains of learning will be as follows:
(i) Languages: (English, French and Other Languages)
(ii) Mathematics
(iii) Sciences.
(iv) Technology
(v) Health and Physical Education
(vi) Social sciences
(vii) The Arts
2.7.2 Languages (English, French And Other Languages) Mauritian students have to be prepared to face the literacy demands characteristic of a world
driven by new forms of communication. Added to this, the specificity of Mauritius in terms of its
multilingualism and the growing importance of tourism make the study and use of modern
international languages a cornerstone of the lower secondary curriculum. Notwithstanding their
instrumental value in enabling the acquisition of other forms of knowledge, languages are also
tools for thinking and a means of contributing to the cultural development of a society.
Apart from English and French which are core languages, other languages such as Oriental
Languages, Arabic, and ultimately Modern European Languages, will be offered to foster the
multilingual capacities of students and enhance their communication skills, especially in a
context where countries such as China and India are becoming key actors in the world economic
field.
2.7.3 Mathematics: Mathematics is and will remain a core subject at the lower secondary level. In a science driven
world, the power of mathematics education to facilitate the acquisition of generic thinking skills
and to develop the adolescent s cognitive resources should be given due recognition. However,
to intelligently harness the potential of the discipline, the curriculum must offer an added
opportunity for students to move progressively from using mathematics to understanding the
principles and processes on which mathematics thinking is based. While the learning of
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Mathematics at the primary level focuses on developing mathematical literacy, the aim at the
secondary level is to help them acquire problem solving skills and the ability to reason logically.
They will learn the key mathematical concepts and make connections with other domains of
learning.
2.7.4 Sciences As has been proposed in the national document on reform (MOE&HR: 2006), General Science
will become compulsory till Form V for students not opting for a pure science subject. This is in
recognition of the increasingly important role of science in contributing to our understanding of
the natural and man-made world and in sustaining and improving the quality of life. However,
apart from promoting scientific literacy, the lower secondary science curriculum seeks to help
students develop cognitive and ethical perspectives needed to deal effectively with the mass of
scientific knowledge produced by modern societies and concomitant issues raised. It is proposed
that the approach be thematic rather than discipline oriented to allow problem solving and
practical skills to be explored and acquired by grounding learning in the real life experiences of
the learner. Disciplinary boundaries must be temporarily dismantled to make the curriculum
meaningful to each and every learner. Science education must enable our students to appreciate
and value the processes that support life on our planet and become useful contributors in the
building of a more ecologically sustainable environment.
2.7.5 Technology: ICT, Design And Technology, Home Economics, Design,
Clothing And Textiles: One significant change that is being proposed in the NCFS is the introduction of
technology as a compulsory learning domain for both boys and girls. This domain includes
Design and Technology, Information and Communications Technology, and the Design,
Clothing and Textiles section of Home Economics. All these components will be compulsory for
all students, removing thus the gender bias which has worked against both girls and boys. The
specificity of this learning area resides in its integrative scope with almost all the other domains
of learning across the curriculum. Requiring students to pull together cognitive and manipulative
skills as well as values from a diversity of perspectives to solve problems and design solutions in
practical situations will no doubt make a significant contribution towards the attainment of
346
educational aims. ICT will be used both as a tool for learning and teaching as well as a discipline
on its own, in view of its increasing importance.
At the lower secondary level, the teaching and learning of these components will not require
provision of full fledged specialist rooms but only additional equipment to be used in the existing
classroom set up.
2.7.6 Health (Home Economics- Food And Nutrition And Human
Development) And Physical Education
One of the most important aims of education is to enable adolescents to lead healthy and
active lives. Given the Mauritian track record in terms of non transmissible diseases and obesity,
and the current concern regarding the consequences of sedentary lifestyles, the curriculum must
provide explicit opportunities for students to engage in healthy and sustainable physical activity,
develop knowledge about issues regarding life choices and quality of life. Similar to the Arts,
Health and Physical Education has not, so far, figured as legitimate domains of learning enabling
the attainment of specific skills, attitudes, values and dispositions. The current framework
proposes that more transparency be given to health and physical education to integrate it where
possible with other core domains of learning in contrast with the more conservative approach
which focuses on integrating it with co-curricular activities only. The Health and Physical
Education domain also incorporates a substantial element of sex education and values education.
In line with the recognition that the curriculum should, in a concrete way, attend to the socio-
emotional needs of adolescents and afford them ample „moments for enjoyment, socialisation
and co-operation and effectively prepare them for their role as citizens, Health and Physical
Education must be given equal weight as any other core domain.
2.7.7 The Arts: (Visual Arts, Music And Drama & Dance) The Arts not only constitute an important part of our cultural heritage but also stimulate
creativity and provide a means for communicating feelings and emotions. For too long the
educative value of arts in terms of intellectual, sensorial, interpersonal and kinaesthetic
development has been discounted. The Arts play an important role in contributing to self
knowledge and providing an avenue for developing core values. It is proposed that the Arts be
fully re-instated as an equally relevant and necessary pursuit in the curriculum at par with other
347
academic subjects and the interdisciplinary potential of the domain in furthering knowledge and
skills in other domains be fully explored. Given the current emphasis on tourism, developing the
artistic skills of our adolescents by giving them the opportunity to experiment with the Arts and
investigate the domain will prove to be crucial in the near future
2.7.8 Social Studies: (History, Geography, Sociology)
Adaptability is a key characteristic of successful individuals in a world that is constantly
changing. Given the improvements in transport and communication, the changes brought about
by globalisation and the growing interdependence of people, future adults must be prepared to
participate effectively in those rapidly evolving contexts. Social Studies is crucially relevant in
building the adolescent s sense of personal, economic, political, cultural and social identity by
developing a critical understanding of how human beings, groups and institutions function. As a
learning domain, Social Studies is essential to help secure a commitment to active citizenship
and collective responsibility towards the betterment of society by ensuring the respect of
democratic rights and commitment to sustainable development and infusion of a culture of peace.
The Social Sciences will be an integral part of the philosophy of a broad based education that
will continue at the Upper Secondary level (Forms IV & V). Thus, students opting for Sciences
will be required to opt for one of the Social Sciences (History, Geography, Sociology as well as
Economics) depending on the subject/s on offer at school.
2.7.9 Cross Curricular Domains Of Learning Government policy, embodied in the policy document on curriculum framework,
stipulates that, apart from the distinct discipline-based curricular elements, other essential
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes are to be integrated across the curriculum. These are as
follows: Environmental Education, Values, Anti-drug Education, Humanitarian Law, Cultural
Understanding, Human Rights, Occupational Safety & Health, Sex Education, HIV/AIDS
.Awareness, Peace Education and Sustainable Development.
The NCFS reiterates the importance of those areas in contributing to life skills, promoting
civic awareness and enhancing pro-social behaviour. Thus, each domain of learning must offer
adequate learning opportunities to enable students to address them. For example, while
environmental education will be predominantly dealt with in science, pertinent issues in
348
environmental education can be equally studied through a writing or comprehension exercise in
languages or when discussing factors of production or resources in Social Sciences. Similarly
intercultural issues can be addressed in Social Sciences, Languages or even Home Economics
classes. Sustainable Development and Peace Education will cut across a number of domains and
will be integrated through the content as well as the process of teaching and learning.
Such an approach has important implications for the development of curriculum materials, which
have to explore opportunities for creating bridges among the domains and bring forth explicitly
these essential knowledge, skills and attitudes.
2.8 New Strategy For Prevocational Education
The main strategic pillars for the reform are as follows:
- Extension of programme duration from 3 to 4 years with a gradual integration of trade skills
and entrepreneurial skills right from year 1. This will enable students to obtain access directly to
the NTC3 – the first year of vocational education of the MITD.
- New Curriculum based on 4 key domains of learning namely, Communication skills,
Numeracy and Problem – Solving skills, Life Skills and Livelihood and Trade Skills.
- Adapted Pedagogy with emphasis on activity based teaching and learning and social skills and
the use of modern ICT based pedagogical tools to enhance teaching and learning. French and
English will continue to be used as a medium of instruction and Kreol Morisien will be utilised
as a support language.
- Bridging the Gap Programme based on drawing and observing, playing, computer skills etc.
so that children develop a liking for the Prevocational Education.
- New Tracking mechanism to address the issue of high drop-out rate
- Quality Assurance System to secure a sound internal efficiency and high quality of teaching
and learning.
- Assessment and Certification so that the qualification obtained at the end of the PVE enables
the student to opt for either a Vocational Education or reintegrate an academic stream. A system
of continuous evaluation of knowledge and skills will be embedded throughout the whole cycle.
349
The continuous assessment will be based on portfolios, personal developmental plans as well as
on oral, practical and written tests.
- Building up self-confidence and self-esteem with psychological back up and support so that
the PVE becomes attractive to the students.
2.9 Summary
The existing Prevocational Education programme has to be revamped such that a
prevocational student should acquire sufficient skills and competencies to at least attain CPE
level and even pass this examination as a private candidate while still enrolled in the
prevocational sector.
The current policy of admitting to the Prevocational stream children who have failed CPE
exposes them to branding. Consideration may also be given to the opening of Pre-voc classes to
children who have failed CPE only once or who have passed the CPE only marginally. Pathways
will be created between the academic and the prevocational streams and parents will have the
option to register their children for the prevocational classes in the secondary schools. This
measure may be implemented only in the medium term.
2.10 Check Your Progress
Explain Historical Evolution Of Prevocational Education
1. Explain. Current Status 3.1. Current Organisation Of Prevocational
Education
2. Explain. Enrolment
3. Explain. Teaching Staff
4. Explain Critical Analysis Of The System
5. Explain Negative Perception Of The Prevocational Stream
6. Explain Student Drop Out Rate
7. Explain Curriculum
8. Explain. Untrained Teachers
9. Explain. Infrastructure
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10. Explain. Absence Of A Formal Certification
11. Explain Need For Review
12. Explain New Strategy For Prevocational Education
13. Explain Stepping Into The Domains Of Learning
14. Explain Domains Of Learning- Prevocational Level
15. Explain Introduction
16. Explain Languages (English, French And Other Languages)
17. Explain Mathematics:
23. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
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360
Unit 3: Curriculum Domains At Vocational Level
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Background
3.3 Statement Of The Problem
3.4 School-Based Curriculum
3.4.1 The Curriculum Goals And Objectives
3.4.2 The Frameworks Of The Curriculum – Seven Domains
3.4.3 Assessment - The Base-Line Checklist
3.4.4 The Implementation Of Individualized Education Plan (Iep)
3.5 School-Based Vocational Curriculum In Caritas Lok Jun School
3.5.1 The Career Education Curriculum – The Four Sub-Domains
3.5.2 Implementation Of School-Based Vocational Curriculum
3.5.3 Vocational Training Program And Teaching Strategies
3.6 Discussion
3.7. Summary
3.8 Check Your Progress
3.9 References
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3.1 Introduction
With the high overall unemployment rate in Hongkong and the general prejudice on the
working capabilities of peoples with mental retardation, it is difficult for them, especially those
who are with more severe level of cognitive impairments, to get a job after graduation from
secondary school. Hence, students with moderate level mental handicaps would most likely join
sheltered workshops or day activity centers after they have graduated from special schools.
Some of them might have been recommended to work in sheltered workshops after taking
vocational assessment tests held by the Vocational Training Council (VTC).
Most of them would have problems and difficulties in adapting to their new working
environment. To design and implement proper training plans in order to improve the working
abilities and habits of these students have always been the major concerns and tasks of their
teachers. Schalock,
McGaughey, and Kiernan (1989) asserted that designing a pre-vocational training
program that match individual ability and need is the key factor in determining if a student with
moderate level mental handicap would eventually get a job offer, or otherwise. Thus, through
properly designed pre-vocational training, students with mental handicaps could expect to join
the work force as well. Further it is imperative to have appropriate vocational training strategies,
goals, and content within the program to equip the secondary students not just to be successfully
employed by the sheltered workshops, but also to successfully adapt into their working lives. In
fact, this is consistent with the whole-round development goal of the education and curriculum
reform in Hongkong (the Curriculum Development Council, 2001).
In Hongkong, young peoples usually start their working lives after graduation from high
schools, i.e., completion of eleven years of education. Some of them, however, may have the
opportunities to further their studies for two to six more years in tertiary institutes locally or
abroad. Ironically, most students with mental handicaps, who are perhaps 15, 16 years old, have
to face the challenges of the adult world and the adaptations into the working environment right
after their nine years of education.
These changes and difficulties found in such transitions are hard even for normal
adolescents. In average, students with mental handicaps have to leave their schools and join the
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work force, usually at the blue-collar level, at least two to three years earlier than their normal
secondary school counterparts. These peoples with mental handicaps, who supposedly need more
trainings and supports than the normal, unfortunately receive lesser education, both academically
and vocationally, than others.
According to Report No.33 of the Director of Audit issued by the Audit Commission in
1999, the Director of Audit concerned the effectiveness of pre-vocational training curriculum in
special schools and suggested to improve the outcomes. The Education
Manpower Bureau (EMB) yet argued that there already are many school-based vocational
programs developed by various special schools, and such programs could be grouped together as
a pool to benefit all needed students. Such response from the Education Manpower Bureau
(EMB) reflected both its inadequacy and lack of longerterm planning in providing and ensuring
the quality and quantity of pre-vocational and vocational educations for students with mental
handicaps. Since there is no mandate central curriculum enforced by the EMB, the school-based
vocational programs, voluntarily developed by individual special schools, play very important
roles in equipping students with mental handicaps as competent workers in the work force at
large. The outcomes and effectiveness of such are still waiting for proper evaluations and
monitoring by the authority, nonetheless.
3.2 The Background
By the end of the 20th century, trend of education reforms has gradually emerged into the
education system of Hongkong, including special education. Curriculum is one of the key
mechanisms within the education system in which the Hongkong Special
Administration Region (HKSAR) government intended to have a comprehensive review and if
required, reform (Curriculum Development Council 1999; Education Commission, 2000). After
a series of discussions and consultations, a new curriculum framework has evolved and was
published in the document, namely “Learning to learn – The Way Forward in Curriculum
Development” by the Curriculum
Development Council (CDC) in June 2001. The curriculum framework includes three key
components: (1) Key Learning Areas, (2) Generic Skills, and (3) Values and Attitudes.
According to CDC, the contents and strategies in the curriculum framework would suit any
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individual needs (CDC 2001). That implied the curriculum framework is to be applicable to the
special educational needs (SEN) pupils, and the special educational professionals need to follow
the framework and contents accordingly.
In Hongkong, the Disability Discrimination Ordinance (DDO) of 1996 provides
protection for peoples with disabilities to be employed on an equal basis. However, there is no
law and regulation in the DDO to ensure the provision of transition education and services in
helping these people to adapt into working and even adult lives. Special schools in Hongkong are
simply encouraged by the EMB to design their own school-based curriculum (SBC) or the
Individual Educational Plan (IEP) in helping their students to transit from schooling to working
and adult lives.
The Caritas Lok Jun School (CLJS) is a special school for students with moderate level
of mental handicaps. In responding to the curricular trend and education reform in Hongkong,
CLJS started developing a school-based curriculum (SBC) in academic year 2003-2004. The
curriculum have seven domains:
(1) Independent Living Skills;
(2) Everyday Knowledge;
(3) Functional Mathematics;
(4) Functional Literacy;
(5) Community Living Skills;
(6) Recreation and Leisure Skills; and
(7) Career Education.
Among all these, Career Education is the key and major teaching area for the students.
Each secondary class at CLJS has two chief teachers who are responsible for the planning and
implementation of the Individual Educational Plans (IEPs) of 8 to 10 students. Based on the
abilities and the needs of the students, the responsible teachers choose the goals and materials
from these seven domains to design the respective IEPs. Furthermore, the teachers also have to
decide the most effective teaching strategies, i.e., at what time and for how long, etc. The
improvement in the vocational competencies and the adaptabilities to working and adult lives of
the students are the sole concern and responsibilities of the secondary classes teachers.
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3.3 Statement Of The Problem
The development of SBC in Hongkong has been encouraged by the Education
Department (now, the Education and Manpower Bureau, or EMB) since the 1980s and has since
become a dominant part of the curriculum development. Teachers’ close involvement in
curriculum development in order to meet the special and diverse needs of students has been
emphasized. In response to this curricular trend, many special schools in Hongkong have
developed their own SBC, including the SBCs in both vocational and pre-vocational training.
However, the major problems of them are their unproven outcomes and effectiveness since most
of them have not been evaluated officially or publicly, because this is no mandate by law to do
so. Besides, most of these SBC are small scale projects, for instance, a short period of on-the-job
training in a sheltered workshop. Thus, there is no guarantee on both the quality and quantity of
these SCBs because no compulsory evaluation standard is available.
Some of them may have internal evaluation or inspection, but external and official evaluation
that opens to the public is rare.
Teachers in CLJS have started to use their own SBC for over a year. Great autonomy in
educational decision-making has been granted to the teachers. Teachers design the
IEPs for the students based on the context of the seven domains, and enhance them with
transitional training programs and plans for students who are to transit from schooling to
sheltered workshops. Similar to the other SBCs, there is neither official evaluation, standard,
guidelines, nor study on the effectiveness of the SBC in CLJS. Thus, if its SBC could cater for
the needs of its students in improving their vocational competencies is still questionable,
unfortunately.
3.4 School-Based Curriculum In traditional educational approach, students are taught through many subjects, e.g.,
languages, general studies, mathematics, computer learning, self-cares, perceptual motor
training, physical education, music, art and craft, home economics, design and technology,
independent living skills, and others, the SBC of CLJS however focuses on skills, knowledge,
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and attitudes that students with moderate level mental handicaps must know in their lives. The
objectives, framework, contents, activities, strategies, and assessments of the SBC of CLJS are
presented to provide a completed picture of the curriculum.
3.4.1 The Curriculum Goals And Objectives CLJS started developing a school-based curriculum (SBC) in the academic year of 2003 -
2004. The goals of this SBC are basically similar to those mentioned in the “Learning To Learn –
the Way Forward in Curriculum Development (CDC, 2001)”, and the EYE programme in 2002.
However, methods and achievement degrees would be different from the mainstream
counterparts. The general goals and objectives of the SBC in CLJS are:
To develop in children with moderate level of mental handicaps, their personal potentials and
interests in various aspects to the fullness;
To help children with moderate level of mental handicaps to understand their ecological
environment and to live and function well in their homes, the school, the community, and the
world;
To help children with moderate level of mental handicaps to understand their vocational
potentials and to develop working skills, positive working attitudes, and good working habits for
future vocational trainings or for works;
To help children with moderate level of mental handicaps to master self-care, self-help, and
self-control skills, and to become independent and contributing citizens of society. As planned
by the Curriculum Development Committee of CLJS, the SBC should preferably be applicable to
be used as an upward extension of curriculum for students with mild level of mental handicaps,
and a downward extension of curriculum for students with severe level of mental handicaps.
3.4.2 The Frameworks Of The Curriculum – Seven Domains The SBC of CLJS also consists of seven domains:
(1) Independent Living Skills;
(2)Everyday Knowledge;
(3) Functional Mathematics;
(4) Functional Literacy;
(5)Community Living Skills;
(6) Recreation and Leisure Skills; and
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(7) Career Education.
This curricular framework is developed based on: (i) the contents and framework of the eight
Key Learning Areas (KLA) proposed by Learning to Learn: Life-long
Learning and Whole-person Development (CDC, 2002); and (ii) the needs of students with
moderate level of mental handicaps in reference to themselves, families, social, works, and
communities (acceptance and leisure) within the Hongkong context in light of similar overseas
programmes.
Similar to the central curriculum developed by CDC, this SBC helps students with
moderate level of mental handicaps to develop their knowledge, skills, values andattitudes
through study of the above-mentioned seven domains. These seven domains consist of core
learning elements, which every student with moderate level of mental handicap is expected to
learn, with extended or enriched elements, which are to be provided to help the more capable
students. The curriculum emphasizes the learning of the contexts of these seven domains at four
different learning stages:-
Key Learning Stage 1 for students aged 6 to 8;
Key Learning Stage 2 for students aged 9 to 12;
Key Learning Stage 3 for students aged 13 to 15;
Key Learning Stage 4 for students aged over 16.
The Curriculum Development Committee of CLJS plans to categorize the learning
contexts or items of every domain according to the above key learning stages in next academic
year. Although contents of each domain have not been categorized by learning stages at the
moment, teachers could still select contexts and items from these seven domains, which they
think would match the ages and needs of their students. Table 1 comprises the seven domains
and a set of interlocking components, and provides a clear picture to indicate the structure and
framework of the SBC of CLJS.
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3.4.3 Assessment - The Base-Line Checklist
Members of the Curriculum Development Committee of CLJS has selected and designed
assessment items, which are supposed to be the core and competence items of each domain for
every key learning stage, as base-line assessment/checklist. There are four base-line checklists
according to the four key learning stages: stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, and stage 4. Each key learning
stage’s base-line checklist contains the assessed items that represent the expected skills or
abilities that should be acquired by students at that stage. The performances of students are
graded by three-point scale:
3 means fully master the content/skill;
2 means partially master;
1 means unable to master.
The base-line checklist is used to identify the current level or stage of individual student.
Each student in CLJS takes the base-line checklist at the beginning of an academic year. Each
teacher assesses their responsible students according to the guidelines, instructions, and criteria
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written on the base-line checklist handbooks (Appendix 2 – sample). The results enable teachers
to know whether the students have acquired the core skills as expected in a particular key
learning stage.
Further, the base-line checklist would help to chart the progress made by individual
student.
The Career Education base-line checklist is used in this study as one of the tools to measure the
effectiveness of the school-based vocational curriculum. As the original
Career Education base-line checklist mainly focuses on vocational skills, the researcher has
modified the checklist and added a few assessed items related to vocational knowledge, and
attitudes.
3.4.4 The Implementation Of Individualized Education Plan (IEP) Individualized Education Plan is a written document that summarizes the educational
program for a student. In the United State of America, the law (Education for All
Handicapped Children Act, P.L. 94 - 142) requires every child with disability to have his or her
own IEP . An IEP must include certain information about the child and the educational
programme designed to meet his or her unique needs. Taiwanese government, who always
closely follows the educational trends and developments in the USA, has also required such
implementation of IEP for peoples with disabilities. Article No. 27 of the Enforcement Rules of
the Act of Special Education 1999 enacts every school to provide IEP for every student with
physical or mental handicaps. Detail contents, e.g., background information of the student,
objectives and goals, persons participating in the IEP, and schedules, must be written on the IEP.
Vocational education and transition services must also be included in the IEP, according to the
needs of the student.
Although such special education’s IEP is currently not a compulsory in Hongkong, the
Curriculum Development Committee of CLJS believes that the implementation of SBC together
with IEP can more fully achieve the goals and objectives of the SBC and thus provide a more
tailor-made curriculum for each student in CLJS. Based on the abilities, backgrounds, and needs
of the students, each teacher in CLJS is responsible for planning and implementing the
Individual Educational Plans (IEPs) of 3 to 5 students. Teachers are to act as case managers in
coordinating training activities, relating services, and resources that suit the needs, abilities, and
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benefits of the students. Firstly, teachers are to collect relevant data and information of their
students, including, personal data, family backgrounds, previous assessments, medical reports,
base-line checklist results, etc. Secondly, based on the needs and abilities of the students,
teachers are to design the IEPs, including, learning objectives, necessary services, and training
programmes. Learning objectives are to be selected from the seven domains’ guidelines. Details
of the individual learning plan, such as, shortterm objectives, teaching strategies and materials,
teaching periods, and whom to teach, are written in the teaching plan. To improve the vocational
competencies of the students and their adaptabilities to working and adult lives are the major
concerns and responsibilities of their secondary class teachers, hence, they need to include
vocational, and transitional trainings in order to equip and prepare their students to adapt into
adult lives and working places. Eventually, teachers need to inspect the learning progresses and
outcomes of their students and modify the IEPs accordingly after each semester. Table 2
illustrates the process of implementation of IEP in CLJS.
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3.5 School-Based Vocational Curriculum In Caritas Lok Jun School
The school-based vocational curriculum is an important integrated part of the SBC in
CLJS. One of the major goals and objectives of the SBC in CLJS is to equip and prepare the
children with moderate level of mental handicaps for future vocational trainings or works. In the
context of Career Education (CE), one of the seven core domains of the SBC in CLJS, working
knowledge, working skills, proper working attitudes, and good habits are things that students
with moderate level of mental handicaps need to learn throughout their four key learning stages –
from 6 to 16 years old or above. Through CE, students with moderate level of mental handicaps
are enabled:
to develop their basic working skills;
to explore, understand, and develop working skills in specific working fields;
to explore and identify their potentials, abilities and interests in relation to the occupations;
to understand the environments, knowledge, and skills needed in specific occupations;
to develop positive and proper working values and attitudes;
to aware of safety in workplace.
3.5.1 The Career Education Curriculum – The Four Sub-Domains
Career Education curriculum has four sub-domains: working skills, working attitudes and
habits, seeking and maintaining employment, and workplace safety. Curriculum framework of
CE, shown in Table 3, comprises four sub-domains, and main learning items. Knowledge, skills,
values, and attitudes relating to work and occupation are promulgated in these four sub-domains.
Each sub-domain, according to its uniqueness, focuses more in certain specific area, for instance,
sub-domain of working attitudes and habits obviously emphasizes more on values and attitudes,
etc.
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3.5.2 Implementation Of School-Based Vocational Curriculum
373
In CLJS, IEPs are prepared for all students and are used as the bases of students’
educational progress. IEPs of secondary students have usually been infused with career
emphases, and are thus more occupational oriented than those of primary students. Annual goals
and short-term objectives are more often selected from the domain of Career Education.
Students’ long-range goals, needs for employment, and other community living objectives are
written in their IEPs.
Upon identifying student’s goals and needs for future employment, teachers are to design
vocational training activities, as well as materials and duration of trainings. In
CLJS, each class has fifteen sessions a week for implementing IEP .
Teachers have autonomy to determine the followings:
contents of school-based vocational curriculum to be provided for students in order to assist in
meeting the stated goals in IEPs. Usually basic working skills, and working attitudes are taught
at elementary level so that students could function at much higher degrees in secondary level. At
secondary level, teachers concentrate on more extensive career explorations, specific working
skills and preparations of experiences, such as internships at shelter workshops;
length and date of CE, for instance, two sessions of CE per week for primary students and
eight sessions of CE for secondary students, who are transiting to shelter workshops soon;
teaching strategies, and vocational training materials to be used, for example, assigning students
to variety of work tasks, such as cleaning up and putting away materials, posting bulletin boards,
etc.
3.5.3 Vocational Training Program And Teaching Strategies
Providing proper vocational training programme and using appropriate teaching
strategies are the important factors that determine the future success of school-based vocational
curriculum. The researcher, as a secondary class teacher in CLJS, planed and used the following
vocational training programme and variety of methods in improving the working competences of
ones students.
Modeling – teacher to demonstrate the skills and behaviors to be learnt or point out the target
skills and behaviors performed by other peoples and encourage the students to imitate. Students
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can also learn through watching demonstrations or informational technology means, such as
videos or computer soft ware (CDI, 1997).
Task Analysis – teacher to break down skills into smaller steps according to the students’
abilities and learning needs, and then teach the steps in planned sequences. If students have
difficulties in learning the planned steps, teacher is to block the steps and further break them
down into even smaller steps for easier learning (CDI, 1997). This technique is often used to
teach a job that combines a series of steps, such as packaging or cleaning.
Chaining – similar to task analysis, teacher is to break down a target skill according to the
sequence of actions to be performed, into a series of steps. Teacher could then teach the students
the sequence of steps in forward or backward order, depending on the nature of the target skills
and the abilities of the students. For example, students with less confidence or low self-esteem
could learn target skills in backward order since the achievements in the beginning would
encourage them to keep on learning.
Prompting – teacher is to give prompts, including physical guidance, physical prompts,
gestures, and verbal prompts, when teaching target skills. Once students can master the target
skills in certain degrees, prompts should be gradually faded out. This method could be used in
different kinds of learning programmes and activities.
Work Tasks and Projects – teacher is to assign students certain work tasks or projects, include
collecting homework from classmates, keeping classrooms clean, and placing chairs and
stationeries in proper order. Brolin (1995) stated that these work tasks and projects conducted in
school for students should be emphasized even more for students with disabilities and planned in
purposeful manners. Further, students will feel and understand values and importance of
working, if teacher is to emphasize the relationships between these activities, and the working
world.
Job-site Vocational Training Programme – students are to attain work experiences and
trainings in shelter workshops through job-site vocational training programmes. Emergence of
the training
programme was collaboration and partnership between CLJS and shelter workshops.
Unfortunately, only ten secondary students could participate in the programme, because of the
limited resources. Secondary classes teachers are to recommend students, who have potential or
are expected to work in shelter workshops, to join the programme in order to help them to
smoothly transit from schools to shelter workshops. Teachers of participating students need to
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prepare, supervise, and follow-up the learning progresses of their students during and after the
trainings. In light of Wisniewski, Alper, and Schloss (1991), the job-site vocational training
programme in CLJS is the “train-and-place model”, which requires students to possess most of
the competencies necessary for eventual career success.
Apprenticeship – this is an unofficial placement training arranged by teachers. Students are
apprenticed to school janitors once a week to do specific jobs, e.g., cleaning cups, etc. They are
required to do and perform the jobs like other janitors. During the apprenticeship trainings, they
could learn the required skills, knowledge and attitudes in workplace. The training could help
students not only to adapt to the real working world, but also enhance their competencies in
eventually obtaining employments.
3.6 Discussion
Results obtained in this study favor on the effectiveness of school-based vocational
curriculum in improving working competencies of moderate level mentally handicapped
students. Obviously, the results of this research are promising. Nevertheless, some factors must
be addressed and discussed because they will possibly affect the effectiveness of school-based
vocational curriculum. School-based vocational curriculum has impacts on both subjects on
working skills, working knowledge, and working attitude and habits. One of the possible reasons
was the continuing practices and exercises of skill in the three months long trainings.
Hence, the long-duration training period, but not the implementation of scho ol-based vocational
curriculum has caused the improvement. Even if the school-based vocational curriculum has
affected the improvement; duration of the training period might also have played an important
role as well.
Overall impacts of the curriculum on working knowledge, and working attitudes and
habits of both subjects were noted. However, it is important to indicate that there were different
responses to the programme, in respect of working attitudes and habits.
Hong has worked more willingly than before, but still has not improved much in his efficiency in
working. On the other hand, although Bi has shown light improvement in persistent workings
during the observation period, her working attitude has not changed in other lessons,
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unfortunately. In conclusion, her improvement in working attitude and habits was still
questionable, and subject to confirmation.
Having said the above, Bi’s inconsistent performance in working attitude could further be
explained. According to the field notes of daily observation, it is noted that Bi could work harder
and would be more concentrated, if the researcher praised and reinforced her when she has
completed or achieved the tasks. She wanted teacher’s attention very much, and would try to get
the researcher’s attention by doing negative behaviors or not doing the assigned tasks. The
researcher has ignored her when she was crying or moody, and encouraged her when she felt
difficulties and tried to give up. Those might be the reasons why she has different performance in
front of different teachers. Actually, it has never been a simple matter to change ones attitude and
habits, particularly under a short duration. It has always been a challenge for any teacher to
attempt in changing student’s attitude and habits. The intervention period took only three
months, the period was considered too short for any teacher to correct ones wrong habits or
attitude and to build up new values and behaviors. Teacher needs to select not only the proper
learning objectives and contents from the core domains, but also to wisely use appropriate
teaching methods, such as, token system, reinforcement, or self-monitoring in changing ones
attitude and habits (Cole & Chan 1990). Hence, longer training period could provide teachers
with more time and space in trying and carrying out various kinds of teaching methods.
No doubt, teacher plays an important role when implementing school-based vocational
curriculum. Professional qualification and enthusiasm of teachers will definitely affect ones
educational decisions in planning and executing IEPs for students. If a teacher makes wrong
decisions, such as inappropriate annual goals - which could not match the ability of students or
could not coordinate in transition trainings or services for students, would easily affect the
effectiveness of school-based vocational curriculum. As teachers have at least 15 IEP lessons per
week in teaching their students, relationship between the IEP teachers and the students will also
influence effectiveness of the curriculum. In essence, teacher is the key person in influencing the
learning outcomes. It is imperative to establish a mechanism in order to ensure the quality of IEP
for every student in school and the implementation of school-based curriculum.
Size of the samples affects reliability of the study. Both subjects were from the same class and
with similar level of abilities. Could the results of this study apply to students of other classes,
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those who have higher, or lower abilities? Also, there was only one teacher, i.e., the researcher,
to study and observe the outcomes in the study.
The effectiveness of SBC implemented by other teachers in CLJS has not been studied and
examined, this unfortunately has weaken the reliability and the generalization of this study.
3.7. Summary
The chapter presented objectives, frameworks, and components of the school-based
curriculum in CLJS, specifically the design of IEP, and the implementation of school-based
vocational curriculum. The SBC in CLJS incorporates the basic tenets in “Learning to Learn:
Life-long Learning and Whole-person Development” (CDC, 2001) and “the Extension of Years
of Education (EYE) Programme” launched by the EMB in 2002 for MH students. Besides, the
implementation of IEP is the key feature of this curriculum model, tailor-made programme is
provided in order to meet the diversified needs of students in CLJS.
CE, one of the seven core domains, provides students with essential contexts related to
the improvement of vocational skills, knowledge, and attitudes throughout the four key learning
stages. The four sub-domains of CE, the IEP that takes care of individual needs, vocational
training programmes, and teaching strategies used, are critical for the students to learn so that by
the time they graduate, they are to success as competent workers, and adults in the community.
3.8 Check Your Progress
1. Explain The Background
2. Explain Statement Of The Problem
3. Explain School-Based Curriculum
4. Explain The Curriculum Goals And Objectives
5. Explain The Frameworks Of The Curriculum – Seven Domains
6. Explain Assessment - The Base-Line Checklist
7. Explain The Implementation Of Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
8. Explain School-Based Vocational Curriculum In Caritas Lok Jun School
9. Explain The Career Education Curriculum – The Four Sub-Domains
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10. Explain Implementation Of School-Based Vocational Curriculum
11. Explain Vocational Training Program And Teaching Strategies
25. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.26.1. Points for discussion
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and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
34. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
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58. Connell, R. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics.
California: Stanford University Press.
59. Corsaro, W. (1997). The sociology of childhood. California: Pine Forge Press.
386
60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
Anning, C., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
61. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
62. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
63. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
64. Department of Education and Science. (1998). Report on the national forum for early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
65. Department of Education and Science. (1999a). Ready to learn: White paper on early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
66. Department of Education and Science. (1999b). The Primary School Curriculum. Dublin,
Ireland: The Stationary Office.
67. Department of Education and Science. (2004). The education for persons with special
educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
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Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
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Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
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Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
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DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
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York: Teacher’s College Press.
387
75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
76. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
388
Unit 4: Rehabilitation of PwIDs under National Skill development Scheme (NSDS by MSJ&E)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 What We Already Have: The Existing Skill Training Landscape For Pwds
4.3 The Big Gap
4.4 There Is An Imminent Need For:
4.5 . The National Action Plan For Skill Training Of Pwds
4.6 Targets Of The National Action Plan:
4.7 . Objective & Coverage Of The Scheme
4.8 Title Of The Scheme And Date Of Commencement
4.9 . Procedure Of Application And Selection
4.10 . Training Curriculum
4.11 . Source Of Funding For The Skill Training
4.12 . Funding Norms
4.13 Quality Monitoring Of The Training:
4.14 . Other Conditions
4.15. Furnishing Of False Information
4.16. Litigations
4.17 Summary
4.18 Check Your Progress
389
4.19 References
390
4.1 Introduction
Persons with disability in India face many challenges when looking to
develop employable skills and in gaining meaningful employment. While India has
ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of People with disability
(UNCRPD), persons with disability continue to face many difficulties in the labour
market.
According to census 2011, there are 2.68 Crore Persons with Disabilities
(PwDs) in India (1.50 crore male and 1.18 crore female PwDs). Even though,
disabled people constitute a significant percentage of the population of India, their
need for meaningful employment largely remains unmet, in spite of
implementation of “The Persons with Disability Act, 1995”. In the overall
population, the number of disabled is proportionately higher in rural areas,
accentuated by general poverty considerations and poor access to health services.
The rural disabled are significantly disconnected from skills and markets.
Improving vocational training and employment opportunities for people with
disability is a critical element for enhancing the quality of life for individual with
disability, their families, but there are also substantial gains for the broader
economy. There are substantial costs to individuals and to society associated with
these poor employment outcomes for people with disability. The World Bank
considers that leaving people with disability, outside the economy, translates into a
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foregone GDP of about 5% to 7%. In addition to the individual and family
benefits, there is also a strong economic imperative to increased labour force
participation which will help to address country’s shortage of skilled labour force,
while at the same time reducing fiscal pressures associated with welfare
dependency.
4.2 What We Already Have: The Existing Skill Training Landscape For Pwds
· National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC).
· Vocational training courses offered by National Institutes of Department of
Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities and its affiliate organisations like
National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation (NHFDC),
National Trust etc.
· Ministry of Labour and Employment supervising more than 20 Vocational
Rehabilitation Centres for Handicapped(VRCHs), more than 10,000 ITIs and
more than 1000 Employment Exchanges.
· Technical and Vocational courses, being offered through Community colleges, IITs and
Universities, affiliated with Ministry of Human Resources Development.
· NGOs focusing on vocational training and skill development.
· Private sector training organizations: Under the CSR initiative, many organizations have done
exemplary work.
· Public Sector Undertakings have also contributed substantially to vocational training of persons
with disability.
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· National Rural Livelihood Mission of Ministry of Rural Development.
· National Urban Livelihood Mission of Ministry of Urban Development.
· Vocational training / livelihood programs of other Central Govt. Ministries and State
Governments.
4.3 The Big Gap · According to the Census 2011, about 1.34 crores persons with disabilities are in the employable
age of 15 to 59 years. About 99 lakh persons with disabilities in the employable age group were
non-workers or are marginal workers.
· Persons with disabilities are among the poorest in the population.
· Urgent need to scale up the skill training infrastructure in view of the huge demand- supply gap.
· The training, being offered through various institutions / mechanisms is nonhomogenous, lacks
quality and is low on employability.
· Very low access of the present training infrastructure to the PwDs in rural areas.
· Low level of involvement of private sector in the skill training of PwDs
· The skill training offered by various ministries/departments to the PwDs is fragmented or
overlapping
4.4 There Is An Imminent Need For: · Quality Vocational Training with high employability.
· Homogenous training curriculum & methodology · Use of latest technology in training, content
generation and monitoring of training.
· Synergistic participation of the Private Sector and NGOs in the training and placement process.
· Targeted optimal use of CSR funds.
4.5 . The National Action Plan For Skill Training Of Pwds
A National Action Plan for Skilling the Persons with Disabilities has been prepared by
the Department of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD) with the following main components:-
A Project Monitoring Unit (PMU) to be set up in the Department of Empowerment of Persons
with Disabilities. The PMU would have the following components :
393
· Training need assessment unit
· Content Generation unit
· Training Monitoring and Certification unit
· Employer Connect unit
· IT Unit to provide support for creation of E-learning modules, monitoring of training, E-
certification and training centres / creation and maintenance of a job portal.
The vocational / skill training would be provided by a network of skill training providers led by
NGOs, private training institutions and Public Sector/Govt. Sector training institutions like
VRCs. The vocational training would be provided by a cluster of training providers scattered
over the country, having an established track record of providing skill training with high
employability ratio. These training partners would be provided outcome based financial support
by Deptt. Of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD) and Ministry of Skill
Development & Entrepreneurship (MSDE). Synergistic support would be provided to these
training providers by the National Institutes of DEPwD, training institutions of Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Ministry of Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises, other Central
Ministries and State Governments.
A separate cross cutting Sector Skill Council for PwDs is being created in collaboration with
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship and the private sector. Rehabilitation Council
of India (RCI), in consultation with the Sector skill council and various National Institutes of the
DEPwD would help generate a homogenous course curriculum and certification mechanism for
the training providers.
DEPwD would help these training providers by connecting them with various private sector
organizations and PSUs for providing employment connect as well as for obtaining CSR support.
DEPwD will coordinate with State Governments to support proactively by offering infrastructure
and resource support to these clusters of Vocational Training Providers.
4.6 Targets Of The National Action Plan:
The DEPwD, in collaboration with NSDC, has set a target of skilling 5 lakh persons with
disability in next 3 years (1 lakh in first year, 1.5 lakh in second year and 2.5 lakh in third year).
After achieving the target for three years, we would have achieved a momentum and would have
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created a robust online-skill training platform enabling us to skill 5 lakh PwDs every year, thus
skilling 2 Million more PwDs during 2018-2022.
Thus, till the year 2022, the National Action Plan will lead to skilling of Million PwDs (with
70% target employment). This would be a major contribution to “Skill India” initiative of
Hon’ble Prime Minister.
The skill training will be provided by a network of more than 200 clusters of ‘Training Partners
‘, thus setting a target of skilling about 500 PwDs in the first year for each of the cluster. The
lead NGO may empower and take the help of small NGOs in the rural areas for the skill training
but every such training centre will be monitored by the PMU. The network of training providers
and capacity thereof will keep increasing every year.
4.7 . Objective & Coverage Of The Scheme
The Scheme aims at providing financial assistance for skill training for persons with disabilities.
The scheme will cover Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) with not less than 40% disability and
having a disability certificate to this effect issued by a competent medical authority.
30% reservation for women candidates: As an endeavour to encourage women, 30% of the total
intake of each training program shall be earmarked for women candidates.
The scheme will operate through training institutions recognised by this Department as per the
eligibility conditions contained in this scheme.
4.8 Title Of The Scheme And Date Of Commencement
The title of the scheme is “Financial Assistance for Skill Training of Persons with Disabilities”.
The scheme is effective from the date of notification of the scheme or from 1st
May, 2015 whichever is later.
5. Conditions of Eligibility
a. Eligibility of the Trainees
(a) A citizen of India,
(b) A person with disability with not less than 40% disability and having a disability certificate to
this effect issued by any competent medical authority.
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The disability being - (a) blindness (b) low vision (c) leprosy cured (d) hearing impairment (e)
loco-motor disability (f) mental retardation (h) autism (i) cerebral palsy or (j) a combination of
any two or more of g), h) and i) (Section 2(i) of the
PwD Act, 1995 read along with Section 2(j) of the National Trust for Welfare of Persons with
Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999).
(c) Age: Not less than 15 years and not more than 59 years of age on the last date of receipt of
application for the course.
(d) The applicant should not have undergone any other skill training course sponsored by Govt.
of India during the period of two years prior to the last date of receipt of application for the
course applied for.
b. Eligibility of the implementing agencies (training providers)
(a) The scheme will be implemented through the implementing organizations/ institutions,
hereinafter referred to as “training partners”. Financial assistance will be provided by way of
Grant-in-Aid for organizing training programs to the following categories of organizations:
i) Departments of the States Governments/Union Territories, or
ii) Autonomous Bodies/ Statutory Bodies/ Public Sector Undertakings set up by
Central/State Governments/UT Administrations including Central/State
Universities, or
iii) National Institutes/ CRCs/DDRCs/RCs/Outreach Centres under MSJ&E, or
iv) Organizations registered under Societies Registration Act, 1860, or Indian
Trusts Act, 1882 or Companies Act, 1956 who are recognized for skill training by Central/State
Government Departments or subordinate bodies there-under.
(b) The organization shall have not less than three years experience of organizing skill training
programs.
4.9 . Procedure Of Application And Selection
STAGE - I
Expression of Interest will be invited from eligible organizations to get registered as “training
partner” to provide skill training to PwDs under the scheme by issuing an advertisement in the
leading newspapers and through the websites and other media outfits.
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The pro-forma for application and list of documents to be attached are given in ANNEXURE-I
and ANNEXURE-II respectively. Applications received for empanelment as training partners
will be scrutinised and placed before a Selection Committee who will make selection based on
the criteria of previous experience, expertise, infrastructure and manpower available and other
similar relevant considerations. The selection of training partners will be a continuous process.
(a) Composition of the Selection Committee: The Committee to select the training partners
would constitute the following:
(b) The Committee may invite an expert, as a special invitee, as and when it deems necessary.
