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January 2013

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3WELDING JOURNAL

CONTENTS28 FABTECH 2012

Welding’s premier marketplace, education, business, networking, awards, skills, and personal recognition all came together at this grand exhibitionA. Cullison et al.

38 What You Should Know about Hybrid Laser Arc WeldingTake a look at the pros and cons of this unique combinationof lasers and gas metal arc weldingP. Denney

42 Effect of Tool Angle on Friction Stir Weldability of AISI 430The parameters for getting the best weld in austenitic stainlesssteel are studiedM. B. Bilgin et al.

48 Benefits of Remote Laser Welding in the Automotive IndustryRemote laser beam welding is shown to have advantages in welding high-volume componentsT. Ryba et al.

54 Friction Stud Welding of Dissimilar MetalsA milling machine was used to produce a sound joint betweena steel stud and aluminum plateG. Zhang et al.

Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is publishedmonthly by the American Welding Society for$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50per single issue for domestic AWS members and$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and$14.00 single issue for international. AmericanWelding Society is located at 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste.130, Doral, FL 33166; telephone (305) 443-9353.Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and addi-tional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send addresschanges to Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd.,Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166. Canada Post: Publi-cations Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Re-turns to be sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box25542,London, ON N6C 6B2

Readers of Welding Journal may make copies ofarticles for personal, archival, educational or research purposes, and which are not for sale orresale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-cles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items excluded from copyright.

Departments

Editorial ............................4Press Time News ..................6News of the Industry ..............8International Update ............12Stainless Q&A ....................14RWMA Q&A ......................20Product & Print Spotlight ......22Letter to the Editor ..............58Coming Events....................60Certification Schedule ..........62Conferences ......................64Welding Workbook ..............70Society News ....................73

Tech Topics ......................76Guide to AWS Services ........94

Personnel ........................98Classifieds ......................104Advertiser Index ................106

1-s Interfacial Microstructure of Diode Laser Brazed AZ31BMagnesium to Steel Sheet Using a Nickel InterlayerThe brazeability of a magnesium alloy to steel was improved with an electro-deposited microlayer of NiA. M. Nasiri et al.

11-s Processing Effects on the Friction Stir Weld Stir ZoneThe understanding of the correlation between microstructural evolution and the varying thermomechanical cycles a weld undergoes is further advanced with this studyJ. Schneider et al.

20-s Evaluation of Heat-Affected Zone Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Navy SteelsCritical stress ratio and embrittlement index were determined for high-strength steels in an evaluation of hydrogen-induced cracking in the heat-affected zoneX. Yue and J. C. Lippold

Features

Welding Research Supplement

28

48

38

January 2013 • Volume 92 • Number 1 AWS Web site www.aws.org

On the cover: Laser welding of a powertrain component. (Photo cour-tesy of TRUMPF, Inc., Farmington, Conn.)

January 2013_Layout 1 12/13/12 3:45 PM Page 3

EDITORIAL

As most of you know, there is a dire shortage of skilled and educated welders andother welding professionals, particularly in manufacturing and energy production. Theshortage of skilled welding personnel has reached a critical level. By 2019, it is estimat-ed there will be a need for at least 239,000 new and replacement welding professionals.To meet the shortage, we need to improve the image of welding to draw more peopleinto our field. We also need to train these new people and provide additional educationopportunities for those who have already chosen welding as their profession. The payis good, but increased skills and education can lead to even better compensation.

Traci Tapani, copresident of Wyoming Machine, has described her company’s andthe country’s need for welders in an article published in The New York Times. For thepast 19 years, she and her sister have been copresidents of a sheet metal company theyinherited from their father in Stacy, Minn.

“Many years ago, people learned to weld” in various ways “… they did not under-stand metallurgy, modern cleaning and brushing techniques, and how different metalsand gases, pressures, and temperatures had to be combined.” Moreover, in small man-ufacturing businesses like hers, explained Tapani, “…we do a lot of low-volume, high-tech jobs, and each one has its own design drawings. So a welder has to be able to readand understand five different design drawings in a single day.”

Women are an underused resource in welding in the United States. According to theDept. of Labor, women represent only 6% of the U.S. welding and brazing workforceand only 2% of welders are women. History has shown that women have stepped up intimes of need. Everyone has heard of Rosie the Riveter, but there was also Wendy theWelder and Barbara the Brazer. Welding and brazing are great occupations for womenas well as men. There are many opportunities in many different types of work. We justneed to publicize those opportunities and showcase the role models we already have.

Thus, let’s celebrate women in welding and recognize those women who are the rolemodels and the trendsetters. One of those role models is a young female welder whosegreat-grandmother welded during World War II and whose grandfather welded in ashipyard. She is proud to follow in their footsteps. Another is a trainer who sums up theopportunities in this way, “There’s an opportunity in this industry to have a career forlife. You can work on the manufacturing floor or in the field as a welder, or as an iron-worker building a stadium. You can become an engineer and develop welding productsor travel around the country as a Certified Welding Inspector.” There are also womenCWIs, welding engineers, welding engineering technicians, welding quality assuranceprofessionals, nuclear and nonnuclear welders, materials engineers who do welding andbrazing, welding sales reps, CEOs, COOs, members of the AWS board of directors,chairs and past chairs of AWS Sections, and speakers at Section meetings and interna-tional conferences. Thus, we already have good female role models, but we need to doa better job of getting the word out about them. We need to encourage women in allways and in all employment categories of our profession. I challenge you to be a men-tor to a capable woman welding professional. Give her some encouraging words, or bet-ter yet, give her an opportunity.

This year I am proud to annouce that the AWS Foundation now offers two newscholarships that have been endowed specifically for capable females to improve their

skills and education. In addition, Airgas is offering adiscount for all female “card-carrying” members ofAWS in honor of the company’s female leaders. Thisyear, let’s celebrate women in welding and help fillthe need for properly skilled and educated weldingprofessionals who will make our country proud.

JANUARY 20134

OfficersPresident Nancy C. Cole

NCC Engineering

Vice President Dean R. WilsonWell-Dean Enterprises

Vice President David J. LandonVermeer Mfg. Co.

Vice President David L. McQuaidD. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.

Treasurer Robert G. PaliJ. P. Nissen Co.

Executive Director Ray W. ShookAmerican Welding Society

DirectorsT. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center

U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver

J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.

R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.

G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services

T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies

D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.

S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altech Industries

K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards

J. Jones (Dist. 17), Victor Technologies

W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC

T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory

J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center

M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering

D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training

C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.

J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding

S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro

K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.

W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering

R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College

D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.

N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center

K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.

T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)

H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.

J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College

M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute

D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.

Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,Technology and Application of Welding

Women: An UnderusedResource in Welding

Nancy C. ColeAWS President

Editorial January 2013_Layout 1 12/12/12 2:28 PM Page 4

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PRESS TIMENEWS

AWS Holds Open House to Celebrate World Headquarters

More than 200 guests attended an open house celebration held at the American Weld-ing Society’s (AWS) new world headquarters in Doral, Fla., on November 30. The reno-vated, 122,482-sq-ft building has five stories and offers space for future growth.

“Over the past few years, AWS has seen a significantly increasing interest from across theglobe in attaining AWS certifications, standards, and membership,” said Ray Shook, execu-tive director, AWS. “We’ve launched a global initiative that will allow us to better serve thewelding community, and our new modern headquarters is one of the primary steps to be-coming more accessible to our members.”

During the event, AWS President William A. Rice Jr. showed a photo journey throughthe organization’s 93-year history. In addition, Rice announced that he along with his wife,Cherry, donated $50,000 for a new scholarship intended to help women interested in weld-ing careers. The AWS Foundation will match that amount for a total of $100,000.

Also, a 6-ft-tall bronze welder sculpture donated to AWS by Bill and Cherry Ricewas unveiled. Noted artist Gregory Johnson of Cumming, Ga., created the welder thatweighs more than 225 lb and kneels on top of a base made by D&D Mobile Welding andFabrication, Inc., Fort Lauderdale, Fla. The figure resides in the first floor lobby of theAWS headquarters building.

“I’m thrilled. It has met and exceeded my expectations,” Johnson said of the sculp-ture, adding he is humbled AWS visitors will see his artistry.

Creating the sculpture took about 200 hours, spanning over the course of two months.Johnson first made an armature using threaded rods and braided copper wire, thenpressed clay onto this form. He then kept refining and detailing his work. As a refer-ence, he looked at welders’ attire, including a helmet, jacket, gloves, pants, and shoes.The bronze welder holds a gas metal arc welding gun in its right hand. Eagle Bronze,Inc., Lander, Wyo., performed the mold and casting duties, which Johnson oversaw.

Among the attendees were AWS leadership, consisting of current officers, boardmembers, and past presidents, as well as international counterparts and agents, ven-dors, and community members. Speakers included The Honorable Michael Bileca,Florida House of Representatives, and Miguel Otero, deputy chief of staff for Congress-man Mario Diaz-Balart. Diaz-Balart has an office in the building. The event video is athttp://videos.aws.org.

The day concluded with AWS employees guiding visitors around the building wherethey met spokespersons from each department. Lunch was catered by Carolina AleHouse, a tenant, and served on the second floor’s covered patio area.

Lincoln Electric Acquires Businesses from ITT

Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, has acquired the Kaliburn, Burny,and Cleveland Motion Control (CMC) businesses from ITT Corp. Terms of the transac-tion were not disclosed, but all three businesses are consolidated in a headquarters andmanufacturing operation in Ladson, S.C. The combined annual sales in 2011 were $35million. The three operations employ approximately 140 people.◆

JANUARY 20136

MEMBER

Publisher Andrew Cullison

Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber

EditorialEditorial Director Andrew Cullison

Editor Mary Ruth JohnsenAssociate Editor Howard M. Woodward

Associate Editor Kristin CampbellEditorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez

Design and ProductionProduction Manager Zaida Chavez

Senior Production Coordinator Brenda FloresManager of International Periodicals and

Electronic Media Carlos Guzman

AdvertisingNational Sales Director Rob Saltzstein

Advertising Sales Representative Lea PanecaSenior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson

SubscriptionsSubscriptions Representative Sylvia Ferreira

[email protected]

American Welding Society8669 Doral Blvd., Doral, FL 33166(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353

Publications, Expositions, Marketing CommitteeD. L. Doench, ChairHobart Brothers Co.

S. Bartholomew, Vice ChairESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.

J. D. Weber, SecretaryAmerican Welding SocietyD. Brown, Weiler Brush

T. Coco, Victor Technologies InternationalL. Davis, ORS Nasco

J. Deckrow, HyperthermD. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.

J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.F. H. Kasnick, Praxair

D. Levin, AirgasE. C. Lipphardt, Consultant

R. Madden, HyperthermD. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash

J. F. Saenger Jr., ConsultantS. Smith, Weld-Aid Products

D. Wilson, Well-Dean EnterprisesN. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering

J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh UniversityL. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems

D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro

E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career CenterR. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.

