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BULDING CONSTRUCTION 1 (BLD60303)
Experiencing ConstructionDocumented by:
Teoh Jun Xiang 0322099Tan Min Chuen 0322938 Tang Ying Jien
0322357Saw E Sean 0322003Tang Fu Hong 0323092Tan Yan Jie 0323906Teh
Wei Hong 0323743Thomas Ting Shii Kai 0323962
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Content page
No. Section Page 1.0 Introduction (Tang Ying Jien and Saw E
Sean) 1 1.1 Introduction to Site 1 (Tang Ying Jien) 1 1.2
Introduction to Site 2 (Saw E Sean) 1 2.0 Site and safety (Tang
Ying Jien) 2 2.1 Introduction to site and safety in Elmina Valley
Phase EV1A
(Tang Ying Jien) 2
2.2 Safety signboards (Tang Ying Jien) 2 2.3 Bulletin board
(Tang Ying Jien) 2 2.4 Safety protocols (Tang Ying Jien) 2 2.5
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (Tang Ying Jien) 3 2.6 Plants
and machineries (Tan Min Chuen) 4-6 3.0 Preliminaries (Tan Min
Chuen, Teh Wei Hong and Tang Fu Hong) 7 3.1 Site Layout (Tan Min
Chuen) 7-8 3.2 Preliminary (Services connection) (Teh Wei Hong) 9
3.3 Setting out (Teh Wei Hong) 9-11 3.4 Earth work (Tang Fu Hong)
11-12 4.0 Foundation (Teoh Jun Xiang and Saw E Sean) 13 4.1
Foundation type and construction process (Site visit) (Teoh Jun
Xiang) 13-14
4.2 Foundation type and construction process (Reference) (Saw E
Sean)
15-20
5.0 Superstructure (Tan Yan Jie, Thomas Ting Shii Kai and Teoh
Jun Xiang)
21
5.1 Superstructure (Site visit) (Tan Yan Jie) 21-24 5.2
Superstructure (Reference) (Thomas Ting Shii Kai and Teoh Jun
Xiang) 25
5.2.1 Ground beams (Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 25 5.2.2 Slabs (Thomas
Ting Shii Kai) 25 5.2.3 Beams and columns (Thomas Ting Shii Kai)
26-27 5.2.4 Walls (Teoh Jun Xiang) 27-36 5.2.5 Staircase (Thomas
Ting Shii Kai) 36-37 6.0 Doors and Windows (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas
Ting Shii Kai) 38 6.1 Doors (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas Ting Shii Kai)
38-39 6.2 Windows (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 39-41 7.0
Roof (Teh Wei Hong and Tang Fu Hong) 42 7.1 Roof type and
construction process (Site visit) (Tang Fu Hong) 42-45 7.2 Roof
type and construction process (Reference) (Teh Wei
Hong) 45-49
8.0 Summary (Teoh Jun Xiang) 50 9.0 References (Thomas Ting Shii
Kai) 51- CO
NTE
NTS
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1.0 Introduction1.1 Elmina Valley Phase EV1A
Tang Ying Jien 0322357 Saw E Sean 0322003 1
1.2 Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman The
Elmina Valley Phase EV1A was once an oil palm plantation estate
until it was transformed into a residential area. It is located at
Petaling district which is connected to the Guthrie Corridor
Expressway, Federal Highway, Kuala Lumpur Kuala Selangor Expressway
and North Klang Valley Expressway. The strategic location of the
site meant that a shorter drive to Kota Damansara, Shah Alam and
the Subang Airport is made possible. The residential area consists
of 157 terrace units with nature parks as its recreational area. A
man-made lake was also built in the middle of the residential area
for aesthetic and recreational purposes. There is also an
amphitheatre provided within the residential area to act as a
gathering place for the residents.
The project is located at Kulim District, Kedah, Malaysia. It is
the closest town to the Greater Penang in Kedah. As there are quite
a huge amount of people living in the district, rapid development
of residential areas occurs around the area to cater the provide
accommodation for the increasing number of citizens. Lot 120, Mukim
Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman is one of the residential
construction projects that aims to provide comfortable living place
for the public. The project is located near a river as well as a
police and petrol station. The residential area consists of 12
units of single-storey terrace houses, 28 units of 2-storey terrace
houses, 8 units of single-storey semi-detached houses and 20 units
of semi-detached houses.
Project: Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman
Project Title:-12 units of single-storey Terrace House-28 units
of 2-Storey Terrace House-8 units of single-storey semi-detached
house- 20 units of semi-detached house
Project Duration: 24 months
Site Possession Date: 10 September 2016
Completion Date: 9 September 2018
Project: Elmina Valley Phase EV1AProject Title: 157 unit,
2-Storey Terrace House (1,709 sq. ft.)Project Duration: 18
monthsSite Possession Date: 29th of January 2016Completion Date:
28th of July 2017
Figure 1.1 Two-storey terrace houses which were proposed to be
built at Elmina Valley Phase EV1A
Figure 1.2 Location Plan of Elmina Valley Phase EV1A Figure 1.6
Location Plan of Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman
Figure 1.3 floor plans of a single terrace house unit within
Elmina Valley Phase EV1A.
Figure 1.4 Two-storey semi-detached houses which were proposed
to be built at Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman
Figure 1.5 Two-Storey terrace houses which were proposed to be
built at Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman
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2.0 Site and Safety2.1 Introduction
2.2 Signage
2.3 Bulletin Board
2.4 Safety Protocols
The safety of personnel working in the construction site of
Elmina Valley is taken very seriously and every safety measures
have been carried out to ensure the workers safety on site at all
times. The Sime Darby Development Department have designated a
green zone in every construction site to provide an area to conduct
security checks on workers as well as visitors to ensure their
safety on site. Safety equipment which are stored in the green zone
are also distributed to provide protection to those at site. Safety
signboards, bulletin boards and security booths are present in the
green zone.
The safety issued on workers are very strict and they were
required to wear helmet, vest safety boots for normal safety
compliance. The workers need to be registered as verified
foreigners and need to have formal permits and passports. Every
workers requires to keep their ID, which is written at the back of
the safety helmet for security and safety measurements. The workers
are also required to enter personal code and hand print in the
green zone when entering the construction site.
- Consist of various pinned project information for workers,
visitors and other authorised personnel to refer to.
- Articles on health and safety for construction site personnel
to read.
- Posters on safety campaigns are posted on the boards to create
awareness among the construction site personnel.
- Provides emphasis on important reminders and alerts the public
on the potential dangers and risks on the construction site.
- A diagram of the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to remind
workers of the required safety equipment when on site.
- Signage of assembly point to indicate the location of the
emergency gathering point during any unforeseen accidents or
emergencies.
Figure 2.1 Signage of the emergency assembly point and the sign
with diagrams of the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
Figure 2.2 Penalty sign. Fines will be issued to those who
violate the safety rules and regulations of the construction
site.
Figure 2.3 Bulletin Board
Figure 2.4 Hand Print Scanner Figure 2.5 Safety Gate
Tang Ying Jien 0322357 2
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2.5 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Figure 2.6 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) sign within the
construction site.
Figure 2.7 Collection of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
- To provide protection from falling objects and to protect the
safety of workers when they are operating a construction
vehicle.
- To prevent direct contact between dangerous objects and the
head which may cause injuries to the head.
i. Safety Helmet
- Providing protection to the eyes of the workers from hazardous
objects such as dust particles, molten metal as well as sparks
during construction.
ii. Eye Protection
- Protects the hands of the workers when handling sharp objects,
tools and corrosive chemicals.
iii. Protective Gloves
- To protect the workers from any direct contact to objects
which may cause harm to the physical body.
- To allow a worker to be highly visible in the construction
site.
iv. Safety Clothing
- To provide protection to workers feet from sharp objects which
may pierce and injure the feet.
- To protect the feet against any falling objects.
v. Safety Boots
Safety Helmet
Safety Clothing
Safety Clothing
Safety Boots
Tang Ying Jien 0322357 3
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2.6 Plants and Machinery
2.6.1 Earthmoving and excavating equipment
he selection of the appropriate type and size of construction
equipment often affects the required amount of time and effort and
thus the job-site productivity of a project. It is therefore
important for site managers and construction planners to be
familiar with the characteristics of the major types of equipment
most commonly used in construction.
- Earthmoving and excavating equipment are heavy-duty vehicles,
designed specially to execute construction tasks, most frequently
involving earthwork operations.
- As they imply the mechanical advantage of a simple machine,
the ratio between input force applied and force exerted is
multiplied. Some equipment uses hydraulic drives as a primary
source of motion.
