Babylon

Babylon

A partial view of the ruins of Babylonfrom Saddam Hussein's Summer Palace

Shown within Iraq

Location Hillah, BabilGovernorate, Iraq

Region MesopotamiaCoordinates 323211N 442515EType SettlementArea 9 km2 (3.5 sq mi)

HistoryBuilder AmoritesFounded 1894 BC

BabylonFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Babylon (disambiguation).Babylon (Arabic: , Bbil; Akkadian:Bbili(m);[1] Sumerian logogram:K.DINGIR.RAKI;[1] Hebrew: , Bel;[1]Ancient Greek: Babyln; OldPersian: Bbiru) was originallya Semitic Akkadian city dating from theperiod of the Akkadian Empire c. 2300BC.Originally a minor administrative center, itonly became an independent city-state in1894 BC in the hands of a migrantAmorite dynasty not native to ancientMesopotamia. The Babylonians were moreoften ruled by other foreign migrantdynasties throughout their history, such asby the Kassites, Arameans, Elamites andChaldeans, as well as by their fellowMesopotamians, the Assyrians.The remains of the city are found inpresent-day Hillah, Babil Governorate,Iraq, about 85 kilometres (53 mi) south ofBaghdad. All that remains of the originalancient famed city of Babylon today is alarge mound, or tell, of broken mud-brickbuildings and debris in the fertileMesopotamian plain between the Tigrisand Euphrates rivers. The city itself wasbuilt upon the Euphrates, and divided inequal parts along its left and right banks,with steep embankments to contain theriver's seasonal oods.Available historical resources suggest thatBabylon was at rst a small town whichhad sprung up by the beginning of the 2ndmillennium BC (c. 2000 BC). The townattained independence as a small citystate with the rise of the First Amorite

Coordinates: 323211N 442515E

Babylon - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babyl...

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Site notesCondition RuinedOwnership PublicPublic access Yes

Babylonian Dynasty in 1894 BC. Claimingto be the successor of the more ancientSumero-Akkadian city of Eridu, Babylon,hitherto a minor city, eclipsed Nippur asthe "holy city" of Mesopotamia around thetime an Amorite king named Hammurabirst created the short lived BabylonianEmpire in the 18th century BC. It was from this time that South Mesopotamiacame to be known as Babylonia, and the city of Babylon itself grew in size andgrandeur.The empire quickly dissolved upon his death and Babylon spent long periodsunder Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. After being destroyed and thenrebuilt by the Assyrians, Babylon again became the seat of the Neo-BabylonianEmpire from 608 to 539 BC which was founded by Chaldeans from the south eastcorner of Mesopotamia, and whose last king was an Assyrian from NorthernMesopotamia. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wondersof the Ancient World. After the fall of Babylon it came under the rules of theAchaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid empires.

Contents1 Name2 History

2.1 Classical dating2.2 Old Babylonian period2.3 Assyrian period2.4 Neo-Babylonian Chaldean Empire2.5 Persia captures Babylon2.6 Hellenistic period2.7 Persian Empire period2.8 Muslim Conquest

3 Biblical narrative4 Archaeology5 Reconstruction6 Eects of the U.S. military7 Babylon in popular culture8 See also


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9 Notes10 References11 External links

NameThe Greek form Babylon () is an adaptation of Akkadian Babili. TheBabylonian name as it stood in the 1st millennium BC had been changed from anearlier Babilli in early 2nd millennium BC, meaning "Gate of God" or "Gateway ofthe God" (bb-ili) by popular etymology.[2] The earlier name Babilla appears to bean adaptation of a non-Semitic source of unknown origin or meaning.[3]In the Hebrew Bible, the name appears as (Babel; Tiberian Bvel; Syriac Bwl), interpreted in the Book of Genesis (11:9) to mean "confusion" (viz. oflanguages), from the verb bilbl, "to confuse".

HistoryAn indication of Babylon's early existence may be a later tablet describing thereign of Sargon of Akkad (c. 23rd century BC short chronology). The so-calledWeidner Chronicle states that it was Sargon himself who built Babylon "in front ofAkkad" (ABC 19:51). Another later chronicle likewise states that Sargon "dug upthe dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad".(ABC 20:1819). Van de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer tothe much later Assyrian king Sargon II of the Neo-Assyrian Empire rather thanSargon of Akkad.[4]Linguist I.J. Gelb, has suggested that the name Babil is an echo of an earlier cityname. Herzfeld wrote about Bawer in Ancient Iran, and the name Babil could bean echo of Bawer. David Rohl holds that the original Babylon is to be identiedwith Eridu. The Bible in Genesis 10 indicates that a biblical king named Nimrodwas the original founder of Babel (Babylon). Joan Oates claims in her bookBabylon that the rendering Gateway of the gods is no longer accepted by modernscholars.By around the 19th century BC, much of southern Mesopotamia was occupied byAmorites, nomadic tribes from the northern Levant who were Semitic speakerslike the Akkadians of Babylonia and Assyria, but at rst did not practiceagriculture like them, preferring a semi nomadic lifestyle, herding sheep. Overtime, Amorite grain merchants rose to prominence and established their ownindependent dynasties in several south Mesopotamian city-states, most notably