N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys IndustriesR. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society

Copyright © 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made oropinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authorsof specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on thepart of potential users.

Ribbon cutting ceremony participants at the AWSopen house were (from left) Executive DirectorRay Shook; Treasurer Robert Pali; Vice Presi-dent-Elect Dave McQuaid; Vice PresidentsDavid Landon and Dean Wilson; President-Elect Nancy Cole; and President William Rice.

Noted artist Gregory Johnson posesnext to the bronze welder he sculptedthat resides in the first floor lobby ofthe AWS headquarters building.

PTN January 2013_Layout 1 12/12/12 2:04 PM Page 6

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NEWS OF THEINDUSTRY

Green River Community College StudentsWeld Junction Boxes to Curb Wire Theft

The city of Auburn, Wash., and Green River Community Col-lege teamed up to fight the growing problem of copper wire theftin the city by welding junction boxes shut.

“Thieves were stripping our street light junction boxes cost-ing the city thousands of dollars to repair,” said Mayor Pete Lewis.They opened these boxes, cut the splices, and pulled out wirefrom box to box. Each junction has three wires that run 100–150ft through an underground conduit to the next junction box.

According to Glenda Carino, Auburn’s public affairs and mar-keting manager, the project started on Oct. 10 and finished Nov.14 with a total of 15 actual work days. There were approximatelyan average of 5 students per day for an estimate of between 500and 600 man hours. The actual number of boxes welded was 1833.

JANUARY 20138

Student Gilbert Serrano performs shielded metal arc weldingin the Trades and Advanced Technology Center on the SantaFe Community College campus. Jeremy Fiedler serves as hisinstructor. (Photo courtesy of Barbara Woltag.)

The training needs of two large local organizations,as well as nationwide demand, have led to creating a newwelding degree program at Santa Fe Community Col-lege (SFCC), Santa Fe, N.Mex.

An Associate in Applied Science degree in weldingwill be offered starting in the spring 2013 semester. Awelding certificate is also available.

The program is possible in large part thanks to thesupport of Los Alamos National Security, LLC, whichanticipates the need for welders for construction proj-ects planned for Los Alamos National Laboratory(LANL) over the next 15 years.

Originally, the college developed a welding trainingprogram to meet the needs of LANL and CaterpillarSanta Fe, a manufacturer of products that reduce dieselengines’ exhaust emission levels, that has also supportedthe program’s development. When Caterpillar purchasedthe former CleanAIR Systems in 2010, no welding train-ing existed in the community; the company provided thecollege with funds to support a welding lab on campus,which will now allow it to offer a full welding degree pro-gram.

“We believe that Santa Fe Community College needsto launch these high-skill and high-wage training pro-grams because it is the college’s responsibility to becomethe economic engine for Santa Fe. This collaborationwith our partners will advance our economy and providenew employment for years to come,” said SFCC Presi-dent Ana M. Guzmán.

In addition, SFCC’s Dean of Economic and Work-force Development and Director of the Sustainable Tech-nologies Center, Randy Grissom, stated the college’sTrades and Advanced Technology Center is prepared toexpand with local demand.

For more information, visit www.sfcc.edu.

Need for Training Leads to New Welding Degree Program at Santa Fe Community College

To prevent the theft of cop-per wire from street lightjunction boxes in the Cityof Auburn, Washington,Green River CommunityCollege students and Pub-lic Works mentors weldedthem shut. As pictured inaction, a welder uses theshielded metal arc process.

NI January 2013_Layout 1 12/12/12 2:52 PM Page 8

9WELDING JOURNAL

Scott Schreiber, who heads the college’s welding program,also mentioned the opportunity for students to work side by sidewith city crews is invaluable. “This is the first time field mentor-ships have been offered,” Schreiber said.

Additionally, Carino pointed out that city crews were happywith the students’ outstanding job, and as of press time, therewere no reports of new wire theft from these junction boxes sincethe project began.

ESAB Partners with KUKA Robotics

ESAB, Florence, S.C., a manufacturer of welding and cuttingequipment and welding filler metals, is partnering with KUKARobotics, Shelby Township, Mich., whose robots are used in arange of industries.

“Our relationship with KUKA will enable us to create prod-ucts and services that offer greater value and solutions to the ro-botic arc welding customers and make our automation facilityeven more capable of providing wide-ranging services and solu-tions to the welding community,” said George Learmonth, VPof ESAB Automation.

Austal Lays Jackson (LCS 6) Keel

Austal recently held a keel-laying ceremony for the third Independence-variant Littoral Combat Ship (LCS), Jackson(LCS 6).

Dr. Katherine Holmes Cochran, the ship’s sponsor, weldedher initials as the keel authenticator, assisted by J. B. Craig III,

an “A” Class welder. Cochran, an associate professor at the Uni-versity of Southern Mississippi, is the daughter of U.S. SenatorThad Cochran, a native of Pontotoc, Miss., currently holding hissixth term in office.

Due to Austal’s modular approach to ship manufacture, 35 ofthe 37 modules used to form this 127-m aluminum trimaran de-sign are already being assembled. Four modules have been moved

Katherine Holmes Cochran, daughter of Mississippi Senator ThadCochran, and Austal USA welder J. B. Craig III weld her initialsas part of the keel-laying ceremony for Jackson (LCS 6).

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index


JANUARY 201310

from Austal’s Module Manufacturing Facility, three of which areerected in the final assembly bay in their prelaunch position.

“Jackson (LCS 6) is the first of ten Independence-variant Littoral Combat Ships awarded by the Navy to Austal as primecontractor,” said Craig Perciavalle, Austal USA’s senior VP ofoperations.

Koike Aronson Acquires Majority Interest inBrazilian Welding Positioners Manufacturer

Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome, Arcade, N.Y., a subsidiary ofKoike Sanso Kogyo, Tokyo, Japan, recently announced the pur-chase of the majority of shares of Biondi Maquinas, DispositivosE Ferramentas LTDA, Jaboticabal, Brazil, a manufacturer ofwelding positioners and similar equipment, made through its sub-sidiary, Koike Aronson Brasil Business Consulting LTDA.

The new company is named Koike Aronson — BiondiMaquinas, Dispositivos E Ferramentas Do Brazil, LTDA. Thecurrent owners, Nelson Biondi and Evandro Faccio, will remainwith the company, with Mr. Biondi retaining a minority holding.A new facility is planned to be built in Jaboticabal to accommo-date the growing demand for Koike and Biondi products in Brazil.

Also, in related news, the largest weld positioner Koike hascreated, a 130-ton model, has now been installed and is operableat Harbin Electric Corp., Qinhuangdao City, China (as pictured).Rob Flaig served as the company’s on-site coordinator, assistedby Matt Hopkins. The $1.5 million device is set to weld and cladcomponent parts for a new nuclear reactor in that region. It canhold, rotate, and tilt 550,000 lb.

Boy Scouts Earn Welding BadgesThanks to Local Tech Center and 3M

Nine Boy Scouts earned welding merit badges with assistancefrom the Northeast Metro District 916 Career and Technical Cen-ter, White Bear Lake, Minn., and 3M Co., St. Paul, Minn.

Representatives from 3M, including Don Garvey, a construc-tion industrial hygienist, Derek Baker, a welding technical serv-ice specialist, and Kim Gates, a welding marketing manager, sup-plied the classroom portion regarding welding safety, personalprotective equipment, and different types/mechanics of weldingwith their common uses. At Northeast Metro’s welding lab, TonyWaldner provided welding instruction and coaching.

The Scouts got hands-on time with the gas metal arc welding

gun. The merit badge requires they scribe their initials on a car-bon steel plate and cover the initials with a weld bead; cover asmall plate with weld beads side by side; and tack and weld twoplates with a square groove butt joint, a “T” joint with fillet weldsand a lap joint with fillet welds on both sides.

The Scouts were excited to learn a new skill, and several ex-pressed interest in the possibility of making it a career, especiallywhen discussing current job opportunities.

Chrysler Group Invests $240 Million toIncrease Engine Production, Adds Jobs

Chrysler Group LLC will invest nearly $240 million to increaseengine capacity and add about 1250 new jobs at several Michi-gan facilities.

Sergio Marchionne, Chrysler Group chairman and CEO, con-firmed the company would make investments and add jobs at thefollowing local plants: Mack I Engine Plant, $198 million to pro-duce the Pentastar (V-6) engine; Mack I Engine Plant, addingup to 250 new jobs, subject to market conditions; Trenton NorthEngine Plant, investing an additional $40 million to add a flexi-ble production line that can run the Pentastar engine and Tiger-shark (I-4) engine; and Warren Truck Assembly Plant, adding1000 new jobs on a third crew in March 2013 to produce the 2013Ram 1500.

Detroit Mayor Dave Bing, other local officials, and UAW VicePresident General Holiefield joined employees to celebrate thenews at the Mack I Engine Plant.

Mack Avenue Plant Manager Bob Hollingsworth recently spoke atthe Mack 1 Engine Plant. Chrysler Group LLC Chairman and CEOSergio Marchionne was also present to announce a $240 millioninvestment for engine production. (Photo courtesy of Chrysler.)

As shown above, now installed and operable at Harbin Electric inChina, is the 130-ton weld positioner fabricated by Koike. It is setto weld and clad component parts for a new nuclear reactor.

Welding instructor Tony Waldner of Northeast Metro and Boy Scoutsfrom Troop 200 show off their welding skills, which are part of earn-ing their welding merit badges.

— continued on page 102


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INTERNATIONALUPDATE

Canadian College to Enhance Its Trades Facilities

Camosun College in British Columbia, Canada, expects to re-ceive more than $29 million from the Ministry of Advanced Ed-ucation to renew and enhance its existing trades facilities at theInterurban Campus. John Yap, minister of Advanced Education,Innovation and Technology, and Ida Chong, minister of Aborigi-nal Relations and Reconciliation, announced the funding, whichwill assist the college to create a state-of-the-art Trades Learn-ing Centre for Excellence.

The facility will include a new marine and metal trades centerto house welding, sheet metal, metal fabrication, and shipbuildingand repair programs; new mechanical trades center to house heavy-duty, commercial truck transport and automotive service techni-cian programs; repurposing of the Jack White Trades Building tohouse electrical, plumbing and piping trades, and future renewableenergy programs; repurposing of the John Drysdale Trades Build-ing as a new technology and innovation center that will also housea general-purpose classroom space and trades equipment storage;new central student commons facility to serve the combined tradescenters; expanded and reconfigured trades yard space, outdoorstorage, and construction project areas with improved accessabil-ity; and upgrade to electrical service for existing trades buildings.

The new facilities, according to Yap, will “encourage more andmore young people to consider careers in the trades.”