The back-hoe loader can be used for a wide variety of tasks as
there are both a bucket and a shovel attached to it. It is normally
used in smaller construction works to dig shallow excavations and
trenches, general grading, mall demolitions as well as light
transportation of building materials
i. Back-hoe Loader
Used to excavate below or above natural surface of ground on
which machine rests and dig pits for basement. It can excavate
close range works as they have better bucket. Excavators can also
be used for forestry work, demolition and many more.
ii. Excavator
Compactors are used for compacting crushed rock as the base
layer underneath concrete or stone foundations or slabs. The
function of compactors is to produce higher density soil
mechanically. The basic forces used in compaction are static
weight, kneading, impact and vibration. The degree of compaction
that may be achieved depends on the properties of soil, its
moisture content, the thickness of the soil layer for compaction
and the method of compaction.
iii. Vibratory soil compactor
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2.6.2 Lifting and erecting equipment
A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for
this type of crane, these cranes are able to travel on highways,
eliminating the need for special equipment to transport the crane,
usually used in smaller construction to dig shallow excavations and
trenches, general grading, hoist and place materials
Concrete transport trucks (intransit mixers) are used to
transport and mix concrete while travelling to the construction
site. The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's
liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until
delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete mixing truck is
fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the
concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the
drum is rotated while the concrete is being transported to the
building site. This is known as "charging" the mixer. When the drum
rotates in the other direction, the spiral blade "discharges,
forces the concrete out of the drum.
A device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as
sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. The portable concrete
mixer uses a small revolving drum to mix the components. For
smaller jobs, the concrete made at the construction site has no
time lost during its transportation, giving the workers ample time
to use the concrete before it hardens.
Lifting and erecting equipment are machineries that are used to
deliver materials and equipment or lift loads from a place to
another vertically and horizontally.
2.6.3 Mixing and grading equipmentMixing and grading equipment
are construction equipment that mix up the materials and are mainly
used to produce concrete by mixing aggregates, water and
cement.
i. Truck Mounted Moblie Cranei. Concrete Transport Truck
ii. Portable Concrete MixerA tractor with a fork built in front
to lift heavy objects. It is commonly used in construction to move
aside or load materials into or onto another type of machinery.
Another critical characteristic of the forklift is its instability.
The forklift and load must be considered a unit with a continually
varying center of gravity with every movement of the load. A
forklift must never negotiate a turn at speed with a raised load,
it may combine to cause a disastrous tip-over
ii. Forklift
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2.6.4 Transporting vehicleTransportation vehicles are heavy
vehicles that able to transport materials and equipment for a long
distance. They are usually used to transport materials from the
base to the construction site.
2.6.5 Construction equipment
i. Dump Truck
i. Bar Bending Machine
ii. Truck
Dump trucks are used for transporting loose material (such as
sand, gravel, or dirt) for construction. A typical dump truck is
equipped with an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and
equipped with hydraulic pistons to lift the front, allowing the
material in the bed to be deposited on the ground behind the truck
at the site of delivery.
A motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly
in size, power, and configuration, with the smallest being
mechanically similar to an automobile. Trucks are usually used to
transport plants such as, generator set, portable concrete mixer,
mobile lighting tower to desire places on site.
Bar bending machines are used for bending reinforcement bars and
various forms of round bars.
ii. Bar Cutting MachineBar cutting machines are used for cutting
reinforcement bars and various forms of round bars.
iii. Mobile lighting towerMobile lighting towers are used to
light up the construction site at night. And also used to light up
spaces with low light intensity.
iv. Generator SetA generator set is an electronic device that
supplies electric energy to devices and machineries on site.
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3.0 Preliminaries i. Site Entrance ii. Signboard
Workers cabin
Shower area
Kitchen
Surau
Canteen
Carpark
Barbenders yardTo Construction site
Storage area
Entrance
security post
green zonesite office
generator set canteen
3.1 Site Layout
Allows vehicles and machineries to get in to the construction
site.
The sign board displays information about the construction and
the various companies involved in the construction process.
iii. Access Road iv. Hoarding
Allows vehicles and machineries to access the construction site
from the main road.
Erected around the of construction site to shield it from view
and prevent unauthorised access. It is an important component to
prevent theft and vandalism.
v. Storage
Designated places were used to store excess materials and also
park unused machineries.
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vi. Site Security vii. Drainage
Hand print scanning for each worker to identify their identity.
This can prevent unauthorized access to the site.
Temporary drainages are excavated on site to discharge water
from site during rain and heavy downpour as well as to prevent
flooding.
viiii. Green Zone
The green zone is the area within the yellow fencing. Within the
green zone, people are not required to put on safety helmet and
safety boots.
xiii. Barbenders Yard xiiii. Rubbish dump
Designated places were used to store excess materials and also
park unused machineries.
Rubbish containers that allow workers to dispose garbage on
site. It will be transported by the dump truck when it is full.
viii. Site Office
Construction sites will generally require office facilities to
provide accommodation for site managers, provide space for meetings
and to provide storage for site documentation. It is important that
site offices are comfortable, attractive and versatile, as well as
being suitably robust and secure
xi. Canteen xii. Surau
The canteen is a place for workers to have their meals. Kitchens
are also provided to allow the workers to cook their own meals.
A Muslim prayer room is provided for Muslim workers to conduct
their daily prayers.
xv. Workers Accomodation
The workers accommodation is a composition of large numbers of
cabins to accommodate the workers. The accommodation is constructed
using containers and zinc roofing, which results in the containment
of hot air within the living space. Stairs are provided to allow
accessibility to the first floors. In addition to that, balconies
are also present outside of the cabins to allow the workers to hang
their shirts for drying and a car park is also provided for the
workers to park their vehicles.
x. Wash Trough
The green zone is the area within the yellow fencing. Within the
green zone, people are not required to put on safety helmet and
safety boots.
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3.2 Preliminary (Service Connection)
3.3 Setting Out
3.3.1 Horizontal Control TechniqueBefore starting earthwork make
sure there are no service lines such as electrical connections,
water supply and drainage connections, telephone lines or others
below ground.
Setting out involves working out the location and extent of the
building on site. As each site is different, contractors should
start by establishing the particular conditions. The process
involves the positions and levels of building lines and road
alignments shown on the construction plans to be established on the
ground by various techniques and instruments. Setting out is
usually divided into two stages which is the first stage of setting
out and the second stage.
The second stage of setting out continues from the first stage,
beginning at the ground floor slab or road sub-base level. Up to
this point, all the control will be located outside the main
construction, for example the pegs defining building corners,
centre lines and so on will have been knocked out during the earth
moving work and only the original control will be undisturbed.
Horizontal control surveys are conducted to coordinate
horizontal positional data. These positions can be referenced by
parallels or plane coordinate axes. Because they are used as a
framework for other surveys, these surveys must be precise and
accurate. These surveys provide a network of monuments or points on
the ground that can be used as the control for any other surveying
project, such as a boundary or construction survey. The advantages
of using a horizontal control survey is that lost monuments can be
replaced accurately, surveys can be coordinated, more than one
network station can provide a check to the work, and a reduction in
the cost of the project can be achieved. Most horizontals should
(and will) be connected to the control network.
3.3.2 Vertical Control TechniqueA vertical control survey
determines elevation with respect to sea level. These surveys are
also used as a benchmark upon which other surveys are based and
high degree of accuracy is required. These surveys are useful for
tidal boundary surveys, route surveys, construction surveys and
topographic surveys. In a vertical control system, at least two
permanent benchmarks should be used, but the number of benchmarks
required may increase depending upon the needs and complexity of
the project. These projects are needed for the construction of
water and sewer systems, highways, bridges, drains, and other major
town or city infrastructure. These surveys can be done alone, but
are often done in conjunction with a horizontal control survey.
Foundation
In practice, the first stage of setting out involves the use of
the horizontal and vertical control techniques. The purpose of this
stage is to locate boundaries of the work in their correct position
on the ground surface and to define the major elements. In order to
do this, horizontal and vertical control points must be established
on the site.
Figure beside shows the setting out process before the
foundations were constructed. Timber frames were first fixed on
site to allow strings to be tied and to determine the location in
which the walls will be erected.
i. First Stage
ii. Second Stage
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3.3.3 Method used in setting out
3.3.4 Setting out of pipelines
3.3.5 Optical level, optical square and Theodolite
construction
3.3.6 Sight Rails
Baselines are located by setting out their terminals. If
co-ordinated they would be set out from a traverse. The length of
the baseline can be measured and compared with its compound values.
Alternatively, the baseline could be set out with reference to
other detail such as road centrelines, existing buildings, etc.
Again it is necessary to check the measured length against that
given on the drawings. Usually for the purpose of measuring
angles.
Offset pegs are normally used in the form of baselines or grids
or as horizontal control points used to establish the design of the
proposed structure. The offset pegs are only used when the original
pegs are unable to be installed.