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Map showing the Babylonian territory uponHammurabi's ascension in 1792 BC and upon hisdeath in 1750 BC

Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Lagash, and later in Babylon.Classical datingCtesias, who is quoted byDiodorus Siculus and inGeorge Syncellus'sChronographia, claimed tohave access to manuscriptsfrom Babylonian archiveswhich date the founding ofBabylon to 2286 BC by Beluswho reigned as Babylon'srst king for fty veyears.[5] Another gure isfrom Simplicius,[6] whorecorded that Callisthenes inthe 4th century BC travelledto Babylon and discoveredastronomical observations oncuneiform tablets stretchingback 1903 years before thetaking of Babylon byAlexander the Great in331 BC. This makes the sum1903 + 331 which equals 2234 BC as the founding date for Babylon. A similargure is found in Berossus, who according to Pliny,[7] stated that astronomicalobservations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era ofPhoroneus, and consequently in 2243 BC. Stephanus of Byzantium, wrote thatBabylon was built 1002 years before the date (given by Hellanicus of Mytilene) forthe siege of Troy (1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to2231 BC.[8] All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the 23rd century BC;however, since the decipherment of cuneiform in recent centuries, cuneiformrecords have not been found to correspond with such classical (post-cuneiform)accounts.Old Babylonian periodThe First Babylonian Dynasty was established by an Amorite chieftain namedSumu-abum in 1894 BC, who declared independence from the neighbouringcity-state of Kazallu. The Amorites were, unlike the Sumerians and AkkadianSemites, not native to Mesopotamia, but were semi nomadic West Semiticinvaders from the northern Levant. They (together with the Elamites to the east)had originally been prevented from taking control of the Akkadian speaking states


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Old Babylonian CylinderSeal. hematite. This sealwas probably made in aworkshop at Sippar (about40 miles north of Babylonon the map above) eitherduring, or shortly before,the reign of Hammurabi.[9]It depicts the king makingan animal oering to theSun god Shamash.

Old Babylonian Cylinder Seal.hematite. Linescan camera imageof seal above (reversed to resemblean impression).

of southern Mesopotamia by the intervention ofpowerful Akkadian speaking Assyrian kings of theOld Assyrian Empire during the 21st and 20thcenturies BC, intervening from northernMesopotamia. However when the Assyrians turnedtheir attention to colonising Asia Minor the Amoriteseventually began to supplant native rulers across theregion.Babylon was a minor city state, and controlled littlesurrounding territory,and its rst three Amoriterulers did not even assume the title of king. Itremained overshadowed by older and more powerfulstates such as Assyria, Elam, Isin and Larsa until itbecame the capital of Hammurabi's short livedBabylonian Empire a century or so later (r.17921750 BC). Hammurabi is famous for codifyingthe laws of Babylonia into the Code of Hammurabithat has had a lasting inuence on legal thought. Heconquered all of the cities and city states of southernMesopotamia, including; Isin, Larsa, Ur, Uruk,Nippur, Lagash, Eridu, Kish, Adab, Eshnunna,Akshak, Akkad, Shuruppak, Bad-tibira, Sippar andGirsu, coalescing them into one kingdom, ruled fromBabylon. Hammurabi also invaded and conqueredElam to the east, and the kingdoms of Mari, Syriaand Ebla to the north west. After a protractedstruggle with the powerful fellow Mesopotamian kingIshme-Dagan of Assyria, he eventually forcedhis successor to pay tribute late in his reign,thus spreading Babylonian power to Assyria'sHattian and Hurrian colonies in Asia Minor.Subsequent to the reign of Hammurabi, thewhole of southern Mesopotamia came to beknown as Babylonia, while the north hadcenturies before already coalesced intoAssyria. From this time, Babylon alsoassumed the position of the major religiouscenter of Mesopotamia, supplanting the moreancient cities of Nippur and Eridu.Hammurabi's empire quickly dissolved afterhis death, the Assyrians defeated and drove out the Babylonians and Amorites,the far south of Mesopotamia broke away, forming the Sealand Dynasty, and theElamites appropriated territory in eastern Mesopotamia. The Amorite dynasty