Genesis Systems Opens New Office inJapan

Genesis Systems Group, a robotic workcells integrator, recentlyannounced the establishment of a sales office in Nagoya, Japan.Genesis Systems Group Japan, KK, will lead the company’s effortsto strengthen its global footprint and better serve new and existingJapanese clients. The office will be led by Tadaji Seko, who servedToyota Corporation as a trainer of the Toyota Production System,manager of Production Engineering, and deputy chairman of in-formation discussions, and Junko Fukutome who started with Gen-esis in 2005 and most recently has worked as its liaison in Japan.

Wheelabrator Group Expands to Mexico

Wheelabrator, a provider of equipment-support services,opened WG Plus de Mexico, a new 34,000-sq-ft manufacturing

and aftermarket parts and service facility, in Monterrey. The fa-cility supports regional original equipment manufacturing andaftermarket sales as well as equipment manufacturing operationsfor the global customer base. This expansion provides heavy-dutymanufacturing, secondary light assembly operations, and after-market support to service the increased demands for all of theAmericas. Robert E. Joyce Jr., president and CEO, NoricanGroup, said, “Our investment plans are to continue to expandour company globally to meet the growing demands and needsof our customers.”

Canadian Fabricator to Build Plant in Montana

ADF Group, Inc., a fabricator of structural steel and steelcomponents in Montreal, Canada, approved an estimated $24million plan to build a new 100,000-sq-ft structural steel fabrica-tion complex on 100 acres of industrial land located in GreatFalls, Mont. Its annual fabrication capacity is estimated at morethan 25,000 tons. Adjacent to the new facility, ADF will set up alarge structural steel fabrication and preassembly yard to rapidlyand effectively serve new sectors and fast growing markets.

In addition to expanding westward, the investment will giveADF access to the U.S. public infrastructures market segment.Jean Paschini, chairman of the board and CEO, said, “Duringthe past months, we have studied many other sites to set up a sec-ond plant, and we have chosen Great Falls in Montana for itsstrategic geographic location. Situated at 160 km from Alberta’sborder, the city of Great Falls will allow ADF to pursue its de-velopment both in Canada and the United States.” The new plant,equipped with state-of-the-art machinery, is expected to be op-erating by the second half of 2013. ♦

Camosun College student Jenny Albrecht prepares AdvancedEducation, Innovation & Technology Minister John Yap andAboriginal Relations & Reconciliation Minister Ida Chong for awelding demo.

Wheelbrator opened a new 34,000-sq-ft service facility in Mon-terrey, Mexico.

Artist rendering of ADF’s structural steel fabrication plant to bebuilt in Great Falls, Montana.

JANUARY 201312

Jan Intl Update_Layout 1 12/13/12 9:19 AM Page 12

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STAINLESSQ&A BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI

Q: I have been told that nitrogen is an es-sential ingredient in duplex stainless steelweld metal. But I understand that nitro-gen is only an accidental impurity in otherstainless steel weld metal. Is this correct,and if so, why is it essential in duplexstainless steel?

A: You have been told correctly. There aretwo factors involved. The first has to dowith pitting corrosion resistance. There isa well-accepted formula for a Pitting Re-sistance Index (PREN).

PREN = %Cr + 3.3×(%Mo + %W/2)+ 16×%N

As the PREN increases, the pitting re-sistance increases. Duplex stainless steelsare often used in chloride-containing envi-ronments, including the higher alloygrades in seawater. The higher alloygrades of duplex stainless steel, often re-ferred to as “superduplex,” have a PRENgreater than 40. As you can see, the coef-ficient for nitrogen in the above formula ismuch larger than for any other element.The superduplex stainless steels typicallycontain about 0.25%N, or more.

But pitting corrosion resistance is onlypart of the story concerning nitrogen induplex stainless steels and their weld met-als. In weld metal in the as-welded condi-tion, nitrogen is the critical element for ob-taining a proper phase balance betweenferrite and austenite. There remains a lotof discussion about what amount of ferrite(remainder austenite) is appropriate forbest properties, but most engineers willagree that the range of 30 to 70 FerriteNumber or 22 to 50% ferrite (higher fer-rite content is allowed with inert gas-shielded processes) provides the best com-bination of properties, particularly corro-sion resistance, toughness, and ductility.

Nitrogen is critical because it is the onlyuseful alloying element that is an intersti-tial atom rather than a substitutionalatom. Interstitial atoms are much smallerthan the matrix alloy element atoms iron,chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and pos-sibly tungsten. As a result, nitrogen candiffuse more than 100 times faster than theother atoms. Nitrogen promotes austeniteformation by diffusing out of the ferrite asthe virtually 100% ferrite weld metal coolsat temperatures above 1040°C (1900°F).Under ordinary arc welding cooling condi-tions, only nitrogen diffuses fast enough topartition appreciably between ferrite andaustenite. This was very well demon-strated in the work of Ogawa and Koseki(Ref. 1).

Unfortunately, when the work ofOgawa and Koseki was published in theWelding Journal, color printing in the Re-search Supplement was not in use, and theelement partitioning was illustrated bycolor-coded maps, so it was difficult to ap-preciate exactly what was going on in theblack and white reproductions, and I thinkvery few people did appreciate it. How-

ever, Ogawa and Koseki also presentedtheir work a year later in Commission IXof the International Institute of Welding,as IIW Document IX-1600-90, and I wasfortunate enough to obtain a copy withcolor. Three figures extracted from thatwork serve to illustrate the importance ofnitrogen, and these are reproducedherein.

Fig. 1 — 2205 base metal as hot-rolled. A — Microstructure; B — 22% Cr; C — 6% Ni; D— 3% Mo; E — 0.12% N.

Fig. 2 — Autogenous 2205 GTA weld metal, as-welded. A — Microstructure; B — 22% Cr;C — 6% Ni; D — 3% Mo; E — 0.12% N.

JANUARY 201314

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Stainless Q+A Jan_Layout 1 12/12/12 2:25 PM Page 14

Figure 1 shows the microstructure ofthe 2205 duplex stainless steel base metalas hot-rolled. The lighter etching phase isthe austenite and the darker etching phaseis the ferrite. Then it includes Cr, Ni, Mo,and N distributions obtained by a scanningelectron microscope (SEM) of exactly thesame area as the microstructure, colorcoded so that red indicates high concen-tration, yellow to green indicates nominalcomposition concentration of each ele-ment, and blue indicates low concentra-tion. The nominal composition is alsogiven in the figure. It is easily seen that Crand Mo are concentrated in the ferrite,while Ni and N are concentrated in theaustenite. It is noteworthy that, in the caseof nitrogen, the blue color indicates virtu-ally zero percent nitrogen in the ferrite.That is, the nitrogen has almost entirelyleft the ferrite in favor of the austeniteduring hot-rolling.

Figure 2 shows the microstructure andalloy element distribution of an autoge-nous GTA weld made in the same basemetal, containing 0.12% nitrogen, usingthe same color coding. Austenite appearsonly as particles along the grain bound-aries of the very large ferrite grains thatformed during solidification, and as a fewscattered particles within the ferritegrains. Then the color maps of Cr, Ni, andMo indicate virtually no partitioning ofthose alloy elements — they are distrib-uted at virtually the nominal compositionlevel throughout the microstructure —but the nitrogen map clearly shows nitro-gen concentrated in the grain boundaryaustenite.

In the ferrite immediately beside thegrain boundary austenite, the blue color

indicates virtually zero nitrogen as the ni-trogen there had enough time to diffuse tothe austenite. Farther from the grainboundary austenite, the yellow to greencolor indicates near-nominal nitrogenconcentration on average. In fact there arescattered chromium nitride particles thatappear as dark specks in the microstruc-ture (Fig. 2A) that formed within the fer-rite when the nitrogen could not escapefrom the ferrite to the austenite duringcooling. Even though there is 0.12% Npresent in this composition, the phase distribution is not acceptable; the weld isbrittle.

Figure 3 shows the microstructure andalloy element distribution of an autoge-nous GTA weld made in an identical basemetal composition except that the nitro-gen is increased to 0.18%. As in the case

of the 0.12% N weld metal, austenite ap-pears as particles outlining the originalferrite grain boundaries, but there are alsonumerous austenite plates throughout theinterior of the ferrite grains. Then thecolor-coded maps of Cr, Ni, and Mo indi-cate only very slight partitioning of theseelements (most clearly seen in the Mo dis-tribution where the grain boundaryaustenite regions are more clearly blue).But the nitrogen partitioning is complete— the ferrite regions are all blue while theaustenite regions are all red. The highernitrogen of the Fig. 3 weld metal as com-pared to the Fig. 2 weld metal made the as-welded weld metal ductile by producingmuch higher austenite content.

In practice, filler metal manufacturerstend to include extra nickel to improvetoughness and assist in the development ofaustenite, but the nitrogen is the essentialalloy element for providing weldability. ◆

Reference

1. Ogawa, T., and Koseki, T. 1989. Ef-fect of composition profiles on metallurgyand corrosion behavior of duplex stainlesssteel weld metals. Welding Journal 68(5):181-s to 191-s.

15WELDING JOURNAL

DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president,Damian Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc.He is treasurer of the IIW and a member ofthe A5D Subcommittee on Stainless SteelFiller Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stain-less Steel Structural Welding; and WRCSubcommittee on Welding Stainless Steelsand Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair ofthe A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Al-lied Materials, and served as AWS president(2005–2006). Send questions to [email protected], or Damian Kotecki,c/o Welding Journal Dept., 8669 DoralBlvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166.

Fig. 3 — Autogenous 2205 GTA weld metal, as-welded. A — Microstructure; B — 22% Cr;C — 6% Ni; D — 3% Mo; E — 0.18% N.


A B C

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Stainless Q+A Jan_Layout 1 12/12/12 2:26 PM Page 15

Friends and Colleagues:

The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individualmembers for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image andimpact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individual’s career ofoutstanding accomplishment.

To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in thewelding industry by one or more of the following:

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the weldingindustry. The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, asevidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training andvocational education in the welding industry. The individual’s organization shall have shown anongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employee inindustry activities.

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWSheadquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in thisissue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2013. The committee looksforward to receiving these nominations for 2014 consideration.

Sincerely,

Lee KvidahlChair, Counselor Selection Committee

Counselor Letter 2013_Layout 1 12/12/12 9:16 AM Page 16

Nomination of AWS Counselor

I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUNDIn 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize indi-

vidual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced theimage and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on anindividual’s career of outstanding accomplishment.

To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership inthe welding industry by one or more of the following:

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding industry. (The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employeesin industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to trainingand vocational education in the welding industry. (The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)

II. RULESA. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.B. Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of

the Society.C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS

headquarters.D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1

of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years.F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.G. Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for

election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards at the same time.

III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTEDMaximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.