(c) The Committee will hold periodic meetings (at least one in each Quarter) to select amongst
the organizations, who have sent proposals, to be designated as training partners.
(d) Till the formation of the Sector Skill Council and its full operationalisation, the
Committee will also decide / approve the proposed curriculum of various skill training courses
being offered and will monitor the quality of training provided through personal visits and other
kinds of feedback.
(e) The non-official members of the Selection Committee shall be entitled to TA/DA at the rates
admissible to an officer equivalent to Director of the Govt. of India.
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(f) The organizations found suitable by the Selection Committee shall be empanelled as
“Training partners” for a period of three years for organizing training programs for
PwDs under this scheme.
The organisations who are empanelled as training partners shall submit fresh project specific
applications in respect of the training programs proposed to be conducted by them. The
applications will be scrutinised and if found suitable by the Selection Committee shall be
sanctioned financial assistance in the form of grant-in-aid.
4.10 . Training Curriculum
NSDC has already granted a provisional approval for creation of a Sector Skill
Council for PwDs. Staffing and fully operationalising the Sector Skill Council is likely to take 5
to 6 months.
Once, the Sector Skill Council is fully operational, it will through interactions with industry and
other Sector Skill Councils, devise the job roles and occupational standards for PwDs, which will
become a basis for deciding the training curricula for various skill training courses. Till the
Sector Skill Council is fully operational, the Committee referred to above, will, while approving
the training partners, also decide on the curriculum to be adopted by the training provider for the
skill training of PwDs. Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) and National Institutes (NIs),
associated with DEPwD will be associated by the Committee in creating a homogenous training
curriculum for various jobs.
4.11 . Source Of Funding For The Skill Training
The target of providing skill training to 2.5 million PwDs by the year 2022 would require
a separate Budget Head, to be created after the Cabinet approval. Till such an approval is
obtained, the skill training would be funded by the flagship scheme of the DEPwD, ‘Scheme for
Implementation of PwD Act (SIPDA)’. The existing scheme of SIPDA explicitly provides for
extending Grant-in-Aid for skill training of PwDs.
4.12 . Funding Norms
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a. Training Cost: An all inclusive training cost of Rs.5,000/- per trainee per month shall be
provided for the entire duration of the training. For example, if a training program of three
months duration is undertaken, the training cost payable would be Rs.15,000/- per trainee.
Training cost of a part of the month will be calculated proportionately.
b. Stipend for trainees: The trainees will be entitled to a stipend of Rs.2000/- per month for
hostellers and Rs.1000/- per month for non-hostellers.
c. Normally the term 'Hostel' is applicable to a common residential building and common messes
for the trainees run under the supervision of the training partners. In case the training partners are
unable to provide accommodation in their Hostel, an approved place of residence can also be
treated as Hostel for the purpose of this scheme. The place will be approved by the Head of the
Institute after due inspection and keeping in view the rules and regulations laid down by the local
authorities, if any. In such case, a certificate to the effect that the trainee is residing in an
approved place of residence, as he/she is unable to get accommodation in the institute hostel
should be furnished by the Head of the Institute. It is further clarified that such deemed hostels
should consist of such accommodation as is hired at least by a group of 5(five) trainees living
together, usually with common mess arrangements.
d. Cost of Transport: The trainees will be entitled to a transport allowance of Rs.500/- per month
for hostellers and Rs.1500/- per month for nonhostellers.
e. Incentives: Suitable incentives shall be payable to the training partners for achieving higher
placement rate. The rate of incentives shall be in percentage of the total training cost sanctioned
which is provided in para 10.3 below.
4.11 Funds Flow Mechanism
The payments to the training partners shall be based on the outcomes achieved, and shall be
released in a manner as given below to implement the programmes effectively:
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4.13 Quality Monitoring Of The Training:
The Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities will evolve a mechanism
for monitoring the quality of training being provided by the training providers which shall be
binding on all the training providers.
4.14 . Other Conditions The Implementing Agency i.e. the training providers in receipt of grant-in –aid is required to
follow the General Financial Rules, 2005 /Codal Procedure/CVC Guidelines in the matters of
contract/financial transactions.
The Implementing Agency will be open to inspection by DEPwD or by an officer/third party
agency authorized by it.
When the Government of India has reasons to believe that grant-in-aid is not being utilized for
the approved purpose, the amount shall be liable to be recovered from the
Implementing Agency with penal interest and no further assistance would be given to the
Agency. DEPwD will be at liberty to blacklist such organizations and to take legal action.
The Implementing Agency will maintain a website and prominently display details of grant-in-
aid received, purpose thereof, events organized and list of beneficiaries.
The Implementing Agency shall submit the final Utilization Certificate for the entire grant along
with a project completion report within three months after completion of the work/project as
stipulated in the proposal.. Unutilized money, if any, is to be refunded to
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DEPwD. In case the work/project is not completed within the stipulated timeframe and further
time is sought to complete the same, the organization concerned has to intimate DEPwD and also
to explain the reason for the delay. If the project is not completed within the timeframe/extended
timeframe, the organization concerned has to refund the grant forthwith.
Govt. organizations like Autonomous Organizations/Statutory Organizations etc. shall maintain
subsidiary accounts of Grant-in-aid as per GFR provisions. They will also maintain a separate
bank account in respect of Grant-in-aid received under this scheme.
The indicative list of trades and their suitability for various categories of disabilities is at
Annexure IV-A and IV-B.
4.14. Jurisdiction of the Scheme
The jurisdiction of the Scheme is up to providing prescribed financial support to the
training partners for providing skill training to PwDs. The Scheme does not cover employment
aspects of the trainees and also does not provide for any kind of assistance to the awardees in
seeking employment anywhere, after his/her having availed of the training.
4.15. Furnishing Of False Information
If any trainee or training partner has furnished any false information/document and is
established as false, he/she/it will be debarred from the benefit and an action will be initiated for
recovery of the amount spent with 15% compound interest thereon. Such trainee or training
organization will also be black- listed for future and appropriate legal action can be taken against
them.
4.16. Litigations
Any litigation on matters arising out of this scheme will be subject to sole jurisdiction of
the courts situated in National Capital Territory of Delhi.
The progress of implementation of the scheme will be reviewed by a Selection Committee as
indicated in previous para 6 of the scheme.
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4.17 Summary
The intent of the U.S. Congress in enacting Part C was to maximize children‘s potential
through early intervention. As Congress noted, failure to intervene early, means a loss of time
that can never be made up. We therefore request that DDS expedite its investigation, despite the
60-day timeline, so that [consumer‘s] Speech and Language services may begin as soon as
possible.
4.18 Check Your Progress
1. Explain What We Already Have: The Existing Skill Training Landscape
For Pwds
2. Explain The Big Gap
3. Explain There Is An Imminent Need For:
4. Explain The National Action Plan For Skill Training Of Pwds
5. Explain Targets Of The National Action Plan:
6. Explain Objective & Coverage Of The Scheme
7. Explain Title Of The Scheme And Date Of Commencement
8. Explain. Procedure Of Application And Selection
9. Explain Training Curriculum
10. Explain Source Of Funding For The Skill Training
11. Explain Funding Norms
12. Explain Quality Monitoring Of The Training:
13. Explain. Other Conditions
14. Explain Furnishing Of False Information
15. Explain Litigations
27. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.28.1. Points for discussion
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References
1. Abbot, L. and Nutbrown, C. (eds.) (2001). Experiencing Reggio Emilia. Buckingham and
Philadelphia: Open University Press.
2. Anning, A., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture. Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
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49. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
50. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
51. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
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31st – Sept 3rd.
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Chicago: Chicago University Press.
54. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
55. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
56. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
57. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
58. Connell, R. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics.
California: Stanford University Press.
59. Corsaro, W. (1997). The sociology of childhood. California: Pine Forge Press.
409
60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
Anning, C., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
61. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
62. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
63. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
64. Department of Education and Science. (1998). Report on the national forum for early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
65. Department of Education and Science. (1999a). Ready to learn: White paper on early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
66. Department of Education and Science. (1999b). The Primary School Curriculum. Dublin,
Ireland: The Stationary Office.
67. Department of Education and Science. (2004). The education for persons with special
educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
68. Department of Education, Training and Employment and Catholic Education, South
Australia (2001). South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability
Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
69. Department of Health and Children. (1991). The child care act. Dublin: The Stationary
Office.
70. Department of Health and Children. (1996). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
71. Department of Health and Children. (1999). Children First: National Guidelines for the
Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
72. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
73. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
74. Dewey, J. (1959). My pedagogic creed. In M. S. Dorkin (ed.) Dewey on education. New
York: Teacher’s College Press.
410
75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
76. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
411
Unit 5: Implications Of Placement For Inclusion In Community,
Documentation, Record Maintenance And Reporting
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Implementing Idea Authorization
5.2.1 Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (Idea).
5.3 Process And Procedures For Implementing Idea
5.4 Implementation Process
5.4 .1. Transition Phase
5.5 Record Retention And Disposition
5.6 Provider Responsibility
5.7 Records Management Requirements
5.8 Dhhs Records Retention And Disposition Schedule For Grants
5.9 Records Retention And Disposition Schedule For State And Area Facilities
5.10 Incident And Death Reporting Documentation
5.11 The Importance Of Clinical Documentation
5.12 Mh/Dd/Sa Service Array And Documentation Requirements
5.13 Mental Health/Substance Abuse Co-Occurring Disorders
5.14 Closure Of Clinical Service Records
5.15 Privacy And Security Of Service Records
5.16 Summary
5.17 Check Your Progress
412
5.18 References
413
5.1 Introduction
Parents play a central role in their children’s developmental and educative activities.
Parents are the driving force behind many of the services provided to their children
(Guralnick,1994)., parents are potential initiators and advocates of reform(Gibh et al.,1997).
Russell et al. (1999) conducted a study on the efficacy of interactive group psycho-education on
measures of parental attitude towards mental retardation. Fifty-seven parents randomized to 10
weeks of experimental and control therapies were assessed using the parental attitude scale
towards the management of mental retardation. The pre and post intervention measurements
were done by a single blinded rater and compared. Results revealed that the intervention group
had a statistically significant increase in the outcome scores and clinical improvement in the total
parental attitude score. The researcher concluded that interactive group psycho education is
effective for changing the attitude of parents with children of mental retardation and is a viable
option to be developed in situations where resources are limited.
Slayton et al. (2001) conducted studies to determine the parental perception of oral health
needs of children with disabilities and whether or not they had difficulty in obtaining dental care.
A survey of parents of children enrolled in the supplemental security income health plan in Lowa
showed that 68% of children had dental needs during the previous year. Of these children parents
reported that 9.4% had a big problem getting that care, 8.1% had a small problem getting care
and 82.5% stated that getting dental care was not a problem. There were significantly more
dental needs reported in children in the older age groups.
Faulks and Hennequin (2000) conducted a study on oral health program in three French
Centers for persons with special needs. The program aimed to educate the carers about dental
disease, to motivate them with regard to prevention and to improve the oral hygiene and oral
health of the individuals with special needs. The study evaluated the impact of the program in
terms of change in attitudes and behaviour expressed by the carers by means of a questionnaire.
Following demonstration of oral hygiene techniques on an individual basis, the number of
residents who had their teeth cleaned more than once a day rose from 24% to 52% (p<0.05). The
percentage of carers able to clean both posterior and anterior teeth of their key residents
414
increased from 24% to 60% (p<0.05). The intervention was successful to improve the oral health
of persons with intellectual disabilities and change the attitude of carers.
Katoda (1993) in his study in Japan on parents and teachers praxes of and attitudes to the
health and sex education of young people with handicaps found that parents and teachers gave
more information about health and sex to their 15- 16 years old young people with mental
handicaps than to other ages.
Liewellyn et al. (1998) conducted a study to find out the perception of service needs by
parents with intellectual disability. 52 parents in metropolitan and rural areas were interviewed.
The most common need perceived by parents was help with childcare and child development.
Their reported greatest unmet needs was in the community participation area; exploring work
options, knowing what community services are available and how to access them and being
assertive, meeting people and making friends.
Wong et al. (2006) conducted a study in China to find out the effect of an education
programme on parental knowledge, competency and attitude towards children with mental
retardation. Forty parents were included in the study. The findings revealed that family focused
approach is crucial for enhancing parenting competency and attitude in caring children with
mental retardation.
Walker et al. (1989) conducted a study to find out the perceived needs of parents with
children who have chronic health conditions. 910 subjects were surveyed to find out the use of
health services. Findings revealed that the expenses perceived by the parents for the utilization of
health services are beyond their capabilities. Researchers suggested the need for Governmental
support for utilizing important services to meet the special health care needs of children with
mental retardation.
Yuker (2005) conducted a study to find out mothers’ perception of their mentally
retarded children. Results of the study revealed that mothers’ perception on their mentally
retarded children are different from those of special education teachers. Researcher suggested
that maternal perceptions are important since it influence their behaviour towards these children.
Even though the studies related to perception of parents and teachers regarding the health
education needs of children with mental retardation are limited, the above review clearly reveals
that both parents and teachers perceived the need for educating health aspects to individuals with
mental retardation to make them more self -dependent.
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5.2 Implementing Idea Authorization
5.2.1 Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (Idea).
The IDEA (formerly called Public Law 94-142 or the Education for All Handicapped
Children Act of 1975) requires public schools to make available to all eligible children with
disabilities a free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment, appropriate to
their individual needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997
(Public Law 105-17) were signed into law on June 4, 1997.
Note. The Virginia regulations were under revision to comply with IDEA regulations at the time
this manual was being developed.
Code of Virginia § 22.1-214, Board to Prepare Special Education Program for
Children With Disabilities. The Code of Virginia requires the Board of Education to ensure that
each school division in Virginia has a special education program to educate and train children
with disabilities. Virginia requires that all children with disabilities between the ages of 2 and 21,
inclusive (i.e., ages 2 through 21), be identified, evaluated, and have made available to them a
free and appropriate public education (FAPE). School divisions are mandated to comply with
these regulations under Article VIII, Section I of the Constitution of Virginia, Title 22.1 of the
Code of Virginia, and the federal
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (20 U.S.C. Section 1400-1485).
Regulations. The Board of Education has established regulations governing the implementation
of special education and related services for students with disabilities in
Virginia. After the federal regulations are finalized, the Virginia Board of Education will update
its special education regulations to comply with those at the federal level. Until this is completed,
information regarding special education regulations in Virginia is taken from: Virginia
Department of Education (Effective January 1994). RegulationsGoverning Special Education
Programs for Children with Disabilities in Virginia.
Richmond, Va.: Author. Definitions. Key general definitions from Regulations Governing
Special Education
Programs in Handicapped Children and Youth in Virginia, Virginia Department of Education,
effective January 1994, are included in the following chart.
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Special Education Programs in Handicapped Children and Youth in Virginia, Virginia
Department of Education, effective January 1994, are provided in the Appendix A.
5.3 Process And Procedures For Implementing IDEA Note. The following information reflects the IDEA Amendments of 1997 and aspects of the
Virginia Special Education Regulations (1994). 85
Child Find. Public awareness responsibilities of local school divisions include:
♦ Conducting a public awareness campaign annually that involves parents and community
members in child find and community awareness campaign.
♦ Maintaining an active and continuing child find program to locate children birth through 21, in
need of special education.
Screening. Each local school division is responsible for establishing and maintaining screening.
Screening is to include the following within 60 days of initial enrollment:
417
(Please refer to the section on “Population-Based Screening” within this chapter, for specific
screening information.)
1. Speech, voice, and language.
2. Vision and hearing.
3. Fine and gross motor function (through grade three).
Child Study. Formal committee established in each school to review records and performance of
students referred through a screening process or by another source and to decide what course of
action is indicated. The committee may be termed “Instructional Support Team,” “Teacher
Assistance Team,” or other similar terminology. The school nurse may be a part of this
committee.
Evaluation. Procedures used to determine whether a child has a disability under IDEA.
Each local school division shall have established policies and procedures related to the
evaluation of referred students. Policies and procedures include parental consent, confidentiality,
written notification, nondiscriminatory testing, qualified personnel, and notification of parental
rights. A team of individuals, including the parents, determines what will be assessed. These may
include health, vision, hearing, social and emotional status, general intelligence, academic
performance, communicative status, and motor abilities. Virginia law requires hearing screening
for all students evaluated for special education. This is typically accomplished through the
assessment of components that are contained in the following chart.
5.4 Implementation Process
The project will be implemented in two phases- Year 1 & 2 in 2012 and Year 3 & 4 in
2013. It will involve preparing the syllabus, holding workshops with all stakeholders, writing,
piloting and finalizing the teaching and learning materials, teacher training and working on the
new end of programme assessment and certification.
5.4 .1. Transition Phase
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The new model will be phased in gradually into the system as from January 2012 with full
implementation achieved by 2015:
• Students entering in Year I in 2012 will follow the new programme right from the start and
through to 2015.
• For those who will be in Year II in 2012, the new programme will be gradually phased in with
the introduction of new pedagogical materials during the year and in 2013. While Year 2 will be
spent in school, they will, in 2013, follow the new Year III programme 3 days per week at their
secondary school and the remaining 2 days in an MITD training centre. The year after, for Year
IV, they will spend 2 days in their secondary school and 3 days in MITD.
• Interim arrangements will be made for those who will be in Year 3 in 2012. Those in Year 3 in
2011 are to be housed in MITD for the whole of the 4th Year in 2012.
• As regards the final assessment for Year 4, this will introduced on a pilot basis in 2013 and
fully implemented as from the end of 2014.
5.5 Record Retention And Disposition
419
Each entity, including the LME and service providers, owns the records that they
generate and bears an inherent responsibility for the maintenance and retention of those records
per prescribed guidelines. The two schedules which address the retention and disposition
requirements for publicly-funded MH/DD/SA services are the DHHS Records Retention and
Disposition Schedule for Grants and the Records Retention and Disposition Schedule for State
and Area Facilities, Division Publication, APSM 10-3. LMEs and community providers are
subject to the applicable standards outlined in both schedules.
APSM 10-3 is currently under revision and in some cases, has been superseded by more
recent requirements, some of which are discussed below. This section is intended to give the
reader some basic information about record retention and disposition requirements. Entities
should refer to the appropriate schedule to determine the specific retention standards for the type
record of interest. There are occasions when more than one schedule pertains to a given record.
When that occurs, the more stringent retention period must be applied.
LME Responsibility
The “Record Retention” section of the performance contract between the Department of
Health and Human Services [DHHS] and each LME states that “in order to protect documents
and public records that may be involved in litigation, the Department will notify the LME when
documents may be destroyed, disposed of, or otherwise purged.” LMEs should use the
information discussed below about funding source requirements to give providers guidance
regarding the retention and disposition of their records. When funding for individuals includes a
combination of local, state, or federal funds, then the longest applicable retention period must be
applied. The LME shall facilitate and monitor the compliance of its providers with applicable
record retention and disposition requirements.
5.6 Provider Responsibility
Service provider agencies have responsibility for fulfilling the record retention and
disposition requirements for all the records generated within their agency. Record retention is
addressed in the provider MOA/contract with the LME as well as in the Community Intervention
420
Service Agency contract with DMA for direct enrollment to provide Medicaid services.
Providers must manage their records in accordance with the requirements discussed below.
When an individual changes providers, relevant clinical and person-specific information should
be copied and sent to the new provider in a timely manner [with the appropriate written consent
when such consent is required] to ensure continuity of care. Custody of the original record
generated by the provider shall be retained by the provider agency. For additional details on
releasing person-specific information,
In the event that a provider agency ends services in a given region, or dissolves for any
reason, the provider is required to make arrangements to continue the safeguarding of both the
clinical and fiscal records per the record retention guidelines described in this section. If the
service record is classified as an historic record [i.e., the original service record created by the
Area Program when the Area Program was still a service provider in the pre-LME world] and
was “transferred” to the provider, as was the practice in some situations, upon provider agency
dissolution, the provider must return the historic record to the LME that created the record.
5.7 Records Management Requirements
The original service record remains the property and responsibility of the provider and
should not be relinquished to another provider or disposed of outside the parameters of record
retention requirements. This section outlines the retention and disposition requirements of the
two schedules, along with the Medicaid record retention requirements, and discusses how the
guidelines apply in certain situations. The references cited must be consulted directly when
determining the disposition of specific records. When making such determinations, community
provider agencies and LMEs should remember two fundamental principles and standards that
apply across the board to record retention:
All records must be retained if there is a reason to believe that they may be subject to an audit,
investigation, or litigation.
When records are subject to two or more sets of standards, records management must follow
the strictest standard.
For the purposes of record retention, service records are viewed as having two distinct
components: the clinical record and the financial record, the latter of which contains financial,
billing, and reimbursement information for the services provided. [For these purposes
421
"reimbursement information" includes any administrative records that document that the staff
providing billed services held the proper credentials to do so.]
5.8 DHHS Records Retention And Disposition Schedule For Grants
The DHHS Records Retention and Disposition Schedule for Grants from the Department
of Health and Human Services [DHHS] Office of the Controller incorporates records
management requirements for federal funds disbursed by the Department of Health and Human
Services. All financial and programmatic records, supporting documents, statistical records, and
all other records pertinent to a federal award must be retained in accordance with this schedule.
When applicable, the DHHS Records Retention and Disposition Schedule for Grants provides
permission from DHHS to dispose of records as described in the performance contract between
DHHS and the LMEs, which currently states, “In order to protect documents and public records
that may be involved in DHHS litigation, the Department will notify the LME when documents
may be destroyed, disposed of, or otherwise purged through the biannual Records Retention and
Disposition Memorandum from the DHHS Controller’s Office.”
LMEs and service providers are subject to this retention schedule and must adhere to the
requirements of this document, published by the DHHS Office of the Controller on a biannual
basis. The schedule and related record retention documents [a memorandum and a background
document] are found on the DHHS Office of the Controller’s website [scroll down to the
Records Retention and Disposition Schedule links]:
http://www.dhhs.state.nc.us/control/.
The DHHS Records Retention and Disposition Schedule for Grants applies to all records
supporting expenditure of specific federal funding.
5.9 Records Retention And Disposition Schedule For State And Area Facilities
LMEs and providers of services as specified in this manual shall comply with the
Records Retention and Disposition Schedule for State and Area Facilities, Division Publication,
APSM 10-3, found here:
http://www.ncdhhs.gov/mhddsas/statspublications/manualsforms/aps/apsm10
3retentionupdated5-05.pdf.
422
A copy may be obtained by contacting the Communications and Training Team at 919/715-2780.
This schedule determines the procedures for the management, retention, and destruction of
records by the Division of MH/DD/SAS facilities, the LMEs, and service provider agencies.
General principles and procedures related to records retention are outlined in this document.
Specific guidance related to the following areas is also provided:
Administrative and management records
Budget and fiscal records
Client records
Disaster assistance
Legal records
Machine readable public records
Microfilm
Office administration records
Personnel records
Public relations records
Student records
Clinical service records have longer retention requirements than most fiscal or organizational
records. If not subject to other retention requirements, clinical service records of adults may be
destroyed 11 years after the date of the last encounter, and the clinical service records of minor
children and youth who are no longer receiving services may be destroyed 12 years after the
minor has reached the age of majority [18 years of age]. [See pages 18-19 in the schedule].
For records supporting expenditures for state appropriations and federal funds, the four-year
retention period outlined in the Standard 2: Budget and Fiscal Records section of the Records
Retention and Disposition Schedule for State and Area Facilities, has been superseded by the
implementation of more recent state and federal regulations, e.g., the DHHS Records Retention
and Disposition Schedule for Grants, which requires a five-year retention period for those
records, as previously discussed in this chapter. Since these regulations were written subsequent
to the publication of the Records Retention and Disposition Schedule for State and Area
Facilities, all references to a four-year retention period in the schedule should be read as five
years for all records supporting the expenditure of state and federal funds.
423
5.10 Incident And Death Reporting Documentation
Each service provider shall comply with the death reporting requirements specified in
10A 27G .0200, incident response, reporting, and documentation requirements specified in 10A
27G .0600, restricted intervention documentation specified in 10A NCAC 27E.0104, and Client
Rights rules as specified in Client Rights in Community Mental Health, Developmental
Disabilities, and Substance Abuse Services [APSM 95-2] and General Statute.
Reports on incidents, including deaths and the use of restrictive interventions shall be
submitted as required above, using the standardized forms [QM02, QM04, and QM11] and
procedures required by the Secretary of DHHS. The Incident and Death Response System
Manual [Guidelines for Providers], as well as the required forms and other information, are
available electronically in the Forms section at the following link:
http://www.ncdhhs.gov/mhddsas/statspublications/manualsforms/index.htm#forms.
Each provider shall develop an administrative system for maintaining information on incidents.
Please note that the occurrence of an incident shall be recorded in the service notes. However,
the completed incident report shall not be referenced or filed in the service record, but filed in the
administrative files.
5.11 The Importance Of Clinical Documentation
Rigorous documentation standards are necessary in assuring that all pertinent information
is contained in the service record and that the information entered in the service record is clear,
concise, and correct. Complete and accurate documentation is vital for the continuity of
optimum, high quality care. Practitioners must be complete and consistent in their approach to
record documentation, and include in the record everything that is significant to the individual’s
condition. By following these standards, the practitioner can ensure that the documentation
entered in the record:
Serves as a basis for planning services and supports and ensuring continuity in the evaluation
of the individual’s condition and treatment;
Provides a record of the provision and continuity of services;
424
Furnishes documentary evidence about the individual’s evaluation, treatment and supports,
change in condition during the treatment encounter, as well as during follow-up care and services
that ultimately should enhance the individual’s quality of life;
Provides a full accounting of the provision of services;
Provides a mechanism for communication among all providers contributing to the individual’s
care;
Provides essential information that is used in examining and reviewing the quality of services
provided and in promoting recommended practice;
Provides justification of medical necessity for services;
Substantiates treatment and services for the reimbursement of services provided;
Documents involvement of the individual to whom the plan belongs and, when appropriate,
the involvement of family members in the individual’s treatment/services/supports;
Assists in protecting the legal interests of the individual, the facility or provider agency, and
the individual provider;
Promotes compliance with existing rules, regulations, and service delivery requirements;
Provides data for research; and
Provides data for use in internal training, continuing education, quality assurance, and
utilization review.
5.12 MH/DD/SA Service Array And Documentation Requirements
A complete listing of the MH/DD/SA services can be found in Appendix C. This listing
contains the procedure codes, categorizes the services by service type, delineates the minimum
frequency requirements for documentation, indicates whether a service order is required for the
service, and denotes if the service is covered by Medicaid.
Many service definitions contain documentation requirements that are specific to those services.
For this reason, each service definition should be consulted to ensure compliance with the
documentation requirements specific to that definition. The links listed below should be used to
obtain detailed implementation information regarding the DMH/DD/SA service definitions. The
array of MH/DD/SA service definitions can be accessed on the Service Definitions page of the
DMH/DD/SAS web site, found here:
425
http://www.ncdhhs.gov/mhddsas/servicedefinitions/index.htm.
Some longstanding State-defined service definitions also contain certain documentation
requirements. These definitions can be found at the same Service Definitions page above or at
the following link:
http://www.ncdhhs.gov/mhddsas/statspublications/manualsforms/aps/apsm1026servicedef1-
03.pdf
The official posting of many of the MH/DD/SA service definitions is found within the various
clinical coverage policies published by DMA. These definitions are located on the Clinical
Coverage Policy page of the DMA web site, which includes, but is not limited to, the following
clinical coverage policies:
A4 Services for Individuals with Mental Retardation/Developmental Disabilities, and
5.13 Mental Health/Substance Abuse Co-Occurring Disorders 8A Enhanced Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services
8C Outpatient Behavioral Health Services Provided by Direct-Enrolled Providers
8D-1 Psychiatric Residential Treatment Facilities for Children Under the Age of 21
8D-2 Residential Treatment Services
These policies and service definitions are posted at the following link:
http://www.ncdhhs.gov/dma/mp/mpindex.htm.
In general, the elements for documenting a particular service are defined by the service type
[e.g., periodic, day/night, twenty-four hour] or within the service definition itself. While in most
cases, there are no specific formats for documentation, there are some standard forms for certain
activities [i.e., the LME Consumer Admission and Discharge Form, the Introductory and
Complete Person-Centered Plan (PCP) Forms, and the CAP-MR/DD Residential Support and
Home Support Grid], which can be found in Appendix A. In addition, Appendix D includes an
assortment of sample forms which may be used as a guide or prototype for meeting the service
documentation requirements.
In addition, there are other forms which are administrative in nature that are required in certain
situations [e.g., authorization request forms, incident and death reporting forms, etc.]. When
these are addressed throughout this manual, a link is provided to facilitate access to such forms.
426
Other required forms, such as programmatic and fiscal reporting forms, etc., are beyond the
scope of this manual.
5.14 Closure Of Clinical Service Records
There is no state requirement that stipulates when or under what conditions a clinical
service record must be closed or terminated. Closure of the service record is not the same as
discharge reporting to CDW. An individual’s service record may remain open even though an
individual may have stopped receiving services; however, discharge reporting must be sent to the
LME for updates in the CDW whenever the consumer completes an episode of care.
The Division of MH/DD/SA Services recognizes the need to separate clinical service record
requirements from statistical reporting requirements. For individuals who will likely return for
services at some point, providers and LMEs may prefer to leave the service record open.
DMH/DD/SAS, on the other hand, needs detailed information about service completion to be
able to respond to the federal requirements for National Outcome Measures, which tracks an
individual’s outcomes from the beginning to the end of each service provided.
For the last few years, CDW has not required that the service record be closed; CDW only
requires that the LME terminate or discharge the individual from CDW after 60 days of no
billable services and report this to the data system. One exception to this rule is the Adult Mental
Health Stable Recovery population, which may be sustained without billable services for 365
days before a statistical termination is required. In either situation, the clinical service record
may remain open.
When an individual returns for services after being discharged from CDW, a new
admission must be sent to the LME for CDW reporting. Although the individual’s service record
may have been kept “open,” because this is considered a “new admission,” there are certain
procedures that must accompany the process, which includes a new STR, updating demographic
and contact information, and any expired consents, notices, etc. There are other requirements
associated with new admissions that may not apply if the individual’s service record has not been
closed. A new admission assessment is not required; however, a note in the service record that
summarizes the presenting problems and reason[s] for re-admission, clearly indicating the
circumstances surrounding the return for services, is required in lieu of an admission assessment.
Additionally, consent forms and release of information forms, client rights, and privacy notices
427
are not required unless they have expired in the current service record. If the individual’s PCP
[or other service plan as applicable] has not expired, a new plan is not required, but the current
plan must be updated and revised according to the individual’s current needs, Decisions related
to the circumstances under which the closure of an individual’s clinical service record is required
are determined locally by the service provider agency or by the LME.
When a clinical service record is terminated or closed, all the treatment documents
contained in the closed record, including Person-Centered Plans, are also considered closed. If an
individual returns to resume services and his or her service record has been closed, he or she
should be re-admitted, and a new Person-Centered Plan/service plan should be developed. Along
with this process, the re-admission information, as a new episode of care, would also be reported
to the LME to meet the statistical reporting requirements of CDW.
5.15 Privacy And Security Of Service Records
Providers must adhere to all federal and state laws, rules, regulations, and policies that
protect and ensure the confidentiality, privacy, and security of service records. Where there are
multiple sources of requirements, it is the provider’s responsibility to follow the most stringent
requirements, including the code of ethics of professional licensure. It is the provider’s
responsibility to stay abreast of all such laws, rules, regulations, policies, and procedures in order
to fully protect the privacy and confidentiality rights of the individual. For further guidance
regarding the release of confidential information
Providers shall develop policies and procedures to ensure the privacy and security of
service records. Such policies and procedures should address various aspects of health
information management including, but not limited to, how information will be recorded, stored,
retrieved, and disseminated, as well as to how such information will be protected against loss,
theft, destruction, unauthorized access, and natural disasters. Prior to the development of policies
and procedures, it is recommended that a risk assessment be done to assess the vulnerability of
the environment in which the records are stored. The ensuing policies and procedures shall
identify the safeguards that have been implemented to ameliorate any potential loss or
compromise of the integrity of pertinent clinical/service and non-clinical information [e.g.,
financial data and personnel records] necessary to document and support service delivery.
428
All agencies subject to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act [HIPAA]
regulations are responsible for developing policies and procedures to comply with HIPAA.
These regulations are designed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the healthcare
system by standardizing the interchange of electronic data for specified administrative and
financial transactions.
For additional information about HIPAA, please see the North Carolina Department of Health
and Human Services [DHHS] HIPAA web site, using the following link:
http://hipaa.dhhs.state.nc.us/index.html
5.16 Safeguards
Policies/procedures regarding the following assurances shall be developed:
1. Provider agencies shall ensure the safeguarding of service records against loss, tampering,
defacement, use, or disclosure by unauthorized persons and shall ensure that service records are
readily accessible to authorized users at all times.
2. If confidential information is stored in portable computers, the provider agency shall develop a
policy that assures the protection of such information. Recommended areas that the policy should
address are as follows:
a. Loaning and using portable computers;
b. Purging confidential data from returned computer prior to assigning the same computer to
the next user;
c. Avoid the maintenance of confidential information on portable computers by storing
confidential information on the facility network so that the information can be backed up and
maintained more securely. If network storage is not possible, maintaining the information on
disk(s) and transporting the disks separately from the computer case is preferred.
d. Encrypting the information that is stored on a portable device, as well as password protecting
the device.
3. If the faxing of confidential information is allowed, the provider agency’s policies and
procedures must reflect how the information being faxed will be protected. At a minimum, the
policy shall include procedures that are required if confidential information is to be faxed,
429
including verifying the fax number with the receiving party and checking to ensure that the fax
was received;
4. If email is used to communicate confidential information, a policy regarding how the
confidential information will be secured and protected shall be developed by the agency. Unless
the provider agency has the capability to encrypt email, the emailing of confidential information
should be the least preferred method of transmitting information and be used only when the
information is password-protected as outlined below. In this situation, the USPS or courier is the
preferred method for sending confidential information. If the confidential information needs to
be sent immediately, facsimile is the second preferred method. If facsimile is unavailable or the
document is too large to be faxed, email may be used to transmit confidential information if the
information is stored in a file that is password protected [i.e., in a Word document with a
password] and no Protected Health Information [PHI] or identifying information is included in
the body or subject line of the email, including the password. The individual should contact the
recipient via telephone to give them the password for the document. Again, the practice of
communicating PHI via unencrypted email is only to be followed as a last resort.
If an electronic medical record is utilized, the following policies, at a minimum, shall be
developed:
1. A policy, which defines the classifications of information [data sets] to which different users,
may have access.
2. A policy, which specifies that only authorized users have access to service recipient
information, based on the minimum necessary principles defined in the HIPAA regulation. The
policy shall identify measures such as passwords, audit trails [a detailed record of who viewed,
modified, entered, or deleted data, and when, etc.], to help ensure that only identified users have
access to the minimum amount of service recipient information necessary to complete their job
function.
5.16 Summary
These “Record Keeping Guidelines” provide a framework for keeping, maintaining, and
providing for the disposition of records and what is contained in them. They discuss special
situations: electronic records, organizational settings, and multiple clients. They are intended to
benefit both the psychologist and the client by facilitating continuity and evaluation of services,
430
preserving the client’s privacy, and protecting the psychologist and client in legal and ethical
proceedings.
These guidelines do not establish rules for practice, but rather provide an overall
conceptual model and strategies for resolving divergent considerations. The demands of
professional settings are varied and complex. It would not be feasible to establish detailed
guidelines for record creation, maintenance, and disposition that would be relevant for each
setting. The current document may provide useful guidance for various professional applications.
Where standards and legal and regulatory codes exist, they take precedence over these
guidelines.
5.17 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Implementing Idea Authorization
2. Explain Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (Idea).
3. Explain Process And Procedures For Implementing IDEA
4. Explain Implementation Process
5. Explain Transition Phase
6. Explain Record Retention And Disposition
7. Explain Provider Responsibility
8. Explain Records Management Requirements
9. Explain DHHS Records Retention And Disposition Schedule For Grants
10. Explain Records Retention And Disposition Schedule For State And Area
Facilities
11. Explain Incident And Death Reporting Documentation
12. Explain The Importance Of Clinical Documentation
13. Explain MH/DD/SA Service Array And Documentation Requirements
14. 5.15 Explain 5.15 Privacy And Security Of Service Records
15. Explain Mental Health/Substance Abuse Co-Occurring Disorders
29. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.30.1. Points for discussion
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Block 4: Curriculum Adaptations
Unit 1: Need for Curricular Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification
Unit 2: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Pre –academic Curriculum
Unit 3: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Academics Curriculum
Unit 4: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Co-Curriculum
Unit 5: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for School Subjects
442
Unit 1: Need For Curricular Adaptation, Accommodation And
Modification
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Understanding The Needs Of Individuals With Disabilities
1.3 Learning Styles
1.4 Prime Background Knowledge
1.5 Accommodation
1.6 Adaptations
1.7 Parallel Curriculum Outcomes (Parallel Instruction)
1.8 Overlapping Curricula (Overlapping Instruction)
1.9 Changes In Assessment: Towards Enhancing Quality Education For
Special Needs Learners
1.10 Career Education
1.11 Adult General Education
1.12 Decisions About Accommodations And Modifications
1.13 Student Responsibilities
1.14 Summary
1.15 Check Your Progress
1.16 References
443
1.1 Introduction
There is no one accepted definition of curriculum modifications as researchers are still
grappling with the exact meaning of the concept. Nevertheless, there are some definitions which
tend to shed some light into the concept. Curriculum modification involves change to a range of
educational components in a curriculum, such as content knowledge, the method of instruction,
and student's learning outcomes, through the alteration of materials and programs (Comfort,
1990; King-Sears, 2001; MacMackin & Elaine, 1997; Reisberg, 1990). Koga & Hall (2004)
define curriculum modification as modified contents, instructions, and/or learning outcomes for
diverse student needs. In other words, curriculum modification is not limited to instructional
modification or content modification but includes a continuum of a wide range of modified
educational components. However, the way that we interpret curriculum influences our
understanding of curriculum modification. Reisburg (1990) lists examples of the modifications
of content, such as teaching learning strategies, simplifying concepts or reading levels, teaching
different sets of knowledge and skills needed by students, and setting up specific objectives and
examples of modifications to instructional methods, including reducing distractions, altering the
pace of lessons, presenting smaller amounts of work, clarifying directions, and changing input
and response modes. To this end, all of these teaching events should be considered as examples
of curriculum modification.
All students in career education and adult general education programs benefit from the
use of effective instructional practices. This chapter describes general techniques and strategies
for instruction that reflect a broad base of research. These techniques have been proven to be
effective with diverse groups of learners, including students with disabilities, students with
limited English proficiency, and others. This chapter also describes assessment practices required
in career education and adult general education. Accommodations, alternative assessment
procedures, and exemptions are discussed.
After reading this chapter, you may want to examine your own teaching and assessment
practices. You may find that you are overlooking some of these techniques. You may feel there
444
is not enough time to use all of these strategies. However, the opposite is true. When you
incorporate these techniques into your daily teaching activities, you will find that more students
are able to succeed. You will spend less time reteaching.
1.2 Understanding The Needs Of Individuals With Disabilities
While much attention is paid to the unique characteristics of students with disabilities, it is
also important to remember that students with disabilities have the same basic needs and desires
as students without disabilities. They need to be challenged, to be accepted, and to be successful.
They do not want to be stereotyped or singled out because they have a disability. If you have not
had much experience with individuals with disabilities, here are some tips from a handbook from
the Erwin Technical Center in Hillsborough County Schools (2000).
• Many people feel awkward or uncomfortable when they interact with persons with a
disability. The best way to handle these fears is to accept people for who they are and
use common sense and courtesy.
• It’s a good idea to avoid calling unnecessary attention to the disability. Some students with
disabilities are uncomfortable being identified and labeled as being different. Offer help
when asked or when the need seems obvious, but don’t insist. Do not promote
helplessness. Support the student’s use of critical thinking skills and self-initiative.
• Use “person first” language. Avoid saying things such as “a learning disabled student.”
Instead say, “a student with learning disabilities.” Using terms such as the blind, the
deaf, or the retarded to refer to a person or a group of persons is considered to devalue
the person or group and may be offensive.
• Speak directly to someone who is deaf or hard-of-hearing or visually impaired. Don’t
shout. Speak clearly.
• Give all students in your classes an opportunity to discuss any special needs privately at the
beginning of the term. As the class progresses, monitor their progress and address
concerns individually.
1.3 Learning Styles
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Many instructors find it helpful to use learning style inventories to identify individual
preferences of all students. These inventories can help both instructors and students to
understand why certain kinds of learning experiences are more difficult than others. A wide
variety of instruments are available commercially. Some have been specifically designed for
adolescent and adult learners. In general, the assessments help to identify preferences for sensory
input (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic), mode of expression (oral or written), social and
environmental characteristics (alone or in a group), room and workspace design, lighting and
sound, time of day, and temperature. Many teachers have found success using instructional
practices that address a variety of learning styles. A list of instruments is included in appendix B
of this manual.
Managing Time and Classroom Activities
Many teachers feel that having students with disabilities increases their workload. You
may worry that you don’t have enough time to attend to individual needs and provide one-on-one
assistance. You will find that employing the following classroom management techniques can
help students assume more responsibility for their own learning.
Routines and Structure
Use regular instructional routines and structure to provide a predictable learning
environment and increase independence of students. For example, consistent beginning and
ending procedures help students know what to expect and how to proceed. Give students a voice
in making class rules and setting routines to increase ownership and cooperation.
Some career education classes are run like a business, with a chief executive officer (CEO) and
support staff who have identified job requirements and descriptions. Students switch leadership
positions so they have an opportunity to learn and practice all essential skills.
Individualized Responsibilities and Schedules
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Individualized learning allows teachers to provide some students challenging activities
for advanced learning as well as remedial activities for others. Students can work on their own
when class assignments are provided on an individual basis. Students will need to be able to
access learning materials and supplies independently. Computer-assisted learning programs may
supplement instruction and practice opportunities.
Students will need opportunities for individual feedback and progress reports. You may want to
provide students with a checklist of curriculum framework competencies for the specific
occupational program or a list of skills, concepts, and requirements for an academic course.
Students can keep track of their own accomplishments.
Cooperative Learning and Teaming
Allowing students to work in pairs, small groups, or teams is an effective way of
managing a class with diverse learners. Students can contact each other for support or reinforce
what has been taught. Volunteers may also be used to provide tutoring and additional practice.
Physical Layout
Flexible use of classroom space helps to provide individuals with quiet areas or special corners
for group cooperative learning. Arranging independent work areas so that materials and
equipment are readily available can facilitate the flow of instruction and practice activities.
Safety issues are critical in programs where the use of power equipment and tools or chemicals is
required. Students must be taught the proper procedures for the use, maintenance, and storage of
these materials. Individual accommodations may be needed for certain tasks. Warning lights may
need to be supplemented with auditory or vibrating signals. Poison signs may need to be color
coded or provided in braille. Storage areas with clearly marked containers or outlines showing
where particular tools should be hung on the wall are easier for students to manage.
Teaching Techniques
You can increase the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction by using the teaching
techniques described in this chapter. These descriptions generally follow the categories described
by Kaméenui and Carnine in their book, Effective Teaching Strategies That Accommodate
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Diverse Learners (1998). A variety of specific instructional techniques are described for each
category. These techniques continue to be supported by research that shows how they increase
the likelihood that all students, including those with disabilities and those who are at risk for
failure, will have a more successful learning experience.
Focus on the Essentials
The terms “key concepts” or “essential skills” are sometimes used by educators to convey
the importance of helping students to learn concepts and skills that will generalize and serve as
links to future learning. You can use the concept of essential skills to plan instruction more
efficiently.
Once you have identified the essential skills, you can plan learning activities that will
help all students meet these expectations. In Florida, the Next Generation Sunshine State
Standards describe what students must learn and be able to do in the K–12 program. Curriculum
frameworks with student performance standards based on the Next Generation Occupational
Standards for Career and Technical Education are provided for career education and adult
general education programs.
Focusing on the essentials of learning begins with the planning process used by the
teacher. The University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning has developed three planning
routines that use a combination of graphic organizers and specific implementation strategies
(Lenz, 1997). These help teachers lay out the key concepts and critical skills as they plan a whole
course (Course Organizer™), a unit of instruction (Unit Organizer™), or a single lesson (Lesson
Organizer™). Teachers and students use the graphic organizers to guide learning and monitor
understanding of the instructional content. The example of a Unit Organizer shown on the next
page illustrates how this can be used in a career education course. This diagram is part of a Unit
Organizer for learning about trusses and rafters.