A temporary benchmark (TBM) is a fixed point with a known
elevation used for level control during construction works and
surveys. Nails in road seals, or marks on kerb & channel are
commonly used as temporary benchmarks
A Theodolite is an instrument for measuring both horizontal and
vertical angles, as used in triangulation networks, and
geo-location work. Other specialized purposes make Theodolites
ideal for shop and factory floor layout of tools and fixtures. They
also work well for layout for the construction of concrete slabs,
landscaping, and road design.
A series of rails set with a surveying instrument, and used to
check the vertical alignment of a pipe in a trench.
Pipelines are to be checked on chainage, this could be every few
pipes, for small diameter and every pipe for large diameter. The
pipelines must be tested in accordance with the contract
specification, any air or water testing of line should be done by
an experienced person.
Use plumb bob to get point below if it is farther than can be
done with a spirit level
Clearly mark what the various nals are for. e.g. centreline,
edge, trench, wall, plumbing
ii. Offset pegs
i. Baselinesiii. Temporary benchmark
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3.3.7 Equipment used 3.4 Earth work3.4.1 Site clearing
3.4.2 Benchmark
The purpose of this section is to establish uniform practices to
be followed for removal of trees and stumps. Where such removals
are set up on a lump sum basis, varying interpretations as to the
extent of removal are possible. It is necessary to exercise
judgment in the administration of this item to accomplish the
desired results.
The desired level was marked in a permanent place. This mark
will be needed throughout the project duration.
Figure 3.5 Excavators are used to remove the trees
There are several type of ground marking and setting out
equipment including:
- Survey Flags- Paint- Survey Nails- Marking Crayons- Marking
Plates (Temporary and permanent)
i. Theodolites
iii. Marking & survey points
iii. Software
Removal of trees and stumps
A surveying instrument with a rotating telescope for measuring
horizontal and vertical angles.
Figure 3.4 Site clearance at Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim,
Kedah Darulaman
Surveying software is essential to any land surveyor or building
surveyor who undertakes simple or complex land surveys or measured
building surveys using a total stations.
Figure 3.1 Survey Flags Figure 3.2 Marking crayons Figure 3.3
Survey naills
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3.4.3 Side-slope in excavation
During earth excavation check that slope is maintained in
side-soil.
Dump trucks are normally used instead of scrapers when the soil
is being excavated by loaders. Most dump trucks can travel over
public highways, and move faster than scrapers.
Figure 3.6 Soil compactor are used in the compaction of soils
after grading.
3.4.4 Base soil
3.4.5 Excavation area
3.4.6 Backfill
3.4.7 Compaction
Check the base soil, on which building's foundation will rest,
is hard enough. You may consult geotechnical engineer that the base
soil is perfect for further work execution.
Compaction reduces the volume of air space in the soil. This
compaction increases the dry unit weight and strength of the soil
to better support structures. This is a very important step.
- Check backfill is being done after ending the shutter removal
period of footing.
- Backfilling material: Try to backfill with the excavated soil.
And check the backfilling material is free from large lumps,
organic or any other foreign materials. Check all shuttering
materials are removed before backfilling.
- Backfilling should be done evenly on all sides. Check that is
being done properly.
- Backfilling should be done layer by layer. Each layer
shouldn't exceed 6 inch thickness. And each layer should be
compacted to maximum dry density of soil. Check those are being
done properly.
- Ensure that the excavation area is extended beyond the
foundation of buildings for easy circulation of movement during
work execution.
- Cleaning of foundation bed: Check that loose and displaced
materials are cleaned from the foundation bed.
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Construction process of reinforced concrete pad footings1. The
position of footings are set out according to the plan dimensions2.
Cement powder is then used to mark the size of footings3. The earth
was excavated to the required depth and dimensions by using an
excavator4. Hardcore was then placed on top of the excavated earth
and it should be used in not less than 150mm thick but no greater
than 600mm in selected aggregate. The hardcore is then compacted
down in layers using a plate compactor5. A formwork is then placed
according to the set dimensions6. Studs are then added to prevent
the falling of the formwork.7. Bracing is then used to hold the
formwork in position. This is to ensure that the formwork is able
to withstand the horizontal forces of the concrete when it is
poured.8. A lean concrete mixture is then added and levelled. Its
purpose is to provide an even surface for the foundation concrete.
It is also used to prevent direct contact of foundation concrete
with soil9. Workers then start to arrange the reinforced concrete
bars to form reinforced concrete cages10. After the reinforced
concrete cages are completed, the workers place the reinforced
concrete cage into the formwork11. The reinforced concrete cage is
then placed on top of the spacer blocks. The spacer blocks are used
to maintain the reinforcement in the proper position. Concrete
spacers can help prevent corrosion, protect them from fire for a
certain length of time and help to provide a proper transfer of
stresses from concrete to steel rebars.12. After placing the rebar
cages in the formwork, the reinforcements were erected for stump
and add more ties to the formwork13. Eventhough concrete is durable
and has a very good compression strength, it has a weak tension
strength. As such, reinforcements are used to carry tensile load of
structures14. A starter bar is tied to the reinforcement to allow
the reinforcement of the column to be tied onto the reinforcement
steel bars. 15. The position of starter bars were fixed before the
concrete was poured into the formwork. 16. Concrete is poured into
the formwork and adequate compaction is ensured by using vibrators
or self-compacting concrete. The concrete is allowed to cure before
proceeding to the next stage of construction 17. Set, curing and
hardening and when the concrete gains sufficient strength, the
formwork is dismantled, and thus the reinforced concrete pad
footing is completed
Excavation Pour concrete Formwork Add spacer block
Reinforcement for stump
Add ties for formwork
Pour concreteSet, curing, hardening
Add Rebar
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4.2 Foundation type and construction process (reference)
4.2.1 Shallow foundation
i. Strip Footing
ii. Pad Footing
Types of pad foundation design
Types Of Strip FootingThe Foundation is the substructure and the
bottommost section of a building. It is constructed halfway or
completely below the surface of the ground.
- They spread the load over a larger area at an equal rate so
that the burden on the foundation soil does not exceed the safe
bearing capacity.
- Foundations shift the unequal load of the superstructure
equally to the sub soil hence it minimizes the differential
settlement that occurs.
- Foundations offer the stability against, voids formed by
scouring underground water and the burrowing animals.
- Foundations prevent the structures from sliding above the
sloping ground.
- Foundations offer a leveled and balanced surface for the
construction of the superstructure.
- Transfer load directly on to the hard layer of soil.
- Maximum depth of shallow foundations is 3 meter.
- Provides support for light loads when the soil is in stable
condition and with adequate bearing capacity
Uniformly distributes load (Load is distributed evenly along the
entire structure)
Mass concrete for stell columns
Reinforced concrete with sloping upper suface
Point loads (Load is condense at individual points)
- Strip footing is the most common and widely used foundation;
it is basically a strip of concrete placed in a long narrow
ditch.
- It usually supports the load bearing structure or wall without
columns and beams. (e.g.: Brick wall)
- The depth of the foundation is roughly 1 meter, while the
width of the foundation depends on the condition of soil and the
load. As an example, the weaker soil requires a wider strip
foundation.
- The thickness of the strips must be at least 150mm.
- Pad footings are individual or isolated foundations to support
the columns of the building.
- Pad footings are a form of disseminate foundation, which is
made up by rectangular, square, or sometimes circular concrete pads
that support localized single-point loads like structural columns,
groups of columns or framed structures.
- Pad footings are usually used when the load of the building is
carried by the columns.
- It uses concrete pad at the base with concrete columns or
steel columns attach by captive bolts.
Mansonry or concrete wall
R e i n f o r c e d concrete strip footing
Function of foundation
P l a i n reinforced concrete
S t e p p e d reinforced concrete
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ii. Raft Footing iv. Cantilever/ Strap footing
Types Of Raft Footing
Types of cantilever (plan to elevation)
- Raft footing are similar to slab floating on top of the
soil.
- It is usually used on soft natural ground
- It used to cover the whole base area of a building and extend
beyond it; this is to prevent differential settlement which can
cause foundation failure on a building.
- It supports the walls and acts as floor slab
- The detail of edge of the foundation is decided by the nature
of the load applied on it.
- A form of concrete apron will extend from the edge of the
foundation to act as protection from erosion
- Independent footings of two columns are connected by a
beam.
- The beam is used to help transfer the weight of the loaded
column footing to adjacent footing.
- The strap beam is not in contact with the soil, and thus does
not transfer any pressure to the soil.
Light load and point loads
Adjoining wall
Column A
Column B
Column B
Column AFooting of wall
S t rap Beam
St rap Beam
Footing of Column A
1 2
4 5
3
6
Footing of Column B
Light loads
Heavy uniform load Heavy loads and heavy isolated point
loads
Saw E Sean 032003 16
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i. Pier Foundation (Caisson)
ii. Pile Foundation
End Bearing Pile Friction Pile
- Deep foundations function to transfer the load of the building
to a deeper layer of dense sand and gravel below the soil.