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remained in power in a Babylon which had been reduced to little more than thesmall city state it had been upon its founding in 1894 BC until 1595 BC[10] whenthey were overthrown by the invading Indo-European speaking Hittites from AsiaMinor.Following the sack of Babylon by the Hittite Empire, an Indo-European speakingnation in Asia Minor, the Kassites, a people speaking a Language Isolate andhailing from the Zagros Mountains of north western Ancient Iran invaded andtook over Babylon, ushering in a dynasty that was to last for 435 years until1160 BC. The city was renamed Karanduniash during this period.However, Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to domination by their fellowMesopotamians of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365 - 1053 BC) to the north, andElam to the east, both powers often interfering in, sacking, or controlling Babylonduring the Kassite period. The Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I took the throne ofBabylon in 1235 BC, becoming the rst native Akkadian speaking Mesopotamianto rule there.It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world from c. 1770to 1670 BC, and again between c. 612 and 320 BC. It was perhaps the rst city toreach a population above 200,000.[11] Estimates for the maximum extent of itssize range from 890[12] to 900 hectares (2,200 acres).[13]By 1155 BC, after continuing attacks and annexing of territory by the Assyriansand Elamites, the Kassites had been deposed from power in Babylon. A nativeAkkadian speaking south Mesopotamian dynasty then ruled for the rst time.However, the Babylonians remained weak and subject to domination by theirAssyrian brethren. Their ineectual kings were unable to prevent new waves offoreign West Semitic settlers in the form of the Arameans, Suteans in the 11thcentury BC, and nally the Chaldeans in the 10th century BC, entering andappropriating areas of Babylonia for themselves. The Arameans coming to brieyrule in Babylon itself during the late 11th century BC.Assyrian periodThroughout the duration of the Neo Assyrian Empire (911608 BC) Babylonia wasunder constant Assyrian domination or direct control. During the reign ofSennacherib of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by aChaldean chieftain named Merodach-Baladan in alliance with the Elamites, andsuppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BC, itswalls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into theArakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. This act shocked thereligious conscience of Mesopotamia; the subsequent murder of Sennacherib bytwo of his own sons whilst praying to the god Nisroch was held to be in expiationof it, and his successor in Assyria Esarhaddon hastened to rebuild the old city, to


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Sennacherib of Assyria during hisBabylonian war, relief from hispalace in Nineveh

receive there his crown, and make it hisresidence during part of the year. On hisdeath, Babylonia was left to be governed byhis elder son, the Assyrian prince Shamash-shum-ukin, who, after becoming infused withBabylonian nationalism, eventually started acivil war in 652 BC against his own brotherand master Ashurbanipal, who ruled inNineveh. Shamash-shum-ukin enlisted thehelp of other peoples subject to Assyria,including Elam, the Chaldeans and Suteans ofsouthern Mesopotamia, and the Arabsdwelling in the deserts south of Mesopotamia.Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians, starved into surrender andits allies violently crushed. Ashurbanipal puried the city and celebrated a"service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of Bel. AnAssyrian governor named Kandalanu was entrusted with ruling the city. After thedeath of Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire began to unravel due to a series ofbitter internal civil wars. Three more Assyrian kings Ashur-etil-ilani, Sin-shumu-lishir and nally Sin-shar-ishkun were to rule. However, eventually Babylon, likemany other parts of the near east, took advantage of the anarchy within Assyria tofree itself from Assyrian rule. In the subsequent overthrow of the Assyrian Empireby an alliance of peoples, the Babylonians saw another example of divinevengeance. (Albert Houtum-Schindler, "Babylon," Encyclopdia Britannica, 11thed.)Neo-Babylonian Chaldean Empire

Main article: Neo-Babylonian EmpireUnder Nabopolassar, a Chaldean king, Babylon eventually threw o Assyrian rule,and in an alliance with Cyaxares, king of the Medes and Persians together withthe Scythians and Cimmerians, the Assyrian Empire was nally destroyedbetween 612 BC and 605 BC. Babylon thus became the capital of theNeo-Babylonian (sometimes and possibly erroneously called Chaldean) Empire.[14][15][16]

With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activityensued, and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (604561 BC) made Babylon into one ofthe wonders of the ancient world.[17] Nebuchadnezzar ordered the completereconstruction of the imperial grounds, including rebuilding the Etemenankiziggurat and the construction of the Ishtar Gate the most spectacular of eightgates that ringed the perimeter of Babylon. A reconstruction of The Ishtar Gate islocated in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. All that was ever found of the Original