By laying out the important ideas and critical details graphically, you can help students
see how the ideas are connected to each other. Don’t forget to label the lines between the ideas to
show how the ideas link together.
Use Explicit Strategies
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You can help students learn a new concept or skill more easily by teaching them to
follow a set of procedures or steps. The steps should reflect an efficient and effective way to
complete a task or apply a concept, much as an expert would do. For example, if you want
students to learn how to enter data into an accounting system or how to develop plans for
constructing a roof, teach a set of steps or procedures to follow using vocabulary students
understand. As appropriate, start with a concrete model and demonstrate and describe how each
step is accomplished.
When a new concept or procedure is introduced, the steps should be modeled using a
think-aloud technique in which the teacher describes the
mental processes and physical actions. As students are expected to apply the new learning, the
steps can be prompted by using a cue card, a verbal reminder, or job aid.
Some steps and strategies are too broad. Telling students to “brainstorm before writing”
does not provide enough guidance. A more useful strategy provides students specific direction in
determining the purpose of the communication, using different ways to generate ideas, applying
techniques for elaboration, and evaluating the writing plan.
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You will need to look at your own instructional materials and evaluate the use of explicit
steps and strategies. If explicit strategies are included, are they clearly described? Do they have
narrow or broad applications? Think of the needs of new students. Would they be able to use the
strategies that are included? Would they need more assistance? You may need to modify the
instructional materials and add steps and strategies, or you may need to change the ones that are
included. Finding strategies that are just right is not an easy task. Try them out with students and
revise them if they don’t work.
University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning has also developed the Strategic
Instruction Model with Content Enhancement Routines and Learning Strategies to help teachers
and students. Several routines center around the learning of concepts (e.g., Concept Mastery,
Concept Comparison, Framing Routine), while others help teachers learn how to make
information easier to remember (e.g., Recall Enhancement). Students can also be taught
strategies to help them with writing assignments (e.g., Sentence Writing, Paragraph Writing,
Error Monitoring), reading comprehension (e.g., Paraphrasing, Self-Questioning), and tests (Test
Taking). These routines and strategies work well in both career education and adult general
education programs. Contact your local Florida Diagnostic and Learning Resources System
(FDLRS) Associate Center for more information about obtaining professional development in
this model (FDLRS website: http://www.paec.org/fdlrsweb/).
Provide Temporary Support
The term “scaffolding” is used by educators to describe the types of support needed when
students are first acquiring new knowledge and skills. In the same way scaffolding is used in the
building industry, scaffolding in learning provides temporary structure and support for the
learner until the concept or competency is completely mastered. Scaffolding for learning may be
provided through verbal prompts and cues, visual highlighting and diagrams, or other types of
assistance to help students to build their knowledge and proficiency. Students need support until
they are able to use the knowledge and skills on their own. The key to the use of scaffolding in
teaching is recognizing that it is temporary. Prompting and guidance needed at the beginning of
learning must be removed for students to become independent.
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Use a continuum of maximum/minimum to think about scaffolding and support. A
maximum amount of support is provided when students are given total physical assistance or
completed copies of assignments. For motor skills, this is quite often the case. You might
position a student’s hand and arm and guide them through the correct movements for hammering
a nail. New computer users may need physical assistance in getting the mouse to move the cursor
in the desired direction. Giving the students copies of the lecture notes that they can highlight
instead of requiring students to take notes is another example of maximum support.
As students gain more proficiency, the amount of support can and should be reduced.
Providing outlines for notetaking or study guides, identifying the page numbers for the answers
to textbook questions, or showing students examples of expected responses offer minimum
support.
Modeling provides minimum support. You may frequently use examples in your
instructions to model the expected responses for students. Students can make effective use of a
model when they are able to identify the key features or critical processes used to perform the
skill and understand the concept exemplified in the model. Modeling can be used, for example,
to teach students how to call an employer if they are not coming to work or how to participate in
a job interview.
Here are additional examples of scaffolding techniques:
• Provide starters or incomplete statements and have the students add the rest.
• Give students an outline, diagram, or study guide.
• Use structured patterns or plans to help students learn.
• Use oral reading and embedded questions to help students process material in textbooks.
• Identify page numbers where topics are discussed or answers to questions can be found.
• Use color coding or underlining to highlight important ideas or key steps.
• Use peer tutoring or cooperative learning to provide support for students.
• Incorporate activities that provide guided practice before expecting students to perform
skills or use knowledge independently.
1.4 Prime Background Knowledge
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The ability to learn new information often depends on how easily and effectively students
are able to relate it to what they already know. Helping students to see how the new knowledge
or skills fit with what they have previously learned makes it easier to learn. These techniques
help students make associations with what they already know.
• Use a synonym or antonym to make comparisons. This is the same as . . . This is the
opposite of . . .
• Use simple or extended comparisons. A life cycle is just like the . . .
• Give symbolic examples to help form a mental image. The Food Guide Pyramid represents
one way to plan what we eat.
• Use a personal example or story to make associations. I first began to understand the value
of savings when . . .
• Relate the topic to a current or past event that the students already know about. People
from different cultures in our school sometimes face the same types of rejection felt
during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.
• Relate the concept to a fictional story or scenario. The story of Romeo and Juliet helps us
understand how family conflicts can . . .
Relating their prior knowledge is sometimes difficult for students. They may have difficulty
remembering what they have learned. They may not understand how to connect their new
learning with what they already know. If students lack the necessary background knowledge,
then you must provide instruction and experiences so that students have the critical prerequisites.
Review for Fluency and Generalization
The need for review is very critical for students with disabilities. Students need a variety
of opportunities to practice what they have learned. Many students may have difficulty
generalizing newly acquired knowledge and skills in subsequent classroom situations and in
situations outside the classroom. Guidelines about the importance of review follow.
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1.5 Accommodation
The term refers to the delivery of instructional materials or the methods of learner’s
performance which does not change the content or conceptual difficulty of the curriculum (King-
Sears 2001). Teachers as well as the learners play a major role in the changes of instructional
strategies in order to achieve the same intended instructional outcomes suggested in the overall
or general curriculum. These can include incorporating different types of teaching and learning
methods and techniques, such as audio-visual materials, projectors, and pictorial representation
among others and modifying the amount of input, changing or modifying the time frame for
learning and teaching, and the amount time devoted to the support for individual learners needs.
These techniques can benefit learners in the inclusive settings in Botswana and can target special
needs learners who are, for example, visually impaired, learning disabled, and hearing impaired.
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For example, the use of a Brailler in writing and spelling competitions, enlarged test copies, the
use of closed circuit television (CCTV) or use of a magnifying glass may be made for a visually
impaired student. The intention is that the content and difficulties of tasks remain the same as the
tasks in which other learners in the regular class would embark on. Switlick (1997) listed other
examples of accommodations, such as requiring completion of every other word problem on a
math worksheet, and providing for oral performance instead of written. It is therefore important
to note that accommodation is not a change of educational input crafted for overall or general
curriculum, but it is a modification of instructional methods and strategies which are targeted to
meet individual learner’s needs.
1.6 Adaptations
According to King-Sears (2001), adaptation is a modification to the delivery of
instructional methods and intended goals of student performance that does not change the
content but does slightly change the conceptual difficulty of the curriculum. Adaptations of
curriculum is a concept that usually require more teacher effort and time rather than simply
changing instructional methods and strategies or access as in an accommodation, but it is a goal-
driven process whereby teachers usually first need to state specifically the intended goals for
individual learners, like providing individual learner activities, individual homework and
assessments or evaluations, and further using adapted or different instructional materials and
strategies and activities for individual learners needs. Adaptations may be practices in inclusive
classrooms often occur when teachers differentiate instruction especially when teachers decide to
conduct lessons, mathematics or writing, which meet individual learner’s unique needs by having
work on adapted assignments. Under these conditions, learners with special needs may work on
their assignment in small groups with the support of the teacher. King-Sears (2001) suggests that
a variation of this type of lesson can be providing learners with special needs fewer or less work
and points out that reducing the amount of tasks seen in an accommodated instruction should be
differentiated from that provided in adapted instruction. In Botswana, learners who are visually
impaired, mentally retarded can benefit from this arrangement whereby they may be asked to
work in groups in problem solution and as they work in groups the teacher monitoring and
support may also be maximized. Hence, the adaptation of curriculum may also include a slight
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change in conceptual difficulties that is later introduced to the learners. It is important to note
that adaptation must take place within the same learning contents and must be put in place when
teachers have come to a conclusion that a special needs learner is able to learn the same content
knowledge as others.
1.7 Parallel Curriculum Outcomes (Parallel Instruction)
The other category of curriculum modification proposed by King-Sears is known as
parallel curriculum outcomes which are modifications to the delivery of instruction and intended
goals of learner performance. They (parallel curriculum outcomes) do not change the content
knowledge and the underlying principle of the educational goals for individual learners just like
adaptations. However, their differentiation lies in the extent of change in conceptual difficulty,
that is, in adaptation changes are slightly made in the conceptual difficulty of curriculum,
whereas in parallel curriculum outcomes there is a significant or very tangible change of
conceptual difficulty. The application and practice of parallel curriculum outcomes is contingent
upon the educational contexts and individual learner’s needs which are similar to
accommodation and adaptation. There is a range of application to this type of modification and
students with varying learner characteristics and abilities benefit from parallel curriculum
outcomes. This type of modification can be used with learners who are gifted and talented as
they usually require more advanced and or challenging conceptual difficulties in instruction and
application. This is sometimes referred to as enrichment. In a nutshell parallel curriculum
outcomes do not change the general content knowledge but only changes the conceptual
difficulties for these kinds of learners which eventually create a learning environment conducive
to broaden the idea of inclusion.
1.8 Overlapping Curricula (Overlapping Instruction)
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This is the last category of curriculum modification suggested by King-Sears. The
modification of curriculum in this case creates overlapping or common goals for learning
outcomes of learners from diverse backgrounds and which involves incorporation of specific
individual goals and expectations for learners with special needs enabling them to be involved in
regular or general education curriculum activities by promoting the idea of partial participation.
In most cases, the components of curriculum, such as background knowledge, conceptual
difficulties, and methods of instruction, for special needs students are designed very differently
from those for general education backgrounds. Practicing overlapping curricula sometimes
requires teachers to creatively design and provide shared educational activities, such as
cooperative learning and peer-mediated interventions. In such shared activities, the educational
goals and expectations for the students with diverse needs overlap with those for general
education students (King-Sears 2001). This curriculum can best be used by learners with
emotional disturbances and behaviour difficulties, among others, in which an Individualized
Education Programme (IEP) may be developed to make them have appropriate interactions with
peers in a small group setting.
1.9 Changes In Assessment: Towards Enhancing Quality Education For
Special Needs Learners
Curriculum on its own cannot tell anyone what has been achieved in the education
system. What is needed is to translate the curriculum into manageable entities that can be used in
the classroom for instruction and for assessment. Curriculum and assessment though not always
seen as such are key areas in the promotion of effective teaching and learning. The modified
curriculum for learners with special needs, just like curriculum for any other learner, should have
appropriate instruction plan and assessment plan.
The reliability and validity of the test scores can be compromised with some special needs
learners. The difficulties can be in the form of communication styles (for example, the need for
sign language interpreter for deaf learners), the length of the assessment, and also intentional
problems. In order to overcome these and other problems associated with assessing special needs
learners, accommodations and modifications in the testing procedure is important. These
modifications should include but not limited to the following:
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• Extending time limits – learners with learning difficulties e.g. reading comprehension can
benefit from this arrangement.
• Individual administration - this allows for interaction with the examiner who is in a position to
assess the learner’s strengths and weaknesses.
• Simplification of the language used – this is especially useful with hearing impaired and
mentally retarded learners
• Provision for audiotape, large prints or Braille materials
• Changing the setting, e.g. moving to smaller and distraction-free settings
• Use of type written rather than handwritten tests
• Definitions of terms if its meaning is not being tested
• Give more tests with fewer items as opposed to fewer, but longer items e.g. while using
multiple-choice tests, reduce the number of choices to simplify the tests
1.10 Career Education
Curriculum-based vocational assessment (CBVA) is one approach that has been successfully
implemented in Florida’s high school career education programs for students with disabilities.
CBVA is a process for determining career development and career education instructional needs
of students based on their performance in existing courses and curriculum. CBVA identifies the
student’s skills and preferences and provides information about work-related behaviors,
generalized instructional outcomes, and specific skill outcomes. The information gathered
through CBVA can be used for evaluation and planning purposes. CBVA data can also be used
in conjunction with other assessment information in the development of an IEP for high school
students or for individual plans in career education or adult education programs. CBVA also
serves as a performance-based method to assess a student’s need for MOCPs and to document
mastery.
Students enrolled in a postsecondary career certificate program must complete a basic skills
examination within the first six weeks after admission. According to Rule 6A-10.040(1),
F.A.C., and s. 1004.91(3), F.S., the Florida College Entry-Level Placement Test or Multiple
Assessment Placement Service (MAPS), where authorized, and the Wonderlic Basic Skills
Test (1993) may be used for this assessment in addition to the Tests of Adult Basic Education
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(TABE) used for adult general education. Accommodations for students with disabilities are
permitted. Alternative assessment instruments may be used if the above testing instruments
are not appropriate for an individual adult student.
The basic skills requirement for career certificate programs are exit requirements. A student
may enter the program before reaching minimum basic skill levels. Students enrolled in
programs of 450 hours or longer must be tested. The student must meet the basic skill
requirements when exiting at the final OCP of the program and earning a career certificate of
completion. Adult students with disabilities may be exempted from this requirement in
accordance with local testing policies (Rule 6A-10.040, F.A.C.).
Some career education programs require certification and/or licensure examinations to meet
state or national regulations for employment (e.g., nursing, cosmetology, real estate). The
specific agency responsible for administering the examinations authorizes the provision of
reasonable and appropriate accommodations for individuals with documented disabilities who
self-identify and demonstrate a need.
1.11 Adult General Education
Every newly enrolled adult student is assessed for placement into the appropriate literacy
level according to the requirements of Rule 6A- 6.014(4), F.A.C. Possible assessments include
the TABE—Complete Battery or Survey Forms and the Comprehensive Adult Student
Assessment System (CASAS). Accommodations for students with disabilities are permitted for
these assessments. Alternative assessment instruments may be used if these testing instruments
are not appropriate for an individual adult student. An adult student with a disability may also
use one of the following assessments for placement: Brigance Employability Skills, Brigance
Life Skills, Comprehensive Test of Adaptive Behaviors (CTAB), the CASAS, or the Kaufman
Functional Adult Student Assessment System (K-FAST). If an adult student has a documented
disability and the instruments listed in the rule are not an accurate measure of the student ability,
documentation must be kept showing an attempt was made to assess the student and results
should be kept in the student’s record for audit purposes (Rule 6A-6.014(4) and Rule 6A-
10.040, F.A.C.). Student progress on an LCP is documented using the following:
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• Grade level/scale score improvements measured by an approved test
• Successful completion of curriculum frameworks and/or course performance standards
(for applicable programs reporting outcomes for state reporting and funding purposes
only) according to Rule 6A-6.014(5), F.A.C.
• Attainment of GED or Adult High School Diploma
1.12 Decisions About Accommodations And Modifications
Students with disabilities who have IEPs are eligible for accommodations and
modifications in their education programs. Students with Section 504 plans are eligible for
accommodations, only. In K–12 programs, a team of professionals, family members, and the
student develop an IEP or a 504 plan. If you are a teacher responsible for instructing a student
with a disability, you may be a member of the team. Your knowledge of the requirements of the
career education program is very important. The team decides what accommodations or
modifications the student needs for his or her educational program and for the state and district
testing programs. In elementary and secondary programs, teachers or other school specialists
provide the support services for students.
If adults with disabilities meet the admissions standards of a postsecondary education
program, they must be ensured equal for participation in the program, including program
accessibility, use of auxiliary aids and services, and academic accommodations. Adults with
disabilities must self-identify, provide documentation of their need for services based on their
disability, and assist in identifying needed accommodations. The educational institution may
request additional documentation of the disabling condition, including diagnostic test results and
professional prescriptions for auxiliary aids. The adult student must give permission to request
confidential records. Adult students must directly notify the coordinator of student services for
students with disabilities or the 504/ADA coordinator that they have a need for certain
accommodations. In addition, the institution may obtain its own professional determination of
whether the requested aids or services are necessary.
Ideally, a student’s need for accommodations is addressed shortly after admission and
before enrollment so the student can be directed to sources of aids and assistance. However,
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adult students are not required to reveal their disability. They may want to see if they are able to
succeed without any special assistance. They may later self-identify and request services
(National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth, 2005).
Adult individual education plans are required for adult students with disabilities who
participate in specialized vocational instruction, specialized adult general education, or supported
employment. AIEPs are also required for adults with disabilities who participate in specially
funded programs for adults who do not have work as their goal. Other postsecondary programs
incorporate a planning process similar to the AIEP. Whether a formal document exists or not, it’s
a good idea to discuss the need for accommodations with all students. Then, in a private
conference with a student who self-identifies, you may discuss the student’s personal goals,
strengths, and accommodations. Students will need to learn about the particular course or
program requirements and the typical methods used for instruction and assessment. All
information about the individual needs of a student with disabilities must remain confidential.
Here are some questions that may be discussed:
• What prerequisite skills and background are necessary for this course or program? Which
skills are critical for success? In what areas will the student need additional preparation
or support?
• Will the student need specialized or adapted equipment and tools?
• What assistance will the student need to obtain resources and complete assignments?
• How well can the student stay on track and adapt to routines and changes?
• What accommodations have been successful in the past?
• Can the student use the same kind of books, tools, and instructional resources as other
students?
• Will the instructional management system require adaptations to support the student’s need
for structure and limits?
Decisions about accommodations for an individual student should be based on the following
guidelines:
• Accommodations must be necessary for the student to be able to participate in and benefit
from the educational programs, services, and activities.
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• Accommodations are based on documented individual needs.
• Accommodations do not compromise the essential requirements of a course or program.
• Accommodations must not provide the student with an unfair advantage or interfere with the
validity of tests. Accommodations for standardized test procedure must only include those
explicitly allowed in the test manual (Beech, 2010; Office of Assessment, 2010).
1.13 Student Responsibilities
All students need to be able to stand up for themselves, to express their needs and desires,
and to function independently as adults. Students with disabilities, just as their peers without
disabilities, need to understand their own strengths and weaknesses and learn how to apply their
strengths to learning and performance on the job. Students with disabilities must become aware
of effective coping mechanisms and accommodations that can help them succeed. Most
important, they must know when and how to communicate their needs when making decisions
and when functioning in the learning or employment environment. These self-advocacy skills are
critical for all students.
High school students with disabilities have the opportunity to participate in their own IEP
meetings. The IEP team develops an annual plan that documents the decisions about the
student’s progress and need for special education and related services that are made at the
meeting. In Florida, beginning with the IEP that will be in effect on or before the student’s
fourteenth birthday, and then annually, a student must be invited to participate in his or her IEP
meeting. Students should have a voice in all IEP meetings.(Rule 6A-6.03028(c)(7), F.A.C.). The
right to make educational decisions on their own behalf are transferred to students with
disabilities who have reached the age of 18, unless a guardian or educational surrogate is
appointed.
Adult students have greater responsibilities. They must advocate for their own needs. Some adult
students may be reluctant to talk about their own learning needs. They may not even be aware
that accommodations can be provided in postsecondary programs. Admissions counselors,
coordinators of services for students with disabilities, and instructors need to make all students
aware of the availability of services. They must also assure students that personal information
will remain confidential.
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After admission to the institution, adults are responsible for maintaining their own records that
document their disability and allowing access to information that is maintained by other
agencies.
1.14 Summary
Teachers can increase the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction by using the
instructional techniques described in this chapter. These techniques have been proven to increase
the likelihood that all students can achieve their goals. Using appropriate assessment procedures
can help to ensure that the progress of students with disabilities is accurately and adequately
documented.
Curriculum modification is necessary for learners with special needs even when an
inclusive curriculum is being followed. The suggestions posed by Sear are applicable in the case
of Botswana. Botswana has an enabling environment for such modifications to be done given
that government policies do recognise the need to educate equally all citizens. Accommodation,
adaptation, parallel curriculum outcomes and overlapping curriculum as modification strategies
would require that teachers have training in handling learners of diverse abilities and be
committed to teaching. Special education teachers and the regular teachers would need to work
together and this will be facilitated by having regular teachers also having some training on
handling special needs learners. The support structures need to be strengthened to facilitate this
cooperation. The assessment of such a modified curriculum will also benefit from the
preparedness of teachers and the schools as well as the national curriculum unit. The suggested
modifications of assessment procedures and materials need coordinated efforts on both the
government side and that of service providers(teachers). Parents also have to be brought on
board even more than for regular learners as they need to play a role to ensure that the special
need child does not fall behind with their school work.
1.15 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Understanding The Needs Of Individuals With Disabilities
2. Explain Learning Styles
3. Explain Prime Background Knowledge
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4. Explain Accommodation
5. Explain Adaptations
6. Explain Parallel Curriculum Outcomes (Parallel Instruction)
7. Explain Overlapping Curricula (Overlapping Instruction)
8. Explain Changes In Assessment: Towards Enhancing Quality Education For
Special Needs Learners
9. Explain Career Education
10. Explain Adult General Education
11. Explain Decisions About Accommodations And Modifications
31. Check Your Progress
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32. Assignment/Activity
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REFERENCES
1. Beech, M. (2010). Accommodations: Assisting students with disabilities (3rd ed.).
Tallahassee, FL: Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services, Florida
Department of Education.
2. Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services. (2010). Portal to exceptional
education resources. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Education.
3. Erwin Technical Center. (2000). A faculty guide to reasonable accommodations for
students with disabilities. Tampa, FL: Hillsborough County School District.
4. Florida Department of Education. (2010, March 12). Waiver of Florida Comprehensive
Assessment Test® (FCAT) graduation requirement for students with disabilities
[Technical Assistance Paper, DPS 2010-24]. Tallahassee, FL: Author.
5. Florida Department of Education. (2009, June 30). The family educational rights and
privacy act (FERPA). [Technical Assistance Paper, DPS 2009-103]. Tallahassee, FL:
Author.
6. Florida Department of Education. (2009). Florida’s state plan for adult education and
family literacy, 2009–2010 extension. Tallahassee, FL: Division of Career and Adult
Education.
7. Job Accommodations Network (JAN). (2005a). Job accommodations come in groups of
one. Retrieved from http://jan.wvu.edu
8. Job Accommodations Network (JAN). (2005b). Job and task analysis. Retrieved from
http://jan.wvu.edu
9. Kaméenui, E. J., & Carnine, D. J. (1998). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate
diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
10. Lenz, B. K. (1997, August). Routines to strengthen learning—An in-depth look at content
enhancement. Strategram, 9(5),1–7.
11. National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth (NCWD-Youth). (2005).
The 411 on disability disclosure: A workbook for youth with disabilities. Washington,
DC: Institute for Educational Leadership.
12. Office of Assessment. (2010). 2010 FCAT reading, mathematics, and science test
administration manual. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Education.
467
Unit 2: Adaptation, Accommodation And Modification For Pre –
Academic Curriculum
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Adaptation
2.3 Accommodation
2.4 Modifications
2.5 Summary
2.6 Check Your Progress
2.7 References
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2.1 Introduction
As teachers, we know the best ways students with special needs learn is by having
adaptations and accommodations that can be used for that specific child, to meet their needs, so
they can be successful in the classroom.
We also know, as teachers, that we do not have an endless budget that allows us to buy
every adaptation and accommodation that we know would benefit our students. This article will
outline specific research-based adaptations and accommodations to help students be successful in
the early childhood classroom environment; and, will also outline which type of student would
most benefit from them. Areas researched include: autism, behavior disorders, learning
disabilities, sensory needs, communication disorders, developmental disorders, attention deficit
disorder (ADD), and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Finally, the article will
present how you could make the adaptations and accommodations instead of purchasing them.
One of the most effective ways to get students to process language is through the use of visual
supports. A visual support is a visually perceived stimulus that can assist an individual in
comprehending information or demands. In a classroom setting this support could be for
direction following, schedules, rules, and understanding instruction. Students who would best be
supported through the use of visuals are: children with autism, ADD/ ADHD, developmental
disabilities, or students with a learning disability. Visual supports can also be used to help
decrease behaviors. In one study, a picture schedule was used, as well as, a reward of giving a
pretzel upon completion of the task on the schedule. The results showed a decrease in behaviors
and an increase in compliance. After six days of giving the pretzel reinforcer, this was removed,
and the schedule was used without rewards (Dooley, Wilczenski, & Torem, 2001).
According to Tissot and Evans (2003), visual supports as photographs, hand-drawn
pictures, graphics, or computer-generated icons actually benefit all students especially those who
have difficulty reading. Quill (1995) discusses students who need extra assistance with
organization, academic and life skills, communication, social interaction, and behavior
management could benefit from using visual cues. Students with autism, ADD/ADHD,
developmental disabilities, and students with a learning disability all have difficulty with the
previously stated tasks. These students can display behavioral issues due to an inability to
understand and process verbal language. By placing visual supports in an early childhood
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classroom setting as part of the instructional program, students who have difficulty with verbal
language (students who have autism, ADD/ADHD, developmental disabilities, learning
disability behavioral disability) can have: eased transitions, feeling of empowerment by having
visual choices, clearly defined expectations through the use of pictures, longer attention span,
reduced anxiety, concepts become more concrete, and the ability to help express his or her
thoughts.
Children with autism are visual rather than auditory learners and they prefer picture
communication verses written words (Cohen, 1998). When a teacher gives a direction and it is
not followed, they may follow up with another verbal direction on top of another. According to
Hodgdon (2000), the addition of verbal communications does not change the fact that the student
just doesn’t understand it. In fact, when used correctly, visual supports allow students with
autism freedom to engage in life, regardless of his or her impairment of communication
(Hodgdon, 2000).
Most students need structure in their environment in order to be successful. As teachers,
it is our job to do what is best for students and one way to help ensure success is by
implementing visuals to structure their environment. One of the first visuals to set up is a daily
schedule. This schedule should only include the largest transitions of their day.
When the student is at the activity, minischedules can then be used to add even more
structure. One study completed showed progress in the performance of four students who used a
picture schedule to help with independence during playtime. The participants in this study
demonstrated an increase in on-task behavior and a decrease in prompting (Morrison Morrison et
al., 2002). Another study also looked at students’ participation during free play sessions. These
students were given picture cues as well. The results of this study found two students needed less
intrusive procedures to engage the child in play sessions and two students needed the entire
intervention to reach the goal of engagement in play sessions (Bevill et al., 2001).
2.2 Adaptation Many students who have issues with behavior need schedules in place so they have a
clear beginning and ending to the task at hand. Without having a sense of time, students do not
470
know if they will be sitting at circle time for the whole day or can sit only a minute and then can
leave. Setting up schedules as well as mini-schedules give students a sense of time as well as
predictability. The use of visuals progress students toward the goal of independence. Below you
can see a schedule of a student’s day and then a minischedule of a student’s circle tim
2.3 Accommodation
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The large daily schedule includes the activities (from top to bottom): playground, centers,
work time, circle, snack, music, and home. The mini circle time schedule includes (from left to
right): the more we get together, leader, weather bear, three songs, home and school, story,
journal, and check schedule.
In order to make a schedule you will first need cardboard or matte board. It may be
beneficial to purchase a picture program. If you do not have the budget for this, then you can use
a digital camera and take pictures – or you can always draw them. A great size for pictures is 2”x
2”. Laminate the pictures and then add Velcro to the back. The pictures to include on the large
daily schedule are the large transition times throughout your day. On mini schedules you should
include pictures of the small transitions throughout the large activity.
Add the opposite Velcro to the tag board. You can hang the schedule horizontally or
vertically. If you have a student that is a reader, you could have written words instead of pictures.
In this case, you should also hang the schedule horizontally, so they follow from left to right. To
make the circle time board, just use a square piece of matte board and attach pictures to represent
each activity (in order) of your circle time.
One type of mini-schedule that can be made for students is song cards for circle time.
This allows for the students to be able to know which song will be sung. The visual cue is used
so they are able to visually process the name of the song instead of processing it auditorally.
Here is an example of song cards that have been used:
To make song cards you can draw pictures that represent the songs on white paper.
If you are unable to draw, you can use a program such as Boardmaker to make your pictures.
472
You could also use clipart from the internet. Next, color them and write the title of the song on
top. To keep them sturdy, use card stock, tag board, or just simply glue white paper onto
construction paper. After this laminate them or put contact paper on them. You may add Velcro
so you can hang them up.
Many teachers have a leader of the day. It is very difficult for some students with
disabilities to have the element of surprise of who will be the leader or they might want to be the
leader everyday. This is especially true when you think of students with behavioral issues. One
way to alleviate this is to set up the whole week of leaders and post the list in the classroom so
the students can visually see it. You can even color coordinate the leader board with your Days-
of-the-Week board.
Here is an example:
To make these two boards, glue five different colored pieces of construction paper
(or you can use colored index cards) to poster board. Write the days of the week across the top of
them. Make a second board that looks identical to the first. Cut a smaller piece of the five colors
to write the days of the week on them again. Take all of this and laminate it. Place little Velcro
squares on one of the weekly boards and use the opposite side to be placed on the back of the
smaller days of the week. To make your leader tags, on the computer make a design that says
you’re the leader. Make multiple copies on card stock.
Write your students names on them and then cut them up. For your leader board, just tape up
your tags weekly so you can easily remove them and put them on the student.
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Another nice visual for circle time is having the same manipulatives the teacher uses at circle but
in a smaller version so the student can use them right at circle. The first picture below shows a
teacher’s circle time board and the second picture shows a student’s smaller version of
manipulatives. All you need to do for these visuals is make them exactly as above, just in smaller
versions.
Copy machines work great for shrinking pictures, especially the song cards!
The teacher’s circle time board includes a weather bear, the days of the week, the leader board,
the weather options, and the three song choices the leader had picked. The student circle time
manipulatives includes the weather bear, the days of the week, the songs picked by the leader,
and a home and school chart. The teacher does not hang up her home and school chart on the
circle time board. Instead, the teacher lays it out on the floor.
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In an early childhood education class where a calendar approach is used, visuals can be
shrunk down and used the same way as the circle time approach. A calendar can be copied as
well as weather graphs. Students can complete the same activities as the teacher by using smaller
versions. This can be very helpful for students with ADD/ADHD and behavior issues because
their attention span will be maintained much longer than just auditorally processing what is
happening during calendar time. adaptation
A work system can be used for children with autism, developmental disability, or a
learning disability. The point of a work system is for students to work productively and complete
assignments independently. Hume’s (2004) work has noted:
A work system provides all of the required information without adult prompting and teaches the
student to attend to visual cues (rather than verbal directives) when completing a task. A work
system assists in organizing a student with ASD by providing a systematic work routine—
working from left-to-right or top-to-bottom. Students do not have to plan where to begin or how
to proceed. Work systems can be used with any type of task or activity (e.g., academic, self-help,
leisure), across settings (e.g., independent work area, cafeteria, place of employment), and for
individuals at all functioning levels (e.g., systems can range from concrete to abstract). (p.5)
The following is a work system for centers.
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The picture has a tub of center cards under the word “go” and a tub of finished cards
under the word “stop.” To make these cards, you need half of a manila file folder.
You can either draw right on the folder or glue another piece of paper to it. Establish what child
you are making the work system for and their level of abilities. Then draw out directions with the
words indicating what can be completed at each center. You can then laminate the center work
system folder. Here is a picture of the same center for two different students with varying
abilities.
The center work card on the left has a student only completing three steps at the center.
Pictures are matched with print because this student is not a reader. The adult reads the directions
476
and the student performs the actions. After a number of trials, the student is able to successfully
complete this center work card independently. The center work card on the right is for a student
that is able to read. This student has four, more complex steps to complete. The first steps are as
follows:
1. Put Mom and Dad in the red van to go to a grocery store.
2. Tell Leisa what they will buy at a grocery store.
3. Ask a friend, “What should I cook for dinner?”
4. Give the baby a bath and put her to bed.
The idea of work systems came from training in Treatment and Education of Autistic and related
Communication and handicapped Children (TEACCH). Massey and Wheeler (2000) completed
one study on the use of activity schedules. They found that a child with autism can independently
follow activity schedules with success; and, minimal training is needed for them to generalize
these skills to other settings (Massey & Wheeler, 2000).
Essentially, if a teacher has a goal for a student to work independently, then setting up a
work system is a wonderful choice. A work system is defined by Division TEACCH as a
systematic and organized presentation of tasks and materials that visually communicates at least
four pieces of information to the student (Schopler, Mesibox, & Hearsey, 1995). The first being
the steps the student is supposed to do. Examples: sorting materials, hanging or folding clothes,
completing addition problems, etc. The second piece of information is how many steps are there
for the student to complete. A visual representation should be given to show how much work is
to be done. If a student is to fold or hang 4 articles of clothing, then only provide four articles of
clothing. If you would like a student to complete three tasks then have them in three separate
trays. The next piece of information in the work system is how the student will know when he or
she is finished. The teacher can show this by using a finished box, timer, or other visual cue such
as a stop sign. The fourth and final piece of information to be given to the student so they are
able to complete work systems independently is what they are to do once they are finished. If a
student is using a visual schedule then you can include a check schedule at the end of the task.
The teacher could have a picture of the next activity, or a motivator could be given to the student
for completing the work system. One way a teacher can think about it is this: a schedule shows
the student where to go and a work system shows the student what to do.
477
A second type of adaptation and accommodation is a behavior modification chart. Students who
have difficulty with behaviors can use behavior modification charts to help them understand the
desired behavior and the reinforcer they can obtain from completing the behavior asked of them.
Behavior modification replaces undesirable behaviors with more desirable ones through positive
or negative reinforcement. Behavior modification has been used to successfully treat obsessive-
compulsive disorder, ADD/ADHD, and other disorders (Martin, 1988). You can also use
behavior modification charts for students with autism. When using the following suggestions
keep in mind that you need to teach the child how to use these first. To do this, you need to make
the request simple and short, so the reinforcer can be received often.
Once the student understands the concept, then more wait time can be given.
2.4 Modifications
We all have students that request one item or activity; but you, as the teacher, want them
to complete something else first. The use of a First/Then chart can be very helpful.
To make this chart, you need green and red construction paper. Cut one 3”x 5” green piece and
one 3” x 5” red piece. Attach them together at the back with scotch tape, so that the green side
will be on the left. With a black marker, write “First” on the green side and
“Then” on the red side. The green symbolizes go, meaning do this first. The red symbolizes you
are done and now are able to receive the preferred activity or the reinforcer. Also, draw a black
line straight down where the green and red pieces meet. This helps establishes stopping one
activity before beginning the next. Add one small Velcro piece on the front of both the green and
red sides. Velcro on pictures of what you are requesting on the green side and the reinforcer or
preferred activity on the red side. Here is an example of what one looks like:
478
When you would like to teach a student a replacement behavior, the following behavior
modification chart is beneficial. Instead of completing one simple task, this chart helps to change
a particular behavior.
On it, you have a picture of the behavior you want and a picture of the reinforcer. The
boxes are the number of times the student needs to complete the correct behavior before they
obtain the reinforcement. Each time they complete the desired behavior than can receive a smiley
face in a box. When all of the boxes have smiley faces, then the reinforcer is given. If the student
performs the undesired task, then tap the picture to show the desired behavior but refrain from
using verbal cueing.
An example of behavior changes could be standing up at circle time to sitting on their
carpet square or hitting peers to giving a high five. Here is an example of what one of these
charts looks like:
479
To make this, use a placemat as the background. Attach Velcro in two opposite corners. On the
left piece of Velcro, you will attach a picture of the desired behavior. On the right piece of
Velcro you will attach a picture of the reinforcer. Draw an arrow from the picture of the behavior
that is wanted to the picture of the reinforcer. At the bottom, attach three pieces of Velcro. Three
small circles can be cut out of construction paper.
Draw smiley faces on them. Next, laminate them and attach Velcro.
Each time the student completes the desired behavior, they receive a smiley face. Once they have
earned all three smiley faces, they can receive the reinforcer.
Take the smiley faces off and start it all over again.
At the beginning, you may be giving out a smiley face every 10-15 seconds. As time goes on,
you can give a smiley out less frequently.
Some students with disabilities have difficulty communicating their wants and needs. This can be
due to the inability to talk, poor articulation that is not understandable, or inability to word find.
The students who most commonly have these problems are children with autism or
developmental disorders. One way to help them to communicate with the world around them is
by using a Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS). Training in how to run PECS is
highly recommended when working with students who are unable to communicate (Frost &
Bondy, 2002).
The idea behind PECS is for the students to have a book of their own that they are able to access
independently.
This book has visuals in it of items the student may need or want to request.
Examples are of food items or toy items.
480
The student is able to open the book and find the item to request.
Once they find it then they put it on the front of the book where the sentence strip is. They are
then able to make a sentence. An example is, “I want crackers.” After they formulate their
sentence, they remove the whole sentence strip and then hand it to an adult. As stated before, it is
highly recommended toreceive training in PECS in order to facilitatethe teaching properly.
One research study on PECS “demonstrated the efficacy of the PECS protocol with
3 children with autism, the emergence of speech, and the collateral gains in socialcommunicative
behaviors and concomitant decreases in problem behavior” (Charlop- Christy et al., 2002). This
study showed that PECS can be taught in a short amount of time to children with autism. These
children can improve their use of communication by using pictures to express their wants and
needs to others. This also resulted in decreased challenging behaviors because they were able to
communicate more effectively.
The PECS CD of pictures can be purchased from their website at www.pecs.com for only
$35. These pictures can be used for not only their PECS books but for all of the other picture
visuals that have been discussed throughout this article. PECS books can also be purchased
commercially. In addition,
Mayer Johnson sells a number of software and resources for visuals.
To make a PECS book, all you need to do is find inexpensive plastic binders. Cut the
front of the binder smaller to allow for the sentence strip on the back page. Attach Velcro strips
on the front of the book. Pages can be placed inside the book for the student to obtain the visual
they need independently. As for the pages in the PECS book, use inexpensive vinyl placemats
that can be found at a dollar store. They are very durable and Velcro can easily be removed from
them to add new strips if needed. Add Velcro to a rectangular cut placemat for the sentence strip,
on the front and the back. Place the opposite Velcro on the back inside cover, where the sentence
strip will go. Here is a picture of a PECS book made for around five dollars.
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2.5 Summary
482
Individuals with disabilities are entitled to full participation in all aspects of society, including
career education, adult general education, and employment. They have the right to reasonable
accommodations to assist them to work and learn successfully. The IEP, AIEP, or Section 504
plan addresses accommodations or modifications needed by an individual student. Students
should participate in the decision-making and planning processes and advocate for their own
special needs.
2.6 Check Your Progress 1. Explain Adaptation
2. Explain Accommodation
3. Explain Modifications
33. Check Your Progress
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After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
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1.34.1. Points for discussion
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(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
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London: Paul Chapman.
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infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
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Unit 3: Adaptation, Accommodation And Modification For Academics
Curriculum
3.1 Introduction
3.2 A Multi-Level Model
Step 1: Curriculum Planning And Design
Step 2: Individualized Educational Planning
Step 3: School-Wide Materials And Instruction
Step 4: Partial School Or Group Instruction
Step 5: Individualized Interventions
3.3 School-Wide Implementation Of High Quality Instructional Strategies.
1. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Representation.
2. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Expression.
3. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Engagement.
3.4 Universal Desing For Curriculum For Mental Retarded Students
1. Principle One: Equitable Use.
2. Principle Two: Flexibility In Use.
3. Principle Three: Simple And Intuitive Use.
4. Principle Four: Perceptible Information.
5. Principle Five: Tolerance For Error.
6. Principle Six: Low Physical Effort.
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3.5 Summary
3.6 Check Your Progress
3.7 References
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3.1 Introduction
Ensuring that students with disabilities have access to the general curriculum was a key
feature of the 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Those
amendments included statutory and regulatory language pertaining to providing such access.
Section 300.347(a)(3) in the IDEA requires that the IEP of students with disabilities include:
A statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to
be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child, and a statement of the program modifications
or supports for school personnel that will be provided for the child
(i) to advance appropriate toward attaining the annual goals; These efforts have been supported
by U.S. Depart-ment of Education, Office of Special Education Programs grants #H324D990065
and #H324D000025, although the opinions and conclusions expressed here do not necessarily
represent the views of the U.S. Department of Education.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Michael L. Wehmeyer, Beach
Center on Disability, The University of Kansas, 3136 Haworth Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045.
(ii) to be involved and progress in the general curriculum;
(iii) to be educated and participate with disabled and non-disabled children.
While there are a growing number of efforts to conceptualize how to gain access to the general
curriculum for students with disabilities, few of these have addressed the needs of learners with
mental retardation and other cognitive disabilities.
Wehmeyer, Lattin, and Agran (2001) introduced a decision-making model to enable IEP teams
to make curriculum decisions pertaining to the educational program of students with mental
retardation that takes into account both the general curriculum and a student’s unique learning
needs. However, making a decision about the student’s formal curriculum is only one step in
achieving the outcome that students with mental retardation both have access to and progress in
the general curriculum. This article presents a multistep process and multi-level model to gain
access to and promote progress in the general curriculum for students with mental retardation
and intensive support needs.
3.2 A Multi-Level Model
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Wehmeyer, Sands, Knowlton, and Kozleski (2002) identified five action steps to ensure
that students with mental retardation progress in the general curriculum, listed in Table 1.
Figure 1 summarizes the key elements of this approach, which involves 3 levels of action
(planning, curriculum, and instruction), 3 levels of the scope of instruction (whole school, partial
school, and individualized), and 3 levels of curriculum modifications (adaptation, augmentation,
and alteration). A brief description of each of the five steps to access indicated in Table 1
follows.
Step 1: Curriculum Planning And Design
The standards-based reform movement emphasizes the establishment of high standards
and the alignment of curriculum and assessment with those standards. Thus, ensuring access to
the general curriculum for students with mental retardation must begin with the curriculum
planning and design process and the development of state and local standards. If students with
widely varying skills, backgrounds, knowledge and customs are to progress in the general
curriculum, the standards upon which the curriculum is based, as well as the curriculum itself,
must embody the principles of universal design, discussed in greater detail subsequently, and be
written to be open- ended and inclusive, not close-ended. The terms open- and closeended refer
to “the amount of specificity and direction provided by curriculum standards, benchmarks, goals
or objectives at both the building and classroom levels” (Wehmeyer, Sands, et al., 2002). Close-
ended standards are specific and require narrowly defined outcomes or performance indicators,
like “writing a 5 page paper on the history of the United States.”
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Obviously, students who cannot write will be unable to meet this standard even if they
could provide evidence the knowledge being assessed (e.g., history of the United States) through
alternative means. If, on the other hand, the standard was written such that students could
demonstrate knowledge of the history of the United States using other means of expression, it
would be an open-ended curriculum target. Open-ended standards do not restrict the ways in
which students exhibit knowledge or skills and focus more on the expectations that students will
interact with the content, ask questions, manipulate materials, make observations, and then
communicate their knowledge in a variety of ways (orally, through video tape, writing and
directing a play, etc.). Research suggests that open-ended designs allow for greater flexibility as
to what, when, and how topics will be addressed in the classroom (Stainback, Stainback,
Stefanich, & Alper, 1996) and are more consistent with universally designed curriculum,
ensuring that more students, including students with mental retardation, can show progress in the
curriculum (Wehmeyer, Sands, et al, 2002). We will return to the issue of universal design in
discussing curricular materials.