Return completed Counselor nomination package to:

Wendy S. ReeveAmerican Welding SocietySenior ManagerAward Programs and Administrative Support

Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293

SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 201

8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130Doral, FL 33166

3

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(please type or print in black ink)

COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________


POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BESELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAYBE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

**MOST IMPORTANT**The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-

formation and support material provided by the candidate’s Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.

SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include adetailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in additionto the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________AWS Member No.______________




CLASS OF 2014

SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2013

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JANUARY 201320

RWMAQ&A BY TOM SNOW

Q: Our company needs extra spot weld-ing capacity because production is increas-ing. We have an old spot welding machinein storage that has not run in years. ShouldI try to get it going or buy a new one?

A: As with many things in life, “it all de-pends.”

Spot welding machines are among themost durable of production machines andthe “three Rs” of machine maintenancecan easily be applied — repair, retrofit,or rebuild.

That being said, some brands of spotwelding machines are better than othersand an old, light-duty machine may not beworth fixing.

To begin finding the answer to yourquestion, check to see if your machine issuitable for the anticipated welding appli-cation. As an example, if you need to weldtwo pieces of 12-gauge mild steel, a little10-kVA foot-operated rocker arm machineis not going to get the job done properly.

Charts are readily available listing var-ious combinations of amperage (heat) andpressure (forging force) required forwelding various material thickness com-binations. Hopefully your machine hasenough capacity to achieve a “Class A”weld, which optimizes strength and ap-pearance by using proper force, high am-perage, and short weld time.

Also, if your application involves pro-jection welding, such as resistance weld-ing nuts or studs, an air-operated verticalaction “press-type” welding machine withthe proper diameter cylinder is the way togo. A rocker arm spot welding machine,although typically less expensive, appliesweld force with a rocking action and willnot “set down” the projections evenly.

And speaking of rocker arm spot weld-ing machines, be wary of installing longerarms if the existing arms are too short toreach all the welds on your deepest part.Because the spot welding electrode tipsare typically on the “wrong” end of theair-operated fulcrum mechanism, increas-ing the arm length robs the machine ofweld force capability.

As an example, one representativeheavy-duty rocker arm spot welding ma-chine built to RWMA Size 3 specificationscan produce 2250 lb of weld force at 80lb/in.2 of incoming air pressure with an 18-in. throat depth, whereas extending thethroat to 36 in. reduces the maximumavailable force to 1150 lb, a loss of morethan a half-ton of forging capability.

Likewise, as the throat depth or verti-cal shut height (gap) between arms is in-creased, the available welding amps at the

tips will decrease due to the larger sec-ondary loop. In other words, a spot weld-ing machine with an 18-in. throat depthwill produce significantly more amps thanthe same machine with 36-in. armsinstalled.

The same rocker arm spot welding ma-chine spec sheet referenced in our exam-ple shows that a 50-kVA machine with 18-in. arms installed produces 22,100 second-ary amps at full power settings, whereasthe same machine with a 36-in. throat pro-duces 15,700 A. This could be the differ-ence between making a good or bad weld.

Once you’ve determined that yourwelding machine in storage is suitable forthe application, examine its condition.Many older resistance spot welding machines are built better than new ones,so a heavy-duty resistance welding ma-chine that’s 20–40 years old should notbe ruled out.

A “veteran” American-made spotwelding machine built to RWMA specifi-cations is often superior to some of thelight-duty imported machines on the mar-ket today. However, if the welding ma-chine is more than 10–15 years old, itwould probably benefit from being retro-fitted with a new control that includes allthe latest features — Figs. 1, 2.

Virtually all spot welding machine con-trols sold today have fully programmablefunctions, such as pulsation and upslope,that were once expensive options. If you’retrying to weld heavy material thicknessesand/or coated steel, those two options areoften a big help in achieving good welds.Also, these days it’s advisable to convertspot welding machines from mechanicalcontactors or mercury-filled ignitrons tomodern SCR contactors. Just be sure todispose of the ignitrons properly andlegally.

And if you want to greatly improve thesafety of the machine, a spot welding ma-chine control is now available with a “softtouch” safety feature that senses if some-thing nonmetallic is between the tips, suchas a finger, and retracts the tips beforeweld force is applied. This protects youroperator from serious finger injury andalso includes the ability to dress your elec-trodes under low force.

Once you’ve gotten a retrofit weldingmachine control on order, if needed, it’stime to address the condition of the ma-chine itself. Resistance welding machinesare relatively simple to fix if you under-stand the basics of electricity, pneumat-ics, and mechanics.

Here are the systems to check as youinspection and repair the machine as

needed or go through the process to com-pletely strip and rebuild the machine.

Welding Transformer: The Heartof the Machine

Spot welding machine transformershave no moving parts and often run for

Fig. 1 — Example of a heavy-duty press-type combination spot and projection weld-ing machine suitable for rebuilding.

Fig. 2 — The same press-type welding ma-chined after being stripped and rebuilt tolike-new specifications, including the in-stallation of a new control with program-mable functions.

RWMA January 2013_Layout 1 12/12/12 3:01 PM Page 20

21WELDING JOURNAL

decades if not abused. Abuse includesoverheating due to excessive duty cycleoperation, lack of adequate water flow,and internal water saturation due to waterleaks or condensation.

If your welding transformer is water-cooled, check to make sure the small-diameter internal copper water coolingtubes are not clogged, crushed, or leak-ing. If the machine has been run on cityor well water, minerals can accumulateover the years just like excessive choles-terol clogs our arteries. Chemicals areavailable to clear clogs in water coolinglines, but sometimes the transformerneeds to be disassembled so the waterlines can be replaced.

Shorted-out spot welding machinetransformers can be rebuilt, but it’s bestto send them to a specialist rather thanyour local electric motor repair shop.

Secondary Connections

Spot welding machines are designed togenerate heat at the weld zone due to theresistance of the material being welded,but every other source of resistance —from the transformer out to the electrodes(tips) — should be minimized. This is sig-nificant because the welding transformerconverts the incoming power of 220 or 440V into extremely low secondary voltage,typically only 6–8 V, that “pushes” the highwelding amperage through the weldingmachine’s secondary circuit. Any form ofunwanted resistance in the loop restrictsthe flow of welding current to the work.

Although it’s a lot of work, disassem-bling the welding machine’s copper sec-ondary loop connections and removingthe accumulated oxide is a task that shouldbe done annually.

If a connection in the welding machinesecondary has gotten loose and arced outover time, the contacting surfaces willneed to be remachined flat and smooth.Various conductive pastes are availablethat are designed to improve conductivityand reduce oxidation by coating the mat-ing surfaces prior to reassembly. For theultimate in conductivity, secondary con-nections can also be silver plated.

If the flexible copper shunts that con-duct electricity from the transformer tothe moving part of the welding machinehave broken copper sheets or show arc-ing at the connecting surfaces, they shouldbe replaced. Replacement shunts are notextremely expensive and are usually theweakest link in conducting the necessaryhigh welding current through thesecondary.

Pneumatic System

As the metal reaches the molten stateduring the spot welding process, deliveryof consistent force and fast forging follow-up is critical to good weld quality. Mostspot welding machines used in productionare air-operated, so check the air systemfor smooth operation. Air cylinders aresimple to repair and relatively inexpen-sive to replace, so don’t ignore those im-portant components.

Also, check to make sure there is aworking filter, regulator, lubricator(FRL), and gauge installed on the incom-ing air supply. Restriction of air to thewelding machine through a clogged FRLcan cause poor follow-up during the weld.This results in excessive metal expulsion(flash), reduced electrode life, and incon-sistent weld quality. If in doubt, replacethe FRL.

Mechanical System

On rocker arm spot welding machines,check for worn pivot points and replace

bearings as needed. An easy way to checkfor problems is to grab the arm out at theend and shake it from side to side. Thereshould not be much slack.

On vertical press type spot welding ma-chines, you can check the ram mechanismfor wear with a similar side-to-side andfront-to-rear method, but on machineswith roller rams, it’s also advisable to re-move the sheet metal that typically cov-ers the ram area and look for wear on theways and/or rollers — Fig. 3. Roller bear-ings can seize up and wear the ways. Onceagain, these mechanisms are relativelysimple to repair.

The old-style “quill” press welding ma-chine rams typically seen on U.S.-mademachines from the 1940s and some ma-chines being imported today are oftenmetal on metal and can be more challeng-ing to repair if lubrication has been ig-nored over the years and wear is heavy.Rather than spending money to repair oneof these rams, it might be time to scrapthe machine and use the proceeds to buya new one.

That’s the saving grace of old spotwelding machines — most of them areloaded with copper and, if salvaged prop-erly, can provide a nice down payment onanother machine.

And, as always, an experienced spotwelding machine dealer can help guideyour decision-making process and providethe needed material to get your old spotwelding machine back into production.◆

TOM SNOW is CEO, T.J. Snow Co., Inc.,Chattanooga, Tenn., a member companyof the RWMA, a permanent AWS standingcommittee. Send your comments and questions to Tom Snow at [email protected], or mail to TomSnow, c/o Welding Journal, 8669 DoralBlvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166.

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The I-Purge™ inflatable modular blad-der system, U.S. and foreign patents pend-ing, is equipped with interchangeablecomponents, including inflatable bladders(modules A and B) with a spark-resistantexterior cover and heavy-duty interior in-flatable bag. Quick connect interchange-able fittings snap in place and are corro-sion resistant. A stainless steel harness has

extended lengths available and easily nav-igates through pipes. Also showcased areproprietary relief valve technology, and atri-flow inner tubing system (blue, black,and exhaust hose) improves the efficiencyof gas flow in and out of the purge area.

Aquasol Corp.www.aquasolwelding.com(800) 564-9353

Direct Diode Laser OffersUltrahigh Brightness

The company designed the TeraBlade2000, a 2-kW ultrahigh-brightness directdiode laser, specifically for cutting steeland other metals in industrial applica-tions. It operates at 970 nm, features a

JANUARY 201322

The DP direct drive series, a new generation of frictionwelding machines, produce all types of drill pipes. A light-weight, quick release tooling system has been added so thereis no need for changeovers using cranes, and an updated, in-process optical measurement device provides accurate TIRdata for every component. In addition, the company devel-oped an in-cycle, internal boring tool for removing flash fromnarrow-diameter tool joints, meaning the process can be per-formed on the same machine without transferring the com-ponents elsewhere for a separate operation. The environ-mental friendly machine includes redesigned hydraulic packswith energy-saving, variable speed drives, nonpriming pumps,and low noise guard booths. Also, they are equipped withforge clamps for friction welding an unlimited range of pipesizes and lengths. They use a closed loop control system formonitoring the weld head speed and position.

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P and P January 2013_Layout 1 12/13/12 12:57 PM Page 22

23WELDING JOURNAL

100-micron output fiber, and a platformscalable up to 6 kW.