- The depth of the foundation is more than 3 meters
- Deep foundations are used for heavy load when the soil is
unstable and inadequate bearing capacity.
- A pile is fundamentally a long piece of a strong material
penetrating into the ground to act as a steady support for
structures built above the ground.
- Piles are used when the soil strata could not handle the heavy
load from the structure.
- Pile foundations may be classified as either End bearing or
Friction piles, according to the manner in which the pile loads are
resisted.
- The shafts of the piles act as columns carrying the loads
through the covering inferior subsoils to firm strata into which
the pile toe has penetrated.
- This can be rock strata or a layer of firm sand or crushed
stone which has been compress by the displacement and vibration
encountered during the driving.
- Any foundation imposed on the ground will form a pressure
which spreads out to form a pressure bulb.
- If a suitable load bearing strata cannot be discover at a
fitting level, especially in stiff clay soils, it is possible to
use a pile to carry this pressure bulb to a bottom level where a
higher bearing capacity is found.
- The friction or floating pile is mainly supported by adhesion
or friction action of the soil around the perimeter of the pile
shaft.
- Consists of a cylindrical column of large diameter to sustain
and transmit large super-imposed loads to the firm strata
below.
- Often used in the construction of bridge piers & other
structures that requires foundation beneath rivers & other
bodies of water.
- Preferred in a location where the top strata consists of
decomposed rock overlying a strata of sound rock.
4.2.2 Deep Foundation
Axial load
Lateral load
Concrete- mis design can vary based on several factor
Diameter can vary widely
Reinforcing Steel (typically required by design)
Bell- May be used or amitted as desired
Depth can vary widely
Side resistance
Bell size varies- No larger than 3 times the shaft diameter at
base
Base Resistance
End Bearing Pile Friction Pile
Weak soil
Strong soil or rock
Saw E Sean 032003 17
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Types of pile
Displacement piles
Large displacement pile
Precast reinforced concrete piles
The large displacement pile is the pile which is solid and with
large x-section area and hence compress bigger amount of soil under
the ground.
For non-displacement pile, a void is form on the ground by
excavation. The void is then filled with concrete. The side of the
void can be supported or unsupported depend on the situation.
Small displacement pile
non- displacement pile
The small displacement pile is the pile with less x-section area
and compress or displaces less amount of soil under the ground.
Eg. RC pile Eg. Bore pile
Eg. H-pile
- The precast reinforced concrete piles are piles which were
moulded in circular, square, triangular or octagonal form.
- They are casted and cured in a casting yard and then
transported to the site for installation
- They provide high strength and resistance to decay.
- They are heavy, and because of their brittleness and low
tensile strength, extra care in handling and driving is
required.
- Cutting of the precast reinforced concrete piles requires the
use of concrete cutter, pneumatic hammers, cutting torches, etc
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Steel preformed piles
Composite piles
Driven in situ/ Cast-in-Place piles
Type of Steel preformed piles
Piling proccess
For non-displacement pile, a void is form on the ground by
excavation. The void is then filled with concrete. The side of the
void can be supported or unsupported depend on the situation.
- Driven in situ piles are those piles which are cast in place
inside the ground.
- The pile shaft is formed by using a steel tube which is either
top driven or driven with an internal drop hammer working on a plug
of dry concrete/gravel as in Frankipiles.
- This method can be used to build the piles up to 610mm.
- Since the cast-in-situ piles is not subjected to handling or
driving pressure, it is not essential to reinforce the pile in
ordinary cases or in places where the pile is completely flooded in
the soil. Reinforcements are only provided when the pile acts as a
column and is subjected to inclined forces.
- Cast- in-situ piles can be differentiated into two types. In
one the metal shell of the pile is permanently left in place lining
the ground along with the core while in the other type, the outer
shell is withdrawn.
- Composite piles are piles which are made from two different
materials that are driven one over the other, so as to allow them
to act together to perform the function of a single pile.
- One advantage of this type of pile is the ability to adopt of
the fine qualities of both the materials
- They are economical as they utilize the great erosion
resistance characteristics of one material with the cheapness or
strength of the other.
H-piles pipe piles screw piles
Saw E Sean 032003 19
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Drop Weight
Bore Pile
Step 1 - The crane is used to transport the piles to a
particular area that has been excavated.- The piles are all
delivered cautiously as they are fragile.
Step 2- The pile is tied up to its lifting lug and is prepared
for hammering.
Step 3 - Before the hammering procedure begins, they are all
located accordingly to be driven into the ground
Step 4- Hammering process started- The drop hammer is used to
drive the pile- The subsoil around the pile shaft is displaced- The
pile driving to its maximum depth until it cannot be driven
- Bored pile is a cast in situ concrete pile which has to be
casted on the construction site. Contrary to displacement piles,
the soil has to be excavated and the resulting hole will be filled
with concrete or a precast concrete pile which will be dropped into
the hole and grouted in. As such, no displacement of soil will
occur.
- Bored piling machine which was used to cast the bored pile has
specifically designed drilling tools, buckets and grabs and the
machines are used to remove the soil and rock.
- Casting of bored piles have to be done by specialised bored
piling contractors
- The length, width, depth and style of bored pile foundations
depends on the type of the project and the surrounding
environment.
- It produces less vibration and reduces the noise level compare
to other piling system.
- It causes less disruption to adjacent soil
- Bored piles are usually used for tall buildings or huge
industrial complexes, in which a foundation that can carry thousand
tons of loads is needed, most probably in unstable or difficult
soil conditions.
1. Dropping weight2. Explosion3. Vibration4. Jacking
Pile driving methods (displacement piles) Non-displacement
piles
Crane
Notes : 1. Installation of optional swivels convert fixed leads
to Cardonic Leads.
2. Semi fixed leads have the ability to move in the up-down
direction
Mat
Optional 3-ways swivel
HammerDrive cap
Lead
pile
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4.0 Foundation4.1 Foundation type and construction process (from
site visit)Residential houses constructed at Elmina Valley Phase
EV1A are 2-storey terrace houses. After conducting our site visit,
weve learnt that the type of foundation used to construct the
houses are classified as reinforced concrete pad foundations. Pad
foundations are individual or isolated foundations which are used
to support localised loads such as columns.
Pad footings are one of the most simple and common types of
foundations and they are used when the load of the building is
carried by columns which sit on top of square or rectangular pads
of concrete.
1. Photo shows shows the conditions of the earth after
excavation and site formworks were placed according to the set
dimensions
2. Photo indicates that the formwork is readily constructed and
reinforced concrete cages can be inserted into it. Studs and
bracings which were used to prevent the falling of the formwork and
to hold the formwork in position can be seen.
3. Photo shows that the reinforced concrete cages are being
inserted into the formworks.
4. Photo shows that a layer of lean concrete mixture is added
and levelled underneath the reinforced con-crete cages. Spacer
blocks are also visible under-neath the reinforced concrete cages.
Reinforcements were added on top of the reinforced concrete cages
to create stumps.
Photo shows that the position of the starter bars and
reinforcements were maintained by connecting additional ties to the
formwork.
Photo shows the conditions of the earth after excavation and
site formworks were placed according to the set dimensions
Photo shows that the foundation is completed and the formwork is
removed. The excavated earth is awaiting bed fill.
Teoh Jun Xiang 0322099 13
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5.0 Super Structure5.1 Super Structure (from site visit)5.1.1
Ground Beam
5.1.2 Slabs
- Ground beams are reinforced concrete beams which support
walls, joists and other structures near ground level. - Ground
beams are either standing directly upon the ground or supported at
both ends by piers.
Ground floor slabs are reinforced concrete blockworks situated
on the ground which supports walls. These concrete slabs are a
common structural element of modern buildings. It is normally
horizontal and has a smaller thickness if compared to its span. It
is usually furnished using a flat and strong surface in reinforced
concrete construction.
1. The props/supports are being erected. The soffit of beams are
being fixed
1. Preparing the site 2. Improve the soil support system3.
Building formwork4. Install reinforce bar
5. Pouring concrete6. Consolidation.7. Finishing.8. Curing
2. Formwork for the side of beam are being constructed
3. Steel reinforcements are placed into the formworks.
4. The formwork was erected to the side of the beam complete
with struts
The photo shows the ground floor slabs present on site.
Construction process of ground beam on site
Construction process of ground floor slabs on site
Ground floor slab
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5.1.3 Beams and columns
Photos above shows the fisrt floor slab in our site
Similar to ground floor slabs, first floor slabs are reinforced
concrete blockworks supporting walls of the first floor of the
building. However, they are not constructed on the ground, but are
supported by a series of columns and walls. The types of first
floor slabs found at Elmina Valley Phase EV1A are two way slabs
with beams.