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Step 2: Individualized Educational Planning The education of students with disabilities has always emphasized the importance of
individualized planning, a value that should not be abandoned when focusing on the general
curriculum. Figure 2 (Wehmeyer, Lattin, et al., 2001) presents a decision-making model to
ensure that IEP teams begin educational planning with both knowledge of the general curriculum
(standards and curriculum) for students who are the same age and grade level as the student for
whom the IEP is being designed, as well as with information about unique student learning needs
(based on input from multiple stakeholders and assessment sources). This model is detailed in
Wehmeyer, Lattin, et al. (2001), so will only be summarized in this article. When considering a
student’s formal curriculum, it may be that some students can progress on portions of the general
curriculum without accommodations or curriculum modifications and as such that portion of the
general curriculum will be the “most appropriate” formal curriculum. It is likely, however, that
most students with mental retardation or developmental disabilities will need some
accommodations or modifications. To achieve that, the IEP team is first encouraged to consider
how assistive technology can accommodate for student limitations and can enable the student to
progress without curriculum modifications. Once assistive technology has been considered,
teams consider three levels of curriculum modifications. The first is curriculum adaptation,
which refers to efforts to adapt the curriculum’s presentation and representation or the student’s
engagement with the curriculum (as discussed subsequently). A second level of modification is
curriculum augmentation, where additional content is added to the curriculum to enable students
to progress. Such efforts typically include teaching students additional ‘learning-to-learn’ or
selfregulation strategies that, in turn, enable students to progress more effectively in the
curriculum. Neither of these levels of curriculum modification changes the general curriculum
content. The third level, curriculum alteration, does change the general curriculum to add content
specific to students needs, which might include traditional functional skills or other needed skills
not in the general curriculum. This also, presumably, necessitates the elimination of content in
the general curriculum. For many students with mental retardation, the third level of curriculum
modification (e.g., alternative curriculum) is where planning currently begins, but if students are
to maximally benefit from and progress in the general curriculum,
IEP teams need to consider accommodations and curriculum adaptations and augmentations
before considering alternative curricula. It is also evident that if the general curriculum is broad
enough to cover functional areas, that will limit the need to move to an alternative curriculum.
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Step 3: School-Wide Materials And Instruction The 1997 amendments to the IDEA emphasized school-wide interventions to provide greater
access for all students. School-wide interventions are, quite simply, those that are implemented
throughout the school campus and which benefit all students. With regard to students with
mental retardation gaining access to the general curriculum, there are three schoolwide
interventions that warrant consideration.
3.3 School-Wide Implementation Of High Quality Instructional Strategies.
The implementation of highquality,empirically validated instructional strategiescampus-
wide is a critical feature of providing accessfor students with mental retardation. Too
often,instructional strategies that benefit other students arenot attempted with students who have
mentalretardation. Sometimes, the implementation of suchstrategies is simply, inadvertently, not
considered. Ofgreater concern are those instances in which such anomission is erroneously based
on the assumption that,because of the cognitive demands inherent in aparticular strategy, it is not
deemed “appropriate” forstudents who have mental retardation.
Generally, it is important to remember that just as alignment of curriculum, instruction, and
assessment practices is central to a high quality educational program for students who do not
have a disability (English, 1992), the same is true for students who do have a disability—
including mental retardation.
Instructional strategies that nurture the development of problem solving and critical
thinking skills, as well as those that provide for active learning opportunities are important for all
students. Conversely, the fact that many instructional strategies developed for the purpose of
individualizing instruction for students who have a disability, including mental retardation, might
well be of benefit to all students should not be overlooked. For example, schools would be well
advised to consider the implementation of data-based decision making—the deliberate revision
of daily instruction in accordance with student performance data collected on an ongoing basis
(Farlow & Snell, 1995), throughout their campuses.
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During the course of any given school day, a teacher will utilize a variety of instructional
groupings or arrangements (e.g., whole class instruction, teacherdirected small group instruction,
cooperative learning groups, peer-directed instructional activities, independent seat work)
through which to present lesson content. For students with mental retardation (indeed students
with disabilities in general), “whole-class and independent seat work arrangements often pose
the most problems” (Udvari-Solner, 1993, p.4). Large group instruction and independent
seatwork require all students to maintain attention over extended periods of time, interact only
passively with the information to be learned, and to self-reliantly receive and process information
that is presented in the same manner. To increase the likelihood that students who have mental
retardation will truly have access to the general curriculum, teachers should be encouraged to
diversify their selection of instructional arrangements and not rely solely on these two strategies.
Inherent in the idea of designing instruction that allows opportunities for all students to be
actively involved in assigned work tasks to the greatest meaningful extent possible is the practice
of differentiated instruction. Differentiated instruction involves a teacher implementing a wider
range of learning methodologies, increasing students’ accessibility to instructional materials in a
variety of formats, expanding test-taking parameters, and varying the complexity and nature of
content presented during the course of a unit of study. “(T)he curriculum does not always need to
be modified—even when considering students with more significant
disabilities….Differentiating instruction allows the students a variety of ways to demonstrate
knowledge while continuing to meet the standards and requirements of the class” (Castagnera,
Fisher,Rodifer, & Sax, 1998, p. 21)—that is, while continuing to access the general education
curriculum.
Research has demonstrated that teachers can effectively differentiate curricular content,
the instructional process, product requirements, and/or assessment practices to facilitate students’
access to, and success within, the general curriculum (Kronberg,
1999). Curricular content differentiation might involve applications as straightforward as
reducing the number of math problems assigned to certain students in an elementary class, or
affording students the choice of taking a weekly spelling pre-test to opt out of spelling for a
particular week. Individualized differentiations of content can, also, be achieved by restructured
conceptbased teaching; in partnership with hierarchical questioning techniques, this approach
can result in a larger number of students meaningfully participating in a lesson drawn from the
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general curriculum. Kronberg (1999) refers to the utilization of “fat” and “skinny” questioning
techniques (i.e., “skinny” questions are those that require a one-word or yes or no answer; “fat”
questions require expanded answers, such as synthesis or evaluation of information presented) as
an effective vehicle for involving a class of students of diverse abilities in class discussion.
Differentiating the instructional process can be accomplished through a myriad of techniques
that, themselves, should be implemented school-wide to the benefit of all students, including
providing visual or graphic organizers to accompany oral presentations; incorporating the use of
models, demonstrations, or role play; utilizing teacher presentation cues (e.g., gestural, visual, or
verbal) to emphasize key points; scaffolding key concepts to be learned; and getting students
more actively involved in the learning process, through the implementation of every pupil
response techniques (e.g., lecture response cards, thumbs up / thumbs down) or the incorporation
of manipulatives for student use (Janney & Snell, 2000; Kronberg, 1999; Udvari-Solner, 1993).
In addition to the efficacy of these more direct instructional strategies, research has demonstrated
empirical validation of a number of ecological or environmental adaptations to the physical
conditions in which learning is to take place that can be applied in order to facilitate the access of
students with mental retardation to the general curriculum.
It is commonly accepted that the environmental context of the school and classroom
affects students’ abilities to acquire information and demonstrate what they have learned.
Adaptation of environmental conditions for students with mental retardation enables them to
better attend to and cope with the multitude of demands that typify an ongoing stream of
instruction in the classroom (Ault, Guy, Guess, Bashinski, & Roberts, 1995; Janney & Snell,
2000; Siegel-Causey & Bashinski, 1997; Udvari-Solner, 1993). The most obvious ecological
modifications are those made with students who have sensory impairments in mind. The sensory
characteristics of a learning environment (e.g., lighting, glare, noise level, movement
requirements), just as the modalities of instructional materials, affect other students as well,
however, including non-disabled students.
Positive behavior supports. A second school-wide emphasis is the implementation of positive
behavior supports. Carr et al. (2000) overviewed the literature pertaining to positive behavior
interventions and supports. These authors, noting that problem behaviors like aggression, self-
injury or tantrums have been barriers to the successful integration and inclusion of some people
with cognitive and developmental disabilities, stated that the “goal of positive behavior support
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is to apply behavioral principles in the community in order to reduce problem behaviors and
build appropriate behaviors that result in durable change and a rich lifestyle” (p. 3). The
foundations of positive behavior supports (PBS), these authors noted, were in early efforts to
apply behavioral principles to improve the lives of children with severe problem behaviors, with
particular focus on the role of the functional assessment process to guide the development of
behavioral interventions. Positive behavior supports focus on two primary modes of intervention,
altering the environment before a problem behavior occurs and teaching appropriate behaviors as
a strategy for eliminating the need for problem behaviors to be exhibited (Carr et al., 2000).
Significantly for educators, positive behavior supports have focused considerable attention on
addressing problem behaviors in school settings and in addressing school violence (Horner,
Albin, Sprague, & Todd, 2000; Sugai & Horner, 1994; Turnbull & Turnbull, 2001; Warren,
Edmonson, Turnbull, Sailor, Wickham, & Griggs, 2000) by providing interventions at an
individual, classroom or whole school level. Positive behavior support has been demonstrated to
reduce office referrals in schools, create classroom environments more conducive to learning,
and assist students with behavior problems to improve their behavior. Positive behavior support
involves application of behaviorally based approaches to enhance the capacity of schools,
families, and communities to design environments that improve the fit or link between students
and the environments in which teaching and learning occurs. Attention is focused on creating
and sustaining school environments that improve lifestyle results (personal, health, social,
family, work, recreation, etc.) for all children and youth by making problem behavior less
effective, efficient, and relevant, and desired behavior more functional (Wehmeyer, Wickham, &
Sailor, 2000). Additionally, we would suggest, such schoolwide efforts create a learning climate
in which all children have the opportunity to learn. Universal design. The third school-wide
focus is that of ensuring that educational materials used in school incorporate the principles of
universal design.
Since this has become a focal point for attention in the area of gaining access to the general
curriculum, it is worth examining this issue in greater detail.
Orkwis and McLane (1998) defined ‘universal design for learning’ as “the design of
instructional materials and activities that allows the learning goals to be achievable by
individuals with wide differences in their abilities to see, hear, speak, move, read, write,
understand English, attend, organize, engage, and remember” (p. 9). The onus is on curriculum
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planners and designers to employ principles of universal design to ensure that students with a
wide range of capacities can access, advance, and succeed in the curriculum. Researchers at the
Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST; 1998 - 1999) suggested three essential qualities
of universal design for learning.
These qualities are that the curriculum is designed to:
(1) provide multiple representations of content;
(2) provide multiple options for expression and control; and
(3) provide multiple options for engagement and motivation.
2. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Representation. Researchers at CAST suggested that“universally designed materials accommodate thisdiversity
through alternative representations of keyinformation. Students with different preferences
andneeds can either select the representational mediummost suitable for them, or gather
information from avariety of representational media simultaneously.”
World Wide Web pages designed to be accessible present an example of using multiple
means of representation. One of the benefits of the WWW over traditional mediums is the
capacity to use graphic images in a variety of ways, from icons to hyperlinked pictures to
streamed video. However, for a person who is blind or visually impaired who is using a text –
reader to access the site, graphic depictions may make the site and the information contained
therein inaccessible. As an alternative, accessible web sites include text descriptions of images
and pictures. Similarly, the design of curricular materials should include multiple representations
of important topics, features, or points.
Such multiple representations include a variety of methods of presentation of the material based
on learner needs and characteristics. Students with mental retardation, for example, need print-
based information presented with graphic depictions, free from unnecessary clutter and with key
information repeated or highlighted.
2. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Expression. CAST researchers noted that the dominant means of expression used in schools has been written
expression. However, there are a variety of ways of student responding that could indicate
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progress, including “artwork, photography, drama, music, animation, and video,” (CAST, 1998 –
1999) that would enable students to express their ideas and their knowledge.
Once again, technology promises to provide avenues for expression that have, heretofore, been
unavailable.
3. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Engagement.
Student engagement in learning has long been an indicator of motivation in the
classroom. By the utilization of multiple representation and presentation modes, particularly
those that involve digital representation of knowledge which are graphicallybased and
incorporate video, audio and other multimedia components, student engagement, and as such
student motivation, can be enhanced. Universally designed curriculum takes into account
individual student interests and preferences and individualizes representation, presentation and
response aspects of the curriculum delivery accordingly. Current technologies allow that level of
individualization and, thus, provide greater flexibility in ways for the student to engage in
learning (CAST, 1998 – 1999).
3.4 Universal Desing For Curriculum For Mental Retarded Students
Universal design should be distinguished from simply using assistive technology to
provide access to the general curriculum for students with mental retardation. The use of
assistive technology comes after curriculum materials have been made and, in most cases, after
teachers have planned instruction. The major advantage to universal design for learning is that it
takes place before materials are made and teachers decide how to teach. Access is built-in from
the beginning, thus eliminating the need for many timeconsuming adaptations or purchase of
expensive
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assistive technology devices (Bowe, 2000; CAST, 1998-1999).
Examining some of the seemingly neglected principles of universal design is critical to a
discussion of the applicability of universal design to the education of students with mental
retardation. Most people think of universal design only as captioning videos, offering documents
so that students can change the font face, size and color, or providing texts on computer disks so
that students can listen to them through screen reading software. Providing flexible materials is
certainly an important part of universal design for learning.
However, for students with mental retardation to succeed in accessing the general
curriculum, educators must apply the principles of universal design to other aspects of the
learning experience, including their teaching routines. Based on Bowe’s (2000) examination of
the principles of universal design (which emerged from architecture and technology design) as
they applied to education, Lance and Wehmeyer (2001) developed a list of principles (Table 2)
for use in evaluating the degree to which instructional materials incorporate principles of
universal design. Our purpose here is to expand the discussion about universal design by
examining how teachers might incorporate these principles to increase access to the curriculum
for students with mental retardation.
3. Principle One: Equitable Use.
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The equitable use principle in universal design proposes that the “design” (traditionally referring
to the design of a building or the design of assistive technology) be useful and marketable to
people with a diverse array of needs. In the context of educating students with mental
retardation, this principal proposes that standards, curriculum, instructional interventions and
educational materials be “designed” so that they can be used by students with diverse abilities.
One feature of equitable use is that to the largest degree possible designs should incorporate
features that are necessary for people with disabilities, but which benefit everyone. Thus, as
adapted materials are made available to students with disabilities, there is a need to ensure that
they appear as similar as possible to materials that their peers are using as possible. One reason
that there is an emphasis on designs that benefit everyone is to avoid stigmatizing or segregating
people who need the universal design feature (Bowe, 2000). If students feel singled-out or
stigmatized, they may not be motivated to use the materials, independent of whether those
materials are effective or not. As such, if a student needs a text in electronic form, on audio tape,
or one that is written at a lower reading level, it might be wise to let students have the standard
book to carry and refer to during class discussions. A better solution, more consistent with
school-wide interventions, would be to let all students choose the version of the text with which
they are most comfortable or have access to all versions.
4. Principle Two: Flexibility In Use.
The principle of flexible use suggests that the design should appeal to a wide range of user
preferences and abilities.In relation to education, this principle refers to the need to
accommodate for a wide range of individual learning preferences and abilities. This principle
generally receives the primary focus in discussions of universal design for learning, probably
because it is compatible with other student-centered approaches education, including emphasis in
issues of self-determination and student-directed learning (Wehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998;
Wehmeyer & Sands, 1998). In their explorations of universally designed learning,
Researchers at CAST (1998–1999) emphasized the need for students to have access to materials
in various modalities and levels of complexity, engage in different learning activities, and be
allowed to demonstrate knowledge through multiple means.
Considering the “flexibility in use” principle in material design and instructional planning will
contribute to providing access to the general curriculum for students with mental retardation.
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However, most of the research demonstrating the effectiveness of such flexibility has not
included students with mental retardation and, as such, there is a need to examine these issues
with that population.
3. Principle Three: Simple And Intuitive Use.
This principle refers to the need to design buildings or technology for easy use, independent of a
user’s previous experience, knowledge and ability, language skills or other factors. With regard
to it’s application to the education of students with mental retardation, materials and
interventions should be designed so that directions are explicit and easily understood, with steps
for success clearly communicated in discrete, manageable steps. For example, to facilitate the
success of students with mental retardation in tasks related to the general curriculum in line with
the “simple and intuitive use” principle, teachers should pair written instructions for materials
completion with an oral overview of the task, should model the task or work through sample
problems, and provide picture cues for the steps in a task if possible. Advance organizers, for
example, are an instructional strategy that can be implemented school-wide that provide the type
of information needed to succeed and contribute to ‘simple and intuitive use. Bowe (2000)
identified the strategy of giving students study guides so that they know what information they
should focus on when reading and providing study guides for exams as means to simplify use.
7. Principle Four: Perceptible Information. This principle refers to the need to design features so that information needed for use is available
and perceptible, independent of environmental conditions or the user’s sensory abilities. Most
people probably have, at one time or another, struggled to turn off an unfamiliar alarm clock
(e.g., at a hotel) in the dark and, in the process, come to a fuller understanding of how often
technology in our daily lives violate both the simple and intuitive use and perceptible
information principles! As it applies to the education of students with mental retardation,
curriculum and instructional design should incorporate different modes of presentation and
representation, including graphic, audio, or tactile presentation and representation, as discussed
by the CAST features of universal design, to ensure that student perceptual limitations, whether
they result from in sensory, cognitive or attention deficits or impairments. For example, Bowe
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(2000) noted, instruction must be presented in “digestible” chunks with the most important
information repeated throughout the lesson in as many modes as possible.
8. Principle Five: Tolerance For Error.
One focus of universal design is to minimize the negative consequences resulting from errors.
That is, the design tolerates errors or misuse. In education, this means that students can make
mistakes and still complete the activity and achieve success. Error can be a function of the
student’s capacity to complete the exercise or task successfully, certainly, but also may be related
to temporal or other issues. For example, a computer software program intended to teach reading
that has timed intervals in which students must respond may unintentionally limit learning
opportunities for students who need more time to respond. This feature of universal design is not
often highlighted in discussions around it’s application to education, but may be particularly
important to students with mental retardation and cognitive disabilities.
9. Principle Six: Low Physical Effort.
In universal design as applied to assistive technology, this principle refers to ensuring that
designs “can be used efficiently and comfortably and with a minimum of fatigue” (Bowe, 2000,
p. 40). Universally designed technology devices are those that can be used by people who have
limits to physical stamina or capacity.
One of the reasons that the angles at which ramps leading into buildings are specified by
federal law is to ensure that they are navigable by people who use wheelchairs (or a
walker/stroller or cane) who have limits to their physical strength and endurance.
Certainly physical stamina is less of an issue in education, but curriculum designers do need to
keep in mind that some students, with and without mental retardation, who also have physical
disabilities or poor visual-spatial skills may need to have these features considered if they are to
succeed. We might also recommend that these issues of fatigues be extended to cognitive and
psychological fatigue as well, making sure that instructional sessions fit the attention capacities
of students, and alternating between easy and difficult tasks.
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10. Principle Seven: Size And Space For Approach And Use
The final principle in universal designemphasizes that there is appropriate space and thatspaces
are accessible so that students can physicallyaccess materials and learning activities.
These principles of universal design can (and most likely should) be applied to standard-setting,
curriculum design and planning, and instruction to ensure that all students are better able to
access the curriculum and, we suggest, benefit from that curriculum.
Step 4: Partial School Or Group Instruction Even when school-wide efforts are in place, there will be students who do not progress without
additional supports. The next level of intervention is at the group level, where more targeted
interventions are designed and implemented for smaller groups of students. This includes
classroom-level instructional decisions that focus on lesson and unit design so that all students in
the class will progress, as well as specific learning experiences for groups of students. In order to
adhere to school behavior rules, for example, 9th grade students who recently transitioned to
high school might need specific opportunities to learn what is expected of them when going from
class to class.
Step 5: Individualized Interventions For a small group of students, including many students with mental retardation, there will be a
need to design highly individualized and intensive interventions to enable them to succeed. This
is also the group that will likely need alternative curriculum options. However, these students
should also be involved in school-wide interventions and engaged in learning activities driven by
the general curriculum.
3.5 Summary
The intent of the IDEA access to the general curriculum mandates was to ensure that all
students with disabilities have access to and benefit from a challenging curriculum and are held
to high standards and expectations. If this is to be an outcome achieved by students with mental
retardation, educators and other stakeholders in the education process need to focus on every
aspect of the education process, from the planning and design of curriculum and standards, the
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implementation of such curriculum and standards at the building and campus level, the
educational decision-making process, and the design and implementation of instruction.
Materials will need to take into account all aspects of universal design, and there will need to be
school-wide and partial-school interventions and instructional activities. In the end, it is likely
that such efforts will not only ensure that students with mental retardation gain access to the
general curriculum, but that all students benefit.
3.6 Check Your Progress
1. Explain A Multi-Level Model
2. Explain: Curriculum Planning And Design
3. Explain Individualized Educational Planning
4. Explain: School-Wide Materials And Instruction
5. Explain School-Wide Implementation Of High Quality Instructional
Strategies.
6. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Representation.
3. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Expression.
4. Curriculum Provides Multiple Means Of Engagement.
7. Explain Universal Desing For Curriculum For Mental Retarded Students
8. Principle One: Equitable Use.
9. Principle Two: Flexibility In Use.
10. Explain Principle Three: Simple And Intuitive Use.
11. Principle Four: Perceptible Information.
12. Principle Five: Tolerance For Error.
13. Principle Six: Low Physical Effort.
14. Explain: Partial School Or Group Instruction
15. Explain: Individualized Interventions
35. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.36.1. Points for discussion
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522
Unit 4: Adaptation, Accommodation And Modification For Co-Curriculum
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Accommodations
4.2.1 Instruction And Assessment
4.2.2 Reading
4.2.3 Listening
4.3 Modifications
4.3.1 Impact Of Modifications
4.3.2 Secondary Programs
4.3.3 Postsecondary Programs
4.3.4 Modified Occupational Completion Points
4.3.5 Planning For Individual Students
4.4 Reporting
4.5 Getting Started
4.5.1 Start With The Individual
4.5.2 Anticipate Student Needs
4.5.3 Plan For Each Activity
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4.6 Are Modifications Needed?
4.7 Collaborate With Others
4.8 Summary
4.9 Check Your Progress
4.10 references
524
4.1 Introduction
Students with disabilities must be provided the support and services they need to fully
participate in career education and adult general education programs. Students with disabilities
frequently require only small changes in the way their work is accomplished to be successful in
their instruction or training program. Accommodations can help to “level the playing field” and
remove barriers to successful adult living and employment. Modifications in program outcomes
may enable a student with a disability to reach his or her full potential.
Accommodations
Accommodations involve a wide range of techniques and support systems that help
individuals with disabilities work around their limitations that result from a disability. Persons
who are blind may need braille, large print, or recorded books. Persons who use wheelchairs may
need a ramp or elevator to move independently around the community or in buildings.
Individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing may need a sign language interpreter.
Accommodations remove barriers so that individuals with disabilities have the opportunity to
participate fully in career education and adult general education programs and ultimately
complete requirements for a specific occupation, diploma, or certificate.
Accommodations provide individuals with disabilities with access to educational and
training programs and opportunities for successful employment. Expectations and performance
standards are not lowered when accommodations are provided. For example, a student with a
disability may only need more time to complete course requirements for a specific occupational
training program. Individuals with disabilities often require accommodations in three general
areas:
• Instruction and assessment
• Learning and work environment
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• Job and task requirements
Modifications
Modifications are not the same as accommodations. Modifications involve changes to
program outcomes that relate to the specific content, level of skill, or number of skills required
by the program.
Requirements for academic or basic education high school courses may not be modified
for students with disabilities if the courses are used to meet graduation requirements for a
standard diploma. Rule 6A- 6.0312(1), F.A.C., states: “Modifications to basic courses shall not
include modifications to the curriculum frameworks or student performance standards.”
However, if a student is working toward a special diploma, modified academic courses are
acceptable under Rule 6A-1.09961, F.A.C.
Career education courses are different at the high school level. Rule 6A- 6.0312(1),
F.A.C., authorizes the use of modifications for career education (vocational) programs. Modified
occupational completion points may be developed for students in conjunction with their IEP.
Each district must develop an approach to MOCPs that meets the needs of their local
communities and students. Secondary students may use modified career education courses to
meet requirements of a standard diploma.
Course outcomes may be modified through the IEP process for secondary students with
disabilities who are enrolled in a postsecondary program if the student is earning secondary (high
school) credit for the program. This is commonly known as “shared enrollment.”
Course outcomes and student performance standards may not be modified for adult students
enrolled in postsecondary career education or adult general education. When students are
enrolled in programs in vocational education for students with disabilities, supported competitive
employment for adults with disabilities, or adult general education for adults with disabilities, the
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particular outcomes and student performance standards that the student must master for an LCP
or OCP must be identified throughout the student’s AIEP process.
Legal Basis
Educational institutions and communities have opened their doors to individuals with
disabilities in many ways. Federal and state laws and regulations, such as the following, have
been enacted to ensure that individuals with disabilities have access to an appropriate educational
program and are able to participate fully in all aspects of society:
• The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act provides a clear mandate for identifying,
assessing, and serving all students with disabilities, ages 3–21. Students who meet
eligibility criteria for one or more of the disabilities defined in the act must be provided
special education and related services and supplementary aids and program
modifications at no cost to the parents or student.
• Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act guarantees that a person with a disability will not be
discriminated against in any program, educational service, or activity receiving federal
funds. The institution must provide supplementary aids and services needed by the
person with a disability. These rights extend to students with disabilities as defined by
Section 504.
• The Americans with Disabilities Act supports individuals with disabilities so that they are
able to participate fully in all aspects of society. This act prohibits discrimination in
employment and requires reasonable accommodations in hiring practices, access to
training and programs, and promotion policies that apply to individuals with
disabilities. Auxiliary aids and services must be provided when necessary. The ADA
also addresses the accessibility of services, commercial buildings and operations, and
telecommunications.
• Florida’s state laws and regulations support the mandates of the federal laws. Rule 6A-6.0312,
F.A.C., Course Modifications;
Rule 6A-1.0943, F.A.C., Statewide Assessment for Students with Disabilities; and Rule 6A-
1.09431, F.A.C., Procedures for Special Exemption from Graduation Test Requirement
for Students with Disabilities, specify allowable accommodations and modifications in
527
public school programs. Section 1003.428(8), F.S., provide criteria for determining if a
student with a disability who has an IEP is eligible for a waiver from graduation test
result requirements.
• Rule 6A-10.040, F.A.C., Basic Skill Requirements for Postsecondary Career Certificate
Education, provides for appropriate accommodations and the use of alternative assessment
instruments for students with disabilities. The Florida Educational Equity Act and Rule 6A-
19.001, F.A.C., prohibit discrimination on the basis of race, national origin, sex, handicap, or
marital status against a student or an employee in the state system of public education and
support equal access to programs (See appendix A).
Managing Time and Classroom Activities
Many teachers feel that having students with disabilities increases their workload. You
may worry that you don’t have enough time to attend to individual needs and provide one-on-one
assistance. You will find that employing the following classroom management techniques can
help students assume more responsibility for their own learning.
Routines and Structure
Use regular instructional routines and structure to provide a predictable learning environment
and increase independence of students. For example, consistent beginning and ending procedures
help students know what to expect and how to proceed. Give students a voice in making class
rules and setting routines to increase ownership and cooperation.
Some career education classes are run like a business, with a chief executive officer (CEO) and
support staff who have identified job requirements and descriptions. Students switch leadership
positions so they have an opportunity to learn and practice all essential skills.
Individualized Responsibilities and Schedules
Individualized learning allows teachers to provide some students challenging activities for
advanced learning as well as remedial activities for others. Students can work on their own when
class assignments are provided on an individual basis. Students will need to be able to access
learning materials and supplies independently. Computer-assisted learning programs may
supplement instruction and practice opportunities.
528
Students will need opportunities for individual feedback and progress reports. You may want to
provide students with a checklist of curriculum framework competencies for the specific
occupational program or a list of skills, concepts, and requirements for an academic course.
Students can keep track of their own accomplishments.
Cooperative Learning and Teaming
Allowing students to work in pairs, small groups, or teams is an effective way of managing a
class with diverse learners. Students can contact each other for support or reinforce what has
been taught. Volunteers may also be used to provide tutoring and additional practice.
Physical Layout
Flexible use of classroom space helps to provide individuals with quiet areas or special corners
for group cooperative learning. Arranging independent work areas so that materials and
equipment are readily available can facilitate the flow of instruction and practice activities.
Safety issues are critical in programs where the use of power equipment and tools or chemicals is
required. Students must be taught the proper procedures for the use, maintenance, and storage of
these materials. Individual accommodations may be needed for certain tasks. Warning lights may
need to be supplemented with auditory or vibrating signals. Poison signs may need to be color
coded or provided in braille. Storage areas with clearly marked containers or outlines showing
where particular tools should be hung on the wall are easier for students to manage.
Teaching Techniques
You can increase the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction by using the teaching techniques
described in this chapter. These descriptions generally follow the categories described by
Kaméenui and Carnine in their book, Effective Teaching Strategies That Accommodate Diverse
Learners (1998). A variety of specific instructional techniques are described for each category.
These techniques continue to be supported by research that shows how they increase the
likelihood that all students, including those with disabilities and those who are at risk for failure,
will have a more successful learning experience.
Focus on the Essentials
The terms “key concepts” or “essential skills” are sometimes used by educators to convey the
importance of helping students to learn concepts and skills that will generalize and serve as links
to future learning. You can use the concept of essential skills to plan instruction more efficiently.
529
Once you have identified the essential skills, you can plan learning activities that will help all
students meet these expectations. In Florida, the Next Generation Sunshine State Standards
describe what students must learn and be able to do in the K–12 program. Curriculum
frameworks with student performance standards based on the Next Generation Occupational
Standards for Career and Technical Education are provided for career education and adult
general education programs.
Focusing on the essentials of learning begins with the planning process used by the teacher. The
University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning has developed three planning routines that
use a combination of graphic organizers and specific implementation strategies (Lenz, 1997).
These help teachers lay out the key concepts and critical skills as they plan a whole course
(Course Organizer™), a unit of instruction (Unit Organizer™), or a single lesson (Lesson
Organizer™). Teachers and students use the graphic organizers to guide learning and monitor
understanding of the instructional content. The example of a Unit Organizer shown on the next
page illustrates how this can be used in a career education course. This diagram is part of a Unit
Organizer for learning about trusses and rafters.
By laying out the important ideas and critical details graphically, you can help students see how
the ideas are connected to each other. Don’t forget to label the lines between the ideas to show
how the ideas link together.
Use Explicit Strategies
You can help students learn a new concept or skill more easily by teaching them to follow a set
of procedures or steps. The steps should reflect an efficient and effective way to complete a task
or apply a concept, much as an expert would do. For example, if you want students to learn how
to enter data into an accounting system or how to develop plans for constructing a roof, teach a
set of steps or procedures to follow using vocabulary students understand. As appropriate, start
with a concrete model and demonstrate and describe how each step is accomplished.
When a new concept or procedure is introduced, the steps should be modeled using a think-aloud
technique in which the teacher describes the mental processes and physical actions. As students
are expected to apply the new learning, the steps can be prompted by using a cue card, a verbal
reminder, or job aid.
Some steps and strategies are too broad. Telling students to “brainstorm before writing” does not
provide enough guidance. A more useful strategy provides students specific direction in
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determining the purpose of the communication, using different ways to generate ideas, applying
techniques for elaboration, and evaluating the writing plan.
You will need to look at your own instructional materials and evaluate the use of explicit steps
and strategies. If explicit strategies are included, are they clearly described? Do they have narrow
or broad applications? Think of the needs of new students. Would they be able to use the
strategies that are included? Would they need more assistance? You may need to modify the
instructional materials and add steps and strategies, or you may need to change the ones that are
included. Finding strategies that are just right is not an easy task. Try them out with students and
revise them if they don’t work.
4.2 Accommodations
Implementing accommodations involves anticipating problems students with disabilities
may have with instruction or assessment activities. Students may need to use some type of
assistive technology to overcome or mitigate the effects of their disability. Assistive technology
encompasses a wide range of tools and techniques. Some low-tech tools include pencil and tool
grips, color-coding, and picture diagrams. High-tech tools include electronic equipment, such as
a talking calculator, computer with word prediction software, and variable speech control audio
recorder for playback. The need for specific types of assistive technology is determined through
an evaluation process. There are many ideas for using assistive technology included in the
examples of accommodations in this chapter.
In K–12 programs, the need for assistive technology is addressed in the IEP or Section
504 plan. Specially trained personnel are available in the school district, FDLRS Associate
Centers, and the Technology State Loan Library (FDLRS-TSLL). In postsecondary programs,
the student may assist in identifying needed technology with help from the institution. The
Florida Alliance for Assistive Services and Technology (FAAST) is a private, not-for-profit
corporation that provides a statewide system of technology-related assistance for individuals of
all ages. Descriptions of these resources and their websites are included in Appendix B:
Resources.
It is important to remember that accommodations and assistive technology only change the way
the student practices or demonstrates what has been learned. The expectations and criteria for
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evaluation of the final product or performance should be similar to what is used to evaluate the
performance of individuals without disabilities.
4.2.1 Instruction And Assessment
The first step when considering accommodations for a student with disabilities is to think
of how the student will be expected to learn and demonstrate new knowledge and skills.
Frequently, small changes in the way instruction is delivered can have a powerful impact on
student learning.
Suggestions for accommodations in specific areas of instruction and assessment are found on the
following pages:
• Reading (pp. 39–40)
• Listening (pp. 40–42)
• Writing (pp. 42–43)
• Mathematics (pp. 43–44)
• Completing assignments (pp. 45–46)
• Test preparation (pp. 46–47)
• Taking tests (pp. 47–50)
4.2.2 Reading
Many students with disabilities do not read well. Some may still struggle with word
identification or reading comprehension. Others may be able to understand information when
they listen to it but cannot read materials required for class assignments. Some students have
difficulty deciding what is important to remember in passages or textbooks they are reading.
Students with sensory impairments have special needs related to reading.
Students who have difficulty with reading may need:
√ Audio books or someone to record or read the text aloud
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√ A card or frame to focus on the words and block out other parts of the text
√ Assistive devices that translate text to speech (reading pen, Kurzweil reader, scanner with
character recognition software)
√ Videotapes or movies that present the same information
√ Interactive CDs or computer-assisted training with auditory and visual cues rather than written
descriptions Students who have difficulties understanding important ideas may need:
√ Sticky notes, removable highlighter tape, or highlighter pen to mark key points in the
textbook or manual
√ A list of important vocabulary with definitions
√ A demonstration of steps and procedures
√ A study guide to follow for independent reading
√ Complex information divided into chunks or sections
√ Hands-on activities, visual aids, pictures, or diagrams to provide alternate ways of learning
abstract concepts or complex information
Students who are blind or visually impaired may need:
√ Audio versions of text
√ Speaking computers with auditory output
√ Books and instructional materials in braille
√ Large print versions of materials
√ Class handouts and materials in an embossed format
√ A special tilt-top desk or book stand to hold materials for reading
√ Specialized equipment (optical enhancer, video magnifier, audio recorder)
4.2.3 Listening
In many classrooms, teachers present instruction by lecturing or through facilitating
discussion among students. Some students with disabilities may need accommodations due to
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difficulties with maintaining attention, following ideas, and interpreting information presented
orally.
Students who have difficulty listening may need:
√ New vocabulary introduced prior to a lesson and a glossary of terms
√ Overview of lessons or advance organizers
√ Material presented in a logical manner and with explicit cues to shift from one aspect to
the next
√ Information broken down into steps or key components
√ Important ideas written on the board or overhead transparencies with different colors for
emphasis or coding
√ Active involvement through discussion, small group interaction, or problem-solving
activities
√ Repetition and summarization of important points, particularly at the conclusion of the
lecture or discussion
√ Structured organizers for notetaking, such as a copy of presentation slides, outline of
lecture, or graphic organizer
√ Copies of notes taken by other students in the class
√ Use of an audio recorder to record class lectures
√ Time to meet with the instructor after class for clarification
Students who are blind or visually impaired may need:
√ Descriptions of demonstrations
√ Real-life examples and concrete materials
√ Use of an audio recorder to record class lectures and discussions
√ Copies of class notes taken by other students in the class
4.3 Modifications
4.3.1 Impact Of Modifications
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Modified Occupational Completion Points
Modifications to the expectations or outcomes of the curriculum may be necessary for a student
with a disability. Modifications may include modified program or course requirements, concepts
or skills significantly below the targeted grade level, or alternate curriculum goals. Modifications
to curriculum outcomes should be considered only after all appropriate accommodations have
been tried. In K–12 programs, only students with disabilities who have IEPs may be allowed to
have modified program outcomes.
Impact of Modifications
When considering modifications, it is important to evaluate the long-range impact of changing
expectations. Students with disabilities who are not challenged to reach the same level of
achievement as their nondisabled peers may not be able to earn a standard diploma in high
school or a career certificate or degree from a postsecondary institution. Modifications may also
limit the types of careers and occupations in which students can find work.
4.3.2 Secondary Programs
In high school programs, academic or basic education course requirements may not be
modified if the course is required for a standard diploma. Requirements for a traditional 24-credit
standard diploma include passing a set of required courses, having at least a 2.0 grade point
average, and passing the state’s required tests. Some students with disabilities may be granted a
waiver from the requirement for a passing score on the FCAT 2.0 Grade 10 Reading test and the
EOC Assessments. Under special circumstances, a student with disability may be exempt from
taking the test. (See chapter one for more information). If the student is not working toward a
standard diploma and the IEP team determines that the student will benefit from participating in
the regular course, then requirements may be modified on an individual basis. However, a
modified basic education course will not meet graduation requirements for a standard diploma.
If a high school student with disabilities requires significant modifications in the
curriculum, a special diploma may be a good choice. For a special diploma, the local school
district specifies the required courses. Students may use ESE or modified courses based on the
benchmarks or access points of the Next Generation Sunshine State Standards to meet special
diploma requirements.
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4.3.3 Postsecondary Programs
In general, requirements in postsecondary programs can not be modified. School districts
and Florida’s colleges may vary up to ten percent of the intended outcomes for the curriculum
frameworks for job preparatory programs, although this does not apply to frameworks for
regulated programs requiring federal or state licensure or certification, such as nursing and
cosmetology. Adult general education program course standards may also vary up to ten percent
of the intended outcomes. These changes apply to all students, not just students with disabilities.
As described in the first chapter, there are a variety of programs for adults designed to
address their learning needs. In specialized programs for adults with disabilities, student
performance standards are selected on an individual basis for the customized program. The
student’s individual needs are identified, and individualized goals and objectives are determined
through the AIEP process.
4.3.4 Modified Occupational Completion Points
Career education programs are different at the high school level. The student
performance standards may be modified as long as they are aimed at fulfilling the requirements
of the specific job selected by the individual student. Teams may modify the curriculum and
identify a completion point that falls between established completion points, known as modified
occupational completion points. These selected standards will enable the student to develop
marketable skills leading to competitive employment.
Secondary students with disabilities pursuing a standard or special diploma are eligible
for MOCPs, which must be determined on an individual basis through the IEP in support of the
student’s postsecondary goals. The intended outcomes and student performance standards for the
student must be specified on an individual basis and maintained in the student’s file. MOCPs
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provide an opportunity to match the interests, abilities, and special needs of the student to a job
in the community.
Districts have the option of developing MOCPs. Career education and exceptional
student educators first establish a commitment of the district administration to implement
MOCPs. They must develop district policy, procedures, and technical assistance materials related
to the specific needs of students and the local community. District job charts/ competency lists
are also developed by a team with representation from career education, exceptional student
education, business/industry, guidance, and vocational rehabilitation, as well as vocational
evaluators, parents, and others to reflect local job market needs. Licensure/ certification career
and technical programs—such as cosmetology, licensed practical nursing, and child care—do not
allow modified occupational completion points.
Course outcomes may be modified for secondary students who are enrolled in a
postsecondary program if the student is earning high school credit. This is known as shared
enrollment.
4.3.5 Planning For Individual Students
Deciding whether to modify the outcomes of a student’s career education job preparatory
program must be based on a review of the student’s strengths, experiences, and needs. It’s
important to review vocational evaluation information including academic levels, student
progress in prevocational experiences, exploratory courses, practical arts courses, and work
experiences. If prior vocational experiences are limited, students may need to have opportunities
to experience several different training programs. Short-term career shadowing may be used, or
students may complete sample assignments and activities in different areas within each program.
The student’s program should be selected based on the results of the evaluations.
Accommodations, such as extended time, alternate instructional strategies, or other options,
should be explored before identifying MOCPs on the IEP.
537
The decision to use MOCPs is usually made after the student is enrolled, based on
evaluation of progress. The IEP may first address generic competencies. MOCPs may enable the
student to participate in a regular career education course rather than in a specialized course.
When MOCPs are considered, it is important to obtain the expertise of career and technical
instructors.
A list of specific student performance standards to be mastered by the student each year
is developed, along with a plan for evaluating and documenting student progress. Documentation
may include performance standards checklists, progress charts, district checklists, and
curriculum-based vocational assessment rating forms.
4.4 Reporting
Students with disabilities may be reported as a “completer” of an OCP or MOCP.
Students who demonstrate mastery of all of the intended outcomes and student performance
standards identified in the curriculum frameworks for a particular OCP may be reported as a
completer of that OCP. Students who demonstrate mastery of all of the intended outcomes and
student performance standards identified through the IEP process for that MOCP may be
reported as a completer of that MOCP.
The district determines the type of certificate that is issued to students with disabilities who
complete MOCPs. You may find that completed CBVA rating forms are very useful in
communicating an individual student’s skills to a prospective employer.
4.5 Getting Started
4.5.1 Start With The Individual
For K–12 students with disabilities, the IEP includes a description of accommodations
and modifications needed by the student. Forms used for IEPs in individual school districts vary
in the way the information is documented. The classroom accommodations may be listed
separately, or they may be included in statements that describe annual goals, program or course
modifications, supplementary aids and services, and test accommodations. All teachers who have
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responsibility for educating the student can get a copy of the IEP and use the information to
guide their plans. A Section 504 plan incudes a description of the student’s accommodations.
Postsecondary and adult students with disabilities who request accommodations can be
assisted through personnel from student services or the office of services for students with
disabilities. Obtaining assistance does not follow the formal IEP process required for high school
students because the student must self-identify, provide documentation, and request the
accommodations. Reasonable accommodations must be provided. An AIEP, a career plan, a
Section 504 accommodations plan, or a list of needed accommodations document the student’s
needs.
The excerpt from a sample IEP for a high school student on this page shows how
accommodations may be documented. The student has specific learning disabilities and requires
assignments and tests to be presented orally, instructions to be repeated, and the use of text-to-
speech software.
4.5.2 Anticipate Student Needs
539
Once you have read the individual plan and pertinent information in the student record or
interviewed the student, you can use the information when you are planning instruction for your
classroom. If more than one student with disabilities is enrolled in the same class, it is a good
idea to make a chart for your plan book with the names of students and their accommodations.
This will serve as an easy reference.
When planning individual lessons, projects, or large units of instruction, think about what
students are expected to learn and the kinds of activities that will be used. Also think about the
types of tests or performance assessments to be used to measure student progress. As you make
these decisions, you can check the accommodations chart to see what students will need to be
successful. It makes sense to make a note in your plans so you will have sufficient time to gather
or prepare any special materials or equipment. If Suzanne, Cindy, and Zeke were enrolled in the
same class, the teacher would need to make a copy of notes for Zeke, obtain the audio materials
or arrange to have them recorded for Suzanne and Cindy, and get the class handouts formatted in
braille for Cindy. The ESE or student services department should be able to provide assistance.
540
4.5.3 Plan For Each Activity
When planning instruction for students, you will need to consider the specific kinds of
accommodations that will be needed. If you have already located alternate materials or
equipment, you may only need to prepare study guides or cue cards. Many accommodations take
no preparation at all. They only require that you remember to provide the prompts or assistance
the student needs.
Don’t forget that many of the accommodations suggested in this manual may benefit other
students in your class. Here’s some help. As you look at the competencies and activities, ask the
following questions:
• How will instruction be delivered?
• What materials will students be expected to use?
• What kinds of activities will be used?
• What kinds of practice will students have?
• How will the students be assessed?
• What kind of learning environment will be needed?
Once you are clear about your expectations and plans, you are ready to think about the
accommodations.
Will the student with disabilities be able to participate in the activities and master the objectives
of this lesson if I:
• Change the way instruction is delivered?
• Change the materials to be used?
• Change the way the student must respond?
• Increase support in the learning environment?
• Change the physical features of the room?
• Change the behavior management strategies?
• Change the schedule or adjust time demands?
• Change the assessment procedures?
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4.5.4 Reflect on the Impact
It is important to continue to monitor the impact of accommodations. Sometimes students
will make such positive gains that accommodations are no longer necessary. On the other hand,
some students continue to have difficulty even with accommodations. Reflect on the impact of
accommodations by asking yourself the following questions:
• Did the student actually use and take advantage of the accommodation?