TeraDiodewww.teradiode.com(978) 952-2501

Animated Movie HighlightsPipe Manufacturing

The advertising design firm has cre-ated an animated movie with 3D motiongraphics, photographs, and text that pres-ent the American Steel Pipe ERW manu-facturing process. Included are images ofthe steel roll loading, edging, forming,welding, seam annealing, cutting, and in-spection processes at the plant. The pres-entation is available as a continuous HDvideo for YouTube and iPad® use, a loop-ing Flash swf file for trade show exhibitmonitors, and a navigable Flash swf forthe corporate Web site.

Ninetimeswww.ninetimes.com(707) 494-3883

GMA Gun Liner SystemReduces Downtime

The Quick Load™ Liner Au-toLength™ system minimizes downtimeand prevents quality problems associatedwith incorrect GMA gun liner length. Itcan be used with guns equipped with theseliners, specifically the Bernard™ T-Gun™

semiautomatic gun and Tregaskiss™ ro-botic GMA guns. Also, it helps reducewire-feeding problems and decreasesmeltbacks, along with premature contacttip failure and wear associated with mis-alignment between the liner and contacttip. A spring-loaded module housed in-side the power pin applies constant pres-sure on the liner, keeping it seated prop-erly in the retaining head at all times. Thesystem allows for up to 1 in. forgivenessand accommodates liner movement dur-ing welding.

Tregaskisswww.tregaskiss.com(877) 737-3111

iPhone® App ContainsSafety Information

The company has launched an appli-cation for iPhones® that provides metal-workers around the world with easy ac-cess to essential safety information. Theapp’s highlights include an abrasivesspeed chart that provides maximumrev/min information for the company’sdiscs; minimum and maximum grindingangles according to type of grinder andchoice of abrasive; a chart that providesoptimal drilling rev/min; an annular core

cutting speed chart, which establishes therecommended rev/min; a unit converter;flashlight; and a level to determine theangle of any surface. Walter Safety App canbe downloaded from iTunes.

Walter Surface Technologieswww.walter.com(800) 522-0321

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Mobile CollaborationConnects Experts toRemote Locations

Onsight, a mobile collaboration sys-tem, connects internal experts to remotelocations in real time with multiple layersof security. Companies can now take videocollaboration onto the plant floor, to asupplier location, or into the field wherethe problems are occurring. The systemcontains three components: either an On-sight 1000, Onsight 2000, or Onsight2000EX wireless device; Onsight Expert,the desktop collaboration software thatruns on the computer of a subject matterexpert; and Onsight Management Suite

software, which provides system adminis-trators with centralized managementtools.

Librestreamwww.librestream.com(800) 849-5507

Laser Beam SplittersFacilitate Measurements

A new line of CO2 laser beam splittersand laser beam combiners, made fromZnSe with various coatings to achieve

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their polarization states, are designed forengraving, marking, and scribing lasers.The beam splitters facilitate power meas-urements and other dual uses by reflect-ing a percentage of the beam, typically50% or polarization insensitive beam,which covers all polarizations. The beamcombiners permit alignment and focusingby providing a visual light beam.

Laser Research Opticswww.laserresearch.net(888) 239-5545

Posters Provide Guide toWelding, Cutting Processes

The company’s wall posters offer a vi-sual guide to GMAW, GTAW, SMAW,cored-wire, and oxyfuel gas welding andcutting processes. Included is informationon how to select the right welding equip-ment for a given process, wire feeder units,torches, and shielding gases. They areavailable free of charge.

Murex Welding Productswww.murexwelding.co.uk+44 (0) 1992 710000

Laser Safe Gloves ProtectAgainst Radiation

Laser Glove, a five-finger certified laserprotection glove, offers a resistance of 40kW/m2 against laser radiation of 1064 nmbefore exceeding the MPE Skin-Value.The glove’s features include temperatureisolation, protection against cutting dam-age, and coating of the fingertips and palmto protect delicate laser optics and opticalelements from sweat and other liquids.

Laservisionwww.laservision-usa.com(800) 393-5565

25WELDING JOURNAL




Welder’s Pliers Presentedfor Multipurpose Use

The 9 in. 360 Professional Multi-Pur-pose Welder’s Plier features an originalgroove-nose design for quick and cleanspatter removal; a precision-machined,laser heat-treated, knife-and-anvil cuttingedge for long-term cutting performance;an elongated nose with cross-hatch gripsfor secure drawing of wire or gripping ofhot metal; and two hammering surfaces.This six-in-one plier is made of 12 oz ofdrop-forged, high-carbon C1080 steel.Also available is a CODE BLUE® ver-sion of the tool, model number 360CB.Product specifications and images areavailable on the Web site.

Channellock, Inc.www.channellock.com(800) 724-3018

Catalog Showcases GMAWGuns and Consumables

The company’s new catalog helps cus-tomers select semiautomatic GMAWguns and consumables. Included is prod-uct feature and benefit information, aswell as comparative reference charts and

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JANUARY 201328

FABTECH 2012

With a supersized welding productmarketplace, fullon professionalprogram, and countless networkingopportunities, Las Vegas attendeescould bet the house they’d findsomething to enhance their careers atthis year’s show

BY ANDREW CULLISON, KRISTIN CAMPBELL, CARLOS GUZMAN, AND MARY RUTH JOHNSEN

ANDREW CULLISON ([email protected]) is publisher, KRISTIN CAMPBELL ([email protected]) is associate editor, and MARY RUTH JOHNSEN ([email protected]) is editor of the Welding Journal. CARLOS GUZMAN ([email protected]) is editor, Welding Journal en Español.

Cullison et al Feature January 2013_Layout 1 12/11/12 2:16 PM Page 28

29WELDING JOURNAL

Monday, November 12Annual Business Meeting Convenes. William Arent,

director of economic and urban development, Las Vegas Rede-velopment Agency, welcomed the American Welding Societyto the city of Las Vegas, noting the city has a population of600,000, with another two million in the surrounding area. Chal-lenges still exist in the manufacturing and construction sectors,but he sees opportunities developing in both of those areas. “Itis time to dwell on the positive,” he said. “Manufacturing in theUnited States is still the strongest in the world.”

The 93rd business meeting of the American Welding Soci-ety was called to order by AWS President William Rice. Digni-taries from 15 sister organizations in the United States and fromaround the world were recognized. President Rice then notedthis has been a very good year for the American Welding Soci-ety. He went on to list some of the Society’s achievements dur-ing 2012. In that list were the continuing development of Amer-ican Welding Online (AWO), a series of online courses for ed-ucation and certification programs; AWS hosting the Interna-tional Institute of Welding’s 65th Annual Assembly, which at-tracted 800 attendees from 49 countries; scouts all over thecountry earning the Boy Scout welding merit badge, the devel-opment of which was spearheaded by AWS; the success of thetraveling Careers in Welding trailer, which has exposed thou-sands of young people to welding; and the Society’s move intoa new World Headquarters, which had its grand opening thispast November.

President-elect Nancy Cole spoke of the shortage of weldersthat still plagues many industries. “To meet this shortage, wehave to improve the image of welding, invite new faces into theprofession, and get the word out of the good pay and opportu-

nities that exist,” she said. “Women have been underutilized incombating this shortage,” she continued. “I will celebratewomen in welding and encourage more to enter the professionduring my presidency.” Cole noted the many past and presentachievements of women who have advanced their careersthrough welding.

Adams Lecture. Professor Sindo Kou (Fig. 1) of the Uni-versity of Wisconsin, Madison, has spent much of his careerstudying fluid flow and solidification of the weld pool. Funda-mental research at the university has demonstrated the follow-

FABTECH 2012 defied the Las Vegas odds andcame up a winner. Attendance for the threedayevent was a robust 25,903, and the combined netsquare footage for the exhibition was 465,330.Crowds and optimism marked FABTECH, which washeld Nov. 12–14, in Las Vegas, Nev. On the weldingside, 522 exhibitors occupied 174,129 sq ft.Although uncertainties still exist in the economy,many manufacturers see an improving growth ratein 2013.

In addition to the exhibitions, there was a fullarena of educational opportunities throughout thethree days. More than 100 conferences, seminars,technical presentations, and keynote speakerswere offered to the attendees. One discussion thatgarnered a standingroom only crowd featured apanel of experts who offered an analysis on thepresidential election result and how it may affectmanufacturing in 2013. A roundup of that analysisis reported later in this article. Following is a daybyday review of the show’s highlights.

Fig. 1 — During this year’s Adams Lecture, Prof. SindoKou related how fluid flow and solidification duringwelding dominate the fusion zone of the resultant weld.


JANUARY 201330

ing: Computer models capable of calculating the weld-poolshape; visualization of Marangoni flow, including its reversaland oscillation; a theory on the effect of surface-active agentbeyond Heiple’s; quenching of the weld pool to reveal the mi-crostructure development during welding; suppression of solid-ification cracking with a wavy crack path; weakening of the par-tially melted zone by severe grain-boundary segregation; pre-diction and elimination of liquation-cracking susceptibility; fun-damental concepts regarding dissimilar filler metals; andmacrosegregation mechanisms beyond Savage’s.

The full text of Kou’s lecture was published in the Novem-ber 2012 Welding Journal beginning on page 287-s.

The AWS/SkillsUSA U.S. Invitational Weld Trials.Eleven competitors from five countries competed throughoutthe exposition in the AWS/SkillsUSA U.S. Invitational WeldTrials. Attendees witnessed firsthand the competition spreadover four days of welding using multiple welding processes. Thejudging criteria comprised safety, print reading, penetrationand fusion, distortion control, selection of filler metal, manipu-lative skills, destructive and nondestructive testing, welding ma-chine parameter setting, and general appearance of the proj-ect. Some of the welding required X-ray reviews and hydrostaticpressure tests to 1000 lb/in.2 to verify the integrity and qualityof the welds.

Six national SkillsUSA welder finalists (Fig. 2) competedalongside five international welders representing Australia,Canada, United Kingdom (2), and Russia.

The top three U.S.A. competitors were 1st place winner AlexPazkowski from Washtenaw Community College; 2nd place An-drew Cardin from Valley Technical High School; and 3rd placeTanner Tipsword from Wyoming College. The overall top threefinishers were Alex Pazkowski (Gold), Andrew Cardin (Silver),and Canadian Nick Kitt (Bronze).

The top three U.S.A. competitors will advance to a “tuneup” at the AIDT Training Center in Mobile, Ala., a division ofthe Alabama Department of Commerce that encourages eco-nomic development through job-specific training. Past Tea-mUSA welding medalists will train the three finalists to giveTeamUSA the best chances of earning a medal in Germany.These top three welders will compete for the final TeamUSA

position during the 2013 Daytona 500 Speedweek. That winnerwill not only represent the United States at the 42nd World-Skills Competition in Leipzig, Germany, July 2–7, but will alsoreceive a $40,000 scholarship from the Miller Electric Mfg. Co.,administered through the AWS Foundation.