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Detail of the Ishtar Gate

Ishtar gate was the foundation and scatteredbricks.Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with theconstruction of the Hanging Gardens ofBabylon (one of the seven wonders of theancient world), said to have been built for hishomesick wife Amyitis. Whether the gardensdid exist is a matter of dispute. Althoughexcavations by German archaeologist RobertKoldewey are thought to reveal its foundations,many historians disagree about the location,and some believe it may have been confusedwith gardens in the Assyrian capital,Nineveh.[18]Chaldean rule did not last long and it is notclear if Neriglissar and Labashi-Marduk wereChaldeans or native Babylonians, and the lastruler Nabonidus (556539 BC) and his son andregent Belshazzar were Assyrians from Harran.Persia captures BabylonIn 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, witha military engagement known as the Battle of Opis. The famed walls of Babylonwere indeed impenetrable, with the only way into the city through one of its manygates or through the Euphrates, which ebbed beneath its thick walls. Metal gatesat the river's in-ow and out-ow prevented underwater intruders, if one couldhold one's breath to reach them. Cyrus (or his generals) devised a plan to use theEuphrates as the mode of entry to the city, ordering large camps of troops at eachpoint and instructed them to wait for the signal. Awaiting an evening of a nationalfeast among Babylonians (generally thought to refer to the feast of Belshazzarmentioned in Daniel V), Cyrus' troops diverted the Euphrates river upstream,causing the Euphrates to drop to about 'mid thigh level on a man' or to dry upaltogether. The soldiers marched under the walls through the lowered water. ThePersian army conquered the outlying areas of the city's interior while a majorityof Babylonians at the city center were oblivious to the breach. The account waselaborated upon by Herodotus,[19] and is also mentioned by passages in theHebrew Bible.[20][21]Cyrus later issued a decree permitting captive people, including the Jews, toreturn to their own land (as explained in 2 Chronicles 36), to allow their temple tobe rebuilt back in Jerusalem.


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Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king Darius the Great, Babylon becamethe capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in thenorth), as well as a centre of learning and scientic advancement. In AchaemenidPersia, the ancient Babylonian arts of astronomy and mathematics wererevitalised and ourished, and Babylonian scholars completed maps ofconstellations. The city was the administrative capital of the Persian Empire, thepreeminent power of the then known world, and it played a vital part in thehistory of that region for over two centuries. Many important archaeologicaldiscoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of thatera.[22][23]The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies ofMarduk, but by the reign of Darius III, over-taxation and the strains of numerouswars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and thedisintegration of the surrounding region. There were numerous attempts atrebellion and in 522 BC (Nebuchadnezzar III), 521 BC (Nebuchadnezzar IV) and482 BC (Bel-shimani and Shamash-eriba) native Babylonian kings briey regainedindependence. However these revolts were relatively swiftly repressed and theland and city of Babylon remained solidly under Persian rule for two centuries,until Alexander the Great's entry in 331 BC.Hellenistic periodIn 331 BC, Darius III, the last Achaemenid king of the Persian Empire wasdefeated by the forces of the Ancient Macedonian Greek ruler Alexander theGreat at the Battle of Gaugamela, and in October, Babylon fell to the youngconqueror. A native account of this invasion notes a ruling by Alexander not toenter the homes of its inhabitants.[24]Under Alexander, Babylon again ourished as a centre of learning and commerce.But following Alexander's death in 323 BC in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, hisempire was divided amongst his generals, the Diadochi, and decades of ghtingsoon began, with Babylon once again caught in the middle.The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon. A tablet dated 275 BCstates that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported to Seleucia, where apalace was built, as well as a temple given the ancient name of Esagila. With thisdeportation, the history of Babylon comes practically to an end, though more thana century later, it was found that sacrices were still performed in its oldsanctuary.[25] By 141 BC, when the Parthian Empire took over the region, Babylonwas in complete desolation and obscurity.Persian Empire period

Main article: Babylonia (Persian province)


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Under the Parthian, and later, Sassanid Persians, Babylon (like Assyria) remaineda province of the Persian Empire for nine centuries, until after 650 AD. Itcontinued to have its own culture and people, who spoke varieties of Aramaic, andwho continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon. Some examples of theircultural products are often found in the Babylonian Talmud, the GnosticMandaean religion, Eastern Rite Christianity and the religion of the prophet Mani.Christianity came to Mesopotamia in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, and Babylonwas the seat of a Bishop of the Church of the East until well after the Arab/Islamicconquest.Muslim Conquest

Main article: Muslim conquestsIn the mid-7th century AD Mesopotamia was invaded and settled by theexpanding Muslim Empire. A period of Islamication followed. Babylon wasdissolved as a province and Aramaic and Church of the East Christianityeventually became marginalised, although both still exist today (more so howeveramong the Assyrians of northern Iraq) as does Mandeanism. ABabylonian/Mesopotamian/Assyrian identity is still espoused by the ethnicallyindigenous Mesopotamian and Eastern Aramaic speaking members of theChaldean Catholic Church and Assyrian Church of the East to this day.

Biblical narrativeFor more details on this topic, see Tower of Babel and Babylon (NewTestament).