• Was the student able to participate fully in the activity because of the accommodation?
• Was the student able to master the student performance standards of the course because of
the accommodation?
• Did the accommodation help the student to feel that he or she belongs in the class?
4.6 Are Modifications Needed?
In most cases, accommodations are sufficient for students with disabilities to be
successful in the classroom or workplace. However, you may find that some students need
modified requirements or expectations. Remember that modifications can have a significant
impact on the outcomes the student will be able to achieve.
Here’s a process to follow if you think that a student with disabilities needs modified
expectations:
1. If the student is in a K–12 program, check the student’s IEP to see what kinds of
modifications are needed for the curriculum. The student may be working below grade
level, working on alternate standards known as access points, or have other educational
needs that must be addressed.
2. If the student is in an adult education program, confer with the student and consult with
student services personnel in the school to find out if other programs are appropriate for this
student.
3. If the K-12 student needs modifications, try to work them into the regular activities and
experiences in your classroom. Help the student with disabilities to continue to feel part
of the class.
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4.7 Collaborate With Others
Collaboration is a must when working with students with disabilities. Responsibility for
the student’s educational program rests with many individuals. Some schools have special
education teachers or learning specialists who provide consultation services. Other schools
schedule common planning periods so teachers can work together. Professional support from
staff in guidance, health, vision, or speech/language can be obtained, if needed.
Collaboration or consultation of professional staff and parents is sometimes identified on a K–12
student’s IEP as a service. This designation is intended to ensure that these individuals meet or
confer on a regular basis and keep informed of the progress or needs of the student.
Collaboration might be targeted toward general problem solving, identifying needed resources,
or monitoring the effectiveness and impact of the instructional program and the
accommodations. Documentation of the process and outcomes of collaboration must be
maintained.
Support for school personnel may also be included on the K–12 student’s IEP. Support
may involve services that are provided directly to the general education teacher, special
education teacher, or other school personnel to assist a student with a disability to be involved or
progress in the general curriculum. Support may include training or professional development
activities to ensure that school personnel have the knowledge and skills needed to help the
student. Support may also involve consultant services, collaborative teaching, or assistance from
a paraprofessional or teacher aide. Special equipment or materials, such as a braille writer, may
also be needed by school personnel to provide accommodations needed by the student.
As the instructor, you have the expertise in academic or career education programs.
Special education or student services personnel can identify techniques that work with students
with disabilities and identify resources to help you as you teach In adult programs, support
services are often more limited. Meetings about individual students occur on an as-needed basis.
You may find assistance from other teachers in your program. You may also need to access
community agencies, such as vocational rehabilitation or mental health facilities.
4.8 Summary
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Teachers can increase the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction by using the instructional
techniques described in this chapter. These techniques have been proven to increase the
likelihood that all students can achieve their goals. Using appropriate assessment procedures can
help to ensure that the progress of students with disabilities is accurately and adequately
documented.
4.9 Check Your Progress 1. Explain ACCOMMODATIONS
2. Explain Instruction and Assessment
3. Explain Reading
4. Explain Listening
5. Explain MODIFICATIONS
6. Explain Impact of Modifications
7. Explain Secondary Programs
8. Explain Modified Occupational Completion Points
9. Explain Postsecondary Programs
10. Explain Planning for Individual Students
11. Explain Reporting
12. Explain GETTING STARTED
13. Explain Start with the Individual
14. Explain Anticipate Student Needs
15. Explain Plan for Each Activity
16. Explain Are Modifications Needed?
17. Explain Collaborate with Others
37. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.38.1. Points for discussion
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Australia (2001). South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability
Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
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Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
71. Department of Health and Children. (1999). Children First: National Guidelines for the
Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
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Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
73. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
74. Dewey, J. (1959). My pedagogic creed. In M. S. Dorkin (ed.) Dewey on education. New
York: Teacher’s College Press.
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75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
76. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
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Unit 5: Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for School
Subjects
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Concept Of Curricular Adaptations
5.3 Curriculum Adaptations
5.4 Teachers Teaching Content Using Diverse Strategies-
5.5 Students Expressing Learning In Diverse Ways-
5.6 Need For Curriculum Adaptations
5.7 Strategies Of Curricular Adaptation For An Inclusive Classroom
5.8 Mathematics
5.9 Environmental Sciences (Evs)
5.10 Language
5.11 General Strategies And Suggestions
5.12 Strategies And Suggestions Related To The Classroom Environment
5.13 Strategies And Suggestions Related To Behavior
5.14 Strategies And Suggestions Related To Organization
5.15 Strategies And Suggestions Related To Motivation
5.16 A GUIDE TO ADAPTATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS Of School
Subject
5.16.1 Adaptations
5.16.2 Modifications
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5.17 When To Use Modifications
5.18 Examples Of Modifications
5.19 Grading And Reporting When There Are Modifications
5.20 Summary
5.21 Check Your Progress
5.22 references
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5.1 Introduction
In recent years, increasing focus on inclusion has brought significant attention from
educators, policy-makers, researchers and economists, to schools and classrooms in India.
Constitutional provisions, legal mandates such as the Right to Education (RTE), 2009, Persons
with Disabilities (PWD) Act, 1995 and policy measures to make improvements in India’s
education system, accessed by over 125,059,229 students as per UDISE (Unified District
Information System for Education), 2013) are being implemented. The aim of all these initiatives
is to enable effective academic and social participation of CWSN (Children with Special Needs).
The classroom offers a dynamic, productive space where ideas, values, information, knowledge
are shared and conveyed. Organization of the class and interactions amongst its fundamental
components i.e., the students, teacher and curriculum-transactions, create potential for the group
to move from a state of not knowing to one of knowing. Educational initiatives introduced to
classrooms such as Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), inclusive
5.2 Concept Of Curricular Adaptations
Prof. Anita Julka* education and evaluative interventions suchas National Council of
Educational Researchand Training (NCERT) learning indicators arealso amongst the initiatives
taken to improveteaching-learning in our classrooms. In light ofthe introduction of these
educational innovations,the attention drawn and the urgency to makeclassrooms better call for
revisiting and revisingpractices, including (1) planning, (2) methods ofteaching and (3)
assessments, that the classroomshave been following so far.Creating an inclusive culture in
classroom willinvolve attending to the curriculum, which includesthe components of a course of
study. These consistof the syllabus, textbooks and needed teachinglearning materials, teaching
strategies/processesand assessment and evaluation processes. Indiscussing the efforts in
curricular developmentand reform, National Curriculum Framework(NCF) 2005 underscores the
significance of makingcurriculum “an inclusive and meaningful experiencefor children” stating
“this requires a fundamentalchange in how we think of learners and the processof learning.”
Attending to curriculum to define theclassroom culture and the approach to the
teachinglearningprocesses is thus a significant aspect ofteacher’s work in fostering inclusivity in
their workwith students.The teachers in an inclusive school have to teach allchildren together in
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a class. It is the responsibility ofthe school to provide a flexible curriculum that canbe accessed
by all students including CWSN. It isimportant that the school should provide
enablingexperiences so that children experience successin learning and achievement up to their
potential.This is only possible if the teachers respond tothe diversities present in an inclusive
classroomthrough curriculum adaptations.
5.3 Curriculum Adaptations Curriculum adaptation involves differentiation to meet the needs of all students. The
content, the teaching process, assessment and evaluation, and the physical environment may be
modified to help students to achieve success in the classroom. The kind of activities chosen by
the teacher, including group activities, must be flexible and reflect the background knowledge of
small groups or individual students. The following shows the adaptations that are required in
different areas for inclusive pedagogy. However, the two terms adaptation and modification
related to curriculum create some amount of confusion, perhaps misunderstanding. While
adaptation refers to adjusting assessments, material, curriculum or classroom environment, to
accommodate a student’s needs to enable him/ her to participate in and achieve the teaching-
learning goals, modifications involve making changes to learning goals, teaching processes,
assignments and/or assessments to accommodate a student’s learning needs. For example, use of
audio tapes, electronic texts where available, having peer or a classmate to assist with class
activities, or simply reorganizing seating of a child who is unable to be attentive, is easily
distracted or distracts others in the classroom would be adaptations, changing the assignment to
accommodate a student’s learning needs: allowing use of letter-cards to spell words as a
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modification to saying the spelling aloud, allow the student with intellectual impairment to
utilize concrete and/or more hands-on experiences, changing the conceptual difficulty level for
some students would be modifications. In case of content, teaching and assessment, the
following are some examples of curricular adaptations that indicate that these adaptations can be
used for all children in the classroom and are not limited to CWSN. These strategies create a
universal design of learning in inclusive classrooms.
5.4 Teachers Teaching Content Using Diverse Strategies- These include strategies like verbal,visual, kinesthetically, written, proceeding
fromsimple to complex, concrete to abstract, step by step,scaffolding, concept maps, projects,
group work,peer tutoring, using prior knowledge, brainstorming,dramatisation, giving extra time,
giving alternativeactivities, drill activities, shortening assignments,organizing excursions/ trips,
using large fonts,Braille or tacitly coded material, toys or blocks,carbon or xerox copy of notes,
hand puppets, real lifeexperiences, real objects, multiple choice questions,children’s literature,
magazines and journals, etc.
5.5 Students Expressing Learning In Diverse Ways-
These include strategies like oral, written,tactual, gestures, drawing, acting, ICT,
framingquestions, paired reading, storytelling, song,rhymes, role play, discussions, debates,
languagegames, flash cards, quizzes, graphic organizers,outlining passages, highlighting, and
paper cutting/folding, etc.
Using supplementary material like artifacts, calculators/talking calculators, Taylor frame,
abacus, Brailler, geometrical kit, Geo – board, Tactile board, Geometric shape board (for circle,
graph, representation), Tactile graph sheet (for bar-graph, histograph etc), 3-d blocks and figures,
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manipulatives, flash cards or pictures on paper, posters, chalkboard, projection screens,
computers, books on tape and computerized text reader, screen readers, voice synthesis,
scanners, daisy books, multimedia gadgets like CDs, MP3s, talking watches and talking clocks,
videos/movies, modeling material like clay, textured objects/raised line paper, games and
puzzles, etc, can help all children learn.
5.6 Need For Curriculum Adaptations
As a result of Right to Education Act, 2009, the composition of classrooms is changing.
Students with varying levels of abilities cannot, and should not, be taught in the same manner.
Without adaptations/modifications, some children in your classrooms would never be challenged
to perform upto their potential, while others may not be able to ever experience success.
Curriculum adaptations involve effective teaching in the classroom that takes into consideration
the individual needs of all children including CWSN and learning difficulties. It has also been
seen that adaptations if carried out effectively facilitate both academic and social participation in
class activities and can be used across various settings to facilitate success. Adaptations can also
help in creating partnerships where parents and teachers can work together to evaluate/
implement adaptations.
5.7 Strategies Of Curricular Adaptation For An Inclusive Classroom
In an inclusive classroom environment, quality education would depend upon a number
of factors. Crucial amongst these are understanding of special needs of learners, infrastructural
facilities, modified environment that is warm, welcoming and inclusive, trained motivated
teachers, flexible educational content (what is being taught), strategies for teaching and
evaluating that meet the needs of all children that focus on meaning, active learning and
interaction, sufficient teaching time and its optimal use by teachers, access of every child to
teaching learning materials and continuous onsite support to the teacher by specialists if required.
The following are examples of some needs and strategies for curricular adaptations for CWSN.
5.8 Mathematics
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1. To make the child learn the concept of ‘Time’, several real life examples can be given.
Children can be taken out in the morning, at noon and then in the evening on a sunny day, to feel
the difference between different phases of the day.
2. To teach ‘Commutative property of addition’ put two different things like toffees and balls in
two different buckets.
3. Then the children can be asked to count both the materials and add. For example, two toffees
and three balls and then three toffees and two balls.
4. To teach the concept of ‘Volume’, group activity can be conducted. For example, take water
bottles of two different sizes and make the children fill the bottles with water. One bottle can be
filled with, say, three glasses of water while the other may just take two glasses to fill.
5. Hence the capacity of the first bottle is more.
Children can take turns in filling the bottles, counting and recording.
6. The concept of ‘Money’ can be taught by first introducing notes and coins of different sizes.
Then organise fun activity like arranging shop for all students and ask them to purchase items
with the money given to them. The child with
VI can explore the notes and coins tactually and repeatedly to understand the difference.
7. Make use of different senses for teaching mathematical concepts, for example, auditory
(verbal descriptions) and tactual (converting visual figures into embossed tactile figures).
5.8.1 Strategies and Suggestions Related to Mathematics
To develop mathematics skills, the teacher may encourage students to use real-life
situations to learn and practice concepts, computations, and skills; use an abacus, concrete
materials, number lines, manipulatives, charts, and calculators as aids; use pictorial clues; use
dotted lines or graph paper to line up math problems, to determine place value or when adding
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and subtracting two-digit numbers; colour-code numbers in place value tasks and use sample
sheets that illustrate problem types and that explain difficult words.
5.9 Environmental Sciences (Evs) 1. Concept of ‘Clouds’ can be taught with the help of ice. Drop in temperature before rain
because of clouds can be discussed in the class and students can be taken to a cooler place like
cold store/ fridge to get a feel of that.
2. To teach the concept of ‘Day and night’ children can be made to observe the difference in
temperature and noise during day and night.
Days are warm and noisy whereas nights are comparatively cold and silent.
3. To explain ‘Function of roots’, children can be asked to touch a plant uprooted just then and
then a plant which is kept uprooted for few days. The child can differentiate between plants that
are alive or dead.
4. To differentiate between different animals, apart from tactile pictures or models, VI students
can also be introduced to the sounds of the animals.
5. To make the children aware of different types of material like glass, gold etc., they can be
asked to touch and feel different textures and then help them talk about it.
6. Involve students in exploring the environment using other senses like smell and touch and
organise excursions, trips and visits for the students to historical places (educational tour).
5.10 Language 1. To help the child to start ‘making sentence’ about him/her, s/he can be allowed to experience
by touch the physical attributes to help make sentences. For example, child can be asked to touch
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a warm cup and asked to make a sentence: ‘the cup is hot’. Similarly, auditory input can be given
by different sounds.
2. To teach ‘adjectives’, children can be exposed to real examples from the surroundings. For
example, they can be asked to say something about his/her friend or can be made to touch
different textures and explain the experience.
3. For a VI child, pictures should be explained verbally in detail like – what, who, where and
when. Based on the comprehension, help them summarize, give oral answers. Experience for
understanding can be enhanced by tactile and
kinaesthetic input. For example, differences or similarities between lassi and tea. Use of acting,
dramatisation and role play helps the child to understand better.
5.11 General Strategies And Suggestions Students who have mild intellectual disabilities benefit from being part of a
heterogeneous group of students their own age. As the curriculum becomes increasingly more
conceptual, however, and as the pace of the introduction of new concepts increases, these
students may experience considerable failure or show high levels of frustration. To support the
building of self-esteem in these students, teachers should ensure that they are provided with and
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use materials that look similar to what the rest of the class is using. In addition, classroom
resources and materials should reflect the chronological age of the student, regardless of the
expectations set out in them or being addressed. Some students, in addition to their cognitive
disabilities, have physical and sensory disabilities that further challenge their abilities to learn
and to exercise control in their environment.
5.12 Strategies And Suggestions Related To The Classroom Environment
Like all students, children with CD require a supportive and encouraging learning
environment that highlights and celebrates their strengths. The optimum learning environment
for all students is predictable and safe from situations that may humiliate or embarrass them. The
teacher could:
• Set expectations for the student that are similar to those for all students in the class;
• Model and foster a climate of acceptance for all students;
• Arrange the student’s timetable to enable him or her to access classes minimize as far as
possible the number of transitions that occur in the school day and as the student moves from the
junior to the senior;
• Reduce distractions in the classroom;
• Provide the student with preferential seating or seating that is appropriate to his or her sensory
needs (e.g., away from doors and windows and near the blackboard);
• Arrange seating to place a student at risk of being isolated next to supportive peers;
• Provide the student with a headset to muffle noise, if required.
5.13 Strategies And Suggestions Related To Behavior
Students with CD may demonstrate a tendency to be distracted easily and may exhibit
behaviors that are inappropriate in the school setting. It is important to understand that all
behavior is communication. By structuring a learning environment that discourages inappropriate
behaviors, teachers can minimize disruption, increase learning time, and help all students
develop self awareness and selfcontrol.
The teacher could implement support
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programmes for the student such as peer tutoring, “circle of friends”, co curricular coaches,
buddy systems, and recess support; teach the student selfadvocacy skills (e.g., asking for help,
explaining his or her strengths and needs through specific gestures if speech is an issue); provide
frequent opportunities for the student to learn and practice appropriate behavior in social
situations; establish and maintain consistent routines and classroom rules and reinforce positive
behavior.
5.14 Strategies And Suggestions Related To Organization
Among the most important skills needed by these students especially those with mild CD
are those required to become independent learners: the abilities to manage time, organize their
workspace, and learn study and test preparation skills. The teacher could teach the student the
use of personal organizers (e.g., a personal timetable that colourcodes or highlights important
information, a checklist for materials required for learning a homework journal or
communication book); teach the student time-management strategies (e.g., to use a watch or a
clock to follow a schedule); record up-coming assignments and events on a calendar for the
student; teach simplified notetaking techniques (e.g., using a highlighter to identify main ideas or
facts, outlining); provide advance organizers to demonstrate the key and subsidiary parts of
lessons; teach the student to use folders for finished and unfinished work; teach the student to use
graphic organizers, mapping, and semantic webbing techniques; teach the student by
modeling/demonstrating different study techniques; teach test-taking skills for multiplechoice,
fill-in-the-blank, and essay-type tests and simultaneously give the student instructions orally,
visually and pictorially.
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5.15 Strategies And Suggestions Related To Motivation
All students require opportunities to demonstrate their strengths, to experience success,
and to participate in learning opportunities that are similar to those of their peers. Learning can
be enhanced through a variety of teacher-directed, self-directed, and collaborative group
situations, as well as highly motivational instructional materials. In addition, teachers should
provide students with learning opportunities in the context of real-life situations.
The teacher could:
• Offer the student hands-on learning opportunities (e.g., teaching science concepts through
simplified experiments);
• Use real-life experiences as learning opportunities (e.g., tiffin time, setting up audiovisual
equipment in the classroom;
• Use technology and software as tools for instruction, additional practice, or to demonstrate
learning;
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• Provide the student with frequent opportunities for large- and small-group learning, peer
assistance, and/or peer tutoring;
• Encourage the student to use tools that make automatic corrections (e.g., word processing
software with automatic spellers);
• Offer compatible incentives and rewards for effort and good work;
• Focus on the student’s strengths and abilities.
5.16 A GUIDE TO ADAPTATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS Of School
Subject
In British Columbia, three principles of learning guide practice in the development of
Integrated Resource Packages (IRPs), which contain the provincially prescribed learning
outcomes for grades and subjects. These are:
• Learning requires the active participation of the student.
• Students learn in a variety of ways and at different rates.
• Learning is both an individual and group process.
These same three principles should guide the differentiation of instruction, assessment methods,
and/or materials‐‐particularly the principle that people learn in a variety of ways and at different
rates.
Today’s classrooms are diverse and inclusive by nature. Differentiation of instruction and
assessment and the principles of universal design are now recognized practices for teachers.
Both differentiation and universal design provide systematic approaches to setting goals,
choosing or creating flexible materials and media, and assessment. To undertake differentiation
and universal design, teachers need to be aware of a range of accommodations (multiple means
of representation, of expression, and/or of engagement) that may be necessary to help each
student in the classroom succeed. These accommodations may take the form of adaptations
and/or modifications.
Many students with special needs and significant learning challenges will be able to achieve the
learning outcomes for subjects or courses with no or minor adaptations. Some may be able to
achieve the learning outcomes of some subjects or courses with adaptations. A small proportion
will need to work on individualized outcomes, goals different than the curriculum; this is
referred to as modification.
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5.16.1 Adaptations
In BC policy, all students should have equitable access to learning, opportunities for
achievement and the pursuit of excellence in all aspects of their educational programs. (Policy
Document: Special Education: http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/policy/policies/special_ed.htm.)
Adaptations are teaching and assessment strategies especially designed to accommodate a
student’s needs so he or she can achieve the learning outcomes of the subject or course and to
demonstrate mastery of concepts. Essentially, adaptations are “best practice” in teaching. A
student working on learning outcomes of any grade or course level may be supported through
use of adaptations.
Adaptations do not represent unfair advantages to students. In fact, the opposite could be true. If
appropriate adaptations are not used, students could be unfairly penalized for having learning
differences, creating serious negative impacts to their achievement and self‐concept.
5.16.2 Modifications
This section may not apply to students in ESL programs unless they are also identified as
a student with special needs as determined by Ministry and district processes.
Accommodations in the form of modifications are instructional and assessment‐related decisions
made to accommodate a student’s educational needs that consist of individualized learning goals
and outcomes which are different than learning outcomes of a course or subject.
5.17 When To Use Modifications
The decision to use modifications should be based on the same principle as adaptations—
that all students must have equitable access to learning, opportunities for achievement, and the
pursuit of excellence in all aspects of their educational programs. Before modifying the outcomes
for a student, schools should review all instructional interventions tried and consider assessment
information, utilizing a process that is ongoing and consultative—similar to IEP development
practices overall.
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Modifications should be considered for those students whose special needs are such that
they are unable to access the curriculum (i.e., students with limited awareness of their
surroundings, students with fragile mental/physical health, students medically and
cognitively/multiply challenged.) Using the strategy of modifications for students not identified
as special needs should be a rare practice. In many cases, modifications need only form part of
an educational program for a student with special needs, and they need not be a permanent or
long term solution. Whether to use modifications should be reviewed on a regular basis.
Decisions about modifications should be subject or course specific wherever possible. For
example, a student with an intellectual disability may require modifications to a specific subject
area such as mathematics; however, modifications may not be required to meet the provincial
outcomes in physical education.
Although decisions about modifications to a student’s courses or subjects may take place
in grades earlier than Grade 10, a formal decision that an overall program is modified does not
need to occur until Grade 10. The decision to provide modifications, particularly at the secondary
school level, will result in students earning a
School Completion Certificate upon leaving school rather than credits toward graduation or a
Dogwood Diploma. Therefore, the critical decision of whether a students’ education program
should include modifications should not be made in isolation by a single classroom teacher. The
decision should be carefully and thoughtfully made, in consultation with parents, school
administration, and/or instructional support personnel. This decision should address longer term
educational, career and life goals of students and encompass plans for attaining these goals.
5.18 Examples Of Modifications
An educational program for a student might include a combination of accommodations
which includes modifications. For example, a student could be working on grade level learning
outcomes in Physical Education and Health and Career Education and below grade level learning
outcomes in Mathematics, all with adaptations while at the same time working on individualized
learning outcomes that meet the student’s IEP goals in all other subjects. The individualized
outcomes address functional life skills and foundational academic skills.
For students with special needs, modifications that consist of individualized learning outcomes
or goals must be included in the IEP. Some further types of modifications include:
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• Content and evaluation related to the course or subject but at a lower level of conceptual
difficulty that is based on a student’s individualized outcomes or goals. When students do well
on this especially designed material, they have a chance to feel successful. For example, while
students in a Grade 3 class are researching for presentations on the solar system, a student with
special needs in this class uses a computer to drag and click planets into a template of the solar
system and learns to say the names of each planet. At the secondary level, a Grade 9 student with
special needs learns how to count change and manage a personal budget while other students are
introduced to algebraic expressions.
• Only portions of the learning outcomes are addressed so that a student may participate in the
classroom and feel success even though they are working at a conceptual level significantly
different from the other students. For example, in a science class a student with special needs
learns to identify safe and dangerous chemicals used in the lab, while other students carry out a
chemistry experiment.
• Although related to the outcomes of the curriculum, the goals for a student with special needs
are significantly different. For example, while other students are learning how to read and
respond to text in a Grade 4 classroom, a student with special needs is learning how to listen to
stories at a pre‐primary level and when to turn the page at the appropriate time using assistive
technology.
5.19 Grading And Reporting When There Are Modifications
If schools are using BCeSIS or Student Achievement Data Exchange (SADE) to record
progress for students inGrades 4 to 12, a value is required to be entered to maintain student
records over time. For more information about BCeSIS, please contact your local school district.
For more information about SADE, please see the following link:
http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/datacollections/sade/
Progress reports to parents for students with special needs who are working toward
individualized outcomes or goals in an IEP rather than the outcomes of the curriculum for that
subject or course may be done using structured written comments or letter grades. The most
appropriate form of reporting for the student should be determined collaboratively at the school
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level. If letter grades are used when modifications have been made, the body of the student
progress report should state that the evaluation is in relation to the individualized outcomes or
goals and not in relation to learning outcomes for the subject or course. The specific IEP
outcomes or goals evaluated should be included in the student progress report. Further
information on this subject is available in the Ministry document: Reporting Student Progress:
Policy and Practice:
http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/classroom_assessment/09_report_student_prog.pdf
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5.20 Summary
Modifications in curriculum content or outcomes may be provided for students with
disabilities who have IEPs. In high school programs, modifications to academic or basic
education courses are generally associated with a special diploma. Modifications to secondary
career education programs known as MOCPs can be offered through regular career education
classes. In adult programs, modifications to program requirements are generally not allowed.
Reasonable course substitutions may be allowed. In addition, adults are able to enroll in other
types of programs, including specialized programs for adults with disabilities.
5.21 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Concept Of Curricular Adaptations
2. Explain Curriculum Adaptations
3. Explain Teachers Teaching Content Using Diverse Strategies-
4. Explain Students Expressing Learning In Diverse Ways-
5. Explain Need For Curriculum Adaptations
6. Explain Strategies Of Curricular Adaptation For An Inclusive Classroom
7. Explain Mathematics
8. Explain Environmental Sciences (Evs)
9. Explain Language
10. Explain General Strategies And Suggestions
11. Explain Strategies And Suggestions Related To The Classroom Environment
12. Explain Strategies And Suggestions Related To Behavior
13. Explain Strategies And Suggestions Related To Organization
14. Explain Strategies And Suggestions Related To Motivation
15. Explain A GUIDE TO ADAPTATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS Of
School Subject
16. Explain Adaptations
17. Explain Modifications
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18. Explain When To Use Modifications
19. Explain Examples Of Modifications
20. Explain Grading And Reporting When There Are Modifications
39. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.40.1. Points for discussion
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28. Children’s Rights Alliance. (2007). The Constitution and Children, A Position Paper on
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33. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
Anning, C., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
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35. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
36. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
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childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
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48. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
49. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
50. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
51. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
52. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
53. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
54. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
55. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
56. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
57. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
58. Connell, R. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics.
California: Stanford University Press.
59. Corsaro, W. (1997). The sociology of childhood. California: Pine Forge Press.
581
60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
Anning, C., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds.) (2004). Early childhood education: society
and culture (pp.95-106). Delhi, New York and London: Sage Publications.
61. Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2003). Care and education in early childhood: A student’s
guide to theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
62. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood
education and care: post-modern perspectives. London: Falmer Press.
63. Daly M. (2004). Developing the Whole Child: The importance of the Emotional, Social,
Moral and Spiritual in Early Years Education and Care. Wales: Edwin Mellen Press
64. Department of Education and Science. (1998). Report on the national forum for early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: National Forum Secretariat.
65. Department of Education and Science. (1999a). Ready to learn: White paper on early
childhood education. Dublin, Ireland: The Stationary Office.
66. Department of Education and Science. (1999b). The Primary School Curriculum. Dublin,
Ireland: The Stationary Office.
67. Department of Education and Science. (2004). The education for persons with special
educational needs act. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
68. Department of Education, Training and Employment and Catholic Education, South
Australia (2001). South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability
Framework. South Australia: Department of Education, Training and Employment.
69. Department of Health and Children. (1991). The child care act. Dublin: The Stationary
Office.
70. Department of Health and Children. (1996). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
71. Department of Health and Children. (1999). Children First: National Guidelines for the
Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: Government Publications Office.
72. Department of Health and Children. (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services)
Regulations. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
73. Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
74. Dewey, J. (1959). My pedagogic creed. In M. S. Dorkin (ed.) Dewey on education. New
York: Teacher’s College Press.
582
75. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
76. Donaldson, M. (1993). Human minds: an exploration. London: Penguin.
77. Douglas, F. (2004). Gaia – young children and their relationship to the outside world. In
Horgan, M. and Douglas, F. (eds) the Proceedings of the Children of the Global Village
(pp. 234-252). Conference held by l’Organisation Mondiale pour l’Education Préscolaire
(OMEP) in the Dublin Institute of Technology in April 2004.
78. Dowling, M. (2001). Young children’s personal social and emotional development.
London: Paul Chapman.
79. Dunne, J. (2005). Children and citizens: a crossed conversation. Keynote address at the
European Early Childhood Education Research Association’s 15th Annual Conference
Young children as citizens: identity, belonging, participation, Dublin, Ireland, from Aug
31st – Sept 3rd.
80. Egan, K. (1997). The educated mind: how cognitive tools shape our understanding.
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
81. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
82. Evans, B. (2002). You can’t come to my birthday party; Conflict resolution with young
children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
83. Finch, S. (1993). Setting up a day nursery: A step-by-step guide. VOLCUF, London:
Lancashire County Council.
84. Fish, M., Stifter, C.A. and Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in
infant negative emotionality: newborn to five months, Child Development, 62 1525-1537.
583
Block5: Curriculum Evaluation
Unit 1: Concept, Meaning, Definition of Curriculum Evaluation
Unit 2: Types and Approaches of Evaluation
Unit 3: Emerging trends in evaluation –CCE, Teacher Made Tests, Grading System
Unit 4: Differential evaluation of PwID in inclusive setup
Unit 5: Implications of evaluation for inclusion
584
Unit 1: Concept, Meaning, Definition Of Curriculum Evaluation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical Overview
1.3 The Basic Concepts Of Curricular Evaluation
1.4 Purposes And Roles Of Evaluation
1.5 Method Of Evaluating Individuals And Curricular
1.6 The Role Of Technology In Evaluation
1.7 Evaluation Information Provided By A Curricular
1.8 Evaluation Planning As Curriculum Analysis
1.9 Perspectives On Curricular Evaluation
1.10 Summary
1.11 Check Your Progress
1.12 References
585
1.1 Introduction
Attitude towards and treatment of persons with mental retardation can be traced back to
ancient civilizations (including Egypt, Sparta, Rome, China and the early Christian world).
The earliest recorded mention of mental retardation is thought to be in the "Therapeutic papyrus
at Thebes" in 1552 B.C. (Doll, 1962).
People with mental retardation during middle ages were viewed as "innocents of God"
and provided with humane care either at home or in monasteries. On the other hand, some cases
&ith mental handicaps were viewed as visitations of the devil and were subjected to exorcism
and torture. Beginning in the latter years of the middle ages and continuing through the 18th
century, many individuals including individuals with mental retardation were persecuted and
executed for practicing witchcraft.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, which encompassed the age of reason and the
enlightment in Europe and the colonial period in America, understanding of brain function and
certain types of mental retardation (e.g. cretinism and hydrocephalus) increased.
However, the treatment of individuals with mental retardation seemed to reach an all-
time low. Individuals with mental retardation were confined to institutions (e.g. foundling
homes, hospitals, prisons). The death rate of children placed in these facilities was appallingly
high. People with menql retardation were incarcerated with criminals and individuals with
mental illness. A few humanitarian individuals did attempt to improve the prevailing conditions.
During the same period, in the U.S.A., dismal conditions prevailed for people with mental
retardation. % The history of the systematic treatment of individuals with mental retardation
began in the 19th Century. Mental retardation became a conspicuous social problem during this
period. As industrialization expanded and grew, opportunities for a simple agrarian existence
decreased. With technological advances, jobs became more complex. Mass education became
more common. Inability of some children to handle school curriculum led to the identification of
mild mental retardation. The disciplines of Medicine and Psychology progressed considerably
during this period. Scientific developments began to support a more clearly defined concept of
mental retardation. Many of the clinical types of mental retardation were identified, and
classification systems were proposed.
Reform movements began to appear in both Europe and U.S. The major aim of these
reforms was to urge the states to provide humane treatment in the form of well-designed,
586
specialised, residential facilities for individuals with mental retardation and mental illness. Many
distinct etiological categories were identified and described (e.g. Down Syndrome, cretinism,
hydrocephaly, microcephaly) although the causes of many of these conditions were poorly
understood (Scheerenberger, 1983).
During the last half of the 29th century, the idea that individuals with mental retardation
could benefit from education and training finally came into its own. By the turn of the century,
the attitudes of society towards people with mental retardation worsened as the condition was
increasingly attributed to hereditary factors. Public opinion began to support the segregation of
people with mental retardation. The first public day-school classes for children with Mental
Retardation in the U.S. are generally thought to have started in Providence, Rhode Island in
1894. From 1900 through the 1920s, optimism concerning the prospects of ameliorating mental
retardation was replaced by profound pessimism. The first decades of the twentieth century
represented the nadir of professional sensitivity towards mentally retarded persons, at least as a
class or sub population. Education and training efforts in institutions were largely replaced by
custodial care. The belief that mental retardation was caused by environmental factors was
replaced by a belief that mental retardation was caused by hereditary factors. The period between
1930 and 1950 has been described as the "The Great Lull", during which little progress was
made in this field, though residential and community programmes were established that
determined the direction of future developments in the field.
During the 1950s, children with moderate mental retardation emerged as a focus of
concern, largely through the efforts of increasingly well-organised parent advocacy groups.
An important event during this time was the formation in 1950 of the National Association for
Retarded Children (NARC), now known as the ARC (Association for Retarded Citizens). In
North America, the emergence of civil rights movement assisted the cause of people with mental
handicaps.
The 1960's were dominated by a concern for the rights of minority individuals, including
individuals with mental retardation. In US, President Kennedy appointed the President's Panel on
Mental Retardation in 1961. The panel of experts recommended an extensive eight point
programme in 1962 which covered every aspect of mental retardation from preventive to
rehabilitative measures.
There is a considerable increase in the literature on the topic of mental retardation
throughout the world, and in the recent years the discoveries and methodological innovations
587
have increased. Recent times have witnessed the advent of new directions in educating and
training students with mental retardation. There is a trend toward providing community based
instruction and programming for these students. Great strides have been made in providing
services to infants, toddlers and other young children. Transitional programming is in evidence.
New models for making these individuals employable have been introduced. Competitive
employment options are replacing the former sheltered employment model. Self advocacy and
consumer awareness, that have empowered people with disabilities globally, have made human
services to recognise and restructure their programmes and strategies.
1.2 Historical Overview
Four thousand years ago, when the Ayuweda (book of medicine) was conceptualised,
mental retardation was not left out. Charaka, the "Father of Indian Medicine", and Susruta, the
"Father of Surgery", hypothesized that mental retardation or "manasamandyam" was a result of
defective genes, poor condition at the time of pregnancy and faulty child rearing practices in
much the manner it is understood even today. Charaka's explanation of the role played by the
parental seed or the "Germ Plasm" in subsequent personality development incorporates concepts
now recognised as Darwin's concepts of "gemmule" and spencer's "Id". However both the
Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita professed reservations about the genetic basis of
mental retardation, emphasizing instead the influence of divine forces and "Grahas" (planetary
influence). This line of thinking, i.e. in which the present, past and future are attributed to super
natural powers, typifies Indian philosophical thought with its belief in the "Karma" accepted in
large part even today (Puri and Sen, 1989).
The ancient Indian literature reveals the existence of the rural "Pathasala" (day school) or
the 'Gurukul' (residential learning centre) which gave due emphasis to a childcentred approach,
by identifying the learning channel and pace of each learner and by individualizing both teaching
and learning. The teacher in both types of education designed the curriculum to offer utility and
durability to the learning on a long time perspective but dispensed it according to the hctional
proficiency or deficits in the learner.
Thus the system of education could cater to the educational needs of a wide range of _ learners-
the highly gifted to the sub-average. Many students with the special educa-
588
- tional needs were effectively integrated in the group of normal students and participated
meaningfully in the community in adulthood.
Several invasions, influence of colonisation and the prolonged rule of British Raj, brought about
changes in Indian education. British models of education were adopted which emphasised on
standard general curricula with specificity in the duration of coverage and content. This led to the
alienation of the learner with special needs, when emphasis shifted from the importance of the
child and its educational needs during the 24 hours of interaction with different social situations
to a highly academically loaded curriculum and rigid evaluation procedures (Hari Prasad, 1999).
A review of the progress made in the area of mental retardation is quite relevant now. The
country gained independence in 1947 and since then has been struggling to provide elementary
education to the ever increasing school age children. The policy makers in education naturally
felt that the problem of educating the retarded can be postponed. Besides, medical care was also
not very popular due to underdeveloped state of paediatrics in our country. Added to this is that,
people have not demanded facilities for the retardates. The disinterest in the care and education
of retardates resulted partly from indifference and partly from attention paid to reconstruction
which was more vital after independence than mental retardation.
To add to these, there is variety of language and culture. Neither any assessment test nor
baseline information on mental retardation was available which would have paved the way to
have early detection of retardation. In spite of this, some good schools for education were
established in Bombay and Ahmedabad which reflect probably the unfair urbanisation, the over
anxious professional parents have become aware of the need to train and educate the backward
child. Educated mothers also played a key role in this. Thus, urbanisation and its discontent
stimulated public support for work in retardation. The Central Government through its various
agencies have begun to take an interest in this area.
Growth of schools for the mentally retarded in the sixty years until the advent of
independence was extremely slow and sporadic. By 1947, the schools for the mentally retarded
were just three but rose to 20 by 1980 and at present there are over 1100 schools in the country.
The first school in one of the associated disabilities, i.e. cerebral palsy, was started in 1973; and
today there are more than 15 schools of CP, though without any facility for artistics.
589
A peep into the past would reflect that institutions for training and care of the mentally retarded
have grown out of the personal efforts of dedicated individuals or of philanthropic organisations.
Now, infrequently, the primary donors for a certain institution have within their family some one
mentally defective. This is also true of majority of social workers who have taken interest in the
growth of a retardate institution. By 1968, when the first review of the status appeared, there
were only 18 institutions for mental retardates, (15 out of which were headed by women) which
indicated an interest
- "the labour of love", in the words of Pt. Jawahar La1 Nehru. A majority of the institutions
depend primarily on donations from'the public but they also receive assistance from state and
federal governments through welfare departments.
Welfare, not education was the main concern, then. The institutions for the retarded in India have
both residential and day schools. Many of these institutions were started as boarding houses for
the retardates, but were later expanded to include scholastic and vocational education. All such
institutions were established after independence. A few institutions have, included in their
objectives, parent counselling for the retarded child. Staff members were essentially
psychologists, physicians, teachers. Special education did not have a head way then, and some of
these institutions were also attached to most of the mental hospitals in India (Das, 1968).
1.3 The Basic Concepts Of Curricular Evaluation
CURRICULAR EVALUATION BASIC CONCEPTS
The process by which some individual or group makes a judgement about the value of some
object,person,or processis termed evaluation.
DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULAR EVALUATION
According to Gatawa (1990: 50), the term curriculum evaluation has three major meanings:
• The process of describing and judging an educational programme or subject.
• The process of comparing a student’s performance with behaviourally stated objectives.
• The process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information for decision-making
purposes.
590
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
Test. As used in this case, test is a set of questions with an accepted set of presumably correct
answer to gather information about some individual characteristics like achievement.
Scale, is an instrument whose questions do not typically have correct and incorrect answer that
designed to measure such characteristics as attitudes, interests, values, beliefs, and behaviors.
Standardized. A test or scale is “ standardized” to the extent that it has been administered and
scored under standard, or uniform, condition and procedures.
Norm-referenced. “ norm-referencing a test means comparing scores of individuals on a test
with those of some external reference group. Scores on a norm-referenced test tell us little about
what individuals can do or what they know.
Criterion-referenced. Test are designed to describe specifically what objectives individuals
have mastered.
Clinical interview, is an evaluation method in which an interviewer uses questions and props
to explore the concept and attitudes of the students
1.4 Purposes And Roles Of Evaluation
The purpose of an evaluation is to determine the value of something. Most evaluation experts
contend that the main reason of evaluating an curriculum is to provide information for making
decisions about either individuals or the curriculum.
a. Decision about individuals
It is necessary for six purposes:
591
1. Diagnostic
Those who must make diagnostic decisions require information about strengths and weaknesses
and determination of areas that need special instructional attention.
Method : 1) Observations of the student performance, attitude, interest, behavior; 2) standardized
achievement and aptitude test with sub scores.
2. Instructional feedback
Decision concern adjusments students might need to make in their approach to studying a subject
based on their knowledge of the progress they are making.
Method : teacher make test and quizzes.
3. Placement
Information about the level of proficiency of the students in particular skills in order to place
them in group that are relatively homogeneous.
4. Promotion
Decision about promotion is based on information about the proficiency and maturity of students
in order to decide wether or not to promote to the next grade level.
5. Credentialing
It have to do with certification, licensure and otherwise attesting to the competence of a program
graduate. This decision require attaining a predetermined passing level on a test designed by the
credentialing body, typically the state or professional organization.
6. Selection
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Made by college admission offices, typically use existing data about student achievement
(grades), but may also depend on standardized test.
b. Curriculum decision
Curricular evaluation decisions are of two types:
1. Formative (how to improve the curriculum)
Evaluation plays as a formative role when it occurs during the ongoing curriculum development
process.
2. Summative (decision as to continue to use the curriculum)
Evaluation plays as summative role when it enables administrators to decide whether or not a
curriculum is good enough to warrant institutional support. Decision on whether a school system
should formally adopt a curriculum, or whether an external funding agency should continue to
support a curriculum.
The important difference of formative and summative role is the location of the decision
maker and the evaluation.
• Formative : the decision maker is part of the curriculum development effort and the
evaluation is an internal process.
• Summative : the decision maker is external to this effort and the evaluation is an external
process too.
1.5 Method Of Evaluating Individuals And Curricular
Curricular decision used : questionnaires, interviews with teacher, content analyses of curriculum
materials, case studies of classroom, follow-up interviews of course graduates ,etc.
593
Individual decision used : norm- and criterion-referenced test data, clinical interviews, and
family or professional conferences to identify an individual’s strengths , weaknesses, problem
etc.
Standardized Testing as A Means of Making Decisions
The widespread use of standardized test to determine whether an individual is promoted from
one grade to the next, placed in one track or another, awarded a degree, or admitted to a
university can be problematic. There are definite advantages to using standardized test. Some of
what students learn can be counted; progress in some disciplines can be measured. Standardized
test also enable policy markers to initiate reforms and to control, to a great extent, the curricula
in school.
Several studies have shown a close correlation between classroom teaching and the standardized
test they know students will take. Teachers are under a great deal of pressure to teach to the test
because often the stakes for their students are high. Promotion to the next grade, graduation from
high school, or admission to college can be tied to scores on standardized test.
Problem of fairness
Standardized test are an efficient means of grading because generally they are timed and
comprised of multiple-choice questions. Multiple-choice questions reward students for choosing
the correct answer and doing it quickly.
Unfortunately, they thereby limit the type of knowledge being tested, because there is
typically little room for creativity, ambiguity, developing idea, or reflection. In addition, for
students to do so well on state-mandated test, teachers much devote considerable time to
preparing students for those test, thereby eliminating many other curricula possibilities.
The consequences of standardized test performance extend far beyond any particular grade,
even beyond school years.
Responses to the problems
594
Recognizing the biases and inadequacies of standardized test, many educators are exploring
the range of alternative ways to asses what students know.
In the elementary school, they are developing plans to use a combination of type of assessment.
For example: students take local reading and writing test a compile portfolios of their work in
class.
At the high school and university levels there are also alternative assessment. The plan focuses
on a more comprehensive look at students performance than a single standardized test can give.(
class rank, the number and type of courses taken, essays, work experience ,etc). Students
portfolios can also take into account differing students backgrounds and abilities.
1.6 The Role Of Technology In Evaluation
Technology has changed the way tests are administered and scored and the ways in which those
scores are processed and publicized.
1. Test administration
Technology has changed the handling of test administration. Now students can complete test via
network computers. Technology for managing online test is already available.
2. Test preparation for students
There is now a wider array of material marketed to prepare test takers than ever before. Test
publishers, both governmental or for profit , offer test preparation software.