Tuesday, November 13Plummer Memorial Education Lecture. Professor

Yoni Adonyi, LeTourneau University, Longview, Tex., deliveredthe Plummer Lecture for 2012 — Fig. 3. His talk was titled Weld-ing Engineering Education and Training — National and Inter-national Perspectives — Confessions of a PhD Who Can Weld.

From his formal educational beginning in Romania to hisPhD in welding engineering from The Ohio State University,Adonyi has led a life of varied experiences. His welding experi-ences began in the summers between college semesters andwere enhanced while in the Israeli military, where he becameproficient with the GTAW process welding aluminum.

Knowing how to weld has made him a better teacher. “Thepractical experience I learned from gas tungsten arc weldingmade me better aware of the fundamentals of the process andwhere improvements could be made,” he said.

His teaching career began when he became aware of an open-ing at LeTourneau University. Even though he was on a suc-cessful career path working in the research department of U.S.Steel at the time, he was willing to take a 40% pay cut to teach.“It was a calling I felt I had to fulfill,” he said. “It was an op-portunity to give back to society.” Adonyi was also concernedabout the lack of qualified welding engineers in the workforce.He cited statistics from a survey that indicated only 30% ofthose in industry who hold the title of welding engineer havethe educational background for that position. This group lack-ing in formal education for a welding engineer included me-chanical engineers and materials engineers, as well as welderswho have come up through the ranks.

His mission is to improve those statistics, but he feels for-mal education is under attack in the information age. “There isso much information available on the Internet that some mis-take this as enough for a formal education,” he said. “They thinkall knowledge can be accessed electronically,” he continued. In

Fig. 2 — The U.S.A. instructors are (back row, from left to right) Stan Nichols, Glenn Kay, Scott Holcomb, Dan Rivera,Matt Hayden, and Christian Beaty. The U.S.A. participants are (front row, left to right) Tanner Tipsword (3rd place inthe U.S.A. competition), Alex Pazkowski (1st place in the U.S.A. competition and Gold Medal overall), Jordan Decker,Andrew Cardin (2nd place in the U.S.A. competition and Silver Medal overall), Drew Swafford, and Michael Miller.


31WELDING JOURNAL

reality, education requires discipline anddirect instruction. He uses electroniccommunication to enhance learning, butplaces an emphasis on appealing to a stu-dent’s sense of reasoning. It is not justfinding the information, but he encour-ages processing the information.

Adonyi also spoke of some myths ofresearch vs. teaching that need debunk-ing. There is sometimes in academia thethinking that research is fun and teach-ing is boring, or research is just a money-making proposition, or teachers don’tknow how to do research. “I say teach-ing feeds on new research and researchcan’t exist without good teaching. Bybeing a teacher and a researcher, I havehelped to improve the curriculum and be-come much more aware of all the aspectsof the discipline,” he said.

As a teacher, he hopes to leave alegacy of adding value to the welding in-dustry and being a part of the solution.

Washington Insiders Evaluatethe Impact of Election Results onU.S. Manufacturing. A packed audi-ence formed at the North FABTECHTheater for “Post-Election Analysis:How the Results Impact U.S. Manufac-turing” held exactly one week after elec-tion day.

Paul Nathanson, a founding partnerat the Policy Resolution Group, moder-ated the event at which Omar S.Nashashibi, a partner at The FranklinPartnership, LLP, and David Goch, apartner at Webster, Chamberlain &Bean, served as panelists — Fig. 4.

The session kicked off withNashashibi detailing how PresidentBarack Obama won a second term andthe votes earned from various demo-graphics. As for what will happen next,considering the lame duck session ofCongress, one of the many issues is theframework regarding $109 billion in au-tomatic spending cuts.

In addition, Nathanson mentionednot wanting to fall off the fiscal cliff. Itis expected the 113th Congress will tacklenumerous important issues next year.

“We are hoping for a comprehensivetax reform,” Nashashibi said. Goch alsobelieves Obama’s second term will be acollective legacy with Congress and thepresident working together.

At the end, Nathanson spoke aboutworkforce development. Nashashibi feelsconnecting community colleges withworkplaces and bringing parents into fa-cilities are essential. Goch adds educa-tion should be a national strategic initia-tive, not a social issue. “The long-termvalue is enormous,” Goch said.

Women Celebrate Their Contributions to the Gases and WeldingIndustries. The Women in Gases andWelding Network (WGW) got its startwith the GAWDA organization and isnow a collaboration between AWS andGAWDA. At this reception duringFABTECH, AWS President-Elect NancyCole stated that industry needs to get theword out to women about the many op-portunities available in the gases andwelding industries. She shared stories

about women currently working in a va-riety of welding-related fields who are ex-cellent role models.

Emily DeRocco, former president,The Manufacturing Institute, NationalAssociation of Manufacturers, noted thatthe number of women in manufacturingis still low — Fig. 5. “Women hold lessthan 25% of STEM (science, technology,engineering, and mathematics) jobs, in-cluding in manufacturing and energy,”she said. According to the U.S. Dept. ofCommerce in 2011, “The number ofwomen in executive positions was 11%in the durable goods category, and 13%in nondurable goods. However, the num-ber of women-owned businesses in man-ufacturing has doubled in the last

Fig. 3 — Professor Yoni Adonyi, LeTourneau University, presentedthe Plummer Lecture.

Fig. 4 — Moderator Paul Nathanson along with panelists Omar S. Nashashibiand David Goch (on stage, from left) led “PostElection Analysis: How theResults Impact U.S. Manufacturing.”

Fig. 5 — Emily DeRocco, formerpresident of The ManufacturingInstitute, said she hoped to seegrowth in the number of womeninvolved in manufacturing because it offers them opportunitiesfor wellpaid, skilled jobs.


Wednesday, November 14Thomas Lecture. David Bolser of The Boeing Co., St.

Louis, Mo., gave this year’s Thomas Lecture, “Standards forFriction Stir Welding Aluminium” — Fig. 6.

He identified friction stir welding (FSW), patented by TWILtd., England, in 1991, as a solid-state welding process that pro-duces high-quality welds in difficult-to-weld materials.

When increased FSW use created the need for a U.S. stan-dard, AWS published D17.3/D17.3M:2010, Specification for Fric-tion Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys for Aerospace Applications.Also, when increased FSW use created the need for an ISOstandard, Bolser was asked to lead a working group to write thisspecification. In detail, he described the five parts of ISO 25239,Friction stir welding — Aluminium, including vocabulary; designof weld joints; qualification of welding operators; specificationand qualification of welding procedures; and quality and in-spection requirements.

In summary, Bolser stated the adoption of FSW standardsrepresents a significant leap in the technology readiness levelof the process and its ability to move into production. Duringthe Q&A portion, he offered good advice; the team leader workshard with committee members to put together a standard, sothree-day meetings are best, and have someone who knows thesystem tutor you.

10th Annual Image of Welding Award WinnersHonored. The American Welding Society (AWS) and theWelding Equipment Manufacturers Committee (WEMCO) rec-ognized the recipients of the 2012 10th Annual Image of Weld-ing Awards during a ceremony at FABTECH — Fig. 7. The win-ners are as follows.

• Individual Category, Ernest D. Levert, Dallas, Tex. Levert,the senior staff manufacturing engineer for Lockheed MartinMissiles and Fire Control, Dallas, Tex., is a past AWS presidentand an AWS Counselor. He has averaged more than 1100 h ofvolunteer service to the Boy Scouts of America and local schoolseach year.

JANUARY 201332

decade.” She said manufacturing is stillwhere high-skilled, high-level, high-paid,middle-class jobs can be found, butwomen have made up only 2.5% of theskilled trades over the past 30 years.

“Two things need to be done,” shesaid. “Manufacturers need highly skilledworkers and workers — male and female— need training for skilled jobs.”

Two new scholarships for women wereannounced during the reception. AirProducts and the AWS Foundation arejointly establishing a $50,000 scholarshipto help enable women to develop theskills required to pursue technical ca-reers. The first annual $2500 scholarshipwill be awarded this year to a woman pur-suing higher education in a welding orengineering discipline, who has provento be an exceptional student and is eagerto start her career in the industry.

“We are excited about coming to-gether with the AWS to provide thisscholarship opportunity to women for thebenefit of our industry,” said Sue Reiter,

regional distributor sales manager at AirProducts and a member of the WGWstrategic committee. “This scholarshipprogram supports not only Air Products’future employment needs, but also thecreation of a workforce with the skillsnecessary to help companies compete intoday’s global economy.”

The William F. Fray National Womenin Welding Scholarship will also beawarded through the AWS Foundation.Fray was a life member of AWS andowner of a stainless steel tank fabrica-tion company in Bridgeport, Conn. Hisdaughter, Elizabeth (Liz) Fray, who ranthe organizational side of the tank com-pany for 20 years, wanted to honor herfather. The $50,000 endowment will po-vide an annual award of $2500. The firstaward will be made after November ofthis year. Liz Fray decided to create ascholarship specifically for women be-cause there was not one in place previ-ously, and her focus is to encourage andsupport women toward a welding career.

Fig. 6 — David Bolser explained thefive parts of ISO 25239, Friction stirwelding — Aluminium, during hisThomas Lecture.

Fig. 7 — Pictured at the 2012Image of Welding Awards (fromleft) are winners Ernest D. Levert(Individual); David Parker (Educator); Allie Reynolds (Distributor,WELSCO); David Corbin (LargeBusiness, Vermeer Corp.); andGlenn Kay (Educational Facility,Washtenaw Community College).


For the machine shop that needs anall-inclusive fluid filtration and recyclingsystem, the SumpDoc from Eriez® is oncall. Just introduced this year at IMTS,this machine can be moved from sump tosump with an attached motorized pallet— Fig. 8. A fully automated system firstremoves sludge and chips from the sump,then filters out particulates down to 3 mi-crons in size and separates oils. While thecoolant recycles, the oils are collected in

a disposable tank. The clean coolant isanalyzed and mixed with water in threedifferent levels of concentration, de-pending on the needs of the operation.Since this is all happening in a continu-ous loop, there is no need to shut downthe operation. This equipment is eco-nomically feasible for an operation with ten sumps or more. Eriez®,www.eriez.com

The BW5000 (Fig. 9) from Climax isdesigned for circumferential weldcladding, and it can operate at 100% dutycycle with a compatible CV power sup-ply. Pipes, pressure vessels, and even con-ical shapes are within its capabilities.