In Genesis 10:10, Babel (Babylon) is described as a neighboring city of Uruk,Akkad and Kalneh, in Shinar.[26]Babylon appears throughout the Hebrew Bible, including descriptions of theBabylonian Captivity, and also features prominently in several prophecies. TheNew Testament Book of Revelation refers to Babylon many centuries after itceased to be a major political center and some scholars believe it to be the use ofApocalyptic literature to refer to the Roman Empire.[27]

ArchaeologyThe site at Babylon consists of a number of mounds covering an oblong arearoughly 2 kilometers by 1 kilometer, oriented north to south.[citation needed] Thesite is bounded by the Euphrates River on the west, and by the remains of theancient city walls otherwise. Originally, the Euphrates roughly bisected the city,as is common in the region, but the river has since shifted its course so that much


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Babylon in 1932

of the remains on the former western part ofthe city are now inundated. Some portions ofthe city wall to the west of the river alsoremain. Several of the sites mounds are moreprominent.These include:

Kasr also called Palace or Castle. It isthe location of the Neo-Babylonianziggurat Etemenanki of Nabopolassar andlater Nebuchadnezzar and lies in thecenter of the site.Amran Ibn Ali to the south and the highest of the mounds at 25 meters. It isthe site of Esagila, a temple of Marduk which also contained shrines to Eaand Nabu.Homera a reddish colored mound on the west side. Most of the Hellenisticremains are here.Babil in the northern end of the site, about 22 meters in height. It has beenextensively subject to brick robbing since ancient times. It held a palace builtby Nebuchadnezzar.

Occupation at the site dates back to the late 3rd millennium, nally achievingprominence in the early 2nd millennium under the First Babylonian Dynasty andagain later in the millennium under the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. Unfortunately,almost nothing from that period has been recovered at the site of Babylon. First,the water table in the region has risen greatly over the centuries and artifactsfrom the time before the Neo-Babylonian Empire are unavailable to currentstandard archaeological methods. Secondly, the Neo-Babylonians conductedmassive rebuilding projects in the city which destroyed or obscured much of theearlier record. Third, much of the western half of the city is now under theEuphrates River. Fourth, Babylon has been sacked a number of times, mostnotably by the Hittites and Elamites in the 2nd millennium, then by theNeo-Assyrian Empire and the Achaemenid Empire in the 1st millennium, after theBabylonians had revolted against their rule. Lastly, the site has been long minedfor building materials on a commercial scale.While knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphicremains found elsewhere, such as at Uruk, Nippur, and Haradum, information on


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The Queen of the Night relief.The gure could be an aspectof the goddess Ishtar,Babylonian goddess of sexand love.

the Neo-Babylonian city is available fromarchaeological excavations and from classicalsources. Babylon was described, perhaps evenvisited, by a number of classical historiansincluding Ctesias, Herodotus, Quintus CurtiusRufus, Strabo, and Cleitarchus. These reports areof variable accuracy and some political spin isinvolved but still provide useful data.The rst reported archaeological excavation ofBabylon was conducted by Claudius James Rich in181112 and again in 1817.[28][29] Robert Mignanexcavated at the site briey in 1827.[30] WilliamLoftus visited there in 1849.[31]Austen Henry Layard made some soundings duringa brief visit in 1850 before abandoning the site.[32]Fulgence Fresnel and Julius Oppert heavilyexcavated Babylon from 1852 to 1854.Unfortunately, much of the result of their work waslost when a raft containing over forty crates ofartifacts sank into the Tigris river.[33][34]Henry Creswicke Rawlinson and George Smith worked there briey in 1854. Thenext excavation, a major one, was conducted by Hormuzd Rassam on behalf of theBritish Museum. Work began in 1879, continuing until 1882, and was promptedby widespread looting occurring at the site. Using industrial scale digging insearch of artifacts, Rassam recovered a large quantity of cuneiform tablets andother nds. The zealous excavation methods, common in those days, caused muchdamage to the archaeological context.[35][36]A team from the German Oriental Society led by Robert Koldewey conducted therst scientic archaeological excavations at Babylon. The work was conductedevery year between 1899 and 1917 until World War I intruded. Primary eorts ofthe dig involved the temple of Marduk and the processional way leading up to it,as well as the city wall. Hundreds of recovered tablets, as well as the noted IshtarGate were sent back to Germany.[37][38][39][40][41][42]Further work by the German Archaeological Institute was conducted by HeinrichJ. Lenzen in 1956 and Hansjrg Schmid 1962. The work by Lenzen dealt primarilywith the Hellenistic theatre and by Schmid with the temple zigguratEtemenanki.[43]In more recent times, the site of Babylon was excavated by G. Bergamini on


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World Monuments Fund video onconservation of Babylon

behalf of the Centro Scavi di Torino per il Medio Oriente e l'Asia and the Iraqi-Italian Institute of Archaeological Sciences. This work began with a season ofexcavation in 1974 followed by a topographical survey in 1977.[44] The focus wason clearing up issues raised by re-examination of the old German data. After adecade, Bergamini returned to the site in 19871989. The work concentrated onthe area surrounding the Ishara and Ninurta temples in the Shu-Anna city-quarterof Babylon.[45][46]It should be noted that during the restoration eorts in Babylon, some amount ofexcavation and room clearing has been done by the Iraqi State Organization forAntiquities and Heritage. Given the conditions in that country the last fewdecades, publication of archaeological activities has been understandably sparseat best.[47][48]