Continuous beams are supported on more than two supports. It is
more economical for any span lengths and they are several beam
supports at the bottom.
Simply supported beams are supported freely at the two ends on
walls / columns.
Most of the construction process of first floor slabs are the
same as ground floor slabs, which include:
1. Building formwork.2. Install reinforce bar.3. Pouring
concrete.4. Consolidation. (Process of uniting)5. Finishing.6.
Curing
Beams are structures which are rectangular in cross-section that
carry the weight of the floor slab or the roof slab and they
transfer all the loads including its self-weight to the columns or
walls.
There are two types of beams found on the 2-storey link houses
of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A, namely continuous beams and simply
supported beams.
Most of the construction process of beams is similar to ground
beams.1. The props/supports are erected.2. The soffit of beams are
fixed.3. The formwork for the side of beams are constructed4. Steel
reinforcements are placed inside the formworks. 5. The formwork,
which is completed with struts, are constructed to the side of
beams 6. The concrete was then poured into the formwork.
First floor slab i. Continuous beam
ii. Simply supported beam
The ffigureshows the simply supported beams located at the front
faade of the terrace houses. The areas marked blue are the beams
and the areas marked red indicate the location.
The image shows the continuous beam found on site. The
horizontal beams (blue) are supported by a series of columns
(red).
Construction process of beamsBeams
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ColumnsA columns is a vertical structural member that functions
to transmit the load from ceiling/roof slabs and beams, including
its self-weight to the foundation. Columns situated on the ground
floor are a continuation of foundations, and, in the case of Elmina
Valley Phase EV 1A, the columns are a continuation of the
reinforced concrete pad footings.
1. During the construction of the reinforced concrete pad
footings, reinforcements were added on top of the reinforced
concrete cages to create stumps. Concrete will be poured into the
formwork and the formwork will be removed once the foundation is
completed.
2. Once the ground beams and ground floor slabs are completed,
the reinforcements will be extended to construct the columns.
3. The formworks for the concrete columns are then fixed and
concrete will be poured into the formworks. The formworks will be
removed after the concrete has cured.
5. Concrete will then be poured into the fixed formworks to
construct the columns. Concrete buckets as well as
triangular-shaped wooden planes were used to pour small volumes of
concrete into the wooden frames when constructing the columns.
6. Once the concrete has cured, the formworks will be removed
and the columns are completed.
4. A similar process will take place after the columns on the
first floor is completed. The reinforcements will be extended, and
after the beams and first floor slab are completed, formworks will
then be fixed.
The image shows the columns found on site. Completed columns on
the ground floor support the first floor slab, and the formwork of
the columns on the first floor are also visible.
The image shows the completed ground floor slab, with the
reinforcements before their extension.
The image shows the extended reinforcements for the construction
of columns on the first floor. The ground floor columns, beams and
first floor slab are completed.
The image shows the columns found on site. Completed columns on
the ground floor support the first floor slab, and the formwork of
the columns on the first floor are also visible.
The image shows workers using triangular-shaped wooden planes to
pour concrete into the formworks.
The image shows the reinforcements after their extension.
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Walls found in the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley
Phase EV1A can be categorized as masonry walls, and in specific,
brick walls. There are two types of bricks which are used for the
construction of the houses in Elmina Valley Phase EV1A, namely red
clay brick and cement sand bricks.
- Sime Darby Developments rules and regulations states that the
party walls of residential houses are to be constructed out of red
clay bricks. As such, party walls of the 2-storey terrace houses
were built using red clay bricks.
- The bricks were laid using the English Bond method.
- Cement sand brick is used to construct both internal and
external walls of the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley
Phase EV 1A.
- Red clay bricks provide thermal & acoustic insulation
.
- Red clay bricks do not require any maintenance cost.
- The high compressive strength of fired clay bricks has been
exploited for millennia to build structures ranging from
single-storey huts to massive public buildings and enormous bridges
and viaducts.
- The cost of red clay bricks brick is higher compare to other
bricks like cement sand brick or concrete brick.
The photo shows the red clay brick wall found on site.
The photo shows the cement sand brick wall found on site.
Advantages of Red clay brick wall
- The cost of cement sand bricks are lower compared to red clay
bricks as they can be easily made in a short period of time.
- Cement sand bricks provide good sound insulation.
Advantages of Cement sand brick wall
Disadvantages of Red clay brick wall
- Cement sand bricks are not fire proof bricks and it cannot
withstand high temperature. The bricks will crack if they come in
contact with high temperature like fire.
- Cement sand bricks are also much heavier than red clay
brick.
Disadvantages of Red clay brick wall
5.1.4 Wall
i. Red clay brick wall
ii. Cement sand brick wall
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The staircase found at the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina
Valley Phase EV 1A can be classified as concrete straight
staircase.
- The run of the steps was then measured by finding the distance
between the frontmost and backmost part of the stairs.- The width
of the stairs was measured by calculating the distance between the
leftmost and rightmost bounds of the planned steps of the
stairs.
2. Building and Assembling Formwork:- The formwork was made by
using plywood or framing timber. The side forms are cut according
to the tread and riser calculations.
3. Reinforcement- Reinforcement bars are carefully bent at the
necessary height and length and positioned into the formwork.
4. Preparing Concrete:- Sufficient and well mixed mortar was
prepared using portable cement mixer.
5. Pouring concrete: - The process started from the bottom and
the concrete was poured one step at a time. The mortars are
spreaded evenly and spade was used to remove the trapped air
bubbles.
1. Measure the dimensions of your stairs:
- Firstly, the total rise of the stairs, which can be found by
measuring the total height from the planned base to the higher
level/floor, was measured.
The images above shows the timber formworks which were fixed for
the construction of the staircase.
5.1.5 Staircase
Construction process of staircase on site
Joiats
Decking
Wall string
Riser board
Riser cleat
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6. Add finishing: - A simple wood float was used to clean and
smoothen the surface of the mortar.
7. Curing: - The steps were sprayed with curing compound and
covered with burlap. Once the concrete has hardened for a week, the
plywood formwork was then be removed.
1. Ground Beam 2. Ground Floor Slab
3. Column 4. First Floor Beam
5. First Floor Slab 6. First Floor Columns
7. Roof Beams 8. Walls
9. Staircase
8. Installing the handrails:
- The stair railings were positioned onto the staircase at the
location in which they will be installed.
- The position of the railings were marked
- Pilot holes were drilled into the staircase on the marks
made.
- The railings were placed into the pilot holes.
- Cement was then poured into the holes to fix the
handrails.
The image shows the staircase handrails which were installed on
site.
5.1.6 Process of superstructure construction on site:
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5.2 Super Structure (References)5.2.2 Ground Beam
5.2.2 Slabs
- Ground beams are reinforced concrete beams which support
walls, joists and other structures near ground level. - Ground
beams are either standing directly upon the ground or supported at
both ends by piers.
Concrete slabs are a common structural element of modern
buildings. It is normally horizontal and has a smaller thickness if
compared to its span. It is usually furnished using a flat and
strong surface in reinforced concrete construction.
1. Erect the props/supports2. Fix the soffit of beam3. Construct
formwork for the side of beam4. Place the steel reinforcement 5.
Erect the formwork to side of beam complete with struts6. Pour the
concrete into the formwork.
1. One-way slab with beams
Drop Panel
Column
ColumnCapital
2. Two-way slab with beams
The image shows the reinforcement bars used to construct ground
beams
The image shows completed ground beams at a construction
site
Types of concrete slabs
Flat plate slabs are basically slabs supported by the columns
without the help of beams or capitals or drop panels.
Advantages of flat plate slabs- Can be constructed quickly.- It
is flexible in arranging the columns and partitions.- Provide
little obstruction to light.- High resistance of fire.- Use in
multi-storey reinforced concrete
Classification of Two way slabs:1. Addition of beams between
columns to make two way slabs stronger.2. Thickening the slabs
around the columns.3. Flaring the columns under the slabs.
Construction process of slab: 1. Preparing the site.2. Improve
the soil support system.3. Building formwork.4. Install reinforce
bar.5. Pouring concrete.6. Consolidation.7. Finishing.8. Curing
Flat slab with column capital
Plain flat plate slab
Flat slab with column capital and drop panel
3. Flat Plate Slab
Flat plate slab with column capital and drop panel
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5.2.3 Beams and columnsBeams
Types of beams
- Beam are the horizontal members of structure and they function
to carry loads. - Beams are rectangular in cross-section. - Beams
carry the floor slabs or the roof slabs and they transfer all the
loads including its self-weight to the columns or walls.