3. Calcultor use Usually, students using calculator while taking test.
4. Instantaneous scoring
When standardized test refer to test made by curriculum publisher, then technology can provide
instantaneous feedback for teachers and students in well-equipped schools. Students can
595
complete practice tests or homework assignments at the computer, which are then automatically
graded by the computer, thus aiding in formative evaluation. The feedback is not only how a
particular student faired, but also include statistical analysis of entire tests or assignments or
specific items within a test.
5. Test generation software
It is allow teachers to pick and choose questions from databases of tests questions allowing
customization from asset of publisher-generated questions. It is often included in curriculum
packages or may be purchased separately, allowing teachers to use items from previous
standardized state exams in place of test provided by the textbook publisher.
6. Publication of test results
School and district results for standardized tests are now available to anyone with an internet-
connected computer.
1.7 Evaluation Information Provided By A Curricular
First taps in analyzing curriculum from an evaluation is try to identify any evaluation data,
suggestion, or instruments provided by the curriculum materials or in the research literature.
Then, try to determine the purposes and roles that evaluation information is intended to serve.
In searching for evaluation suggestion and instruments, look beyond the obvious sources, such as
end-of-unit and end-of-year tests. Test is only one means of gathering evaluation information.
Discussion questions and recommendations for student interviews and conferences can also be
used to improve both of instruction and evaluation.
1.8 Evaluation Planning As Curriculum Analysis
596
Determine what aspects of the curriculum you would want an evaluation to focus on.
Outcomes- Based Evaluation
In fact, most evaluations focus on only those outcomes that reflect the curriculum’s goals and
objectives, or “narrow” sense of outcomes-based evaluation. Also it provides more an
assessment of instructional effectiveness than one of the curriculum. On the other hand, it
provides information on both main effect and side effects of the curriculum. “Main effects” are
the major outcomes intended by the curriculum. “Side effects” are the by-products produced
inadvertently by the curriculum.
Whether explicitly anticipated or not, curricula have both long- and short term outcomes. Short-
term outcomes include what student remember and can do during and immediately after taking a
course. Longer term outcomes include what students remember and can do with their knowledge
well after the details of the course are forgotten.
Intrinsic Evaluation
Screven distinguished between “pay-off” and “intrinsic” by provide an analogy. The analogy
reflects a conception of a curriculum as an instrument with features such as goals, content, and
teacher-training requirements that are distinct from the curriculum’s effects on students, teachers
and the community.
Stake made a similar distinction between outcome evaluation data and other kinds of data.
O Antecedents, conditions existing before students interact with teacher and subject matter.
Data on antecedents are particularly useful in determining whether certain claims made by the
curriculum are empirically supported.
O Transactions, it is occur in whenever a student interacts with a teacher, guidance counselor,
other students, or instructional materials. In other words, transactions comprise the process of
education.
One transaction flows smoothly into another with only arbitrary demarcations between them.
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Data on transactions are particularly important in curriculum evaluation to explain why certain
outcomes did or did not occur. Also it give the evaluator information on the way the curriculum
has functioned, the variety of ways it has been implemented, and the possible pitfalls a teacher
might face in using it.
1.9 Perspectives On Curricular Evaluation
a. Traditional
- The major evaluation questions: seek to measure whether the students have acquired the
information, mastered the basic skills, and internalized the accepted values.
- Methods: comparison of standardized test scores, answer given in classroom recitation,
neatness and promptness in completing assignments, and ability and willingness to follow the
teacher’s directions.
- Evaluation aimed: determining whether the accepted facts, skills and values have been
effectively transmitted.
b. Experiential
- Evaluation questions: seek to measure the broad range of both short and long term effects of
experiential programs on students and the intrinsic quality of experiences students have.
- Methods: The Eight Year study providing a wide range of outcome measures in cognitive and
affective and Experience-based career education.
- Evaluation aimed: to determine the effectiveness of the programs and the quality of the
experiences that students have.
c. Behavioral
- The major evaluation questions: whether students have acquired the behaviors that the
curriculum targeted.
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- Methods: paper-and-pencil tests, observational checklist, and practical exams.
- Criterion referenced measures of student performance are preferred. These measures assess
achievement in terms of absolute standards.
d. Structure of disciplines
- Evaluation questions: whether students gain insight into the conceptual structure of the
discipline and whether students engage in real inquiry.
- Methods: giving students problems to solve, data to interpret, and experiments to design.
- Evaluation aimed: congruence of the curriculum with real inquiry in the disciplines.
e. Constructivist
- evaluation question : seek to measure whether students acquire basic concepts meaningfully
and learn to solve nonroutine problems.
- Methods : clinical interviews, analyses of student problem-solving efforts, analyses of
mistakes and concept-mapping exercises.
- Evaluation aimed : determining what and how the individual think and understands.
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1.10 Summary
Curricular-based assessment is used to help determine what teachers teach based on student
performance. The process of describing and judging an educational programmed or subject.
The process of comparing a student’s performance with behaviorally stated objectives. The
process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information for decision-making purposes.
Curricular decision used : qustionnaires, interviews with teacher, content analyses of
curriculum materials, case studies of classroom, follow-up interviews of course graduates ,etc.
Individual decision used : norm- and criterion-referenced test data, clinical interviews, and
family or professional conferences to identify an individual’s strengths , weaknesses, problem
etc.
First teps in analyzing curriculum from an evaluation is try to identify any evaluation data,
suggestion, or instruments provided by the curriculum materials or in the research literature.
Then, try to determine the purposes and roles that evaluation information is intended to serve.
In searching for evaluation suggestion and instruments, look beyond the obvious sources, such as
end-of-unit and end-of-year tests. Test are only one means of gathering evaluation information.
Discussion questions and recommendations for student interviews and conferences can also be
used to improve both of instruction and evaluation.
1.11 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Historical Overview
2. Explain The Basic Concepts Of Curricular Evaluation
3. Explain Purposes And Roles Of Evaluation
4. Explain Method Of Evaluating Individuals And Curricular
5. Explain The Role Of Technology In Evaluation
6. Explain Evaluation Information Provided By A Curricular
7. Explain Evaluation Planning As Curriculum Analysis
8. Explain Perspectives On Curricular Evaluation
41. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.42.1. Points for discussion
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REFERENCES
1. Bel, R.L. and Frisbie, D.A.(1991) 5th ed, Essentials of Educational Measurement,
Prentice hall publication, New Jersy
2. Brigance, A.H. and Hargis, C.H. (1993) Educational Assessment, Charles C Thomas
publication, USA
3. Jalvi R, Nandurkar A., Bantwal A., (2006). Introduction to hearing impairment. New
Delhi: Kanishka Publication.
4. Jurs, S.G. and Wiersma, W.(1990) 2nd ed Educational Measurement and Testing,Allyn
and Bacon publication, Boston
5. Linn, R. L. and Gronlund, N. E. (1995) 7th ed Measurement and Assessment in
Teaching,Prentice hall publication, New Jersy
6. Martin, F. N. Clark, J.G. (2012). Introduction to Audiology. 11th ed. Boston: Pearson
Education.
7. Martin, FN & Clark, J.G. (2009). Introduction to Audiology. 10th ed. Boston: Pearson
Education.
8. Mathew, S. and Misra, A. (2010) Knowledge based evaluation of students with hearing
impairment, Journal of NCED, Vol 2, Issue 1, page 26-33
9. Newby, H. A., & Popelka, G. R. (1992). Audiology (6th ed.). New York: Appleton-
Century-crofts.
605
10. Nitko, A. J. (1983) Educational Tests and Measurement, An Introduction, Harcourt Brace
Publication, New York
11. Northern, J.L. Downs, M.P. (2002). Hearing in Children. 5th Edition. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams and Wilkins
12. Patel, R.N. (1985), Educational Evaluation, Himalaya publication, Bombay
13. Quigley & Paul, (1984) Language and deafness, College – Hill Press Inc. California
14. Rehabilitation Council of India (2007). Status of Disability in India - 2007: Hearing
Impairment and Deaf-blindness. New Delhi: Rehabilitation Council of India.
15. UNICEF (2006), new trends in development evaluation. Retrieved from
http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/new_trends_dev_evaluation.pdf
16. Boyle, J. and Fisher, S. (2007) educational testing (A competence based approach), BPS
Blackwell publication, Singapore
17. Evens, P. and Varma. V (1990). Special Education Past, Present and Future, The Falmer
Press
18. Gregory, Jnight, et al. (1998), Issues in Deaf Education. Cromwel Press
19. Madell, JR & Flexer, C., (2008) Pediatric Audiology: Diagnosis, Technology and
Management. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers.
20. McMillan, J.H (2001) Classroom assessment: Principles & practices for effective
21. instruction (2nd Eds), Allyn & Bacon, Boston.
22. Poham, James. W. (1993), Educational Evaluation. Prentice Hall, New Jersy.
23. Singh, B. (2004) Modern educational Measurement and Evaluation System, Anmol
Publication, New Delhi
606
24. Waldman, D., & Roush, J. (2010). Your child’s Hearing Loss; A Guide for Parents. San
Diego: Plural Publishing.
25. Warden, P., Winter, J., & Broadfoot, P. (2002). Assessment, Routledge Falmer
Publication, London.
26. Yoshinaga-Itano, C. (2003). From screening to early identification and intervention:
Discovering predictors to successful outcomes for children with significant hearing loss.
Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 8(1), 11-30.
607
Unit 2: Types And Approaches Of Evaluation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Purposes
2.3 Current Practices
2.4 Federal And State Disability Categories
2.5 Medical And Social System Models
2.6 Assessment
2.7 Requirements In Programming
2.8 Tools Available In India
2.9 Basic Mr
2.10 Types
2.10.1 Individualized Education Plan (Iep)–Flow Chart
2.10.2 The Interdisciplinary Team
2.10.3 Mdps Behavioral Scale
2.11 Assessment In Special Education
2.12 Suggestions Made By USEFI Seminar For Development Of Assessment
Tool For Identifying, Classifying Persons With Mental Retardation
2.13 Teaching Persons With Mental Retardation Using Behavioral Approach
Behavioral Technology
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2.15 Problems Related To Assessment/Evaluation And The Direction Of
Reforms
2.16 Summary
2.17 Check Your Progress
2.18 References
609
2.1 Introduction
Today's elementary and secondary students are undergoing more mandated assessments
than any group in the history of education in the United States. In 2001, forty-nine states required
statewide assessments in mathematics, as compared with forty-five in 1994 and thirty-four states
in 1984 (CCSSO, 2002). The outcomes of these measures have more implications for the
students, teachers, schools, and districts than ever before. Some high-stakes assessments are used
to determine student placement, promotion, and graduation; teacher assignments and bonuses;
and overall school ratings and benefits. Perhaps the most serious effect may be the "teaching to
the test" syndrome that is occurring in many classrooms.
What are the implications for students with specific disabilities and other learning
problems? According to the 1999 regulations of IDEA (and reauthorized in 2004), students with
disabilities must have the necessary supports to "be involved and progress in the regular
curriculum" and to participate in state and district assessments of student achievement
(§300.347). These regulations were adopted because too many students with disabilities were
being excluded from testing programs and therefore not provided the same access to the general
education curriculum as their peers. Often these students weren't expected to meet the general
education mathematics standards, so they couldn't enroll in courses required for college or
technical training, although they may have had the ability. The No Child Left Behind Act of
2001 also required the "participation in such assessments (high-quality, yearly student academic
assessments) of all students."
Now with new opportunities for participation come the challenges. What testing
accommodations are fair for students with disabilities or language differences that adhere to the
same performance standards? Can a student who is working on standards one or two grade levels
behind his peers be expected to take a grade-level test? How can districts apply standardized
scores to students who have taken off-grade level tests? Are standard-ized tests the best measure
of student understanding and skill? Should teachers and schools be penalized for differences in
student performance that are disability or language related? The questions are endless, but the
issues are found in every town's newspapers.
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For teachers responsible for preparing students with disabilities for mandated
assessments, the most important considerations will be understanding the assessment
requirements and determining needed accommodations. Assessment requirements include
administration dates, formats, and conditions, in addition to the test content emphasis. Most state
and district assessments are administered in the late spring and may take an entire week. If the
mathematics portion is last or is scheduled later in the day, students may not do as well. Some
tests allow and even encourage calculator use for portions of mathematics tests, but students
should have been using the same calculators throughout the year if this is the case. For test
content, teachers should ask to review test development materials and, if permitted, previous
forms of tests.
Test accommodations are changes in the way tests are administered or changes in the
testing environment, not in the construct being measured. Modifications usually are not allowed
on high-stakes tests because they change the construct being measured (National Center on
Educational Outcomes, 2005).
Formats for mathematics assessments vary considerably from state to state and may even
differ from formats within the state's adopted textbooks. In recent years, more states have
incorporated open-ended and performance items into their assessments in addition to multiple-
choice items (CCSSO, 2002). In the 2003-2004 academic year, states gave a total of ten norm-
referenced mathematics tests, sixty-six criterion-referenced tests, and five augmented norm-
referenced tests that included mathematics subtests (some states admin-istering more than one
statewide test each year or different tests for different grade levels). The NCLB Act requirements
have caused criterion-referenced tests to be much more prevalent (CCSSO, 2005). For example,
in 2001, Arizona students in grades 2 through 8 were given the Stanford Achievement Test (ninth
edition), a norm-referenced test of multiple-choice items. Students in grades 3, 5, 8, and 10 were
also given the Arizona Instrument to Measure Standards (AIMS), a criterion-referenced test with
multiple-choice, short response, and extended response items. Now Arizona administers only the
AIMS. Teachers should expose students to the question formats that will be required on these
summative assessments throughout the school year when specific, corrective feedback can be
provided.
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Different testing accommodations are permitted in different states. In addition to students
with IEPs, accommodations are provided in many states for students with 504 plans (for students
who are disabled, but do not qualify under IDEA), students with limited proficiency in English
(ELL), and an emerging group of students with "emotional anxiety" about test taking. A few
states make accommodations available for all students as needed (Thurlow, Lazarus, Thompson,
& Robey, 2002). The most common accommodations for mathematics assessments are extended
time, separate setting, and portions read aloud. Since these state-level assessments are now
required for all students, state policies on accommodations have become more specific, but
educators are not always trained in implementing them. It is important for the accommodations
selected to actually match student needs, not be applied to all eligible students. Inappropriate
accommodations may actually cause lower performance. And like the use of calculators,
accommodations used on high-stakes tests should have been used for other assessments
throughout the school year.
2.2 Purposes
The two main purposes of identification and assessment of students with disabilities are
to determine whether they are eligible for special education services and, if they are eligible, to
determine what those services will be. Eligibility for special education services requires two
findings: first, the student must meet the criteria for at least one of the thirteen disabilities
recognized in the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) or the counterparts
thereof in state law,1,2 and second, special education and/or related services must be required for
the student to receive an appropriate education.2,3 It is true that some students are eligible for
special education and/or related services but do not need them, while other students need the
services but are not eligible according to federal or state classification criteria. If the disability
diagnosis and special education need are confirmed, the student then has certain important rights
to individualized programming designed to improve educational performance and expand
opportunities. These rights are established through several layers of legal requirements based on
federal and state statutes, federal regulations, state rules, and state and federal litigation.2 Chief
among these rights are the requirements that eligible students with disabilities must receive an
individualized educational program (IEP) based on needs identified in an individualized, full,
and complete evaluation. The needs identified during the evaluation form the basis for the
student’s personal and educational goals, the specially designed instruction and related services
612
(for example, psychological consultation or physical therapy), and the methods to evaluate
progress toward the student’s goals. The classification system used in special education
identification also serves numerous other functions that are not discussed here (for example,
organization of research; communication among scholars, lay public, and policymakers;
differential training and licensing of specialists such as special education teachers; and advocacy
for expanded rights and support for programs).
2.3 Current Practices A number of comprehensive classificationsystems exist and influence, to varyingdegrees,
classification in special education.4–6 There is, however, no official specialeducation
classification system that is useduniformly across states and regions. For statisticalpurposes,
students are classified bytheir primary disability, though it is notunusual for a student to have
disabilities inmore than one category.
2.4 Federal And State Disability Categories
Thirteen disabilities are briefly defined in the federal IDEA regulations: autism,
deafblindness, deafness, hearing impairment, mental retardation, multiple disabilities, orthopedic
impairment, other healthimpairment, serious emotional disturbance, learning disability, speech or
language impairment, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairment. Federal law does not
provide classification criteria for any of these disabilities except learning disability.1 These
disability categories are based to varying degrees on eight dimensions of behavior or ability:
intelligence, achievement, adaptive behavior, social behavior and emotional adjustment,
communication/language, sensory status, motor skills, and health status.7 About 90% of the
students who are found eligible for special education have disabilities that fall primarily within
the first five of those dimensions. Although all states must provide special education to all
students with disabilities, states may or may not adopt the disability categories recognized in the
federal regulations. In fact, there are significant differences across the states in the categorical
designations, conceptual definitions, and classification criteria.8,9 These differences have their
greatest impact on the students who will be described later as mildly disabled. It is entirely
possible for students with identical characteristics to be diagnosed as disabled in one state, but
not in another, or to have the categorical designation change with a move across state or school
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district lines. The category of mental retardation (MR)10 illustrates the diverse classification
practices in special education. The IDEA regulations define mental retardation as “significantly
subaverage general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive
behavior.”1 Mental retardation has been recognized as one of the disabilities for which special
education was provided throughout this century.6,11 Despite the longevity and nearly universal
recognition of this category, enormous differences exist among states in terminology,10 key
dimensions (for example, some states do not include adaptive behavior in the conceptual
definition), and classification criteria (for example, the intelligence quotient [IQ] “ceiling” for
this category varies from 69 to 85). The variations in criteria have the most effect on the mild
level of mental retardation. Similar variations among states exist for other disability categories,
especially serious emotional disturbance (SED), learning disability (LD), and speech or language
impairment (SP/L).
2.5 Medical And Social System Models
Historically, the special education classification system involved a mixture of medical
and social system models of deviance.7–9 The least ambiguous disabilities are the clearly
medical disabilities (such as visual impairment or orthopedic disabilities), often recognized by
the child’s physician soon after birth or during the preschool years. In contrast, the disabilities
defined by social system models represent behavior, intelligence, communication abilities, or
other characteristics that deviate significantly from the norm, and which are generally diagnosed
during the school years (see Table 1). The initial identification of a student with social system
disabilities usually occurs because of a teacher-initiated referral of the child as a result of severe
and chronic achievement or behavioral problems.7 In the social system model, the question of
where to draw the line between normal and “significantly different” characteristics is somewhat
subjective, and has properly been considered a matter within the discretion of local or state
authorities. (See the article by Parrish and Chambers in this journal issue.) In addition,
knowledge about the possible underlying physical causes of some social system disabilities (such
as learning disabilities and attention-deficit disorder) is changing rapidly. There is research
linking biological factors to mild disabilities such as learning disability, and in particular reading
disabilities. (See the article by Lyon in this journal issue.) These links involve possible
differences in brain functions among readers with and without disabilities as well as a possible
614
genetic link to severe reading disabilities. The differences are, however, correlational as noted by
a writer in a recent Science News and Comment.12 Furtherresearch is needed to determine
(1) if thesebiological correlates are replicated with newsamples of students with learning
disability;
(2) whether the presence or absence of thecorrelates reliably distinguishes betweenthose
with and without learning disability;and
(3) whether treatments work differentlydepending on the presence, amount, andkind of
biological correlates.
Until thesequestions are answered, little practical utilityexists for the research on the
biologicalcorrelates of learning disability.Mental retardation is perhaps the clearestexample of
the mixture of medical and socialsystem models. The current prevalence ofmental retardation
among school-age childrenand youth is 1.1%.13 Approximatelyone-half of these persons have
moderate tosevere disabilities (IQ below 55) characterizedby identifiable anomalies (such
asDown’s Syndrome) that are the cause oftheir significantly lower performance inadaptive
behavior and intelligence.6,11 A secondgroup of persons with mental retardationwho typically
perform at the mild level(IQ about 55 to 70 or 75) do not exhibit anybiological anomalies that
can be posited asthe cause of their lower performance.14,15Indeed, the etiology of this form of
mentalretardation has been called cultural-familialor psychosocial as a means of
acknowledgingthat social system factors may be preeminent.16 Persons with mild mental
retardationrather than moderate or severe mental retardationhave markedly different levels
andpatterns of educational needs and adultadjustment. Unfortunately, the current
classificationsystem uses the same term to referto both groups of persons,5 leading to
frequentconfusion over what mental retardationmeans and unnecessary stigmatizationof persons
with mild mental retardation.6The paucity of clear evidence of a medicalbasis for many
disabilities and the factthat most disabilities are at the mild level(see later discussion) does not
diminish theimportance of early recognition of problemsand the implementation of
effectivetreatments. For example, problems withattaining literacy skills as reflected in verylow
reading achievement or poor behavioralcompetencies as reflected in aggressivebehaviors often
interfere significantly withnormal development and seriously impairthe individual’s
opportunities to become acompetent, self-supporting citizen.
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2.6 Assessment
For an appropriate Individualized Program Planning, accurate and comprehensive
information of the individual is essential. For this purpose a standard assessment tool is
necessary. Systematic observations and analysis of an individual’s skills and deficits identifies
the individual’s present developmental level and provides information about his strengths,
abilities and developmental needs. This forms the basis for educational programming.
Overall Purpose of Assessment
The assessment tool should
• be developmental, indicative of both the strengths and the needs of the assessed individuals,
• be easy, and simple to administer and to record even by a non-professional; versatile enough to
be administered individually and also in groups; economical—time-wise and cost-wise, using
materials available in homes or in classrooms,
616
• yield results, a profile of the individual that can be easily used for program planning,
interpreted to parents; useful for on going assessments; a communication tool for future use in
placement and which is comprehensive about the individual’s development and needs.
Specific Purpose of Assessment
• Initial identification or screening.
• Determination of current performance levels, educational needs, evaluation of teaching
programs and strategies (prereferral intervention).
• For decision-making, regarding
classification and program placement.
• Development of Individual Education Program including goals, objectives and evaluation
procedures.
2.7 Requirements In Programming
An assessment provides answers to the following requirements in programming:
Step 1: Behavioral assessment is a complete statement of the behavioral level or performance
level of the person. A person’s past behavior and present level of functioning is looked at to
determine what he needs to work on now Based on the assessment, a decision on the future
program of action is taken on how far the person needs to advance in behavior and in acquiring
daily living skills. Assessment leads to an individualized program plan.
Step 2: It states in general terms a Goal statement arising directly from the assessment and states
the behavioral objective which is a statement of the expected behavior in specific terms. The
objectives stated, which should be observable and measurable, is followed by the method of
teaching this targeted (new) behavior.
Step 3: Evaluation of the individualized program plan: It is the looking back on the behavioral
objective and asking if the behavior change observed as stated in the objective was timely. If not,
why not? This step evaluates the individualized program plan and not the person’s entire
behavior.
617
Note: Evaluation is done to determine the effectiveness of the program. But assessment is for
creating a baseline for further programming and intervention.
2.8 Tools Available In India Persons with mental retardation are assessed for intelligence, personality, education,
social achievement, special abilities, and aptitudes. Primary assessment includes recording of
case history, physical examination of the child, preschool assessment, school learning and post-
school adjustment. The approach, so far, has been psychometric even though adaptive behavior
assessment has formed the basic component in testing for screening, placement and
programming for intervention.
The Tests
Adaptive Behavior Scale (AAMD-Lambert et al., 1981), Vineland Social Maturity Scale
(Doll, 1953) and a few others have been adapted for use with Indians, but there has been a wide
difference in the application of each. In this direction, the Madras Scale (Jeyachandran P., 1968),
Madras Development Programming System (Jeyachandran P. and Vimala V., 1975; revised
1983) was the first adaptive behavior scale to be developed in the country for implementation of
the Individualized Educational Plan (IEP). The reprinted edition (2002) is being used throughout
the country. Following this pioneering development of the Madras Scale (1968), the following
were evolved at the NIMH, Secunderabad:
• Behavioral Assessment Scale for Indian Children with Mental Retardation (Peshwaria and
Venkatesan, 1992, Basic- MR).
• Functional Assessment Tools (NASEOM).
• Assessment of the Mentally Retarded Individuals of Grouping and Teaching (NIMH, 1991).
• Problem Behavior Checklist (Peshwaria, 1989).
• Maladaptive Behavior Checklist (Peshwaria & Naidu, 1991a).
• Problem Behavior Checklist (Arya, Peshwaria, Naidu & Venkatesan, 1990).
• The Assessment Scale-Speech and Language (Subba Rao, 1998).
• Behavior Disorder Checklist (Mishra, 1990).
• Adaptive Behavior Scale (Indian Revision) (Gunthey & Upadhyaya, 1982).
• Educational Assessment of the Persons with Mental Retardation, based on functional
performance rather on verbal performance (Jangira, Ahuja, Kaur, & Sefia, 1990).
618
• School readiness measure development (Muralidharan, 1975).
The Illinois Test of Psycho-Linguistic Abilities in its adapted form, available in our
country (Sahoo, 1988), is used for diagnostic and related language processes. The ERIC
(NCERT) has initiated determinants to assess the psychometric validity of Indian tests in various
areas which need wider dissemination
Madras Developmental Programming Systemb(MDPS), 1975
• The scale consists of 360 observable and measurable items. Grouped under 18 functional
domains, such as gross motor, fine motor, eating, dressing, grooming, toileting, receptive and
expressive language, social interaction, reading, writing, numbers, time, money, domestic
behavior, community orientation, recreation and leisure time activities, vocational activities.
• Each domain lists twenty items in the developmental order, along the dependence-
independence continuum.
• The MDPS also provides an Adaptive Behavioral Assessment of each child with mental
retardation.
• The MDPS system helps to record challenging behaviors (problem behavior) which can be
taken care of through the IEP. A schedule for the management of challenging behaviors is also
included.
• The administration procedure involves getting information regarding the skills and behaviors
that the child can or cannot do currently.
• Information is derived through direct observation of the child, through parent/ caretakers’
observations and by means of testing in simulated situations or through interviews.
• The child’s performance on each item is rated from two directions, A or B, depending on
whether the child does not or does perform the target behavior listed as an item on the scale.
• The data recorded/presented, graphically and/or numerically, at weekly, quarterly, and annual
intervals, helps the teacher to set goals and draw behavior profiles of the assessed individual; it
helps in the evaluation of a child’s progress over a period of time.
• Once the assessment is completed, persons with mental retardation, as per the design, will
naturally fall into the educational classifications: pre-primary, primary, secondary, pre-vocational
and vocational.
• The reliability and validity of this scale has been established.
619
Upanayan Developmental Programming System (UDPS) for Children with Mental Retardation
(Madhuram Narayan Centre for Exceptional Children, Madras), 1987
It is comprehensive, covering the management of children with mental retardation in the
age group of 0-2 years and 2-6 years to meet a ‘felt need’ for systematic training. Appropriate to
Indian conditions and suited to the cultural milieu, the printed program comes equipped with a
user manual and a set of activity cards.
Upanayan Early Intervention Developmental Programming System: This System consists
of background information form (Case history), the Upanayan checklist, profiles, evaluation
formats – Graphical and Numerical, an assessment kit, activity cards, training materials and a
user manual.
The check list, covering the five areas of development from birth to 2 years, is arranged in
the normal developmental sequence, comprising a total of 250 skills, 50 from each domain, such
as, motor, self-help, language, cognition and socialization.
The activity cards are colored differently for easy identification. The manual gives
instructions on the use of the checklist and the activity cards and a list of materials to be used
during assessment. In the Upanayan program, age 2 + to 6 years, the check list includes 50 skills
in each of the selected 12 domains, a total of 600 skills. The domains are: communication, self-
caremeal time activities, personal daily activities, social activities, community use, self direction,
health and safety, functional academics–writing, reading, arithmetic, leisure time and work. The
manual includes instructions for use. The checklist and the activity cards containing suggested
activities have been field tested extensively with parents, special educators and other
professionals in different parts of the country.
Behavioral Assessment Scale for Indian Children with Mental Retardation (BASIC-MR)–
Peshwaria and Venkatesan, 1992, (NIMH)
• Though designed to elicit systematic information on the current level of behavior in school
going children with mental retardation, in age group 3 to 16 (or 18) years, the teacher may find
the scale useful even for older individuals with severe retardation.
• Relevant for behavioral assessment, the scale, field tested on a select sample, can also be used
as a curriculum guide for program planning and training based on the individual needs.
620
2.9 Basic Mr
The scale has been developed in two parts, BASIC MR, Part–A and BASIC MR, Part-B.
• PART-A consists of 280 items grouped under seven domains— motor, activities of daily living
(ADL), in motor, language, reading–writing, number, time, domestic, social and prevocational.
• PART-B consisting of 75 items grouped under 10 domains, that is, violent and destructive
behaviors, temper tantrums, misbehavior with others, self-injurious behavior, repetitive behavior,
odd behavior, hyperactive behavior, rebellious behavior, anti-social behavior, and fears, helps to
assess the current level of problem behavior in the child, along a descriptive scale, namely,
independent, cueing, verbal prompting, physical prompting, totally dependent and not applicable,
each scale awarded a score of 5 to 0 in that order.
• Test administration of any item within any domain can be stopped after five consecutive
failures by the child. The rest of the items should be scored ‘0’. In such cases, maximum scores
possible for the child in each of domain is 200.
• The child is rated on each item of Part- B along a descriptive scale, namely, 0 for ‘Never’, 1 for
‘Occasionally’ and 2 for ‘Frequently’ based on three levels of severity and frequency.
Functional Assessment Checklist for Programming– NIMH (Narayan, Myredi, Rao &
Rajgopal, 1994)
• Each of the seven checklists is addressed to different levels of the child’s functioning, namely,
pre-primary, primary-I, primary-II, secondary prevocational- I, pre-vocational-II and care group.
• At each level, selected carefully and written objectively, excepting care group, the checklists
cover a broad domain of skills, such as, personal, social, academic, occupational and
recreational.
• When a child achieves 80% success at a given level, promotion to the next higher level
considered. Each item on the checklist is rated along a descriptive scale namely, yes (+) means
the child performs the item with no help, occasionally cueing (OC), verbal prompting (VP),
physical prompting (PP), no (-) meaning one has to completely support the child in the
performance of the task.
• Teaching goals and objectives set quarterly (once in three months) and the progress evaluated
at the end of each quarter, the checklist provides for periodic evaluation.
621
• This checklist has a high correlation with
the Madras Developmental
Programming System.
The Portage Guide to Early Education Designed in 1975, as a home based intervention
program for pre-school children aged 0-6 years with developmental disabilities, it provides a
flexible model for early intervention by involving parents and families in the education of their
child.
Dissemination in India –The Jamaica Adaptation The Jamaica adapted Portage Guide
disseminated in 1986, at NIMH, Secunderabad (M.Thorburn), was found culturally loaded.
Hence, a programming system, suited to the Indian cultural milieu, was developed by an
interdisciplinary team of experts.
Curriculum Based Assessment Checklist (MRIH), Kolkata, 2000
It was developed to help parents and professionals make curricular decisions for those
learners for whom a portion of their program must be devoted to direct instruction in the
community living areas.
The checklist contains 17 domains for different levels of mental retardation. These are, Motor,
Selfhelp Skill (ADL), Language, Cognition, Safety, Health, Physical Fitness, Pre-Vocational,
Vocational, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Money, Time, Social play, Recreation.
The full scale of the checklist consists of nine
domains which contain core skills. Eight other skill
areas are grouped into five performance levels (Pre-
Primary, Primary, Secondary, Pre-Vocational and
Vocational).
Thakhur Hariprasad Institute (THPI), Hyderabad, Diagnostic Record for Persons with
Mental Retardation
This comprises the following:
• Social work related information, medical history which includes pre-natal, perinatal, post-natal
information.
• Special Education Assessment is conducted using the list of activities as in 1983.
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• AAMR definition from gross motor functions to vocational skills.
• Psychological Assessment, Cognitive Vocational Abilities, Behavior Problems, Speech and
Language Assessment, Speech Communication-verbal and non-verbal, Gessel Drawing Test,
Seguin Form Board, Colored Progressive Matrices, Standard Progressive Matrices, Binet-
Kamath Scale, Vineland Social Maturity Scale, Malin’s Intelligence Scale for Indian Children,
Bhatia IQ Test, Koh’s Block Design, Denver Developmental Screening Test. An
interdisciplinary team of experts give their inputs using their own assessment system.
2.10 Types
2.10.1 Individualized Education Plan (Iep)–Flow Chart
The IEP a sequential process for making decisions regarding the program of management
of persons with mental retardation, is essentially an assessment process for teaching, popularly
known as criterion referenced scale. With an inbuilt system for periodic assessments and
evaluations, it helps the planners to arrive at a comprehensive picture of an individual’s
performance level in adaptive behavior, an area often neglected in the traditional method of
“treatment planning”. The entire process of program planning can be visualized in the flow chart
(Bock and Jeyachandran, 1975) shown in Graphs 1 & 2. Assessment, the first and a necessary
step in the entire system, is followed by designing the individualized program plan which
includes setting goals and objectives. After quarterly evaluation, new goals and objectives are set
as needed, the entire process to be repeated annually.
2.10.2 The Interdisciplinary Team
Since many persons with mental retardation also have associated problems, the expertise
of several professionals is necessary to provide effective programs using the skills of the
interdisciplinary team. The special educator plays a pivotal role. The most commonly involved
members being the special educator, psychologist, physiotherapist, occupational therapist,
623
speech therapist, social worker and paediatrician. The team also includes the trainee, his parents
and the referral agency, all participating in the program planning activities. Though each member
of the team has a clearly defined function, all of them work together. Program planning is a good
practice, irrespective of the “tools” or “instruments” employed.
2.10.3 Mdps Behavioral Scale
In the MDPS Behavioral Scale, the behavioral assessment instrument is designed to
provide objective and sound information about the functional skills of the assessee for purposes
of program planning. Assessment data are presented in a graphic form on the Behavioral Profile
for use by the interdisciplinary team.
Formats: The priority goals and objectives set by the team based on individualized assessment
are recorded on the Individualized Program Plan forms, that is, the Priority Goal Statement Form
and the Quarterly Program Plan Forms.
Record of Progress: The quarterly progress can be recorded, both numerically and graphically,
in the profile format in which the individual’s achievement is shown for each quarter with
distinct markings on the selected objectives. This facilitates a comparison between the initial
assessment and the quarterly evaluations. In the Individualized Program Plan form (Quarterly
Program Plan Form) weekly progress may be recorded. When completed, the tabular form will
give a clear, consolidated picture of the progress made by the individual in regard to the
objectives selected for the quarter.
On the Problem Behavior Assessment Form, a description of the problem behavior can be
recorded. A few of the frequently observed problem behaviors is also given. In summary, the
component parts of the IEP include:
• The Behavioral Scale –an assessment tool.
• The Behavioral Profile with space to record the quarterly progress and the identifying
information.
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• The Individualized Program Plan Forms include the Priority Goal Statement Form, the
Quarterly Program Form and the Problem Behavior Assessment Form.
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2.11 Assessment In Special Education
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In an All India Seminar on Assessment in Special Education - MR (MRIH - USEFI,
2001) recommendation for a Multidimensional Model of Assessment was made with a series of
operational recommendations. This has been implemented. Multidimensional assessment refers
to a comprehensive and integrated evaluative approach that employs multiple measures, deriving
data from multiple sources, surveying multiple domains and fulfilling multiple purposes.
Use of multi-measures provides a broader base and a more valid method for assessing
children with developmental disabilities. Diagnostic batteries that combine norm based,
curriculum based and clinical judgment based scales, help achieve the greatest probability of
accurately describing and prescribing the complex needs of children with multiple disabilities.
Information from Multi source, i.e., from several contexts (home, school, clinic) and sources
(parents, teachers, therapists) is gathered. This requires interdisciplinary, ecological, interactional
and environmental assessment.
Multi domain assessment refers to the use of instruments that examine the child’s
capabilities and deficiencies within and across several developmental and behavioral areas or
processes. In multi purpose assessment, besides cognition, domains like social competence,
communication, self-care, play, temperament, self-regulation, attention, emotional expression
and coping behavior, are included.
2.12 Suggestions Made By USEFI Seminar For Development Of Assessment
Tool For Identifying, Classifying Persons With Mental Retardation • Using a process oriented assessment tool (planning, attention, simultaneous, successive
processing) Das et. al. (2000) instead of IQ Test (MR, L.D., Reading Disability).
• Clinical psychologists working in organizations of disability training research/NTs to take up
adaptive behavior scales suitable to our culture and life (translate to regional language) and
validate the schedule.
• Adoption of completely uniform procedure of testing, laying down tester characteristics for all
institutions, including ethical considerations.
• Learning potential assessment device (LPAD) in content areas, in the pattern of achievement
tests for different levels/ classes, is to be developed.
• Development of clinical diagnosis schedule and procedure involving National Institutes and
other leading Non-Governmental Organizations.
• Adoption of information schedule for family data and ecological conditions.
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• Evolving guidelines for drawing profiles in terms of developmental milestones and points of
intervention.
• Evolving an outline of an assessment report–what and how it can be meaningful to
parents/special educators.
2.13 Teaching Persons With Mental Retardation Using Behavioral Approach
Teacher-centered process giving way to a child-centred one, has influenced the area of
special education with emphasis on the Individualized Education Program (IEP) planning for
children with mental retardation. Along with individualized instruction, the teaching strategies
introduced are cooperative learning, peer tutoring, computeraided learning (CAL), multi-sensory
teaching and clinical-diagnostic teaching.
Procedures–IPP
The individualized program plan (IPP) is based on assessing a person and evolving a
baseline at the point of entry into the program, setting goals and objectives in the order of
priority and converting the goals and objectives into concrete lesson plans which include the
teaching steps, the planning strategies for use, the material selection and finally, evaluation.
Behavioral Technology
Although behavioral technology principles in all cases not only ticked to certain model of
teaching, but also incorporated the principle of task analysis, condition of promoting learning in
special integrated setting. At the National Institute of Mentally Handicapped (NIMH), Peshwaria
and Venkatesan (1992) developed the “Behavioural Approach in Teaching Mentally Retarded
Children” which has been tested in class rooms and at homes. Parents and teachers can develop
programs suited to the specific needs of an individual child. The teacher is also acquainted first
with the behavioral assessment of the person with reference to the current level of functioning,
and the current problem behavior/s.
The teacher must then assess each child’s performance rather than its deficiency, that is,
what he can do rather than what he cannot do. The behavioral assessment tools available in India
628
are: MDPS, NIMH assessment schedule, Functional assessment tools, and problem behavior
management system (NIMH). While teaching, the teacher has to identify and analyze problem
behavior and use behavioral techniques to manage the same. The details are given in the manual
and the teacher has to go through the orientation. Studies done by Narayan, Peshwaria, and
Myeredi support its effectiveness. Even though research studies prove the effectiveness of the
Behavioral Approach, evaluating on that basis is not yet practiced at every teaching institution.
2.15 Problems Related To Assessment/Evaluation And The Direction Of
Reforms
The focus Group on Examination Reforms has highlighted certain problems with
conventional examinations tat need to be tackled. The quality of the question papers is low and
they usually call for rote memorization and fail to test higher-order skills like reasoning and
analysis, let alone lateral thinking, creativity, and judgment. Because they are inflexible, based
on a ‘one-size-fits-all’ principle, they make no allowance for different types of learners and
learning environments. Also, there is often a lack of full disclosure and transparency in grading
and mark/grade reporting. While some improvements in such external final examinations can be
made, the far-reaching changes can come only through a functional and reliable system of
school-based evaluation. The flexibility such local assessment allows and the possibility of using
several modes (beyond the timed written examination) can be exploited to assess more aspects of
learners’ development, and make assessment more child friendly and free from tension. Some
specific suggestions are that: (i) Assessment should “not expect everything of everybody in
every subject. The assessment scheme for a subject should have both a standard level and a
higher level option. The former is linked to the basic grasp of the subject matter, while the latter
has a larger component of high-order skills and demand more depth of understanding and greater
speed. Students should have the choice of picking either one of two levels within a subject. Of
say, six subjects, every student would choose to do 3 or 4 exams at the higher level and 3 or 2
exams at the standard level.
(ii) Thee should be flexibility regarding when exams are taken: If it is accepted that learners
learn at different paces, there is no reason, other than administrative convenience. For a fixed
examination schedule, students should be allowed to clear some (up to two, perhaps) subjects at
the end of IX grade for the secondary exam.
629
This would not only reduce stress a year later but also make for better long-term learning. This
type of on-demand examinations has already been put in place by the Open School. (iii) The
reporting of achievement should be on a relative scale rather than on the currently used scale of
absolute marks (or grades) in each subject. A percentile rank should be given with respect to (a.)
the entire universe of candidates in that subject, (b). all candidates in that school and (c). all
candidates in that block. A student from a disadvantaged area with low-quality educational
infrastructure who scores, say, 70% (absolute marks) would attain a percentile rank on 95%
within her block-
1. A set of measures to reduce exam anxiety have also been suggested, which include:
a. Shorter exams that leave time for deliberation and periodic test would help.
b. Questions that require students to draw on two or more areas of the syllabus would also allow
more comprehensive testing within lesser time, in addition to constituting good educational
practice by calling on candidates to make relevant connections between materials from different
chapters.
c. A shift in emphasis from ‘short answers’ to MCQs designed to test real understanding of core
concepts would help reduce students anxiety.
d. A shift in emphasis to testing competencies and away from memory would certainly reduce
stress, in addition to aiding the validity of exams. A long-term move toward open-book exams
can be envisaged.
e. The tenth grade board exam should be made optional for those not seeking admission to higher
levels immediately.
2.16 Summary
Many persons with mental retardation also have associated problems. The services to
these individuals must be rendered using the professional skills of the interdisciplinary team
whose members may also be made available on a consultative basis. The team should be
involved in identifying the individual’s needs and in designing programs to meet them. The
individual, his family and the referral agency also form part of the interdisciplinary team. Each
member of the team should utilize the skills, competencies and insights that his/her training and
experience provides, but they should work together as a team without imposing constraints. The
630
special educator plays a pivotal role in the interdisciplinary team. The members of the team
should always work together with the child as the main focus.
2.17 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Purposes
2. Explain Current Practices
3. Explain Federal And State Disability Categories
4. Explain Medical And Social System Models
5. Explain Assessment
6. Explain Requirements In Programming
7. Explain Tools Available In India
8. Explain Basic Mr
9. Explain Types
10. Explain Individualized Education Plan (Iep)–Flow Chart
11. Explain The Interdisciplinary Team
12. Explain Mdps Behavioral Scale
13. Explain Assessment In Special Education
14. Explain Suggestions Made By USEFI Seminar For Development Of
Assessment Tool For Identifying, Classifying Persons With Mental
Retardation
15. Explain Teaching Persons With Mental Retardation Using Behavioral
Approach
16. Behavioral Technology
17. Explain Problems Related To Assessment/Evaluation And The Direction Of
Reforms
43. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.44.1. Points for discussion
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Unit 3: Emerging Trends In Evaluation –CCE, Teacher Made Tests, Grading System
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Continuous And Comprehensive Evaluation
3.2.1 The Importance Of Continuous And Comprehensive Evaluation With A
Formative Orientation
3.3 Student Response Systems
3.4 Teacher Made Test
3.4.1 Opportunities.
3.4.2 Challenges.
3.5 More Information Needed On This Issue Includes:
3.6 Learn More About This Issue:
3.7 Teaching Strategies And Interventions
3.8 Teacher Monitoring Of Student Progress
3.9 Student-Teacher Interaction
3.10 Effective Teaching Literature
3.11 Online Learning
3.11.1 Opportunities.
642
3.11.2 Challenges.
3.12 Grading System
3.13 Summary
3.14 Check Your Progress
3.15 References
643
3.1 Introduction
Today, educational systems across the globe are undergoing efforts to move beyond the ways
they operated at the beginning of the 20th century, with traditional instructional practices that
commonly ask students to work individually on exams that require them to recall facts or
respond to pre-formulated problems within the narrow boundaries of individual school subjects.
Reforms currently underway reframe what is taught, how it is learned, and how it is being
evaluated in innovative ways that help personalize learning. Assessments that support learning
must explicitly communicate the nature of expected learning. Research, in fact, shows the
powerful effect that on-going assessment embedded into the learning process has on student
learning, particularly for low ability students (Black & Wiliam, 1998). Creating such a system of
personalized learning requires new forms of formative and summative student performance
assessments that enable individual students to stretch onward from wherever they are in a
learning continuum.