ReconstructionIn 1983, Saddam Hussein startedrebuilding the city on top of the old ruins(because of this, artifacts and other ndsmay well be under the city by now),investing in both restoration and newconstruction. He inscribed his name onmany of the bricks in imitation ofNebuchadnezzar. One frequentinscription reads: "This was built bySaddam Hussein, son ofNebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq". Thisrecalls the ziggurat at Ur, where eachindividual brick was stamped with"Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, who built the temple of Nanna". These bricks becamesought after as collectors' items after the downfall of Hussein, and the ruins areno longer being restored to their original state. He also installed a huge portraitof himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins, and shored upProcessional Way, a large boulevard of ancient stones, and the Lion of Babylon, ablack rock sculpture about 2,600 years old.When the Gulf War ended, Saddam wanted to build a modern palace, also oversome old ruins; it was made in the pyramidal style of a Sumerian ziggurat. Henamed it Saddam Hill. In 2003, he was ready to begin the construction of a cablecar line over Babylon when the invasion began and halted the project.An article published in April 2006 states that UN ocials and Iraqi leaders haveplans for restoring Babylon, making it into a cultural center.[49][50]


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Plan of the city of Babylon during thetime of the king Nebuchadnezzar II,600 BC.

Panoramic view over the reconstructed city of Babylon

As of May 2009, the provincial governmentof Babil has reopened the site to tourism.

Eects of the U.S. militaryUS forces under the command of General James T. Conway of the 1st MarineExpeditionary Force were criticized for building the military base "Camp Alpha",comprising among other facilities a helipad, on ancient Babylonian ruins followingthe 2003 invasion of Iraq.US forces have occupied the site for some time and have caused irreparabledamage to the archaeological record. In a report of the British Museum's NearEast department, Dr. John Curtis describes how parts of the archaeological sitewere levelled to create a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavyvehicles. Curtis wrote that the occupation forces

"caused substantial damage to the Ishtar Gate, one of the most famousmonuments from antiquity [...] US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-oldbrick pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site,


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US Marines in front of the rebuiltruins of Babylon, 2003

more than 12 trenches were driven intoancient deposits and military earth-moving projects contaminated the site forfuture generations of scientists [...] Add toall that the damage caused to nine of themoulded brick gures of dragons in theIshtar Gate by soldiers trying to removethe bricks from the wall."[51]

A US Military spokesman claimed thatengineering operations were discussed withthe "head of the Babylon museum".[52]The head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George,said that the "mess will take decades to sort out".[53] In April 2006, Colonel JohnColeman, former Chief of Sta for the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force, oered toissue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command.However he claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage fromother looters.[54]

Babylon in popular cultureDue to the importance of Babylon in its time as well as the stories in the Bible theword "Babylon" in various languages has acquired a generic meaning of a large,bustling diverse city. As such, the word "Babylon" is used for variousentertainment events or buildings. For example, sci- series Babylon 5 tells a taleof a multi-racial future space station. Babilonas (Lithuanian name for "Babylon")is also a name for a major real estate development in Lithuania.In reggae music the term Babylon is often used since it is an important conceptin the rastafarian belief system, denoting the profane materialistic capitalistworld.

See alsoAkkadBabel (disambiguation)Cities of the ancient Near EastCode of Hammurabi


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EtemenankiJehoiachin's Rations TabletsList of Kings of BabylonShort chronology timelineTomb of DanielTower of Babel

Notes^ a b c The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory(http://books.google.com/books?id=HRwo6dBekUQC&pg=PA150): Vol. 1, Part 1.Accessed 15 Dec 2010.]

1.

^ Dietz Otto Edzard: Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexanderdem Groen, Beck, Mnchen 2004, p. 121.

2.

^ Liane Jakob-Rost, Joachim Marzahn: Babylon, ed. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.Vorderasiatisches Museum, (Kleine Schriften 4), 2. Auage, Putbus 1990, p. 2

3.

^ Stephanie Dalley, Babylon as a Name for other Cities Including Nineveh, inUchicago.edu (http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc62.pdf), Proceedings of the 51stRencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Oriental Institute SAOC 62, pp. 2533, 2005

4.

^ Records of the Past, Archibald Sayce, 2nd series, Vol. 1, 1888, p. 11.5.^ Simpl. ad Arist De Caelo. ii. 503A)6.^ N.H. vii. 577.^ The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, George Rawlinson, Vol.4, p. 526-527.

8.

^ Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of OldBabylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23.

9.

^ 1595 BC: Please see Chronology of the ancient Near East for more discussion ondating events in the 2nd millennium BC, including the Sack of Babylon

10.

^ Tertius Chandler. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census(1987), St. David's University Press (etext.org (http://web.archive.org/web/20080211233018/http://www.etext.org/Politics/World.Systems/datasets/citypop/civilizations/citypops_2000BC-1988AD)). ISBN 0-88946-207-0. See Historical urbancommunity sizes.