Construction process of beam1. Fix the reinforcement bar for
concrete beam.
i. Simply Supported Beam: It is supported freely at the two ends
on walls / columns
i. Steel columns ii. Timber columns iii. Concrete columns
iv. Cantilever Beam: It is fixed in a wall or column at one end
and the other end is free. It has tension zone at the top side and
compression zone at the bottom side.
iii. Continuous Beam: It is supported on more than two supports.
It is more economical for any span lengths
v. Overhanging Beam: Its end extends beyond the wall or column
support
ii. Fixed Beam: Both ends of the beam are rigidly fixed into the
supports
Wall
Wall
Wall Overhang
Cantilever Beam
Overhanging Beam
Tension Side
Compression Side
Wall
Wall
Stirrups
Fixed Beam
Effective Span
Continuous Beam
Clear Span
2. Fix the formwork for the concrete beam
3. Pour concrete and wait it to be cured then remove the
formwork
ColumnsA vertical structural member that functions to transmit
the load from ceiling/roof slabs and beams, including its
self-weight to the foundation.
-
Types of fail modes of columns- A wall is a structure that
defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter or
security.
- They are part of the 3 planes in architecture (along with 2
other planes, which are the overhead (roof) plane and the base
(floor) plane that defines the 3 dimensional volume of mass and
space.
- The purpose of walls in buildings are to support roofs, floors
and ceilings, enclose a space as part of the building envelope, to
give buildings their form along with roofs and to provide shelter
and security.
Function of walls- Thermal Insulation - To provide protection
from natural elements such as weather and animal threats - To
divide and separate the areas within the building to create
interior spaces.- Act as sound barriers- As fire walls to attenuate
the spread of fire from one building unit to another.- To improve
the building appearance.- To provide privacy
Strength and stability of wallsResistance to:- Stresses set up
by its own weight- Superimposed loads- Lateral pressure (for
example, wind)- Overturning by lateral force- Buckling caused by
excessive slenderness
i. Long Column or Slender: Type of column that fails by elastic
buckling, where it occurs at compressive stresses within the
elastic ranges called long column.
ii. Short Column: A very stocky column which will not fail by
elastic buckling. It will crush and squash due to general yielding
and compressive stresses
Intermediate columns: It will fail by inelastic buckling when a
localized yielding occurs. This will be initiated at some point of
weakness and crookedness.
Construction process of concrete columns
1. Fix the reinforcement bar for the concrete column.
2. Fix the formwork for the concrete column.
3. Pour concrete and wait for it to be cured then remove the
formwork.
5.2.3 Walls
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Types of walls- Load bearing / Non Load Bearing- External /
Internal
Materials of wallsA. Concrete Walls B. Masonry Walls C. Dry
Walls D. Glass Walls E. Curtain Wall SystemLoad bearing walls carry
and distribute the load of a building from roof and floor
from above (and lateral load) to the structures or foundations
situated below the building.
A load bearing wall is part of the structure of the building as
it holds the building up. They are usually made of concrete, brick
or block, hard materials which have to stand the test of time and
heavy weights.
- Pre Cast Concrete Wall- Retaining Wall- Masonry Wall- Pre
Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls- Engineering Brick Wall
(115mm, 225mm)- Stone Wall
As the height of the building increases, required thickness of
walls and resulting stress on foundation will also increase and
cause it to be uneconomical.
Buildings with cast-in-situ reinforced concrete shear walls are
widespread in many earthquake-prone countries and regions. Shear
wall buildings are usually regular in plan and in elevation and
shear walls are the main vertical structural elements of the
buildings with a dual role of resisting both the gravity and
lateral loads. Wall thickness varies from 140 mm to 500 mm,
depending on the number of stories, building age, and thermal
insulation.
Reinforcement requirements are based on building code
requirements specific for each country. In general, the wall
reinforcement consists of two layers of distributed reinforce
requirements.
Characteristics- Usually used as load bearing walls- Texture and
appearance can be controlled by the use of formworks admixtures and
additives formworks, admixtures and additives- Often used in
high-rise buildings in Malaysia- Often used in government projects
in Malaysia, as part of the industrialized building system (IBS)-
Offers greater speed of construction and control of quality
i. Cast in-situ reinforced concrete shear wall systemsii.
Pre-cast concrete wall systems
A non-load bearing wall is only a partition that divides the
various spaces of a building to create rooms. These walls do not
carry any structural load except for their self-weights and wind
load which acts on the structure (for example, column, slab or
beam).
- Hollow Concrete Block Wall- Faade Brick Wall- Hollow Brick
Wall- Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)
Load bearing wall
A. Concrete walls
i. Cast in-situ shear wall systemsNon-Load bearing wall
Load Bearing WallsLoad Bearing Walls
Non-Load Bearing Walls
Non-Load Bearing Walls
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Precast concrete wall systems can be comprised of a variety of
shapes, and wall types. Typically, precast concrete wall systems
fall into three basic categories: solid, sandwich and thin-shell.
These can be penalized and erected in either a horizontal or
vertical position and used on all types of structures from
residential to commercial, institutional to industrial. Wall panels
can be designed as nonloadbearing or loadbearing, carrying floor
and roof loads, as well as lateral loads.
Construction process of cast in-situ reinforced concrete shear
wall systems using timber formworks
Advantage of using shear wall method of construction- Speed in
erecting and dismantling forms- Good appearance- Greater control of
accuracy and workmanship- Creates a smooth, high quality finish
capable of receiving direct decoration with the minimum of
preparation- Tornadoes, hurricanes and earthquake resistance
Solid Walls
Solid wall panel simply refers to walls being made of solid
concrete as opposed to including integral insulation. These wall
systems require some form of insulation and an interior
wall/finishing system to complete the building enclosures.
Sandwich WallsInsulated sandwich wall panels can be strictly
architectural, strictly structural, or a combination of both. The
difference between typical panels and insulated sandwich wall
panels is that the latter are cast with rigid insulation
"sandwiched" between two layers, or wythes, of concrete. The
insulation thickness can vary to create the desired thermal
insulating property ("R" value) for the wall.
The structural behavior is either: - Composite in which the
wythes are connected using ties through the insulation that fully
transfer loads. The structural performance is then based on the
full thickness of the panel
- Non-Composite in which the wythes are connected using ties
through the insulation, which limits performance to the individual
capacities of each wythe.
Thin-Shell and GFRCThin-shell wall panels consist of a thin,
outer-wythe of concrete typically ranging between 1.5 and 3 inches
in thickness. This is connected to a "back-up" system, usually
constructed of steel framing or studs, or sometimes concrete. The
back-up system is what connects the wall panel to the structural
system of the building and often provides the furring for interior
finishes, such as drywall to be attached. Many of these systems can
also incorporate a layer of rigid insulation between the exterior
wythe of concrete and the back-up system.
Benefits of Precast Concrete Wall Panels
- The sandwich construction technique used with the precast
concrete walls provides increased stability and improved sound
insulation, as well as greater protection from potential hazards
such as fires.
- Precast concrete panels also provide energy-saving advantages.
Because the concrete wall panels are separated by a layer of
thermal insulation, the precast concrete wall panel system results
in enhanced energy performance, which can help to lower overall
costs.
- Superior strength and durability
- Provides excellent protection against impacts from explosions,
vehicles and projectiles
- Ease of installation
1. Preparation of timber formwork
2. Completion of steel bars and erection of formwork to required
size
3. Closing of formwork, concrete is poured and left to cure
4. Completion
ii. Pre-cast concrete wall systems
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1. Weld PlatesThe most common method of attachment of precast
members is by use of steel weld plates. Typically, the precast
members have embedded plates that can be used as welding surfaces
for loose connecting plates or angles
2. Rebar and Grout Used typically with slabs, reinforcing bars
are spliced into slabs and grouted in place.
B. Mansory Walls- Stone masonry- Clay/cement brick walls-
Concrete/ cement block walls
Characteristics- One of the oldest materials, and the most
common material for walls construction in Malaysia
- Durable, good sound and fire insulation properties as well as
thermal insulation
- Offers great flexibility in form and appearance.
Non- Modular bricks- actual dimensions
Modular bricks- Nominal dimensions
Common types of bricks/ blocks:
Types of bricks
Methods of Attachment of Precast Concrete Members:
Three-inch
Standard Modular Engineer
Double
Economy 12 orJumbo utility Triple SCR
6 Norwegian 6 Jumbo 8 Jumbo
Roman Norman Norwegian
Economy 8 orJumbo closure
Standard Oversize
Embedded plate
Embedded plateLoose plat field-welded to Em
Grout fillRebar
Precent Slab
Beam or Wall
Clay Brick Smooth surface facing brick Cement sand brick
Calcium silicate brick Concrete block
Autoclaved aerated concrete block
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Terminology and bonds Brick jointings
Construction of bricks wall
Brick on edge (shiner, bull stretcher)Soldier- A brick laid
vertically with the long narrow side of the brick exposed.Sailor- A
brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brick exposed
Step 1: Preparing the Wall1. Purchase the right amount of
bricks.