For over a decade, Intel® Corporation has been involved in a number of global initiatives
such as Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATC21S) that support developing new
national assessment strategies and new benchmarking tests. Through its partnerships with
ministries of education, Intel Teach’s teacher professional development programs have helped
millions of teachers in developing countries integrate these innovative assessment strategies, as
well as technology, into their classroom practice (EDC & SRI International, 2008; Light, Polin,
& Strother, 2009). While these strategies support new assessments of learning, all of the Intel
Teach professional development programs also use a variety of assessment for learning
approaches. Assessment for learning is the idea that classroom assessments should support
ongoing teaching and learning (Assessment Reform Group, 2002; Heritage, 2010), thus
highlighting the vital role that teacher-made classroom-based formative and process-focused
assessments could play in improving the entire education system. Intel’s Getting Started course,
teachers learn the technical skills to design rubrics and the Essentials course teaches teachers
how to use rubrics to assess student products and encourages performance-based assessments.
The Teaching Thinking with Technology and the Essentials V10 courses stress formative
assessments for 21st century skills. The online Elements courses include one entirely devoted to
assessing 21st century learning. Intel also offers a free online rubric maker.
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Additionally, courses like Getting Started and Essentials model good assessment
practices when they have teachers assess and provide feedback on their work or when the
courses ask teachers to reflect on their own learning in the course. But, these programs alone are
probably not sufficient and local agencies and ministries may need to do more to support the
needed shifts in classroom assessment strategies.
In its work collaborating with governments, policy-makers, and local agencies around the
world, Intel has always maintained that education reform is a systemic process in which
stakeholders need to consider how policy changes in one area affect other areas. Yet, one of the
biggest challenges for ministries of education engaged in school reform is measuring whether
they are having a real impact in the classroom. While, many of these teacher-designed
assessment strategies are increasingly common in the classrooms of developing countries, they
are still rarely used in emerging market countries. To truly improve student learning in emerging
market countries it is important to transform how teachers’ assess their students learning in the
classroom. This paper highlights the research on a number of assessment strategies or tools for
classroom-based assessment that can play a key role in creating and supporting the new 21st
century learning environments and encourages ministries to consider how these strategies may
play a role in their own reform efforts.
There is unequivocal support for the continuous/formative assessment across the world.
Bell and Cowie (2001) define formative assessment as the process used by teachers and students
to recognize and respond to student learning in order to enhance that learning, during the
learning. Black and Wiliam (1998b) define assessment broadly to include all activities that
teachers and students undertake to get information that can be used diagnostically to alter
teaching and learning. Under this definition (Boston, 2002) assessment encompasses teacher
observation, classroom discussion, and analysis of student work, including homework and tests.
Assessment becomes formative when the information is used to adapt teaching and learning to
meet student needs. Feedback given as part of formative assessment helps learners become aware
of any gaps that exist between their desired goal and their current knowledge, understanding, or
skill and guides them through actions necessary to obtain the goal (Ramprasad, 1983; Sadler,
1989). Through teacher-student interactions during learning activities (Newman, Griffin, & Cole,
1989) that formative assessment is done and that students receive feedback on what they know,
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understand, and can do. Black and Wiliam (1998a) conducted an extensive research review of
250 journal articles and book chapters to determine whether formative assessment raises
academic standards in the classroom. Research studies have also shown that students who
understand the learning objectives and assessment criteria and have opportunities to reflect on
their work show greater improvement than those who do not. (Fontana & Fernandes, 1994;
Frederikson & White, 1997). Formative assessment is seen as a crucial component in teaching
for conceptual development (Bell, 1995). Black and Wiliam (1998b) view that efforts to
strengthen formative assessment produce significant learning gains and apparently help low-
achieving students, including students with learning disabilities, even more than it helped other
students. Teachers (Boston, 2002) generally need to undertake or participate in some summative
assessment as a basis for reporting grades or meeting accountability standards. However, the task
of summative assessment for external purposes remains quite different from the task of formative
assessment to monitor and improve progress. Assessment can be considered formative only if it
results in action by the teacher and students to enhance student learning (Black, 1993).
3.2 Continuous And Comprehensive Evaluation
In the light of the above, the focus of source book, a comprehensive document on
assessment at secondary stage would be to emphasize on continuous and comprehensive
assessment. Continuity means assessment throughout the session, and making it an integral part
of teaching learning process through formal and informal methods. Comprehensiveness means
assessment of all areas of learning. This encompasses all aspects of pupils’ growth such as
intellectual, physical, social personal qualities, interests, attitudes and values. The term
comprehensive also means variety of evaluation tools and techniques employed for different
learning areas. The CCE is multi-dimensional as it involves multiple techniques and different
persons like teacher, pupil, peer, parent and community. CCE takes care of students pace of
learning in all aspects of personality growth with regular periodicity and timely addressing of the
problems. The essential principles for a planned scheme of CCE are flexibility, functionality,
accountability, and economy. The learning environment such as conditions, persons, and
resources, which throw light on pupil’s learning, must also be taken into consideration in
assessing the students.
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3.2.1 The Importance Of Continuous And Comprehensive Evaluation With A
Formative Orientation
Many of suggestions for improving assessment practices over the years come together in
the broad framework of CCE. Its components serve to reduce the tension inducing rigidity of the
conventional system and provide for the fuller engagement with the varied dimensions along
which the school child develops cognitively, emotionally and socially. Equally important is the
role of formative assessment in making a positive contribution to the enhancement of quality.
Virtually all activity under this head has to be local and internal: teachers and students to a
significant degree will be the agents. This has major implications for teacher autonomy and
empowerment and for students’ involvement and ownership of their educational programmes.
One scheme has been worked by the CBSE. The details are given in Appendix. The present
framework is an attempt to build on this and other initiatives to evolve a meaningful and feasible
scheme for assessment (incorporating CCE) specially oriented to the curriculum of the secondary
stage. From the academic session i.e., 2010-11 CBSE has introduced CCE in both classes IX and
X. The academic session is divided into two terms (I term –April-September, II term – October –
March). Each term will have two formative and one summative assessment. However, a serious
concern that emanates from the above kind of assessment is that students will need to undergo
more tests instead of one and ultimately it may lead to aversion towards testing and learning
itself. In this regard it is not only important for CBSE but also other boards and agencies
concerned with secondary education to focus more on appropriate and diverse tools and
techniques of assessment. Periodicity of assessment does not mean mere increase in the number
of tests administered on students.
3.3 Student Response Systems Student response system (SRS), also known as classroom response system (CRS), audience
response system (ARS) or colloquially as “clickers,” is a general term that refers to a variety of
technology-based formative assessment tools that can be used to gather student-level data
instantly in the classroom. Through the combination of hardware (hand held clickers, receiver,
PC, internet connection, projector and screen) and software, teachers can ask students a wide
range of questions (both closed and open-ended), students can respond quickly and
anonymously, and the teacher can display the data immediately and graphically. The value of
SRS comes from teachers analyzing information quickly and then devising real-time pedagogical
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solutions to maximize student learning (Beatty & Gerace, 2009; Bruff; Caldwell, 2007). As with
most teaching tools (including the rubric), an SRS is only as effective as the pedagogy it is
couched in (Beatty & Gerace, 2009; Rochelle, Penuel, & Abrahamson, 2004). As a result, this
section discusses not only the tool but also the questioning strategies at the heart of its
implementation.
At its core, SRS allows for the generation of data that can guide the ongoing modification
of pedagogy and content coverage to better differentiate teaching strategies to meet all students’
needs (Bruff; Caldwell, 2007; Salend, 2009). What makes SRS distinct from other assessment
tools is its ability to collect and display data instantly rather than waiting days to present the
outcome as with a test, essay or project. SRS has been found to be effective across grade levels
and in a variety of subject areas (Beatty & Gerace, 2009; Bruff, 2007; Caldwell, 2007; Rochelle,
et al., 2004).
The effectiveness of the SRS tool is closely linked to the type, quality, quantity, speed
and sequence of the questions being asked (Bruff, 2007; Beatty & Gerace, 2009; Caldwell,
2007). SRS technology can be used to pose a variety of types of questions including recall
questions, conceptual understanding questions, application questions, critical thinking questions,
student perspective questions, confidence level questions, monitoring questions, and classroom
experiment questions (Bruff). Depending on the learning goal for the lesson, a teacher can ask
questions to help gauge understanding, foster discussion, elicit feedback or give student voice in
what they are studying. An instructor may also choose from a number of questioning sequences
including easy-hard-hard (a “warm-up” question followed by two more challenging questions
meant to elicit student discussion and test transferability across contexts) or rapid fire (a series of
moderately difficult questions around one concept). Some general examples of effective SRS
questions include: given a graph, match it with the best description or interpretation; match the
method of analysis with a particular data set; sort ideas or steps into the correct order; or apply a
familiar idea to a new context.
One strand of questioning strategies that is highly effective at integrating SRS is a series
of questions designed to promote peer learning. Peer learning is an active learning method where
students spend time collaborating and discussing issues in small groups (Caldwell, 2007). To
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foster peer learning, SRS can be used to pose a question that a teacher knows students will have
varying opinions on. Peer learning has been proven an effective teaching method that increases
student engagement, improves learning outcomes, promotes the circulation of knowledge
between students, fosters metacognitive learning, and provides feedback to the instructor (Beatty
& Gerace, 2009).
Practitioners and researchers report many other benefits to the use of SRS in the
classroom. The research suggests that when integrated effectively into instruction SRS can
1) improve engagement,
2) provoke critical thinking;
3) give students voice in classroom decisions,
4) improve classroom discussion,
5) increase attendance and retention, and finally,
6) increase enjoyment of class
(Caldwell, 2007; Bruff; Salend, 2009; Beatty & Gerace, 2009; Johnson & McLeod,
2004). Though small studies show that SRS has been effective at increasing achievement levels
among special populations like students with learning disabilities, on a larger scale, researchers
have difficulty making a causal link between the tool and academic outcomes (Jerome &
Barbetta, 2005; Caldwell, 2007; Roschelle et. al., 2004). In additional to enhancing instructional
strategies, SRS can be used as an effective classroom management tool to help monitor
participation (Rochelle et. al., 2004), manage a large classroom (Caldwell, 2007; Beatty and
Gerace, 2009), practice and review for tests (Beatty and Gerace, 2009), and facilitate homework
collection (Bruff).
3.4 Teacher Made Test
Common Core State Standards (CCSS) have been developed by the National Governors
Association Center for Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School Officers. Currently
the CCSS have been formally adopted by 45 states and the District of Columbia with the
remaining states adopting standards more rigorous than their existing state standards.
The CCSS are designed to be robust and relevant to the real world, providing a consistent, clear
understanding of what students across the country are expected to learn. The standards promote
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equity, applying to all students regardless of their location, race, ethnicity, disability status or
English language proficiency.
For many states and districts, implementing the CCSS in lieu of their existing academic
standards will require a significant boost in rigor. And this clearly has enormous implications for
students with LD and related learning difficulties and disorders.
Assessments aligned with the CCSS are being developed by two federally funded
consortia of states, the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers
(PARCC) and the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (Smarter Balanced). The
assessments have begun field testing during the 2013–2014 school year and will be fully
implemented in the 2014–2015 school year. The consortia are also required to develop
accommodation policies for students with disabilities, and it will be important to monitor how
these accommodations are being granted and whether they are indeed providing the right kinds
of supports for students with LD.
3.4.1 Opportunities.
For students with LD who receive special education services and supports, the
widespread adoption of the CCSS should accelerate a practice that links the development of a
student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) directly to grade-level standards—a process
known as “standards-based IEPs.”
Aligning IEP goals with the skills needed to be proficient on the CCSS for a student’s
enrolled grade level is critical to bolstering the intensity of instruction that will be necessary for
students with LD to be successful in these new, more rigorous standards.
The CCSS-aligned assessments will encompass significant advances in assessment,
incorporating universal design principles and embedded supports and enhancements, thereby
eliminating the need for many of the different types of traditional accommodations that are
currently used on pencil-and-paper tests. These advances will certainly provide improved access
(opportunities to demonstrate knowledge without the constraint of a disability) for all students,
including those with disabilities.
3.4.2 Challenges.
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Ensuring that students with LD have access to the general education curriculum aligned
to the CCSS will require significant retooling of practices within general and special education.
Heightening expectations, sharing ownership, improving collaboration and providing
professional development for teachers are among the essential elements needing attention.
3.5 More Information Needed On This Issue Includes:
data that capture how students with LD perform on CCSS assessments and ways to
compare student outcomes in states using new assessment systems
data to reflect whether students who are entitled to accommodations receive them for all
or part of their test administration
data on students’ preferences for embedded supports
data on student access and opportunity to become familiar with testing platforms and
technology
data on the adoption and implementation of standards-based IEPs
3.6 Learn More About This Issue:
Information about the Common Core State Standards, including the application of the
CCSS to students with disabilities, is available at corestandards.org.
Information on the state assessment consortia developing assessments aligned to the
CCSS is available at k12center.org/publications/assessment_consortia.html.
The International Center for Leadership in Education paper Fewer, Clearer, Higher
Common Core State Standards: Implications for Students Receiving Special Education Services
(2011) provides helpful information on CCSS and students with disabilities and is available at
leadered.com/pdf/Special%20Ed%20&%20CCSS%20white%20paper.pdf.
Parent Advocacy Brief: Understanding the Standards-based IEP by the National Center for
Learning Disabilities, provides an overview of this important approach to aligning IEP goals to
academic standards and is available at LD.org/UnderstandingStandardsIEP.
3.7 Teaching Strategies And Interventions
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For the most part, research shows differences between general and special education
instruction, though findings have not been consistent across studies. Some comparison studies
have focused on the differences in the teaching strategies and interventions used by general and
special education teachers, and this literature consistently shows differences. One study, which
compared teacher planning and adaptation for students with learning disabilities, found that
general educators preferred to use manipulative and audiovisual activities, while the special
educators preferred detailed intervention programs designed for special education students, for
example, direct instruction and cognitive strategy instructions.44 (Direct instruction and
cognitive strategy instructions are described later in this article, in the section on inclusion
efforts.) Another study of instruction for children with educable mental retardation (EMR) in
general and special settings foundthat special educators showed more flexibility in selecting
strategies with which to manage and monitor the classroom.
3.8 Teacher Monitoring Of Student Progress
The research comparing teacher monitoring of student progress is also consistent in
showing that general and special education teachers approach this task differently. General
education teachers prefer to determine progress or success through informal observations in the
classrooms; when tests are involved, they prefer tests directly based on material taught (as
opposed to standardized tests such as the California Achievement Test). On the other hand,
special educators are generally more data-based. Further, with smaller classes, special education
teachers can be more knowledgeable about their students and can tailor educational programs for
specific students.
3.9 Student-Teacher Interaction
With regard to student-teacher interaction in the two settings, results are
somewhatinconsistent. One study, which compared the interactions of students with learning
disabilities with a group of nondisabled students in general education classes, found that the
students with learning disabilities had more interaction with the teachers, but that the teachers
asked academic questions and provided feedback more to the students without disabilities. Other
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researchers have found that the proportion of exchanges focused on academic content is greater
in special than in general education.
A study of beginning general and special education teachers also found that special
educators monitored and praised their students with learning disabilities more than did general
educators. During teacher-initiated interactions, the special educators were more likely to
provide more answers to their own questions and less likely to ignore students’ inattention or
disruptive behaviors. A follow-up study49 with different general and special education teachers
produced similar findings.
3.10 Effective Teaching Literature
Some studies comparing instruction in general and special education come from the
effective teaching literature. Advocates for inclusion have often cited this literature because they
assume that students with mild handicaps are essentially the same as low achievers and will
respond well to the same interventions that have been effective with low-achieving students.50
This is a controversial assumption because recent research indicates that there are differences in
brain structure and functioning between children with dyslexia (a common learning disability)
and other children and that there is a biological and possibly genetic factor in some reading
disabilities. One study compared instructional behaviors of general and special education
teachers from the perspective of the effective teaching literature to identify behaviors that
differentiated teachers whose students had high and low proportions of on-task behavior.
Overall, special education teachers were more likely than general educators to monitor student
behavior, praise, show positive regard, give the answer, and reject students’ verbalizations. More
effective general and special education teachers had materials ready, began lessons promptly,
oriented learners to the lesson, made assignments more often, exhibited more teacher-directed
than student-directed learning, praised student responses more, and had to manage student
inattention/disruption less often.
It appears that differences in instruction between general and special education teachers
are common. Some of these differences may be a function of smaller class sizes; others may be
related to teachers’ professional training. Given the existence of these differences, it is
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reasonable to ask whether outcomes for students with disabilities are determined more by the
setting in which they are educated or by what happens in that setting.
3.11 Online Learning
Online learning—education in which instruction, content, knowledge and skill
acquisition are mediated primarily by network technologies such as the internet—is now a
common mode of instruction in nearly all of the nation’s schools. In fact, some states have
mandated that students complete at least one online course as a requirement for high school
graduation.
3.11.1 Opportunities.
The versatility and flexibility of online learning provides opportunities for students with
LD not available in traditional school settings. For example, the pace and presentation of
instruction can be customized on a student-by-student basis, providing truly personalized and
individualized instruction for students with LD. It can also provide a platform for continued
services during out-of-school time that arises because of disciplinary removals.
3.11.2 Challenges.
The Center on Online Learning and Students With Disabilities has raised a list of early
concerns regarding the participation of students with disabilities in new online learning
environments. Given the rapid expansion of online learning offerings and requirements, it is
critical to quickly and adequately address the issues that might impose limitations for students
with disabilities.
More information needed on this issue includes:
data to reflect how many students with LD are enrolled in online and blended learning
courses, whether these types of learning opportunities result in improved mastery of skills and
course content, and whether knowledge and skills generalize to real-life situations
data to inform ways that ensure students with LD can participate fully in the social and
behavioral demands of online learning
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data to inform the creation of procedures and systems to ensure that online learning
activities for students with LD are structured in ways that can be managed and supported by
educators (or parents) without compromise to students’ rights under federal law
data to ensure that students with LD, and with other disabilities, are not inappropriately
assigned to online learning in lieu of traditional classroom settings
Learn more about this issue:
Center on Online Learning and Students With Disabilities’ Open Letter Concerning
Participation in Online Learning (2012), which outlines many concerns, is available at
centerononlinelearning.org/an-open-letter-from-don-deshler-bill-east-and-david-rose-principal-
investigators-diana-greer-project-director.
State and district information on online learning by Evergreen Education Group is available at
kpk12.com/states.
3.12 Grading System
The analysis of the performance of students, whether it is of CCE or common/public
examination is a very important activity. While the CCE feedback helps students immediately,
the summative information provides about the levels of attainment of students during a particular
academic session. The analysis of performance can be taken up at different levels such as
individual teacher, school, district educational administration, state agencies such as Board of
Education/SCERT and National level agencies. However, the kind of analysis and the feedback
that can go to students varies with varying levels. While the teacher can give immediate feedback
to the students, the feedback that a national agency can provide at best is for systemic
improvement and not for individual performance enhancement.
In view of this different stakeholders need to participate in the entire exercise by making
use of different tools and techniques to monitor the progress of the students at different intervals,
so that even the authenticity of each of the stakeholders is cross verified.
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The proposed Certificate of School Based Assessment is divided into three parts. Part I consists
of evaluation of Scholastic attainments which will be reflected both for classes IX & X in the
card in the form of Grades and Percentile Rank. Part I (A):
• There will be two terms in both classes IX & X, the first term will be from April – September
and the second term from October to March of the subsequent year.
• Each term will have two formative and one summative assessment.
• Assessment will be indicated in grades and percentile rank.
• The grading scale for the scholastic domain is a nine point grading scale given at the back of
the card.
Part I (B):
• This will assess students for work-experience, art education and physical and health education.
• It will be assessed on a five point grading scale.
• Descriptive indicators are statements used to describe each learner.
• Overall grade will be given at the end of class IX and class X.
Part 2: consists of Co-scholastic areas where participants are assessed in two parts; 2 (A) Life
skills and 2 (B) Attitudes and values. Part 2 (A):
• Life skills: This consists of thinking skills, social skills and emotional skills which will be
assessed on a five point grading scale.
Part 2 (B):
• This consists of attitude towards teachers, schoolmates, school programmes and environment
and will be assessed on a three point grading scale.
• Value systems refer to the framework, which must be developed right through primary to
secondary level. These will be assessed on a three point grading scale.
Part 3 consists of Co-scholastic areas where in choice in participation and assessment thereof is
available. This pat consists of two sub parts. Part 3 (A): Literary & creative skills, scientific
skills, aesthetic skills and performing art and clubs (Eco, health and wellness clubs etc.) Part 3
(B) Eight different kinds of activities have been provided. 1. Sports/indigenous sports (kho-kho
etc.) 2. NCC/NSS 3. Scouting and guiding 4. Swimming 5. Gymnastics 6. Yoga 7. First Aid 8.
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Gardening/Shramdan The learner needs to be assessed on any two from the first subpart and any
two from the second subpart.
• Except life skills each of these co-scholastic areas will be assessed on a three point grading
scale.
• Assessment of scholastic attainments 1 (A) will be reported once in class IX and once in class
X.
• Assessment of scholastic attainments 1 (B) will be reported once in class IX and once in class
X.
• Assessment of Co-scholastic 2 (A) and 2 (B) will be reported once in class IX and once in class
X.
• Assessment of Co-scholastic 3 (A) and 3 (B) will be reported once in class IX and once in class
X.
The CBSE scheme also provides for assessment of self-awareness. While the assessment
certificate covers very broadly all the areas of child’s development, the rigid demarcation of
areas of assessment and the scope for teacher’s to identify indicators which are not defined in the
certificate limit the scope for teachers to provide contextualized assessment. Further, in many of
the areas such as life skills, attitudes & values and co-scholastic activities etc., it would be
sufficient to provide details under descriptive indicators and not necessary to award grades as
such.
3.13 Summary
While learning disabilities affect millions of Americans across the age span, the number
of identified individuals is most easily determined for school-age children and, to a lesser extent,
college-age adults. Studies indicate that few adults identify themselves as having LD, making it
difficult to ascertain just how such individuals are faring in key areas such as higher education,
employment status and earnings.
The decline in the numbers of school-age children being identified with LD over the past
decade appears to be the result of multiple factors, including a better understanding of reading
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acquisition and efforts to provide intervention activities before a special education eligibility
determination is made. Also related to this decline may be changes in the LD identification
process in special education law and regulations as well as in school-based practice. Change in
the rate of LD identification during the past 10 years has varied across states, perhaps a reflection
of the many different approaches being implemented. These trends must be carefully watched to
help inform both practice and policy.
Despite a decline in the number of school-age children reported to have LD, it remains
the largest category of students served by special education (42 percent). Those identified
continue to be largely male (66 percent), disproportionately poor and, to some degree, from
minority groups. Students with LD also continue to experience disciplinary actions at a much
higher rate than those without LD and encounter difficulties in school and other settings as a
result of inappropriate behavior and conduct.
While an increasing percentage of students with LD are receiving most of their
instruction in general education classrooms, it is difficult to determine if this results in positive
academic achievement. The performance of students with disabilities (including those with LD)
on measures of reading and math continues to show little improvement.
Improving the graduation rate of students with LD and reducing the drop-out rate are
among the many pressing issues for this group. Given all that is known about the detrimental and
lifelong effects of dropping out, efforts to implement effective drop-out prevention programs and
early warning systems that help schools identify and intervene with high-risk students should be
a top priority in the nation’s high schools.
To better facilitate moving successfully from school to college and careers, transition
planning needs to be improved. A key provision of IDEA, transition planning activities must
become a greater priority, with increased input from parents, and more direct involvement by
students. Transition planning must reflect the post-high school goals of students in meaningful
ways, and individuals from other agencies must be more frequently involved in transition
planning for students with LD, particularly disability support services personnel in colleges and
universities.
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The current level at which young people with LD access and succeed in postsecondary
education is unacceptably low. The unemployment rate of Americans with only a high school
diploma is twice that of those with a bachelor’s degree; their weekly earnings are almost half.
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Adding to these pressing problems is the emergence of a host of new issues confronting those
with LD, including significant changes in how LD is identified, increased rigor of academic
standards in our nation’s schools and a rapidly expanding variety of ways to access education.
All of these issues will need attention to ensure equal opportunities for students with LD and to
assure that the rights of those with LD are upheld.
Research efforts such as the National Longitudinal Transition Studies have provided a
wealth of information that can be used to improve instruction, impact academic achievement and
enhance post-school outcomes for students with LD. Surveys such as those conducted by NCLD,
with the support of NCLD and others in the field and by the Tremaine Foundation continue to
further our understanding of the public’s perception of and attitudes toward LD. On the horizon
is a new large-scale study, the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012, which will provide
up-to-date information on youth with LD. Examining all of these data will help map future needs
and opportunities for providing necessary services and supports to individuals with LD, their
families and their school-based and workplace communities.
Looking only at data about the incidence, prevalence and reported outcomes of
individuals with LD, this report does not delve into the issue of neurodiversity as a lens through
which to understand the LD experience. Neuroscientists and other clinical and educational
professionals have recently begun discussing ways that having LD (e.g., dyslexia) might be
advantageous for certain types of information processing, and highly successful individuals with
LD and ADHD have publicly disclosed their struggles and successes, pointing to the importance
of self-awareness, perseverance and self-advocacy for those in need of hope and encouragement.
Examining the data as well as the values, strengths and talents of those with LD is critical to
helping create opportunities for them to achieve success and satisfaction in school, at work, at
home and in the community.
As the nature of LD continues to be better understood and the particular needs of those
with these neurological differences are better defined, success in all aspects of life should
become more achievable for a larger number of Americans with LD. It is important to consider
the well-being of individuals with LD as society changes, school transformation efforts are
implemented, instructional technologies are adopted and assistive technologies are introduced.
Each of these will influence the reality of individuals with LD, and the implications for research,
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practice and public policy must be considered from the perspectives of those who live with LD in
an increasingly complex world.
3.14 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Continuous And Comprehensive Evaluation
2. Explain Explain Formative Orientation
3. Explain Student Response Systems
4. ExplainTeacher Made Test
5. ExplainOpportunities.
6. ExplainChallenges.
7. ExplainMore Information Needed On This Issue Includes:
8. ExplainLearn More About This Issue:
9. ExplainTeaching Strategies And Interventions
10. ExplainTeacher Monitoring Of Student Progress
11. ExplainStudent-Teacher Interaction
12. ExplainEffective Teaching Literature
13. ExplainOnline Learning
45. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.46.1. Points for discussion
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60. Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2004). The consequences of socio-cultural assessment. In
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670
Unit 4: Differential Evaluation Of Pwid In Inclusive Setup
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Outcomes For Students With Disabilities:
4.3 Definitions: “Mainstreaming” And “Inclusion”
4.4 Current Placement Patterns
4.5 Positions On Inclusion
4.6 Room To Grow
4.7 The Effects Of Inclusion On Students Without Disabilities
4.8 Interventions Designed To Promote Inclusion
4.9 Summary
4.10 Check Your Progress
4.11 References
671
4.1 Introduction
Studies investigating the effects of placement in general education classrooms reveal
positive outcomes in the areas of IEP quality, time of engagement, and individualized supports.
Significant increases in IEP quality on measures of age-appropriateness, functionality, and
generalization were found when students moved into general education classes from special
education settings even though the special educator remained the same (Hunt & Farron-Davis,
1992). Within the general education classroom, there was an increase in the amount of
instruction on functional activities as well as basic academic skills such as literacy for students
with severe disabilities (Hunt, Farron-Davis, Beckstead, Curtis, & Goetz, 1994). In addition,
students were observed to be less engaged and often more alone in self-contained classrooms.
Similar student engagement outcomes were reported in a study involving nine elementary
students with severe disabilities who were observed in both special and general education
settings. General education classrooms delivered more instruction, provided a comparable
amount of 1:1 instruction time, addressed content more, and used non-disabled peers more and
adults less (Helmstetter, Curry, Brennan, & Sampson-Saul, 1998). Furthermore, comparisons of
the two settings revealed a significant difference in non-instructional time. In self-contained
classes, 58% of the time was classified as non-instructional versus 35% of the time in general
education classes.
To answer the question of individualizing supports, McDonnell and colleagues compared
the instructional contexts of students with low incidence disabilities and their typical peers in
general education settings. The students with severe disabilities were 13 times more likely than
their peers without disabilities to receive instruction directed exclusively toward them during
whole class activities, and were 23 times more likely to receive 1:1 instruction (McDonnell,
Thorson, & McQuivey, 2000). This challenges the prevalent notion that students with disabilities
cannot receive individualized supports in general education classrooms.
4.2 Outcomes For Students With Disabilities:
672
Most research studies examining educational outcomes have found positive effects for
inclusion. Baker and colleagues reviewed three metaanalyses that addressed the issue of the most
effective setting for the education of students with disabilities. A small-to-moderate positive
effect for inclusive placement was found in all three meta-analyses (Baker, Wang, & Walberg,
1994). More recently, Waldron, Cole, and Majd (2001) investigated the effects of inclusive
programs for students with high incidence disabilities and their typical peers. This two-year
study found that 41.7% of students with learning disabilities made progress in math in general
education classes compared to 34% in traditional special education settings, without the presence
of nondisabled peers. Gains in reading were comparable in both settings. When comparing
progress with their typical peers, 43.3% of students with disabilities made comparable or greater
progress in math in inclusive settings versus 35.9% in traditional settings. Similar academic
gains were reported in a study examining the use of class-wide peer tutoring on the achievement
of students with high incidence disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Significant increases in
spelling, social studies and other academic indicators were observed (Pomerantz, Windell, &
Smith, 1994). Positive educational outcomes are not in the area of academics alone. The National
Longitudinal Transition Study examined the outcomes of 11,000 students with a range of
disabilities and found that more time spent in a general education classroom was positively
correlated with:
a) fewer absences from school,
b) fewer referrals for disruptive behavior, and
c) better outcomes after high school in the areas of employment and independent living (Wagner,
Newman, Cameto, & Levine, 2006).
Meta-analyses and comparative studies examining the educational outcomes of students
with low incidence disabilities in inclusive versus segregated classrooms have found either no
difference in outcomes or positive effects for inclusion (Hunt & Goetz, 1997). There is a body of
empirical evidence that shows students with severe disabilities are able to acquire skills in a
range of areas within inclusive classrooms. McGregor and Vogelsberg (1998) report that
students demonstrate higher levels of social interaction with typical peers, social competence and
communication skills improve (e.g., Hunt, Alwell, Farron-Davis & Goetz, 1996), and academic
gains are made (McDonnell, Thorson, McQuivey, & Kiefer-O’Donnell, 1997). In addition,
673
Kliewer and Biklen (2001) found that inclusive learning environments facilitated the acquisition
of literacy and adaptive skills as well as enhancing students’ social relationships. In this domain
of social outcomes, Fisher and Meyer (2002) conducted a two-year longitudinal study to examine
social competence for 40 students with severe disabilities in inclusive and selfcontained
classrooms. Students in the inclusive settings had significantly higher mean scores on
the ASC (Assessment of Social Competence) after a two-year period, and although students in
self-contained classrooms made gains, they were not statistically significant. Falvey (2004)
notes that “no studies conducted since the late 1970’s have shown an academic advantage for
students with intellectual and other developmental disabilities educated in separate settings.”
Effect on typical peers: Concerns are often raised about the impact that students with
disabilities, especially those with challenging behavior, have on the learning of typical students.
Hollowood and colleagues investigated the degree to which the presence of students with
severe disabilities affected the time allocated for instruction, the actual time used for
instruction, and students’ engaged time. Results indicated no differences across the three
domains when comparing classrooms that included students with severe disabilities and
classrooms without students with severe disabilities (Hollowood, Salisbury, Rainforth, &
Palombaro, 1995). The finding that engaged time for typical learners is not negatively impacted
by the presence of students with severe disabilities was also replicated in other studies (Peltier,
1997; Staub & Peck, 1995).
In the area of academic progress, Waldron, Cole, and Majd (2001) report that more
students without disabilities made comparable or greater gains in math and reading when taught
in inclusive settings versus traditional classrooms where no students with disabilities are
included. This suggests that inclusive classrooms provide greater access to the general education
curriculum that benefits all students. Further evidence for the positive effects of inclusion on
students without disabilities is reported by McGregor and Vogelsberg (1998). They found: o
inclusion does not compromise general education students’ outcomes, o typical peers benefit
from involvement and relationships with students who have disabilities in inclusive settings, and
o the presence of students with disabilities in general education classrooms leads to new learning
opportunities for typical students.
674
4.3 Definitions: “Mainstreaming” And “Inclusion”
Both mainstreaming and inclusion are concepts and movements, rather than precisely
defined programs. Within this article, main streaming and inclusion will be defined as described
below. “Mainstreaming” is the integration of children with disabilities with their peers in general
education based on individual assessment. The term is associated with the least restrictive
environment (LRE) mandate in the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and with the “full
continuum of services” 4 (see Box 1). That is, mainstreaming occurs when an interdisciplinary
team (including parents) determines that, given all available placement options, a specific child
should participate in general education for some part of the school day. “Inclusion” goes beyond
mainstreaming in that it implies that most children with disabilities will be educated in the
general education classroom for most, if not all, of the school day. “Full inclusion” means that
all children with disabilities, regardless of the nature or severity of the disability, will be
educated in general education: in a full inclusion system, separate special education placements
would no longer exist. Both inclusion and full inclusion imply that otherplacement options
would be severely curtailed or abolished.
4.4 Current Placement Patterns
Data from the most recent annual report to Congress5 of the Office of Special Education
Programs (OSEP) show that a variety of placements are used (see Figure 1). The percentage of
students with disabilities served in the various placements has changed very little over the past
decade.6 Approximately one-third of special education students spend 80% or more of their
school day in the general education classroom. Another one-third spend 40% to 79% of their day
in general education. Approximately one-quarter spend 0% to 39% of their time in general
education, but their special education classrooms share a building with the general education
classes. The remaining 5% to 6% of special education students are served in separate schools,
residential programs, hospitals, or their own homes.
4.5 Positions On Inclusion
675
Many constituencies, representing people with widely differing disabilities, as well
asprofessional organizations of teachers, school administrators, and professionals who work with
students with disabilities, have issued position statements on inclusion through their professional
or advocacy organizations. These positions have been categorized as follows:7 n unqualified
enthusiasm for full inclusion and elimination of the continuum of special education services;8 n
enthusiasm for the philosophy of inclusion but support for the continuum of ser vices and
individual decision making;9,10 n reduction of the special education system in size;11 n support
for “appropriate” (individually determined) inclusion, including a full continuum of placement
options and services;12 n concern that inclusion does not provide appropriate services for
students with learning disabilities, vision impairment/blindness, or hard-of-hearing/deafness;13–
18 and n concern about responsibilities of general education teachers and effects of inclusion on
all students,19 with recognition that diversity of placement options and teaching approaches is a
strength of the current system
Box 1
Full Continuum of Educational Services
and Student Placement
Level I Attendance in general education class, without supplementary instructional
supports, and with or without medical supports
Level II Attendance in general education class with supplementary
instructional services delivered in the general classroom
Level III Part-time attendance in resource room
Level IV Full-time attendance in special education class
Level V Special schools
Level VI Homebound instruction
Level VII Instruction in hospital or domiciled settings
676
677
4.5 Making Inclusion Work
Recognition that inclusion benefits both students with and without disabilities has led to
research that seeks to define the necessary contexts, instructional practices, and curricular
efforts that result in improved learner outcomes. Some of this research, especially for students
with high incidence disabilities, is well documented and its effectiveness clearly established.
For students with low incidence disabilities, the body of empirical evidence is smaller but favors
inclusive settings with its use of strategies such as varied instructional arrangements and peer
supports.
Peer Mediated Instruction & Intervention: The use of peer mediated instruction and
intervention is often cited in the literature as one of the most effective strategies for inclusive
classrooms. In several studies focused on students with mild disabilities, the use of peermediated
strategies results in improved academic outcomes for all students including those considered at-
risk academically (Sailor, 2002). In a review of the literature, Fisher, Shumaker, and Deshler
(1995) reported significant increases in reading, spelling, math, social studies, and other
academic indicators for studies investigating the use of class-wide peer tutoring models (CWPT)
where students serve as tutors and tutees in acquiring basic academic skills and factual
knowledge. Positive outcomes are accrued when training for tutors is emphasized and in some
cases, results in large effect on student outcomes (Stenhoff & Lignugaris/Kraft, 2007). Increases
for both elementary and high school aged students were noted.
Specifically for students with moderate to severe disabilities, CWPT has also shown to
result in increased levels of engagement and academic responses as well as academic gains.
Dawson and colleagues investigated the effects of CWPT for students with intellectual
disabilities and their typical peers in general education classrooms. Results showed increases in
spelling accuracy as well as greater levels of engagement with typical peers and a decrease in
competing behaviors when compared to teacher-led instruction (Dawson, Delquadri,
Greenwood, Hamilton, Ledford, Mortweet, Reddy, Utley, & Walker, 1999). Similar outcomes
were reported by McDonnell and colleagues in a study that focused on the use of CWPT along
with a multi-element curriculum and accommodations for students with severe disabilities
678
(McDonnell, Mathot-Buckner, Thorson, & Fister, 2001).
More recent studies modeled after CWPT investigated the use of Peer-Assisted Learning
Strategies (PALS) as a method for improving academic outcomes for students with high
incidence disabilities and struggling typical peers. Features of PALS include reciprocal tutoring
roles, opportunities to respond and experience success, structured activities, and supplemental
practice of skills taught in the core curriculum. Fifteen years of pilot studies, component
analyses, and large-scale experiments have shown improvement in the reading achievement of
low, average, and high achieving students including those with high incidence disabilities
(McMaster, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2007). In the large-scale field studies involving second through
sixth grade classrooms, effect sizes of .22 to .56 were reported when compared to classrooms
using a traditional teacher led approach to reading. Furthermore, Fuchs and his colleagues
report greater social acceptance for students with learning disabilities in classrooms using PALS
presumably due to the greater level of reciprocal engagement of those settings (Fuchs, Fuchs,
Mathes & Martinez, 2002).
In addition to the structured use of tutoring arrangements, the successful use of peers as
supports in inclusive classrooms has also been documented for students with low incidence
disabilities. In a study investigating the effects of peer delivered self-monitoring strategies on
middle school students with significant disabilities, results showed an increase in percentages
of occurrence across eleven identified academic survival skills for all students (Gilberts, Agran,
Hughes & Wehmeyer, 2001). The role of peer training is a critical feature in the effective use of
peer-mediated instruction. Two studies investigated the issue of contribution of peers to the
generalization of social behaviors for elementary students with autism. In both studies,
increases in social interaction with typical peers were noted with greater generalization of skills
observed from groups with trained peers and less from groups with untrained or stranger peers
(Kamps, Royer, Dugan, Kravits, Gonzalez-Lopez, Garcia, Carnazzo, Morrison, & Garrison
Kane, 2002). Peer support interventions are also emerging as an effective alternative to
traditional paraprofessional support models for students with low incidence disabilities (Carter,
Cushing, Clark & Kennedy, 2005). Several descriptive studies have documented the
disengagement of teachers when a one-on-one paraprofessional service delivery is
679
used (Giangreco, Broer & Edelman 2001). Since the level of engagement and sense of
ownership that general educators have with students with disabilities is a critical factor to
success in inclusive classrooms, other support strategies must be explored. Cushing and
Kennedy (1997) trained typical peers to adapt class activities, provide frequent feedback, and
promote communication among other support strategies for three students with severe
disabilities in general education classrooms. Results indicated that serving as a peer support
resulted in higher levels of engagement for students without disabilities which is consistent
with previous studies employing peer-mediated techniques. This challenges the assumption
that having a typical peer support a student with a disability takes away from their participation
in the classroom. In looking for optimal configurations, Carter and colleagues studied the effect
of using two peers in a support role for students with severe disabilities. Data from the
investigation showed an increase in social interaction as well as an increase in the amount of
time students with disabilities were engaged in activities aligned with the general curriculum
(Carter, Cushing, Clark & Kennedy, 2005). In these peer support arrangements, the
paraprofessional’s role is broadened and shifts to providing guidance and support to the
students serving as a peer support (Carter, Cushing & Kennedy, 2008).
Instructional & Curriculum Adaptations: Instructional and curriculum adaptations can be
conceptualized in two categories. Routine adaptations include the use of varied grouping
arrangements, materials, and goals while specialized adaptations are those made above and
beyond routine ones that are in direct response to specific challenges faced by students (Fuchs
& Fuchs, 1998). Weymer and colleagues use the term curriculum augmentations to refer to
efforts to augment or expand the general education curriculum to provide additional skills or
strategies that help students succeed (Wehmeyer, Lance, & Bashinski, 2002). Research on
curriculum and instructional adaptations that support students with disabilities in general
education classrooms is varied.
For students with learning disabilities, many studies describe instructional methods that
extend the typical adaptations and help to promote progress in the core content areas for all
students (including those without disabilities). These include graphic or advanced organizers,
selfregulation strategies, semantic maps, mnemonics, chunking, questioning, and visualizing
strategies (Baker, Gersten, & Scanlon, 2002). Swanson and Hoskyn (2001) also confirmed the
use of advanced organizers as an effective strategy for positively influencing student
680
performance. The use of content enhancement routines, a type of advanced organizer, was shown
to have dramatic results for students with learningdisabilities in general education classrooms
where the average unit quiz gradeincreased by ten percentage points (Lenz, Schumaker, Deshler,
Boudah, Vance, Kissam, Bulgren, & Roth, 1993).
In addition to these, strategy instruction (teaching students how to learn) has been shown to
improve academic achievement across grade levels for both students with and without
disabilities (Fisher, Shumaker, & Deshler, 1995). Other techniques that have resulted in
improved learner outcomes in inclusive classrooms include the use of materials other than
grade level textbooks in the area of social studies (Gersten, Baker, Smith-Johnson, Dimino, &
Peterson, 2006) and employing an inquiry-based approach to science with a focus on varied
ways of communicating learning (Pulincsar, Magnusson, Collins, & Cutter, 2001).
In contrast to the vast array of evidence for the effects of adaptations for students with learning
disabilities, research has recently begun to emerge related to the implementation of curriculum
accommodations and modifications for students with significant disabilities (Fisher & Frey,
2001). For example, there are few studies examining the use of strategies such as graphic
organizers for students with severe disabilities in inclusive classrooms. In a review of the
literature, Lee and colleagues found no studies applying techniques such as chunking and
mnemonics while many studies examined self-directed learning strategies such as choice
making. However, very few of those studies were conducted in academic content areas (Lee,
Amos, Gragoudas, Lee, Shogren, & Theoharis, 2006).
Historically, the focus of research on instructional strategies for students with severe
disabilities has been on “functional life skills” that were taught outside of the general education
curriculum (Soukup, Wehmeyer, Bashinski, & Bovaird, 2007). Browder and Cooper-Duffy
(2003) report that less than 10% of studies with students with severe disabilities focused on
academics, with some research showing success in functional academics and access skills in
general education environments. Clearly, the use of curriculum adaptations such as content
specific modifications is necessary for the successful inclusion of students with severe
disabilities. While there is ample descriptive literature of methods and examples for making
adaptations for these students, there is limited empirical evidence to date (Fisher & Frey, 2001).
Some descriptive studies investigated how students with severe disabilities access the core
681
curriculum in general education classrooms. Salisbury andcolleagues found that modifying
curriculum based on students’ IEPs resulted in successful physical, social, and instructional
inclusion of students with mild to severe disabilities in kindergarten through fourth grade
(Salisbury, Mangino, Petrigala, Rainforth, Syryca, & Palombaro, 1994). More
recently, Fisher and Frey (2001) describe the experience of three students (elementary, middle,
and high) with significant disabilities and the supports/services necessary for them to access
the core curriculum in general education classrooms. The prominent use of individualized,
content specific modifications and accommodations were noted for all students. Examples of
these individualized content specific modifications included reading picture books, having a
picture communication symbol version of a textbook chapter, and unit vocabulary added to a
student’s speech output device.