Weld deposits of 0.125 to 0.35 in. thickcan be made at up to a 12 lb/h rate. Theunit can also weld flange faces and coni-cal seats. It takes welders out of difficultand hard-to-reach situations, as well asremoves them from fume concentrationsin confined areas. Climax Portable Ma-chining & Welding Systems, www.climaxportable.com

A first-time exhibitor at FABTECH,Hex-Hut is out to introduce its portableshelter system to the U.S. market. Thenine-year-old company has been activemostly in Canada in the oil and gas in-

33WELDING JOURNAL

• Educator Category, David Parker, Renton, Wash. Parker, aninstructor at Renton Community College for more than 30 years,received several awards including the statewide, 2001 Excel-lence in Teaching Award by the Washington Association of Oc-cupational Educators. He has also helped companies set up cur-riculums for training welders.

• Educational Facility, Washtenaw Community College (WCC),Ann Arbor, Mich. WCC’s welding/fabrication facility has 60newly redesigned welding booths. With a staff of industry-ex-perienced and AWS-certified instructors, it offers certificateand associate degree welding programs. WCC student weldersrepresented the U.S.A. at the last two WorldSkills competitionsand brought home medals both times.

• Small Business, AMET, Inc., Rexburg, Idaho. AMET, startedin 1989, offers turnkey automated welding systems. It has beenan integrator of computerized welding systems to meet de-manding applications in nuclear, aerospace, oil and gas, windtower, heavy industry, and general manufacturing industries.

• Large Business, Vermeer Corp., Pella, Iowa. Since its startin 1948, Vermeer has grown from a one-person Iowa operation

to an international organization that manufactures agricultural,construction, environmental, and industrial equipment. It hasstarted facilitating plans for a career academy, enlisting the as-sistance of area educational institutions.

• Distributor, WELSCO, Little Rock, Ark. WELSCO, the largestwoman-owned gas and welding supply distributor in the UnitedStates, is also a family business that has served the market formore than 70 years. It sponsors the Arkansas Welding Expo andoffers process training sessions for instructors during the sum-mer breaks.

• AWS Section, Houston Section, Houston, Tex. The AWSHouston Section sponsors various events throughout the year,including an instructor’s institute, student certification day,spring and fall educational sessions, and student nights. Thisyear, it awarded eight welding scholarships totaling $8500.

• Media, Meghan Boyer, “Help Wanted, Skills Required.” Pub-lished in the February 2012 FF Journal, Boyer’s article “HelpWanted, Skills Required,” focuses on manufacturers’ need forworkers, Americans who need jobs, and the skills gap keepingthem apart.

Fig. 8 — An attached motorizedpallet facilitates moving the Eriez®SumpDoc to different locations.

Fig. 9 — The BW5000 is designedfor weld cladding circular surfacesboth inside and outside diameters.

Fig. 10 — A lightweight support attaches directly to the pipe to holdthe HexHut shelter.

Of course, the products and vendors are FABTECH’s biggestdraw. Following are just a few of those that drew the attentionof Welding Journal editors.

Welding ProductShowcase

FABTECH 2012


dustry. The frame that supports theflame-retardant material of the shelterattaches directly to the pipe (Fig. 10) andcan be configured to meet differentslopes or elevations. Setup is done withpins and lanyards, eliminating the needfor special tools or hardware. Three dif-ferent sizes are available weighing 139,167, and 213 lb to accommodate pipesizes from 3 to 56 in. Hex-Hut, www.hex-hut.com

The Warrior power source fromESAB was literally unveiled atFABTECH — Fig. 11. This new intro-duction took a fast track for developmentrequiring only ten months. By workingdirectly with welders, the company gotquick feedback with prototypes that weretested in the field. What welders said theywanted was a machine easy to use, withsimple controls, robust enough for toughworking conditions, and performance.ESAB claims to have incorporated thiswish list into the Warrior. All controls,as well as the power switch, are accessi-ble on the front of the machine, and theknob design takes into account the wear-ing of gloves. It is a multiprocess machinethat performs FCAW, GMAW, GTAW,SMAW, and arc gouging. The unit can de-liver up to 500 A at 60% duty cycle, andit can be used in general fabricationunder roof, or outdoors in remote loca-tions. ESAB, www.esabna.com

A new promotion for Motoman is itsMC2000 robot intended for high accu-racy laser cutting — Fig. 12. The gear de-sign has taken out the “backlash,” allow-ing repeatability within 0.07 mm accu-racy in cutting rectangles, ellipses, pen-tagons, hexagons, and circles. This six-axis robot can handle up to a 50-kg pay-load. In addition to cutting, it can also beused for welding. Yaskawa America, Inc.,Motoman Robotics Div., www.mo-toman.com

The FIT RITE system consists of fix-tures designed to optimize the speed andaccuracy of pipe fits. The system’s inven-tor, Kayworth Mann, said the idea for theprecision pipe fitting system came to himin a dream. He had been working as aconsultant on a job and felt that becauseof the time spent fitting pipe some prof-its had been lost. That bothered him, sohe began thinking of another way. Thesystem’s primary fixture is the fitting cra-dle that holdes pipe or flanges and thefitting rests to properly position align-ment — Fig. 13. Included are two fittingcradles; one fitting rest each for pipe nip-ple, short pipe, T, short radius elbow, and45-deg elbow; and a patented tri-spacerfor alignment of spacing. The tri-spacercan also be used to adjust roundness ofthe pipe or tube. The system comes in

sizes ranging from 1⁄2 through 12 in. nom-inal. Universal fixtures are available insizes ranging from 14 in. through 24-in.nominal. Fixtures for pipe from 26 to 72in. can be produced by special order. FitRite, www.fitritefast.com

Lincoln Electric introduced its latestvirtual reality arc welding training prod-uct during this year’s show. TheVRTEX® Mobile (Fig. 14) deliversbasic, entry-level training. It comes witha preinstalled basic GMAW package pro-viding training for flat plate, 2F and 3Fjoints, and 1G, 2G, and 3G grooves. ASMAW package is optional. The virtualSMAW device is at a fixed 90-deg angle.It comes with a monoscopic, face-mounted display with touchscreen userinterface, and a tabletop coupon stand.Deanna Postlethwaite, marketing man-ager, Automation Div., said, “What wefound with the first (VRTEX™ 360 sys-tem,) was that people were moving it allthe time, and it wasn’t really designed forthat.” The new smaller, less expensive,more basic version offers the mobilitycustomers were looking for. The LincolnElectric Co., www.lincolnelectric.com

A lot of people took a look at Baxter™during the show, and it seemed that it waslooking back at them — Fig. 15. Thebrainchild of Rodney Brooks, former di-rector of the artificial intelligence labo-ratory at MIT and one of the founders ofiRobot, Baxter is a robot with a some-what human appearance that can per-form a variety of production tasks whilesafely and intelligently working next topeople. A key feature is that anyone canprogram it. The robot “learns” its tasksthrough demonstrations of what it needsto do. It was designed with a safety sys-tem that allows it to work in close prox-

JANUARY 201334

Fig. 11 — The Warrior, a multiprocess power source designed formany different applications, wasintroduced by ESAB.

Fig. 13 — The FIT RITE pipe fittingsystem, shown here with its inventor Kayworth Mann, providesflange alignment and bolt hole orientation in seconds and can beused in the shop or field.

Fig. 12 — The Motoman MC2000robot’s gear design allows repeatability within 0.07mm accuracy.

Fig. 14 — The VRTEX® Mobile offers basic GMAW and SMAW virtual reality welder training, andcan be moved to wherever it’sneeded.


imity to people in a production environ-ment with no barriers. No integration isrequired; it comes out of the box withhardware, software, controls, user inter-face, safety, and sensors. It can performa wide range of tasks incuding materialhandling, light assembly, loading/unload-ing, and testing and sorting. The robotfeatures two arms, each with seven axesof motion, built-in electric grippers, andfive cameras. It is priced at $22,000. Re-think Robotics, Inc., www.rethinkrobot-ics.com

The UDR-V2011 ultradynamic-rangeweld video camera system filters the lightfrom the arc to produce images in therange best seen by the human eye. Withthe system, it is possible to view the arc,electrode, weld pool, joint and surround-ing base metal before, during, and afterthe welding process live or record the im-ages for later use. Designed for use in au-tomated welding for weld quality assur-ance, and for development and setup ofweld processes. The system includes thecamera, laptop or desktop computer,software, and cables — Fig. 16. There isno need for physical filters, the softwareperforms the filtering function. It recordsthe full ultradynamic range of up to 10,000,000:1. InterTest, www.in-tertest.com

The LD-600R, a compact tilt/turn po-sitioner, handles pieces in excess of 1100lb six in. off the table — Fig. 17. Opera-tion is simple with standard foot switchand pendant controls, as well as an easy-to-read protractor dial indicator. It alsooffers a compact size (705 lb unit weight)and square footprint design. The posi-tioner can be used with GTA and GMAwelding machines. A new noise tolerancedesign reduces the impact generated dur-ing GTAW to ensure stable rotation. Thecompany’s exclusive antidust and spatterdesign allows stable operation. It is use-ful for users in pipefitting and petro-chemical industries along with boiler-makers. Options include a torch stand,automatic welding controller, and workchuck. Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome,www.koike.com

The Powermax105® offers a 105-A airplasma system for hand and automatedcutting as well as gouging — Fig. 18. Itcuts 11⁄4-in.-thick metal and severs metalup to 2 in. thick. Based on the same tech-nology platform as the Powermax65 andPowermax85, the product represents fouryears of research, engineering, and test-ing. Also, it delivers faster cut speed, im-proved cut quality, and long consumablelife; seven torch options for cutting andgouging versatility, whether by hand, ma-chine, or robot; and patented Smart-Sense™ technology that automaticallyadjusts gas pressure and detects whenconsumables have reached end of life.Hypertherm, www.hypertherm.com

The HS-80, HS-165, and HS-200, com-bined with Panasonic’s G3 welding robot,position the material for welding to pro-vide a synchronized robotic system — Fig.19. They are available in 80-, 165-, and200-kg versions. The common pendantand language eliminates the need to learnextra robotic languages. The robots workin tandem to complete tasks. In addition,programming the weld position becomesas easy as working with a fixed workpiece,ensuring out-of-position welding isavoided. The material handling robotsoffer network capabilities with fully digi-tal communication protocol. They arealso useful for heavy equipment, automo-tive, and material handling industries.Miller Electric Mfg. Co., www.miller-welds.com

Jackson Safety’s autodarkening weld-ing helmets featuring Balder technologygive welders a clear view from various an-gles, reducing eye fatigue as well as the

35WELDING JOURNAL

Fig. 15 — Rethink Robotics designed its robot so anyone couldprogram it and so people couldwork near it without the need for asafety cage.

Fig. 17 — A new design in LD600R,a portable multipurpose positioner, reduces the impact of noisegenerated during GTAW ensuresstable rotation.

Fig. 18 — For cutting and gougingflexibility, the Powermax105® features seven torch options.