Step 2: Building The First Row1. Lay your first row of bricks in
the foundation for a dry run
2. Dig out a trench for your foundation.
Flush Bucket Handle Weather Struck Recessed Weather Struck and
cut
3. Drive level wooden stakes into your trench.
5. Make your guideposts, or gauging rods
2. Clamp a string on your first guideline.
4. Mix and pour concrete up to the top of the guideposts.
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3. Lay the first 1/2 inch of mortar along the base of the
foundation.
4. Press the first brick into the mortar 5. Lay mortar down for
the next 2-3 bricks.
9. Keep adding bricks until the row is finished.
Step 3: Building Additional Rows1. Move your guideline up to the
next marker.
Step 4: Finishing the Wall1. Fill in any missing patches of
mortar along the wall.
2. Cut a brick in half with a firm tap from the pointed end of a
hammer
3. Start the second row with 1/2 a brick on both ends.
4. Mortar and place one full brick on top of your ends.
8. Scrape away any excess mortar as your work
7. Press the brick lightly into the 1/2" of mortar you've laid
down so that it is level with the first brick
6. Butter the end of the next brick with mortar and press it
into place.
5. Fill in the entire bottom row. 6. Continue building your wall
from the ends inward.
2. Use a brick jointer to indent the mortar professionally
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Plaster and skim coat- Skim coating is the process of applying a
layer of muddy plaster compound to rough or damaged ceilings and
walls to either smooth or repair them.
- Plastering should be done after curing on the brick
masonry.
- Cement and fine aggregate mix ratio should be 1:6 (1 Cement: 6
fine aggregate) for internal plastering,1:4 for externa
lplastering.
- Never do a plastering beyond 12 or 15mm thickness on a
brickwall.
Stiffeners- Stiffeners are used to provide lateral support to
masonry walls.- Vertical stiffener- per 3 m height.- Horizontal
stiffener- per 4m length/ width
phase 1
Diagonal view Cross walls
Measuring
T-square Keyhole saw
Sequential core filling with reinforcing
phase 2 phase 3
Stiffener can be connected to the floor above or stand alone
Wall stiffener- Open-ended blocks used to build around
stiffener
C. Dry wall/ stud framing system
Partition board wall systemDrywall is a construction material
used to create walls and ceilings. It's also used to create many
design features, including eaves, arches and other architectural
specialties. It's quick and easy to install, incredibly durable,
and requires only simple repairs when damaged. In the commercial
building world, drywall is used to wrap columns to conceal steel
beams and is an easy and inexpensive way to top off masonry walls
above ceilings. Drywall is also used to add fire resistance at
walls and ceilings, containing the spread of fire so people can
evacuate safely during an emergency.
Characteristics1. Non-load bearing2. Relatively simple and easy
to be installed3. Good light and fire insulating properties as it
is an ablative material4. Good sound and thermal insulation
properties. The sound and thermal insulation properties can be
improved by the addition of mineral fibre insulation5. Type of
partition board and stud backing system can be varied to suit
different requirements6. Susceptible to water damage and moulding7.
Susceptible to damage by external forces as it is hollow
Installation process of drywall1. Estimate the number of drywall
sheets required to cover the wall.2. Cutting
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Screw
5. Wait for 24 hours for the mud to dry to begin sanding.
6. Use a pole sander and 120-grit sandpaper to lightly sand the
mud you applied earlier. You've finished sanding when you can't see
any tape or mud bulges on the walls' surface, and when a level
applied to the wall shows it is smooth and even. Wear a mask and
goggles while sanding to prevent damage to eyes and lungs.
3. Hanging
4. Finishing
Framing system of drywall
Start attaching your drywall sheets to the wood or metal studs
used to frame your space. You should hang sheets horizontally when
working with wood studs, while metal studs work better with
vertical installations. This is because wood studs are more likely
to warp and deflect over time. Hanging the sheet horizontally
allows each sheet to be in contact with more studs and helps
minimize deflection. Generally speaking, it can be more difficult
to screw into metal studs. When using wood studs, you should also
apply a drywall adhesive to the face of the studs before hanging
your drywall in order to further minimize deflection. To attach the
drywall to the studs, use a screw gun and drywall screws, making
sure you hit the studs. Screws should be placed about every four
inches.
Finally, you'll tape, sand and finish the drywall. This involves
applying three layers of mud, one layer of drywall tape, and a
whole lot of sandpaper. First, use a 6-inch finishing knife to
spread joint compound along each seam. This first layer is called
the tape coat, and should be about four inches wide, centered on
the joints in your drywall sheets. Next, apply drywall tape along
the joints. The mud you applied will hold it in place. Your second
coat of mud is called your block coat. Use your 6-inch finish knife
to apply a second coat of mud on top of your drywall tape. Use just
enough to seal the drywall tape in place. The final coat is called
the skim coat. A 10-or 12-inch knife should be used to apply a
third coat of mud. Take your time on this coat to spread the mud
thinly away from the seams to provide a smooth, level surface.
Field
Double or single op plate
Wood studs
Bottom plate
Vertical kneel
Horizontalkneel
Floor kneel
Roof kneel
Skirting line
Perimeter of gypsum boardHorizontally applied gypsum board shows
paper bound edges at right angles to framing members. field,
perimeter, edged, ends and joints are indicated
Insallation of partition
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A structural glass wall is made up of tempered glass sheets
suspended from special clamps, or spider fittings. These fittings
are stabilized against wind pressure by perpendicular stiffeners
and/ or cables and carry the loads of the glass. Structural glass
walls overcome the restrictions of conventional frames to provide
the ultimate all glass faade.
A structural glass wall is made up of tempered glass sheets
suspended from special clamps, or spider fittings. These fittings
are stabilized against wind pressure by perpendicular stiffeners
and/ or cables and carry the loads of the glass. Structural glass
walls overcome the restrictions of conventional frames to provide
the ultimate all glass faade.
Structural Glass Walls
Unitized curtain wall systems
Spider fittings
Structural glass assemblies Glass Fin
D. Glass wall
Characteristics1. Allows transparency yet retains the strengths
of typical walls2. Able to act as walls for large spans of faade
areas3. High cost compared to other traditional materials4.
Requires specialist consultants and contractors5. Durable to
weathering conditions6. Strong but brittle surface
E. Glass curtain wallingCurtain walls are classified by their
method of fabrication and installation in two categories: stick
built and unitized systems.
Cantilever top and bottom
Movement due to wind load
Cantilever top only
P ropped Cantilever
Pinjointed stabalizer
Balance beam
Stick systems consist of the vertical curtain wall frame
(mullions), horizontal curtain wall frames (transoms), glass or
opaque panels that are installed and connected piece by piece.
These parts are usually fabricated and shipped to the job site for
installation. It has the advantage that it is economical and the
construction sequence is flexible. Disadvantages are the lengthy
installation time and high dependence on site workmanship to ensure
acceptable quality.
Composite panel walling system
There are a wide range of possible infill panels for curtain
wall systems, including:- Vision glass (which may be double or
triple glazed, may include low-e coatings, reflective coatings and
so on).- Spandrel (non-vision) glass.- Aluminium or other metals.-
Stone veneer.- Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP).- Louvres or
vents.
Stick systems
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1. Straight staircase
Composite panel walling system
Panels are often composites, with the facing materials bonded
to, or 'sandwiching' insulation. Frame and panel designs are very
complex, as they need to perform multiple functions, such as:
- Transferring loads back to the primary structure of the
building.- Providing thermal insulation and avoiding cold bridging
and condensation.- Providing fire, smoke and acoustic separation.
This is particularly difficult at joints between the curtain wall
system and interior walls and floors.- Creating a barrier to water
penetration.- Accommodating differential movement and deflection.-
Preventing panels from falling out of the frame.- Allowing for
opening windows.- Preventing the accumulation of dirt.
Construction process of concrete straight staircase:
1. Measure the dimensions of your stairs: - Firstly, the total
rise of the stairs, which can be found by measuring the total
height from the planned base to the higher level/floor, has to be
measured- The run of the steps was then measured by finding the
distance between the frontmost and backmost part of the stairs.-
The width of the stairs was measured by calculating the distance
between the leftmost and rightmost bounds of the planned steps of
the stairs.
Aluminium framing
Aluminium framing is used for the vast majority of curtain
walling applications, primarily for its excellent strength to
weight ratio and its ability to be extruded in complex shapes.
Aluminium is 66% lighter than steel, as such, it is also far less
susceptible to brittle fractures.