11.

^ Mieroop, Marc van de (1997). The Ancient Mesopotamian City(http://books.google.com/books?id=_YKlbIp9pYMC&pg=PA95). Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. p. 95. ISBN 9780191588457.

12.


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^ Boiy, T. (2004). Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon (http://books.google.com/books?id=1frplXFGf4sC&pg=PA233). Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 136. Leuven:Peeters Publishers. p. 233. ISBN 9789042914490.

13.

^ Bradford, Alfred S. (2001). With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare inthe Ancient World, pp. 4748. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-95259-2.

14.

^ Curtis, Adrian; Herbert Gordon May (2007). Oxford Bible Atlas Oxford UniversityPress ISBN 978-0-19-100158-1 p. 122 Google Books Search (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E7aXDYZ8SxkC&pg=PA122&dq=Babylon+%22chaldean+empire%22&num=100)

15.

^ von Soden, Wilfred; Donald G. Schley (1996). William B. Eerdmanns ISBN978-0-8028-0142-5 p. 60 Google Books Search (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XE-AnPOmma4C&pg=PA59&dq=Babylon+%22chaldean+empire%22&num=100#PPA60,M1)

16.

^ Saggs, H.W.F. (2000). Babylonians, p. 165. University of California Press. ISBN0-520-20222-8.

17.

^ Stephanie Dalley, (2013) The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusiveWorld Wonder traced, OUP ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5

18.

^ Herodotus, Book 1, Section 19119.^ Isaiah 44:2720.^ Jeremiah 505121.^ Cyrus Cylinder (http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/news_and_press/statements/cyrus_cylinder.aspx) The British Museum. Retrieved July 23, 2011.

22.

^ "Mesopotamia: The Persians" (http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM). Wsu.edu:8080. 1999-06-06. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20101206180919/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM) fromthe original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-09.

23.

^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka,(1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell.ISBN 0-395-87274-X.

24.

^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Babylon". Encyclopdia Britannica 3 (11th ed.).Cambridge University Press.

25.

^ "Genesis 10:10 NIV - The rst centers of his kingdom were"(http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+10%3A10&version=NIV).Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2013-03-25.

26.

^ Merrill Tenney: New Testament Survey, Inter-varsity Press, 1985, pp38327.^ Claudius J. Rich, Memoirs on the Ruins of Babylon, 181528.


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^ Claudius J. Rich, Second memoir on Babylon; containing an inquiry into thecorrespondence between the ancient descriptions of Babylon, and the remains stillvisible on the site, 1818

29.

^ Google Books Search (http://books.google.com/books?id=HkAGAAAAQAAJ), RobertMignan, Travels in Chalda, Including a Journey from Bussorah to Bagdad, Hillah,and Babylon, Performed on Foot in 1827, H. Colburn and R. Bentley, 1829 ISBN1-4021-6013-5

30.

^ Google Books Search (http://books.google.com/books?id=4ZiBAAAAIAAJ), WilliamK. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, Travels and Researchesin Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" ofNimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 184952, Robert Carter &Brothers, 1857

31.

^ Google Books Search (http://books.google.com/books?vid=03JlRdCUdLQX2YtuE62w&id=378HAAAAIAAJ), A. H. Layard, Discoveriesin the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, J. Murray, 1853

32.

^ J. Oppert, Expdition scientique en Msopotamie excute par ordre dugouvernement de 1851 1854. Tome I: Rlation du voyage et rsultat de l'expdition,1863 (also as ISBN 0-543-74945-2) Tome II: Dchirement des inscriptionscuneiforms, 1859 (also as ISBN 0-543-74939-8)

33.

^ H V. Hilprecht, Exploration in the Bible Lands During the 19th Century, A. J.Holman, 1903

34.

^ Archive.org (http://www.archive.org/download/asshurlandofnimr00rass/asshurlandofnimr00rass.pdf), Hormuzd Rassam, Asshur and the Land of Nimrod:Being an Account of the Discoveries Made in the Ancient Ruins of Nineveh, Asshur,Sepharvaim, Calah, [etc]..., Curts & Jennings, 1897

35.

^ Julian Reade, Hormuzd Rassam and his discoveries, Iraq, vol. 55, pp. 3962, 199336.^ Google Books Research (http://books.google.com/books?id=NTmFAAAAIAAJ), R.Koldewey, Das wieder erstehende Babylon, die bisherigen Ergebnisse der deutschenAusgrabungen, J.C. Hinrichs, 1913, with online English translation: Agnes SophiaGrith Johns, The excavations at Babylon By Robert Koldewey, Macmillan and Co.,1914

37.

^ R. Koldewey, Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa, WVDOG, vol. 15, pp. 3749,1911 (German)

38.