Soukup and colleagues (2007) also examined the use of adaptations for students with
severe disabilities in general education classrooms as well as the relationship between access to
the general education curriculum and classroom variables. Researchers found that students with
severe disabilities worked on grade level standards in 60% of the intervals and worked on
standards linked to any grade for 20% of the intervals. Curriculum adaptations (changes to
content representation, presentation, or student engagement) were observed in 18% of the
intervals with no observations of curriculum augmentations (learning-to-learn strategies). In
terms of classroom variables, large and small group instructional arrangements were predictive
of greater access to the general education curriculum. Soukup and her colleagues conclude
that students receiving instruction in general education were significantly more likely to be
working on activities linked to the general education standards, although they were doing so
without the types of adaptations that research suggests is critical for making progress (Soukup,
Wehmeyer, Bashinski, & Bovaird, 2007). Following up on this work, Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup,
and Palmer (2010) studied the impact of curriculum modifications on student and teacher
behaviors. Researchers observed 45 students with a range of disabilities and found that the
presence of curriculum modifications predicted increased student engagement and decreased
competing behaviors that would disrupt learning. In addition, the presence of modifications
also resulted in teachers engaging in fewer management behaviors.
Collaborative Practices: The inclusion of students with disabilities in general education
682
classrooms necessitates collaboration between administrators, general educators, special
educators, parents, and related service providers in order to deliver quality services to all
students. In a survey to experts in the field of severe disabilities, Jackson and colleagues
reported that collaboration was often cited as a foundation to the implementation of inclusive
education (Jackson, Ryndak, & Billingsley, 2000). In many schools, collaboration takes the form
of co-teaching where a general and special educator work together to deliver instruction to
students with and without disabilities.
In a meta-synthesis of 32 qualitative studies, Scruggs, Mastropieri, and McDuffie (2007)
found that teachers generally supported co-teaching but the instructional techniques employed
did
not necessarily reflect prevailing best practices in the literature. The predominant model of
coteaching was “one teach, one assist” even though this is not a highly recommended practice in
that the special educator often plays a subordinate role. In addition, evidencebased practices such
as peer mediated and strategy instruction were infrequently observed. Some quantitative studies
do exist that document the efficacy of coteaching. Murawski and Swanson (2001) conducted a
meta-analysis of this research and found only six studies worthy of the report. Results from these
studies indicated an overall effect size of .40 on academic achievement, social outcomes,
attitudes, absences, and referrals. Findings from both the qualitative and quantitative
investigations suggests that co-teaching currently falls short of realizing its potential for
delivering quality services to students in general education classrooms.
Collaboration among teachers and related service providers is also a critical factor in
implementing effective inclusive education. Soto and colleagues found that general educators
who have regular opportunities to collaborate and consult with professional peers show
evidence of increased instructional skills as well as decreased tendencies to make referrals to
special education (Soto, Müller, Hunt, & Goetz, 2001). Two studies by Hunt and colleagues
further document the effectiveness of collaboration as a strategy for improving student
outcomes in inclusive settings. In both studies, researchers document the successful teaming
of teachers, related service providers, and parents in implementing support plans for students
with severe disabilities and typical peers considered academically at-risk. Teams met on a
683
monthly basis to delineate specific instructional adaptations and support strategies for
students. Consistent implementation of these plans resulted in increases in academic skills,
engagement in class activities, interactions with peers, and student-initiated interactions for all
students (Hunt, Doering, Hirose-hatae, Maier, & Goetz, 2001; Hunt, Soto, Maier, & Doering,
2003).
4.6 Room To Grow
Reframing Inclusion: As the language of inclusive education has evolved from
mainstreaming to integration to inclusion, so too has the practice. Mainstreaming operated on
the notion of readiness for general education while integration focused on the enhancement of
students’ social development. From a legislative, moral, and efficacy standpoint, the general
education classroom is now the placement of choice for students with disabilities. These earlier
descriptors of inclusion clearly framed it as a special education issue. In other words, it was
about the separateness of special education versus belongingness with general education
(Sailor, 2002).
Researchers and advocates of inclusion have placed a considerable amount of focus on
meeting students’ needs through individualized instruction and adaptations of the general
education curriculum for students with disabilities (Spooner, Baker, Harris, Ahlgrim-Delzell, &
Browder, 2007). Thus, special educators are typically responsible for retrofitting lessons (e.g.,
modifying the curriculum, providing intervention, teaching remedial skills) that have been
designed by the general education teacher. So while general and special education may have a
shared agenda, to a certain extent, the “separateness of special education” still exists.
Reframing the issue of inclusion by using the larger rubric of “universal design” may indeed
move the practice so that it “belongs to general education.”
The universal design concept assumes high standards for all students and serves as a
“blueprint for creating flexible goals, methods, materials, and assessments that accommodate
learner differences” (Rose, 2001). The underlying premise of universal design is that teachers
should
684
plan instructional supports during the beginning of lesson planning instead of modifying
materials as an afterthought (Hitchcock, 2001). In applying this concept, the burden shifts from
the individual to the curriculum and curriculum design. Reframing the issue of inclusion in this
way takes a sustainable approach to instruction where diversity is considered the norm and
should be anticipated in all aspects of instruction and learning.
Shaping Attitudes: “Inclusion is a philosophy that urges schools, neighborhoods, and
communities to welcome and value everyone, regardless of differences. Central to the
philosophy of inclusion are the beliefs that everyone belongs, diversity is valued, and we can all
learn from each other" (Renzaglia, Karvonen, Drasgow & Stoxen, 2003). Holding such an
attitude can greatly impact the participation of students with disabilities in inclusive
classrooms. According to a study conducted by Robertson, Chamberlain, and Kasari (2003),
when teachers have positive perceptions of their relationship with students with disabilities,
the students’ behavior problems were reported to be lower, and the students were more
socially included with peers. Prater (2003) also identified teacher attitudes as one of several
elements that are critical in promoting the success of students with disabilities in general
education settings.
In addition to the role that teacher attitudes play in the success of inclusive classrooms, it
is widely acknowledged that an inclusive school culture begins with the committed leadership of
principals. Praisner (2003) examined principals’ attitudes toward inclusion including their
placement perceptions. Out of 408 principals surveyed, only one in five held positive attitudes
toward inclusion. Factors that were associated with positive attitudes included experiences with
students with disabilities and exposure to special education concepts. Furthermore, principals
who had positive attitudes were more likely to place students in less restrictive settings. Clearly,
teacher and administrator attitudes are critical factors that shape the experiences of students with
disabilities. These findings hold particular implications for personnel supporting and providing
technical assistance to teachers and staff. Efforts aimed at providing teachers and
administrators with meaningful contact with people with disabilities as well as information on
special education concepts makes a difference in the quality of students’ educational
programming.
685
4.7 The Effects Of Inclusion On Students Without Disabilities
Parents and teachers often have expressed concerns about the likely impact on students
without disabilities when children with special needs are moved to the general classroom.
Although the body of literature examining this issue is small, in general these studies have
indicated that students without disabilities do not suffer from being in classes also serving
students with mild disabilities (learning disabilities or mild behavior disorders) or severe mental
disabilities. Nondisabled elementary students have shown no difference on California
Achievement Test scores, whether they were assigned to typical classes or to an Integrated
Classroom Model (ICM), a highly structured class composed of one-third students with and two-
thirds students without disabilities.77 Similarly, nondisabled students have benefitted
academically from a program78 that created an integrated classroom composed of one-third
mildly disabled students and two-thirds nondisabled students. These classes also had two
teachers, giving a low teacher-to-student ratio of about 1 to 14. The nondisabled students in the
integrated classes benefitted most in a comprehensive test of reading, math, and language skills,
showing greater gains than both nondisabled students in general classes and students with
disabilities in integrated classes. In an analysis of behavior and time management, one study79
examined the behavior of 89 nondisabled students in grades 1 through 5 in five classrooms
where 11 students with learning disabilities had been placed for an eight-month period. When the
students with learning disabilities were added to the class, the nonhandicapped students spent the
same amount of time (35% to 40%) in academic instruction; nonacademic behavior decreased
significantly during math instruction. Further, the time devoted to waiting and classroom
management activities decreased significantly in reading. Research on the integration of students
with severe mental disabilities has emphasized the social and emotional benefits to nondisabled
children and teachers, showing increased awareness of the needs of persons with disabilities,
increased levels of social development in nondisabled children, increased willingness to work
with students with disabilities, and increased skills for teachers.
4.8 Interventions Designed To Promote Inclusion Prereferral interventions are individualized accommodations and adaptations made in the
general classroom,
686
with the goal of avoiding referral to special education. Although prereferral interventions are
widely recommended and are required in many states, there are few data demonstrating that they
lead to long-term academic improvement for struggling students. However, prereferral
interventions do appear to reduce the number of students referred to special education.
Teacher consultation typically involves assistance (for example, suggestions for teaching
strategies) provided by a special educator to a general educator. The student toward whom the
problem-solving process is targeted may be a general education student experiencing problems
(possibly needing referral to special education) or a special education student in a general
education class. Research on the impact of teacher consultation for students with disabilities is
scant and inconclusive.
Many types of modified instructional methods in the general classroom have been tried.
Practices in this category are classwide changes, not modifications for individual students. Types
of modified practices include, but are not limited to, direct instruction (which, among other
things, breaks academic skills down into small, sequenced steps); cooperative learning (which
groups students heterogeneously and makes the group responsible for the performance of all
students); peer tutoring; and cognitive strategy instruction (in which students are taught specific
learning strategies).
Several instructional methods appear to result in modest improvements in academic
outcomes for students with mild disabilities. The more promising programs involve lengthy
(often multiyear) teacher training, teacher planning time, administrative support, and sometimes
additional instructional staff. When additional resources are provided, outcomes for nondisabled
students may be improved.
In transenvironmental programming (TP), special educators and general educators coordinate
their efforts to support individual students as they leave special education settings and reintegrate
into general education. Transenvironmental programming appears to improve student academic
progress initially, but there is some question as to whether faithful adherence to TP is feasible in
general education.
Whole school models have been developed to enhance the capacity of schools to address the
needs of students with disabilities. These models have involved an intensive use of resources.
687
Results show that 51% of the students with learning disabilities moved up in standing relative to
their nondisabled classmates, while the remaining 49% lost ground. The best outcomes were
attained by the project that used case-by-case reintegration of students into mainstream settings
(as opposed to reintegration of all students), ongoing assessment and intensive instruction in
special education, and trans environmental programming.
4.9 Summary
Routine outcome measurement of psychological interventions for people with ID is
becoming essential practice today. Studies of the use of psychological therapies with people who
have ID suggest that these interventions are effective to a moderate degree, though the evidence
continues to be limited. With little evidence of ineffectiveness of psychological therapies, there
is no reason to assume that all psychological therapies will not find future research to be an
important foundation for their inclusion in specialist ID services. As discussed here, a simple
methodology for measuring both global and specific outcomes can easily be implemented using
existing tools that have acceptable reliability and validity. Further research may specify the
relationship of inputs and processes to outcome, but there is very little current evidence in
relation to these at present.
4.10 Check Your Progress
1. Explain Outcomes For Students With Disabilities:
2. Explain Definitions: “Mainstreaming” And “Inclusion”
3. Explain Current Placement Patterns
4. Explain Positions On Inclusion
5. Explain Explain
6. Explain The Effects Of Inclusion On Students Without Disabilities
7. Explain Interventions Designed To Promote Inclusion
47. Check Your Progress
688
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.48.1. Points for discussion
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Unit 5: Implications Of Evaluation For Inclusion
5.1 Introduction
5.2 A Brief History Of Inclusion
5.3 Learning Theories Related To Inclusion
5.4 Review Of Literature On Inclusive Education
5.5 Practical Aspects Of Inclusive Classrooms Problems Faced By Special
Needs Students
5.6 Attempts To Improve Inclusion
5.7 Summary
5.8 Check Your Progress
5.9 References
699
5.1 Introduction
The inclusion method is a basic model where both disabled and non-disabled students are
educated within the same classroom. Educational inclusion, then, offers education geared to
include all students, even those with disabilities in the same learning environment. This may
include special needs children who have emotional and/or behavioral problems. Teachers may
encounter a variety of situations in the classroom, including those with learning disorders,
emotional disabilities, and mental retardation. Special needs students are placed in the regular
education classroom and are involved in instructional settings that may have the general
education teacher, the special education teacher, the teacher assistant and possibly parental or
community volunteers (Wiebe & Kim, 2008). The most popular inclusion method seems to be a
co-teaching model. “Co-teaching may be defined as the partnership of a general education
teacher and a special education teacher or another specialist for the purpose of jointly delivering
instruction to a diverse group of students, including those with disabilities or other special needs,
in a general education setting, and in a way that flexibly and deliberately meets their learning
needs” (Friend, Cook, Chamberlain, & Shamberger, 2010, p. 241).
Inclusion of all children within the classroom has brought about a new challenge for
teachers. A typical class may consists of gifted children, slow learners, English-language
learners, mentallyretarded children, hyperactive children, emotionally challenged children, and
low socioeconomically status children. With such a diverse combination, classroom
management, along with focusing on delivering a differentiated instruction that targets each
student individually in the classroom has made a regular education teacher’s job beyond difficult.
Because the state and federal education systems are calling for schools to improve special
education, school systems are turning to inclusion of special education students in the
mainstream setting.
Education can be a powerful tool to unify the students with disabilities and those without
them (Mowat, 2010), but what problems do special needs students encounter by being included
in the regular classroom? This review of the literature will examine the effects of the inclusion
model on the academic achievement and social interaction among students with disabilities.
5.2 A Brief History Of Inclusion
700
The many issues affecting inclusion of special needs students have been debated over the
last 25 years (Odom, Buysse, & Soukakou, 2011). The term “inclusion” replaced all previous
terminologies, i.e., integrated special education, reverse mainstreaming, previous to the early
1990s in hopes that the word would mean more than placing children with special needs in the
regular educational classroom, including a sense of belonging, social relationships, and academic
development and learning (Odom, Buysse, & Soukakou, 2011).
The reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
(IDEA) 2004 and the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), requires American school systems to
examine how to best address the needs of students with disabilities based on academic
achievement. This has “shifted the instructional focus with regard to students with disabilities
from where they are educated to how they are educated” (McDuffie, Mastropieri, & Scruggs,
2009, p. 494). It requires that students with disabilities have access to the general education
curriculum by being placed in the least restricted environment possible and therefore participate
in the same assessments as students without disabilities unless the nature of their disability is
determined to be too severe to do so. Both also mandate that students with disabilities show
progress in academic classes and participate with their non-disabled peers on all state
assessments. “Districts and schools have struggled to overcome a history of a separate and
segregated special education system, and for various reasons, efforts to include students with
disabilities in general education have not always been successful” (Calabrase,
Patterson, Liu, Goodvin, & Hummel, 2008, p. 62). Many school systems have adopted the
inclusion model as a method to ensure IDEA and NCLB are being implemented.
5.3 Learning Theories Related To Inclusion
Social Learning Theory. With so many factors that would seem to make inclusive
classrooms unproductive, what learning theories might support the idea? Within the school
setting, all students are expected to learn academic concepts as well as behavioral skills. Because
both of these areas often times are potential barriers for disabled students, they can develop low
self-esteem issues which hinder them socially. “These learners, due to their histories of repeated
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failure at school, are likely to feel as though academic outcomes are beyond their control, thus
perceiving themselves as less competent than their peers” (Ntshangase, Mdikana, & Cronk,
2008, p. 77). It is important that academic content and social skills are addressed within the
classroom.
Albert Bandura developed the social learning theory which states that learning, both
cognitive and behavioral, takes place through the observation, modeling, and imitation of others.
“The main characteristic of the social learning theory, are the centrality of observational
learning, a causal model that involves an environment- person- behavior system, cognitive
contributions, and self-efficacy and agency” (Miller, 2011, p. 236). This theory proposes that
academic and behavior modeling takes place through verbal instruction, live modeling by a
person, and symbolic modeling through four steps: attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation. Inclusion classes capitalize on this theory because disabled peers can observe their
nondisabled peers and their teachers and then imitate them both academically and behaviorally.
Social learning theory combined with Freudian learning principles focus on teaching children
important real-life social behaviors (Miller, 2011). As mentioned before, advocates for inclusion
thought this course of action would help students with disabilities by emerging them into a
learning community that mimics a mini society.
Through this learning community students with disabilities are able to interact with their
peers and develop friendships. When included in the regular classroom, special needs students
have the opportunity to see their peers working habits, and they can model those habits and
behaviors to reflect their own. This insight ties into the Freudian theory of identification through
observation of learned behavior from the peers around them. Bandura and Walter, who were two
other researchers who expanded on the exploration of Sigmund Freud’s identification concept of
identification through modeling, realized that new behavior can be attained by observation; for
example, when a student sees a peer being praised for their hard work, the student learns to try
that behavior in hopes of pleasing the teacher and being praised also (Miller, 2011). This plays
into the observational theory, where students with special needs can watch the correct behavior
and model that desired performance.
Observational Learning Theory. Students with special needs can learn not only desired
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behaviors from their peers through social interaction, they can also learn academically within
their learning community. Children can be the best teachers. Cooperative learning involves social
interaction amongst the students, and it is the key to educational thinkers such as Piaget and
Vygotsky (Slavin, 2009). Using social interaction and active experiences in learning helps
children to feed knowledge to one another. These methods also promote social communication
skills that children will need to possess as adults. They will need to be able to effectively discuss
the various issues that will occur as life progresses. Even students with special needs can offer
educational knowledge to their peers; if the students learn that they can teach others and learn
from others, and then they will feel a sense of belonging, pride, and responsibility. When
students are working together, these students can be paired with slower learner students from
time to time. When students work together and are able to engage in discussions on different
ideas, then the sky’s the limit to what types of knowledge the students can transmit to one
another. Peer learning helps students to build effective listening and communication skills
(Harding, 2009).
Guided Learning Theory. In addition to social learning and observational learning theories,
the zone of proximal development also has implication for inclusive classrooms. According to
Lev Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development states that students learn when guided by an
adult or when working with more capable peers. “A more competent person collaborates with a
child to help him move from where he is now to where he can be with help. This person
accomplishes this feat by means of prompts, clues, modeling, explanation, leading questions,
discussion, joint participation, encouragement, and control of the child’s attention” (Miller, 2011,
p. 175). Students with disabilities can learn from their peers without disabilities as well as with
the support of adult guidance to gain a better understanding of the concept being taught. For
example, peer tutoring has been found to be effective for students with disabilities (McDuffie,
Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 2009).
A second example is when a teacher provides scaffolding. Scaffolding occurs a great
learning support is provided at the time new concepts are introduced and the support is slowly
taken from the student as he or she masters the content.
All three of these theories discussed describe how learning occurs in the classroom both
academically and socially. According to Ntshangase, Mdikana, & Cronk (2008), “high social
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interaction is important not only for learners’ academic achievement but also for their long-term
general well-being and personal development” (p. 82). The zone of proximal development, in
conjunction with the social learning theory, should theoretically help explain how students with
disabilities progress academically and increase appropriate social interactions with placed within
an inclusion classroom.
5.4 Review Of Literature On Inclusive Education Effect on Academic Achievement. The effect of inclusion classes on academic achievement
and social interaction for students with disabilities continues to produce positive results. Because
self-esteem is a spring board for appropriate social interactions, it is important to note the effect
of inclusion in this area. According to a study conducted by Ntshangase, Mdikana, and Cronk
(2008), “included and mainstream adolescent boys do not have disparities in their overall levels
of selfesteem. This result is very encouraging for schools promoting inclusive practices as it
implies that overall sense of worth for included and mainstreamed learners is not disparate” (p.
80). It is important to note that according to this study, disabled students did not indicate lower
self-esteem than non-disabled students although it would seem the opposite would be true.
Another study by Calabrase, Patterson, Liu, Goodvin, and Hummel (2008) found that the Circle
of Friends Program (COFP) was very beneficial in increasing social interactions both inside and
outside the classroom.
The COFP paired disabled students with a non-disabled buddy and is supported by
parents and sponsors. “The COFP is not only a model for successful inclusion of students with
disabilities in and outside the classroom but has the potential to serve as a vehicle for facilitating
school-wide inclusive educational practices. It was evident that the COFP helps foster a culture
of acceptance through encouraging relationships between students with disabilities and their non-
disabled peers. While the COFP introduces buddies into the special education setting, most
inclusion efforts begin with placing students with disabilities in the general education classroom”
(Calabrase, Patterson, Liu, Goodvin, & Hummel, 2008, p. 37). The success of this program
began with an inclusion classroom. Parents, students, and teachers noted the positive results in
the area of social interaction during this study.
In another study, Dessemontet, Bless, and Morin (2012) conducted a study comparing the
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academic progress of students with intellectual disabilities (ID) who were served within an
inclusion setting as opposed to a special school setting. The findings indicated that “the included
children made slightly more progress in literacy skills than children in special schools” and
concluded “from this study that inclusion in general education classrooms… is an appropriate
alternative to an education in separate settings for primary pupils with ID who require extensive
support in school. This study gives empirical support to the actual efforts made to develop more
inclusive practices for children with ID” (p. 583). Further, research by Chitiyo, Makweche-
Chitiyo, Park, Ametepee, and Chitiyo (2011) examined the correlation between positive behavior
support (PBS) and academic achievement in special education students as mandated by IDEA.
The study found that the use of PBS to address behavior problems led to an increase in academic
achievement. Effect of Co-Teaching. Some studies specifically address the effects of the co-
teaching inclusion model on the academic achievement of disabled students. For example,
Conderman (2011) studied the reflections of middle school students, both disabled and non-
disabled, in coteaching classrooms. Students reported that their favorite aspects of co-teaching
included “felt I could ask for help… I get more time with teachers… I understand the subject
more… Do more fun things…” (Conderman, 2011, p. 25). Students also reported their least
favorite aspect of coteaching was that “they could not get away with anything” (Conderman,
2011, p. 26). Wilson and Michaels (2006) also researched student’s perspectives of co-teaching
and found that both special and general education students thought they received much of what
they needed in the cotaught English classes (e.g., ready access to help, feelings of support and
academic efficacy, access to multiple presentation and instructional styles, access to different
opinions). Certainly, the beneficial themes that emerged revealed educational settings very
favorable to learning. In addition, student participation in co-taught classes contributed to self-
reported improvements in literacy (p. 220).
It is reasonable to believe that students who have positive feeling about their classes will
be more likely to be motivated and put forth good effort on assignments thus increasing
academic achievement. A fourth study by Hang and Rabren (2009) assessed the effects of co-
teaching on standardized testing. The results of this study demonstrated that students with
disabilities who had been co-taught for one year had significantly higher SAT NCEs in reading
and math than they did before being co-taught. Furthermore, there were no significant
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differences in academic achievement found between student participants and all students at the
same grade level as measured by SAT NCEs. These results “suggest that the academic
achievements of co-taught students with disabilities are as typical as the entire school system’s
student population. Therefore, these results suggest that co-teaching, as an instructional
approach, provides students with disabilities adequate support for their achievements on
standardized tests” (Hang & Rabren, 2009, p. 264). This study determined that co-teach has
positive effects on standardized testing, an area that many disabled student struggle with. Lastly,
a study by Simmons and Magiera (2007) determined that student achievement was greatest when
co-teaching teams emphasized four quality co-teaching indicators: both teachers maintained
responsibility for the whole class, accommodations provided for all special education students,
both teachers participated during instruction, and an emphasis placed on the learning process.
These indicators proved necessary for quality co-teaching to be practiced. When co-teaching is
practiced with a correct model, student achievement increases.
Effect due to Gender. Researchers Nelson, Benner, Lane and Smith (2004) studied the academic
achievement of one hundred sixty-six K-12 EBD students and the behavior problems that
caused poor academic achievement in all content areas with attention to age and gender
differences.
The authors defined these achievement problems as externalizing behavior problems and listed
them as, “attention, aggression and delinquency” (p. 69). Nelson et al. also suggested “the
achievement issues of students with EBD who exhibit externalizing deficits may be more
pronounced and “with these students, effective instructional programs may play, at least in part,
a role in improving their social skills” (p. 71). Findings showed that male and female students
with EBD had large academic deficits relative to their norm group. Next, the authors found that
male and female students experienced deficits in all content areas. In fact, “the academic
achievement levels of students in the sample remained stable in reading and written language;
where as, deficits in mathematics appeared
to broaden over time” (p. 69). Results revealed that externalizing behaviors influenced student’s
academic achievement. In addition, results indicated that there must be earlier identification of
students with emotional and behavior disorders.
Effect of Teacher Preparation. Oliver and Reschly (2010) provide information on teacher
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organization and preparation in the classroom. The article states that special education teachers
as well as general education teachers are not adequately prepared to manage students with
behavior disorders in the classroom. Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD)
or Severely Emotional Disorders (SED) have behaviors that inhibit them academically as well as
socially. The EBD student oftentimes cannot or does not know how to control these “acting out”
behaviors. Moreover, they are frequently too disruptive in the general education classroom and
must be separated from their peers. Conversely, federal law states that students with disabilities
must be educated in the same classrooms as their nondisabled peers.
The underlying key to teacher success is preparation. Learning in the classroom with the
least disruptions possible is essential. Therefore, to impede negative behavior as much as
possible, teachers must be prepared to manage these behaviors. Oliver and Reshly (2010) argue,
“Because of the excesses exhibited by students with EBD, teacher skills in classroom
organization and behavior management are necessary to address these challenging behaviors,
attenuate academic deficits, and support successful inclusion efforts” ( p. 188). Teachers must
make sure that classrooms arestructured and conducive to learning with minimal disruptions.
Teachers must have concise rules for the classroom and ensure that students know and
understand the rules that are set. Final results of the research of Oliver and Reschly (2010) found
that special education teachers “may not be adequately prepared to meet the behavioral needs of
diverse learners” (p. 195). Sazak-Pinar, & Sucuogluo (2010) give information on teachers and
classroom management in inclusive classrooms. The inclusive classrooms in the study have at
least one or more student diagnosed with a learning disability. The authors explain, “In Turkey
the law mandating that children with disabilities should be placed in general classroom was
accepted in 1983 and mainstreaming has been expanding throughout Turkey since then” (p. 65).
However, teachers were not trained to provide accommodations or modifications to adhere to
this mandate.
Students were mainstreamed, even though few teachers were adequately trained in an
academic setting to provide for the needs of students with disabilities. Moreover, Akalin et al.
(2010), state, “The effectiveness of mainstreaming has been questioned in the light of the
problems being encountered by the children, their parents and especially the teachers since 1990”
(p. 65). Equally important was a study conducted by Fallon, Zhang, Kim (2011), which focused
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on training teachers to manage the behaviors of students with disabilities in the inclusive
classroom.
Many general education teachers lack the skills and knowledge necessary to effectively
manage these challenging behaviors. The study focused on novice teachers that are certified in
the general curriculum who want additional certification in special education. Each participant in
the study were volunteers in a graduate class in managing and assessing behaviors of students
with disabilities using functional behavior assessments as well as behavior intervention plans.
The need to train teachers to manage students with behavior disorders in imperative since these
students are now educated in the same classrooms as their nondisabled peers. Educating,
training, and cultural diversity should be considered when recruiting teachers to teach students
with behavioral and emotional disorders.
It is essential that teachers are trained in the skills and strategies to support behavior
management in the classroom as well as the ability to differentiate instruction for students with
special needs. Frequent classroom distractions take away from the learning experience of all
students. The teacher is the manager of the classroom and he or she must have rules in place to
impede negative behaviors as much as possible. Akalin, Sazak-Pinar, and Sucuoglu (2010),
conclude, “The results of research focused on classroom management revealed that effective
classroom management increased academic achievement and decreased problem behaviors of
students” (p. 64). It is the responsibility of the teacher to structure their classroom so that it has
minimal distractions and create a learning environment for all students. Teachers should be
dedicated to teach all students. Akalin, Sazak-Pinar, and Sucuoglu (2010) state the behavior of
the student has a direct correlation to student achievement. Final results of the research found
that “classroom management should be considered as a powerful cluster of techniques and
strategies in terms of creating meaningful learning experiences for all students including students
with disabilities, because in Turkey, there are a limited numbers of experts working in special
education collaborating with the general education teachers for meeting the needs of students
with disabilities”.
Wagner, et al. (2006) reported that general educators believe that they are not trained to
effectively manage the challenging behaviors of EBD students, therefore making them
apprehensive about having these students in their classes. Furthermore, Sawka and colleagues
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research has found that there continues to be high turnover rates for teachers of EBD students;
therefore leaving the students with EBD at greater risk of poor academic outcomes and
constantly having to adjust to new teachers. Sawka et al. (2002) in their study found that
response cost was one intervention to decrease negative behavior and encourage positive
behavior in students with EBD. During this study, a project named Strengthening Emotional
Support Services Model (SESS) was conducted in a large urban school district. The authors
reported that, “Certainly, one of the best approaches to addressing the concerns of serving
students with EBD is to create an effective special education teacher workforce” (p. 224). The
SESS project increased staff knowledge of effective behavior management of EBD students.
Sawka, et al. (2002) are supported by research conducted by Kern, Clarke, Dunlap and Childs
(2001). These researchers agree that there must be a consequence or reward to decrease negative
behavior and increase positive behavior. In their study, “the teachers used a behavior
management system in which appropriate behavior was reinforced with points that were
exchangeable for tangible rewards at the end of the day, problem behavior resulted in a loss of
points” (p. 241). The study concluded that variables such as rewards of extra computer time can
influence behavior. The teacher will need to know what specific variables are comparable for the
students in their particular class. The two participants in this study were able to manage their
behavior for variables or preferred activities. For example, extra computer time for completion of
assignments.
Effect on Behavior. The following studies further proposed that there are many variables that
can influence the behavior of EBD students during certain situations. For example, challenging
behavior can occur during certain curricular activities. Because EBD students have difficulty
completing tasks and staying on task, Kern, Delaney, Clarke, Dunlap and Childs (2001) found
that problem behaviors occurred during certain curricular activities. Kern, et al. (2001) research
participants were two eleven-year-old fifth grade boys. The two students exhibited most of their
problem behaviors during pencil and paper activities. The authors went on to state that this study
was “consistent with previous research demonstrating the relationship between environmental
variables and problematic behavior” (p. 244). Such findings are highly congruent with those of
Sawka et al. (2002) in that teachers and students must find out how to effectively manage these
behaviors through interventions, accommodations and training, so EBD students will be
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academically successful in the inclusion classroom. Furthermore, the study by Kern and
associates illustrated how the use of functional assessment can “provide information about
relatively simple classroom adaptations for students with EBD that can be influential in
increasing task engagement, decreasing challenging behavior, and increasing academic
productivity” (p. 245).
Effect of Teacher-Mediated Intervention. One study conducted by Pierce, Reid, and Epstein
(2004) found that teacher-mediated interventions aid in academic compliance of students with
emotional and behavioral disorders. The authors reviewed thirty studies that examined teacher
mediated interventions. The study participants were children or adolescents with emotional and
behavior disorders between the ages of six and twenty years. Pierce and associates summarized
that teacher-mediated interventions proved to be successful throughout all academic areas.
Reading is an academic area that continues to be a major concern; good reading skills have
proven to help with all levels of academics. However, poor reading skills have found to be a
major factor in EBD students’ poor academic success. Poor reading skills continue to be one of
the deficits in the academic success of EBD students because reading affects other content areas.
On the whole, teacher-mediated interventions were proven to be effective in the academic
performance of EBD students.
Teacher-mediated interventions such as token reinforcement, antecedent interventions and
consequence-focused interventions can be extremely successful for students with EBD. Pierce, et
al. (2004) reviewed literature on teacher-mediated interventions and its academic success. Pierce,
et al. (2004) defined a teacher-mediated intervention as “an intervention in which the teacher (or
administrator of the intervention other than the student him/herself) takes responsibility for
treatment, manipulating antecedents and/or consequences in order to improve the academic
performance of the student” (p. 176). The major findings were: (1) A majority of the studies
focused on reading; (2) On average, interventions were implemented for short periods of time;
(3) Many studies lacked complete descriptions of participant characteristics; (4) A majority of
the studies had outcomes in the desired direction; and (5) Overall, teacher-mediated interventions
were effective for improving the academic performance of students with EBD.
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These findings are consistent with other research that focused on reading, because reading is a
major limitation of students with emotional and behavioral disabilities. The majority of students
that had outcomes in the desired direction increased their academic performance. The first
desired outcome reached in this study was an increase in reading performance and academic
response rate.
Second, reading comprehension for all students increased. Third, there was improvement in math
problems increased. More specifically, teacher-mediated interventions provided a ninety percent
positive effect on the academic outcome of students. In particular, some teachers included
student’s interests or choices, token economies as reinforcements to improve academic success
of EBD students. Additionally, the authors suggest that interventions should be implemented in
short periods of time so the students will not get bored with the same intervention and stop
responding. Teacher-mediated interventions were effective because those teachers get to know
the students and their behaviors. Still further, the desired direction of the studies were to
implement more teacher mediated interventions to improve academic and behavioral success of
students with emotional and behavior disorders. Teacher-mediated interventions mentioned in
the study were token reinforcement, antecedent interventions, and consequence-focused
interventions. All interventions showed moderate to high levels of academic improvement
among students.
Effect of Behavioral Effectiveness Strategies. Bowman-Perrott, Greenwood and Tapia
(2007) investigated the success of Class Wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) as an effective intervention
for decreasing problem behavior and increasing instructional effectiveness in the classroom.
Nineteen EBD students in grades 5-12 and two teachers participated in the study. Participants
showed an increase in social interaction with their peers. Students that used self-management
techniques had a reduction in negative behaviors. Also, compared to teacher led instruction, data
indicated that class wide peer tutoring instruction was more effective and social competence in
students increased. In contrast, Bowman-Perrott, et al. (2007) study has also proven that students
with emotional and behavior disabilities have trouble interacting with their peers as well as with
their families. Authors, Tyler-Wood, Cereijo, and Pemberton (2004) examined curriculum-based
assessment (CBA) as a means to decrease the negative behaviors of EBD students in the
classroom and increase their academic success. Curriculum-based assessment is a measurement
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of student performance by direct observation. Once the data is collected from the observation,
the teacher is able to decide what instructional techniques are best for the student.
The purpose of research by Tyler-Wood and colleagues (2004) was “to show how the use of
curriculum-based assessment (CBA) can have a positive effect by lowering the number of
inappropriate behavior occurrences within the classroom” (p. 30). This study used two groups of
participants and discipline referrals of EBD students. One group was the CBA group while the
other was the non-CBA group. CBA and non-CBA groups each had similar numbers of
discipline referrals. Tyler-Wood et.al. (2004) revealed the CBA group discipline referrals
decreased after the intervention. Still further, the “results of the study suggested that the use of
sound instructional techniques can lead to a reduction in student behavior problems” (p. 32). This
study also reinforces that EBD students need well-managed and organized classrooms.
More recently, Wright-Gallo, Higbee, Reagon, and Davey (2006) studied classroom-based
functional analysis as a behavior intervention for EBD students. Functional analysis provides
educators with knowledge of specific behavior problems in students and when these behaviors
may occur. The participants were two male children aged 12 and 14. The teachers in the back of
their classrooms conducted the functional analysis sessions in the back of their classrooms. After
the results of the functional analysis, teachers designed and implemented a differential
reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) intervention that was introduced to reduce the
problem behaviors. “A DRA procedure was implemented in which participants were taught to
request either escape or attention and the delivery of the functional reinforcers following
disruptive behavior was minimized” (p. 432). The two participants were given two choices,
access to attention and escape from demands. The implementation of DRA decreased disruptive
behaviors in both. Jull (2008) reiterates that inclusion of students with emotional and behavioral
disorders in the inclusive classroom is a great challenge. The effectiveness of students with
learning differences in the general education classroom requires that educators be trained in the
instructional strategies to facilitate learning. Anti-social behaviors oftentimes exclude students
from positive interactions with their peers.
The significance of research is important for the educational success of EBD students in the
classroom. They are at a greater risk of academic failure, suspension and dropout. The majority
of research indicated that students with emotional and behavioral disorders require specialized
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training to control their behaviors. As a result of Sawka et. al. (2002), teachers specified that they
were not adequately trained to teach these students in the inclusive classroom without
appropriate interventions. Effective interventions will continue to differ depending on student
needs and variables to accommodate those needs. There must be collaborative efforts made by
all teachers and staff to find the exact intervention for that individual student and strides must be
made to consistently reinforce positive behaviors.
Collectively, functional behavior analysis, positive behavior support, teacher-made interventions,
curriculum modifications, class wide peer tutoring, and antecedent- based intervention are all
essential for EBD students to be successful in the general classroom. Again, it is of the essence
that educators have effective in-service workshops as well as frequent staff development to the
academic success of students with emotional and behavior disorders. An effective behavior
management system should be implemented in every school system. Research from Pierce, Reid,
& Epstein (2004) and Kern, Delaney, Clarke, Dunlap, & Child (2001) indicated that if
implemented correctly, response cost, token economies and reward systems reinforce positive
behavior and teach students necessary self-management skills.
More research must be done to determine the effectiveness of interventions used with
students that have emotional and behavioral disorders in the general classroom. Research should
use a wide variety of participants from different geographic locations. Specifically research done
should include African American, Latino, and Asian American student populations.
Additionally, there are more males labeled, as EBD, but there is little research on EBD females.
Current research from includes teacher-mediated interventions, token economies, and peer
tutoring as important techniques to be used to increase on task behavior in students (Kern,
Delaney, Clarke, Dunlap, & Child, 2001). It is also imperative that teachers have adequate
training, in-service workshops and consultation to teach students effectively. Teachers must
institute rules and regulations for the classroom and implement them consistently to successfully
manage the student’s individual behaviors and learning styles. Students with emotional and
behavior differences cannot be taught as part of the norm. They have numerous facets that
influence how they learn and make decisions.
Although their decisions may be inadequate, they are an integral part of the classroom.
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5.5 Practical Aspects Of Inclusive Classrooms Problems Faced By Special
Needs Students
Just as inclusion has its benefits, it also has its disadvantages. Students with disabilities
tend to disrupt the classroom with behavior issues. Because they are not as cognitively developed
as their peers, the teaching-learning process is not as effective as it could be. It is difficult to
serve the needs of every student who is normally in the regular education class, and with the
special needs students the job becomes even more of a struggle for the teacher and someone
draws the short in of the stick, usually the special needs students. Teachers have to treat special
needs students differently based on standards are on their learning level. Special needs students
are deprived of a suitable education when they are taught at a mismatched level with students
how are significantly above their level. This can negatively affect a student’s sense of self-
esteem and dignity. Even in physical education classes, students with physical disabilities are
disadvantaged because the curriculum is not gear to include them (Combs, Elliott, & Whipple,
2010). This can cause students with disabilities to face discrimination and bullying from their
peers. Causing them to experience low self-esteem, isolation, depression, and in some cases
aggression (Khudorenko, 2011). These emotional breakdowns can lead to violence (Frances &
Potter, 2010).
5.6 Attempts To Improve Inclusion
In the classroom, there are typically more regular education students than special education
students. The students who have disabilities sometimes experience regular education class for the
first time in their lives. It is difficult for these students to cognitively, emotionally, and
sometimes physically to involve themselves in the teaching-learning process. These students
understand they are different from their peers, and they come into a classroom of 15 or more of
them and feel embarrassed and uncomfortable. Schoger (2006) conducted a study designed to
have the general education students come into the special education learning environment to help
the special needs students flourish within their own community. This study showed to be very
successful for the students with special needs because they were able to work in an environment
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that was comfortable for them, they developed friendships with their peers, they felt a sense of
respect which increased their self-esteem, and their cognitive learning increased significantly
(Schoger, 2006). Anderson, Klassen, and Georgiou (2007), detailed how the teachers in their
study lacked the knowledge they need to be more effective at teaching and dealing with students
with special needs.
The teachers in this article thought that school psychologist should play a huge part in educating
them about students with special needs. They felt that with a better understanding of the types of
students who they were working with, they could be more effective teachers to them. To
understand how these children better work mentally, emotionally, and physically changes many
aspects of the teaching-learning process for the better.
One would think he more training and insight usually make teachers feel better about
situations, however, that was not the finding for this study Wilkins & Nietfeld (2004). There
were teachers who were experts on inclusion in the classroom, and their attitudes toward
inclusion were no different than those educators who had little training and insight on the
program. Inclusion is a sore spot for many professionals in the field of education.
In order to provide a quality education for special needs students in the general education
classroom, all of the necessary resources must be available for both the students and the teachers
(Anderson, Klassen, & Georgiou, 2007). Resources are often extremely limited. There is a lack
of teachers because there is a lack of funding, and these insufficient materials affect the success
of the inclusion and those who are involved in the program.
5.7 Summary Although research has shown that inclusion methods benefit all students, teachers are still
hesitant to volunteer to teach within this specific method. For inclusion to be successful, it is
important to provide educators with training, planning time with their co-teacher, and adequate
resources to meet the needs of students. It is when teachers are fully prepared that the inclusion
model will yield positive results. Further research is needed to show particular inclusion and
coteaching methods which are highly successful yielding the best results for both disabled and
nondisabled students.
It is obvious from the research discussed that properly practiced inclusion method has
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benefits for all students in both academic achievement and social interaction. Overall, both
disabled and non-disabled students view co-teaching in a positive manner and seem to make
progress in academic classes. Socially, disabled students have the opportunity to interact with
their nondisabled peers in order to learn academically and behaviorally. They also seem to
maintain adequate self-esteem levels which are comparable to their non-disabled peers. Co-
teaching is a form of inclusion which has gained popularity over the last several years due to
federal and state mandates. This model provides all students with support from two teachers in
the same classroom benefiting them in a number of ways. As inclusion models are adopted by
school systems, it will be important to continue to research and address its effectiveness in the
areas of social interaction and academic progress of disabled students.
Since many public schools do have full inclusion, students with emotional and behavioral
disorders that were once in self-contained classroom, are now educated in classes with their
nondisabled peers. It is necessary that students with severe emotional and behavioral disorders in
inclusive classrooms learn to effectively manage negative behaviors so that classrooms are
environments of learning for all students. It is important for teachers to learn management
techniques for emotional and behavioral disorders so that they are able to spend less time on
discipline and more time on instruction. It is also important that teacher understand the laws that
govern exceptional children. It is essential that students with emotional and behavior disorders
have the ability to manage their own behavior and stay on task so that they can be successful in
the general education classroom. When these students exhibit negative behaviors in the
classroom it affects their peers, teachers and themselves. What behavior management approaches
are most effective with Seriously Emotional Disabled students in the general education
classroom?
It is of the essence that educators are skilled to teach the leaders of tomorrow. Research
continues to support the use of self-management techniques to decrease negative behaviors and
increase academic performance that can be implemented by the student as well as the teacher
(Konrad, Fowler, Walker, Test, & Wood, 2007). Teachers must effectively manage their
classrooms so that all students can have a positive learning environment. Additionally, contend
that teachermediated interventions, establishing and enforcing rules and token economies have
proven to be successful as behavior management techniques for EBD students. In the words of
716
Bowman-Perott et al. (2007), “effective intervention procedures are essential to breaking the
cycle of school failure”.
All classes have students that exhibit negative behaviors that warrant their removal from the
classroom for interventions as well. For example, there are students that are argumentative with
staff, talk refuse to work and talk continuously without permission. The exception that I see is
that students with EBD seem to exhibit behaviors that draw negative attention to themselves
from their peers. Researchers, Nelson, Benner, Lane and Smith (2004) studied the academic
deficits in EBD students and improving their social skills. EBD students lack social skills and
want to fit in socially with their peers but many times their academic deficits in many content
areas hold them back socially. Additionally, there may need to be a school wide positive
behavior support system developed so that negative behaviors may be minimized further. Still
further, educators need to be trained in behavior management techniques for students with
behavioral disorders. Sawka, McCrudy and Manella (2002) affirm that general education
teachers do not feel adequately trained to manage these students. The importance of effective
behavior management techniques is essential for any educator.
5.8 Check Your Progress
1. Explain A Brief History Of Inclusion
2. Explain Learning Theories Related To Inclusion
3. Explain Review Of Literature On Inclusive Education
4. Explain Practical Aspects Of Inclusive Classrooms Problems Faced By
Special Needs Students
5. Explain Attempts To Improve Inclusion
49. Check Your Progress
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Points For Discussion And Clarification
After going through this Unit you might like to have further discussion on some points and
clarification on others
1.50.1. Points for discussion
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