Types of staircase
A staircase is a system of steps by which people and objects may
pass from one level of a building to another.
5.2.4 Staircase
4. Double quarter landing staircase
2. Quarter landing staircase 3. Half landing staircase
5. Winder landing staircase 6. Double winder landing
staircase
7. Spiral sraircase 5. Circular staircase
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2. Building and Assembling Formwork:- The formwork can be made
by using plywood or framing timber. The side forms are cut
according to the tread and riser calculations.
3. Reinforcement- Reinforcement bars are carefully bent at the
necessary height and length and positioned into the formwork.
4. Preparing Concrete:- Produce sufficient and well mixed mortar
with portable cement mixer.
5. Pouring concrete: Start from the bottom and pour one step at
a time. Make sure the mortars are spreaded evenly. A spade should
be used to remove the trapped air bubbles.
6. Add finishing: - Use a simple wood float to clean and smooth
the surface of the mortar.
7. Curing: - Spray the steps with curing compound and cover it
with burlap. Once the concrete has hardened for a week, the plywood
formwork can then be removed.
8. Installing the handrails:
- The stair railings were positioned onto the staircase at the
location in which they will be installed.
- The position of the railings were marked
- Pilot holes were drilled into the staircase on the marks
made.
- The railings were placed into the pilot holes.
- Cement was then poured into the holes to fix the
handrails.
6. Double winder landing staircase
Joiats
Decking
Wall string
Riser board
Riser cleat
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6.0 Doors and Windows6.1 Doors- Doors and doorways provide
access from the outside into the interior of a building as well as
to act as a passage between interior spaces.
- Doorways should be large enough for ease of movement and to
accommodate movement of furnishings and equipment.
- All doors should be evaluated for their ease of operation,
durability under anticipated frequency of use, security provisions
as well as light, ventilation and views that are offered by
them.
- Door frames used in the construction of the 2-storey terrace
houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV1A are generally aluminium door
frames
The photo shows the aluminium door frames which were used during
the construction of the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley
Phase EV1A.
Types of doors
Trim/Casing
Jamb
Weather Strip
Lock Site
Mid Rail
Center Stile
Strike Plate
Lock Set
Threshold
Top RailSix Panels
Single Side PanelRight-Hand Swing
Single Side PanelLeft-Hand Swing Two Side Panels
Double Door One side Fixed
Flush Four PanelsHalf MoonTwo PanelsHalf Lite
Two Panel2/3 Lite Full Lite
Hinge Stile
Panel
Lock Rail
Bottom Rail
Sill
Door Bottom Shoe
Figure above shows components of door
Figure above shows components of door knob
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Doorjamb
Door-jambShims
Shims
Frame
Weather SealLocker Rolleer
Receiver
Closing Side
Sash
Pane
Handle
Bottom Bead
Slider
Double Hung Twin Double Hung Picture with Double hung
Hinge
Hing Side
Glazing Gasket
Head
Advantages of aluminium door frames- Slim profile- Durable-
Narrow sight lines- Low maintenance- Light yet strong- Compared
with vinyl, fiberglass and wood frames, aluminium conducts heat and
cold the least well
- Windows are key architectural elements that provide a bridge
between the inside and the outside by:
i. Admitting lightii. Controlling ventilationiii. Influencing
thermal comfort.
- As such, the form and position of windows are key aspects of
internal design.
1. The location of the doors are measured and marked. A few
layers of bricks are then placed beside the markings.
4. For timber door frame: The wall is plastered and the main
frame is installed. For aluminum door frame: Mortar is filled in
the space between the gap and masonry wall before the wall is
plastered.
2. The door frame is inserted into the marked position. The jamb
of the door is nailed into the masonry wall for support. Bricks are
then continued to be laid.
3. Pre-cast concrete lintel is bind with mortar and placed on
top of the door head. Lintel is constructed so that no extra
vertical force is exerted on the door frame.
6. Casing is installed to ensure cracks and flaws in the joining
are hidden.
Construction process of aluminium door frames
Trimmer stud
Trimmer stud
5. Shims are places on the hinges' side to form a continuous gap
in between. The hinge is then nailed into the side door jamb.
6.2 Windows
Figure above shows components of Windows
Types of Windows
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Bay Liftout Slider 2 Lite Casement
Casement
Fixed window over awning
Hopper Awning
Fixed Over Awning
i. Up hang windows
3 Liftout Slider with colonial Inserts
There are two types of windows available in the 2-storey terrace
houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A, namely up hang windows and
casement windows.
- Up hang windows are hinged at the top and swing outward from
the bottom. They glide open and shut with the turn of one
easy-to-reach handle.
- Up hang windows are often placed above or below other windows
to add architectural interest, light and ventilation to a room
while keeping the rain out.
- Up hang windows are often used in combination with large
stationary windows to provide a constant views and air flow.
Advantages of up hang windows:- Versatility: Due to the variety
of styling options and the ability to be installed higher than
other types of windows, up hang windows provide greater flexibility
in designing the dcor of a building.
- Weather-proof: Up hang windows open out from the top and
provide protection from the rain when opened. They allows little to
no leakage from rain when the windows are opened, and as such the
user can enjoy fresh air even when the weather is bad.
- Privacy: Up hang windows can be installed higher than various
types of windows. As such, they are able to provide natural light
and ventilation without compromising the users privacy.
Types of Windows
Bow
Garden
Eyebrow Circletop Quater Arch
Octagon Full Circle
1. Position the sub-frame using the aluminium plate
2. Check the alignment of the sub-frame
3. Anchor the sub-frame into the rough opening using nail
4. Seal the anchor head and the joints with the wall with
protection tape on the frame
5. Placing main frame on the sub-frame. Use millet to knock the
finishing frame
6. Finish the wall with sealant.
Construction process of windows
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Casement windows are windows that are hinged on the side and the
sash opens horizontally opposite the hinge. This type of window
allows for full ventilation from top to bottom of the window
opening and the extended sash can catch the breeze and direct it
into the house for better air flow.
Advantages:- Wide openings: Casement windows open completely,
allowing a nice breeze into your home - Superior Security: Locks on
casement windows are embedded into the frame. This provides
enhanced safety and security.-Easy operation: Casement windows open
easily with a crank, making them ideal for hard to reach areas.
ii. Casement windows
Photo above shows the location of casement windows on siteFigure
above show ilustration of casement windows
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Summary In conclusion, this project really played its part in
allowing students to experience, document and analyse the
construction process through their own eyes. Through this project,
students were able to conduct their own site visit to their chosen
construction site and to fully understand the sequence and
coordination of construction at site. The site visit conducted
proved to be an important learning process for architecture
students as practical site visits conducted were able to allow
students to have a clearer understanding of the topics which were
covered in lectures. The exposure of students to construction
methods and technologies in relation to their respective site
contexts were able to allow students to broaden their horizons and
to demonstrate their understanding and knowledge of the
construction process in a systematic and professional manner.
For our group, we conducted two site visits respectively. We
conducted our first site visit to Elmina Valley Phase EV1A.
Residential buildings built on site are 2-storey terrace houses and
we were able to observe, experience and document several aspects of
the construction process on site, namely site and safety, plants
and machineries, site layout, foundation, superstructures, doors
and windows as well as roofs. Through our site visit, weve learnt
that site and safety plays a huge role in the construction site as
every safety measures were carried out to ensure the workers safety
on site at all times. Moreover, we were able to personally observe
and document the different plants and machineries used to construct
the 2 storey terrace houses on site. Plants and machineries were
further divided into various categories, namely earthmoving and
excavating equipment, lifting and erecting equipment, mixing and
grading equipment, transporting vehicles, construction equipment
and many more. Moreover, weve also learned that a well-planned site
layout is able to increase the productivity of the construction
process. A well planned and organised construction site like Elmina
Valley Phase EV1A is able to ensure a smooth transition from one
location to another within the site, avoiding unnecessary injuries
and directing workers to their respective working zones
efficiently. The type of foundation available on site is shallow
foundation, and specifically reinforced concrete pad footings. In
addition to that, after conducting our site visit, we were able to
understand the complete construction process for the
superstructures. After the foundations were constructed, the
reinforcements will be extended for the construction of columns.
Ground beams will be constructed on top of foundations and this
process will be flowed by the construction of ground floor slabs.
Columns and beams will later be constructed and after the framework
of the entire building is completed, walls will be erected to
enclose the spaces. The walls found on site are masonry walls,
namely red clay brick walls and cement sand brick walls. Roofs
present on site are generally gable roofs and they are easily
recognized by their triangular shapes.
In addition to that, weve conducted our second site visit to Lot
120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman to obtain an
understanding of the process of setting out and earth works. As Lot
120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman is a newly
developed construction process, we had the privilege of accessing
the site to document the process of setting out and earth
works.
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