^ R. Koldewey, Das Ischtar-Tor in Babylon, WVDOG, vol. 32, 191839.^ F. Wetzel, Die Stadtmauren von Babylon, WVDOG, vol. 48, pp. 183, 193040.^ F. Wetzel and F.H. Weisbach, Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Esagilaund Etemenanki, WVDOG, vol. 59, pp. 136, 1938

41.


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^ F. Wetzel et al., Das Babylon der Sptzeit, WVDOG, vol. 62, Gebr. Mann, 1957 (1998reprint ISBN 3-7861-2001-3)

42.

^ Hansjrg Schmid, Der Tempelturm Etemenanki in Babylon, Zabern, 1995, ISBN3-8053-1610-0

43.

^ G. Bergamini, Levels of Babylon Reconsidered, Mesopotamia, vol. 12, pp. 111152,1977

44.

^ G. Bergamini, Excavations in Shu-anna Babylon 1987, Mesopotamia, vol. 23, pp.517, 1988

45.

^ G. Bergamini, Preliminary report on the 19881989 operations at BabylonShu-Anna, Mesopotamia, vol. 25, pp. 512, 1990

46.

^ Excavations in Iraq 19811982, Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199224, 198347.^ Farouk N. H. Al-Rawi, Nabopolassar's Restoration Work on the Wall "Imgur-Enlil atBabylon, Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 113, 1985

48.

^ Gettleman, Jerey. Unesco intends to put the magic back in Babylon(http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/04/13/news/babylon.php), International HeraldTribune, April 21, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008.

49.

^ McBride, Edward. Monuments to Self: Baghdad's grands projects in the age ofSaddam Hussein (http://www.metropolismag.com/html/content_0699/ju99monu.htm),MetropolisMag. Retrieved April 19, 2008.

50.

^ Bajjaly, Joanne Farchakh (2005-04-25). "History lost in dust of war-torn Iraq"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4461755.stm). BBC News. Retrieved2013-06-07.

51.

^ Leeman, Sue (January 16, 2005). "Damage seen to ancient Babylon"(http://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2005/01/16/damage_seen_to_ancient_babylon/). The Boston Globe.

52.

^ Heritage News from around the world (http://www.worldheritagealert.org/Pages/news.htm), World Heritage Alert!. Retrieved April 19, 2008.

53.

^ Cornwell, Rupert. US colonel oers Iraq an apology of sorts for devastation ofBabylon (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/us-colonel-oers-iraq-an-apology-of-sorts-for-devastation-of-babylon-474205.html), The Independent,April 15, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008.

54.

ReferencesI.L. Finkel, M.J. Seymour, Babylon, Oxford University Press, 2009 ISBN0-19-538540-3Joan Oates, Babylon, Thames and Hudson, 1986. ISBN 0-500-02095-7


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(hardback) ISBN 0-500-27384-7 (paperback)The Ancient Middle Eastern Capital City Reection and Navel of the World(http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/maul/ancientcapitals.html) by StefanMaul ("Die altorientalische Hauptstadt Abbild und Nabel der Welt," in DieOrientalische Stadt: Kontinuitt. Wandel. Bruch. 1 InternationalesKolloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9.1 0. Mai 1996 inHalle/Saale, Saarbrcker Druckerei und Verlag (1997), p. 109124.

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Babylon". Encyclopdia Britannica 3 (11thed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 9899."UNESCO: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31842219/18424719). Associated Press. July10, 2009.

External linksBabylon (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y25j) on In Our Time at theBBC. (listen now (http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p004y25j/In_Our_Time_Babylon))Webpage Babylon The Great (http://www.babylonthegreat.org)Iraq Image Babylon Satellite Observation (http://www.iraqimage.com/pages/browse/Babylon.html)Site Photographs of Babylon Oriental Institute (http://oi.uchicago.edu/gallery/asp_meso_babylon/)Encyclopdia Britannica, Babylon (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011618/Babylon)Plans of Babylon Ruins Oates, J. Babylon. London: Thames and Hudson,1979 (http://cuneiform.ucla.edu/wiki/index.php/Image:Plan.jpg)19011906 Jewish Encyclopedia, Babylon(http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=51&letter=B)

Iraq warBabylon wrecked by war, The Guardian, January 15, 2005(http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1391042,00.html)Mirosaw Olbry, The Polish contribution to protection of the archaeological


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heritage in central south Iraq, November 2003 to April 2005, Conservationand Management of Archaeological Sites, Volume 8, Number 2, 2007 , pp.88104(17) (http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article?option1=tka&value1=The+Polish+contribution+to+protection+of+the+archaeological+heritage+in+central+south+Iraq%2c+November+2003&pageSize=10&index=1)"Experts: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31842219/18424719). Associated Press. July10, 2009.UNESCO Final Report on Damage Assessment in Babylon(http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001831/183134e.pdf)

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Babylon

Documents

military7 babylon

babylon disambiguation

babylon arabic

fall of babylon

minor city

hanging gardens of babylon

century bc

ndmillennium bc