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1Separation & Conversion Technology, VITO-Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Boeretang, Mol, Belgium and 2Department of Food
Science, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze, Parma, Italy
Abstract
Pectin containing agricultural by-products are potential sources of a new class of prebioticsknown as pectic oligosaccharides (POS). In general, pectin is made up of homogalacturonan (HG,a-1,4-linked galacturonic acid monomers) and rhamnogalacturonan (RG, alternate galacturonicacid and rhamnose backbone with neutral side chains). Controlled hydrolysis of pectincontaining agricultural by-products like sugar beet, apple, olive and citrus by chemical,enzymatic and hydrothermal can be used to produce oligo-galacturonides (GalpOS), galacto-oligosaccharides (GalOS), rhamnogalacturonan-oligosaccharides (RGOS), etc. However, extensiveresearch is needed to establish the role of POS, both as a prebiotic as well as therapeutic agent.This review comprehensively covers different facets of POS, including the nature and chemistry ofpectin and POS, potential agricultural residual sources of pectin, pre-treatment methods forfacilitating selective extraction of pectin, identification and characterization of POS, healthbenefits and important applications of POS in food and feed. This review has been compiled toestablish a platform for future research in the purification and characterization of POS and forin vivo and in vitro studies of important POS, so that they could be commercially exploited.
Keywords
Agricultural residues, health benefits,pectic oligosaccharides, pectic substances,prebiotic
History
Received 9 January 2014Revised 12 September 2014Accepted 12 September 2014Published online 2 February 2015
Introduction
Pectin is a complex and heterogeneous polysaccharide present
within the primary cell wall and intercellular regions of higher
plants (Chen et al., 2013). Pectin comprises a family of acidic
polymers, known as homogalacturonan (HG) and rhamnoga-
lacturonan (RG) with several neutral sugars/polymers such as
arabinans, galactans and arabinogalactans (attached as side
chains) (Obro et al., 2004; Strasser & Amado, 2001). The
extraction of these neutral and acidic polymers in the form of
pectic oligosaccharide (POS) is a promising step towards the
manufacture of prebiotics from agricultural by-products
(Munoz et al., 2012; Westphal et al., 2010). Pectic oligosac-
charides (POS) are non-digestible oligosaccharides which
beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the
growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in
the colon (Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli) (Baldan et al.,
2003; Garthoff et al., 2010; Gibson & Roberfroid, 1995;
Manderson et al., 2005; Mussatto & Mancilha, 2007;
Roberfroid, 1996). Pectic oligosaccharides have been reported
to suppress the activity of entero-putrefactive and pathogenic
organisms (Baldan et al., 2003; Garthoff et al., 2010; Gibson &
Roberfroid, 1995; Manderson et al., 2005; Mussatto &
Mancilha, 2007; Roberfroid, 1996). The colonic fermentation
of prebiotic POS results in the generation of short-chain fatty
acids (SCFA), which exerts a number of health effects like
inhibition of pathogenic bacteria, relief of constipation,
reduction in blood glucose levels, improvement in mineral
absorption, decreased incidence of colonic cancer and modu-
lation of the immune system (Gullon et al., 2013). The
literature also suggests that POS can act as phytoalexin elicitor,
flowering inducer and antibacterial agent in plants (Iwasaki
et al., 1998).
Agricultural by-products have been studied extensively
for bioethanol production (Brienzo et al., 2009; Oberoi
et al., 2011a), enzyme synthesis (Dhillon et al., 2011; Oberoi
et al., 2012) and protein enriched cattle feed (Laufenberg et al.,
2003). Some agricultural by-products like apple pomace, sugar
beet pulp, berry pomace also contain significant amounts of
pectin (Martinez et al., 2010; Munoz et al., 2012). The
production of POS from these agricultural residues is an
interesting way to reuse waste streams for both environmental
and economic benefits. The most common and well
known POS are arabinogalacto-oligosaccharides, arabinox-
HG, Homogalacturonan; RG, Rhamnogalacturonan; NSC, Neutral side chainsaWaste statistics Europe, on wet basis.bLemon peels (sum of waste produced during lemon juice and lemon jam processing).cPulp produced during apple juice processing.dPomace produced during olive oil production.ePotato peel (Sum of waste produced during steaming, drying, cutting and slicing.fSum of waste produced during processing of dried onions, whole, cut, sliced, broken.
DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2014.996732 Pectic oligosaccharides from agricultural by-products 3
DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2014.996732 Pectic oligosaccharides from agricultural by-products 9
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Market demand of prebiotics
According to the Global Industry Analysts (GIA) report, the
European and the US market for prebiotics is projected to
reach $1.17 billion and $225.31 million, respectively, by the
year 2015. While the European market is driven by the
expansion of prebiotic ingredient manufacturers into new
application areas such as meat and snack products, the US
market is driven by continued demand for fructans, which
includes both inulin as well as fructo-oligosaccharides. The
global market for prebiotics is projected to reach US$4.8
billion by 2018, driven by the rising awareness of health and
nutrition, growing consumer acceptance of the benefits of
prebiotics, expanding applications and rapid innovations in
prebiotics based food products. The potential in the world
market for emerging prebiotics in terms of their production
and purification is yet to be completely realized and can be
optimized from cellulosic and pectic biomass pre-treatments.
Fructans represent the largest product market worldwide.
Prominence of GOS (Galacto oligosaccharides) is growing
led by the inherent benefits offered by this class of
oligosaccharides in their versatility for use in a wide range
of products including clear beverages, juices and bakery
products. Since pectic oligosaccharides are not yet commer-
cial, it is difficult to predict their contribution to the prebiotic
industry in economic terms. However, it is felt that the POS
are likely to contribute significantly to the prebiotic market in
the years to come. Development of POS from relatively
cheaper by-products such as agro-residues for application in
food, feed and pharmaceutical industry will set new directions
for future research.
Concluding remarks
Hopefully, this review has thrown light on some of the
important aspects of POS and their beneficial effects on
human health. Pectic oligosaccharides belong to an important
category of prebiotics which are also known for prevention
and treatment of various chronic diseases, such as constipa-
tion, hepatic encephalopathy, cancer etc. However, to improve
the economics of prebiotic production, technologies based on
bio-utilization of agro-residues need to be further strength-
ened. In addition, the characterization and purification of
individual oligosaccharide from POS needs further studies to
confirm which POS is responsible for the prebiotic effect and
other health benefits in humans as well as animals. Thus, POS
could be valuable in the development of nutritional and drug
therapies to combat different health ailments. At this stage, it
is also important to conduct extensive research on the
application of POS as biopreservatives, natural therapeutics
and immune building molecules. Their contribution in feeds
which have a direct impact on the quantity and quality of meat
needs extensive research.
Declaration of interest
Authors have no conflict of interest. The authors acknowledge
the work supported by European commission (NOSHAN,
contract no. 312140 FP7 and RESFOOD, contract no. 308316
FP7).
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DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2014.996732 Pectic oligosaccharides from agricultural by-products 13