Fig. 19 — The G3 material handlingrobots, combined with Panasonic’sG3 welding robot, position the material for optimum welding.

Fig. 16 — The software of the UDRV2011 digital weld video camerasystem filters out the light fromthe welding arc so users see a clearimage of the weld.


need to move, adjust, and refocus. TheWH70 BH3 helmet with this technologyoffers enhanced visibility and colorrecognition, plus a variable shade (9–13),adjustable sensitivity, and opening timedelays — Fig. 20. It is especially usefulfor GMAW and GTAW. Improvementsover the HSL-100 include a curved frontcover plate for reduced heat buildup, re-flections, and fogging. The helmet has afive-year warranty. Kimberly-Clark Pro-fessional, www.kcprofessional.com

UltraBraze™ from Luvata is a newfurnace brazing alloy that promises to im-prove on alloys commonly used for thisapplication, such as pure copper (CDA102 or 110 alloy) or a paste mixture con-sisting of pure copper powder and abinder — Fig. 21. UltraBraze, which isapproximately 95% copper, is formu-lated to offer better wetting with reducedpuddling and run-off, automaticallyadapting to joint clearance variances toproduce more uniform welds. In tests,

shear strength associated with this newalloy increased more than 50%. Costs arereduced because there is no need to useflux or binders, and because the resultsare more consistent, there are less de-fects and rework. Luvata Ohio, Inc.,www.luvata.com/ohio

Walter Surface Technologies pre-sented the AF-WELD antispatter and AirForce Starter Kit that includes the use ofthe Air Force Station, four 2.6-gal con-tainers of AF-WELD liquid, and two re-fillable bottles — Fig. 22. The station re-fills the bottles with the antispatter liq-uid, and air is used as a propellant, mak-ing this a green system that eliminatesthe use of polluting propellants and dis-posable aerosol cans. The manufacturerasserts that AF-WELD prevents weldporosity, cracking, is corrosion resistant,and allows for immediate painting. Alarger kit is also available, including a 55-gal drum, six refillable bottles, and theAir Force Station. The station is includedin the kit free of charge but remains prop-erty of the manufacturer. Walter SurfaceTechnologies, www.walter.com

Engineers, purchasing professionals,and facilities managers can convenientlyfind suppliers, source products, and ac-cess CAD models and product news byvisiting the new ThomasNet.com Website. The new Product Search platform(ps.thomasnet.com) enables users to findspecific components and products.Thomas has aggregated detailed infor-mation and line item detail for more than

100 million parts from more than 30,000suppliers. Product Search allows users tospecify the product they are looking forusing taxonomy-powered search and nav-igation features. Specifiers can find theproduct that meets their requirements bydefining precise product attributes suchas applications, materials, dimensions,and tolerances. The new site also makesit easier for buyers to find local suppli-ers, quality certified suppliers, and com-panies that meet their supplier diversityrequirements. ThomasNet, www.thomas-net.com

StoodCor™ 136 by Stoody is a newcarbide deposit that produces chromiumand fine primary carbides in an austeniticmatrix — Fig. 23. It’s designed to be usedas an erosion- and corrosion-resistantalloy deposit for hardfacing and claddingapplications, and its ability to resist highabrasion in a corrosive environmentmakes it especially suitable for hardfac-ing and cladding slurry pipe, plate, andvessels found in mixing, mining and quar-rying industries. Stoody, Victor Tech-nologies International, Inc., www.victortechnologies.com/stoody

See You in ChicagoThe 2013 FABTECH will be held at

McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill., Novem-ber 18–21. It will be North America’slargest welding, metalforming, and fab-ricating event in 2013. For more infor-mation, visit www.aws.org/expo.♦

JANUARY 201336

Fig. 20 — The WH70 BH3 helmetwith Balder technology improveswelders’ vision.

Fig. 21 — Luvata presented its newfurnace brazing alloy, UltraBraze,designed to overcome the challenges of large joint clearancesteeltosteel brazing.

Fig. 23 — StoodCor™ 136 is anopenarc wire suited for IDcladding of pipe. It provides botherosion and corrosion resistance tomeet the needs of slurry transportation applications.

Fig. 22 — The Air Force AFWELDStarter Kit includes four 2.6galcontainers, two refillable bottles,and the Air Force Station.



astaras_FP_TEMP 12/11/12 3:14 PM Page 37

Fig. 1 — A robotic hybrid laser welding system.

Denney Laser feature_Layout 1 12/13/12 3:44 PM Page 38

39WELDING JOURNAL

The process of combining lasers withgas metal arc welding (GMAW) in asingle weld pool, known as hybrid

laser arc welding (HLAW), has been inexistence for almost 30 years — Figs. 1, 2(Refs. 1, 2). The HLAW process was de-veloped to meet many of the shortcom-ings of autogenous laser welding. The firstissues that HLAW addressed were fitupand the need in some applications to alterthe chemistry. In the past, the only high-power lasers (greater than 5 kW) that re-ally could benefit from HLAW were car-bon dioxide (CO2), but their high coststo purchase and operate limited their use.But with advances in fiber-deliveredsolid-state lasers (Yb-disk and Yb-fiber),the “ownership costs” have drasticallylowered for high-power lasers.

In 1995, a 10-kW CO2 laser cost ap-proximately $1 million. Today, with in-flation factored in, a similar Yb-fiberlaser costs about one-third that amount.In addition to the reduction in procure-ment cost, the reliability and mainte-nance for the new solid-state lasers aresignificantly better than for the older gaslasers.

Today, with these lower costs andhigher powers for the lasers, there is arenewed interest in the use of HLA weld-ing for a wide range of applications.Many have predicted that, with these

changes, HLAW technology would dis-place traditional arc welding for a largenumber of applications. However, thenumbers of HLAW systems sold do notsupport those predictions. The questionis, “Why?”

Even before the development of thenew solid-state lasers, there were suc-cesses using HLAW. These applicationswere based on HLAW that used high-power CO2 lasers. The most notable wasthe installation of a panel line at theMeyer Werft Shipyard in Pappenburg,Germany, which was made operationalin 2001 (Ref. 3). The system used threehigh-power CO2 lasers to weld bulk-head/deck panels [max. 12 mm (1⁄2 in.)]together and then attach the bulb “Ts” tothe panels.

While the higher welding speed was abenefit compared with submerged arcwelding (SAW), another advantage wasthe lower distortion compared to arcwelding. In addition, postweldingprocesses such as leveling and dealingwith general distortion could be reducedor eliminated.

The panel line at Meyer Werft Ship-yard has been used as a model for the im-plementation of HLAW, but implemen-tation has not been as successful at othershipyards or in other industries. Whilethese lessons are now almost 15 years old,

heeding the lessons learned and evaluat-ing some simple recommendations mayhelp to successfully implement HLAW.

Some of the issues that may impactthe successful implementation of HLAWare as follows.

Joint Design

When examining whether HLAW willbe of benefit, many engineers look attheir present weld joints and simply sub-stitute a “laser weld” for the existingprocess. However, for most arc weldingprocesses, the joints have been designedwith a considerable amount of the weldjoint consisting of filler material suppliedby the welding process. With this in mind,and the fact that most arc processes havehigh deposition rates and slower weldingspeeds, filling these root openings andaddressing mismatch can be accom-plished by making minor corrections towelding speed or wire feed speed, or bymoving the torch in a weaving pattern.

Also, the profile/geometry of an ac-ceptable weld has been defined aroundthese arc processes. However, for an edgefillet application, the ability to meet theleg and/or throat thickness is determinedby the amount of welding wire that canbe melted with the root opening/mis-match and travel speed desired — Fig. 3.

Combining lasers with your gas metal arc

welding line may offer several advantages,

but first consider all the pros and cons

PAUL DENNEY ([email protected]) is senior laser applications en-gineer, Automation Division, The LincolnElectric Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

What You Should Know aboutHybrid Laser Arc Welding

BY PAUL DENNEY

Denney Laser feature_Layout 1 12/17/12 9:05 AM Page 39

JANUARY 201340

For HLAW, developed around the factthat a laser is a high-power-densityprocess that can achieve high aspect ratiowelds, using this process to melt materialfor a weld joint primarily focused on thesize of the fillet greatly diminishes theadvantages of the HLAW process. Sobutt joints are more “efficient” for thelaser than a true “fillet” weld where thelaser is only assisting in the melting ofthe wire/filler material.

Specifications

There are limited industry specifica-tions that address HLAW. In the case ofthe Meyer Werft application, the ship-yard worked closely with Det Norske Ver-itas (DNV) to develop specifications forHLAW as it applied to ships. ASME hasdeveloped a specification for hybridwelding, and the American Welding So-ciety is in the process of forming Sub-committee C7D to develop specificationsfor HLAW. The U.S. Navy has acceptedHLAW processing on a very limited basis.

In most cases, these specifications de-tail the parameters that should be con-sidered critical and do not address theperformance of the weld joint. In manycases, this is left to the company that isusing the process. For those companiesthat are directly substituting the HLAWfor an arc process, especially those withfillets, the specifications would normallyinclude the leg and throat size and wouldnot consider the penetration along an in-terface. This use of arc-based specifica-tions would often also specify a penetra-tion into the base material. This is im-portant because the welds may have toolittle heat input and result in incompletefusion. This is less of an issue for thelaser; in fact, the more energy from thelaser used to melt the base material, theless efficient the laser/HLAW process.

For those reasons, the most efficientjoint (heat input vs. the area of the weld)is a square butt joint. For example, theHLA weld shown in Fig. 4, with an inter-face between the two parts greater than1.5 times the thinnest member, would notpass many company specifications be-cause the vertical leg is less than thethinnest member and the throat is notsufficient.

Prewelding Steps

While a square butt or similar joint isthe most efficient, it may not be practi-cal for many potential users of HLAW toalter their designs to a butt joint. Manypotential users of HLAW presently use

sheared edges or possibly thermally cutedges for their arc process. These cuttingprocesses usually result in larger rootopenings and mismatch than usually rec-ommended for laser or HLAW. Withoutinvesting in improved cutting methodsand/or clamping techniques, it may notbe practical to use HLAW.

In the Meyer-Werft applications, thejoints were machined to improve fitup.This ensured minimal root opening and,therefore, minimal filler metal addition.It also meant that the process did nothave to be adjusted for changing condi-tions. In many applications, it is not prac-tical to machine the edges that would be

HLA welded. However, with incorrectweld joint design, dealing with a too largeroot opening can sometimes make theprocess impractical.

As an example, a typical joint that isbeing considered for HLAW would be anedge fillet in two materials 2.5 mm thick.If the GMAW joint specifications aregoing to be used, that normally wouldmean that the weld nugget must have aleg equal to the thickness of the plate (2.5mm) and a throat thickness 60% of thethickness. If these parts are stamped andsheared, it is not unusual to have rootopenings equal to 2 mm, so the new legwould be 4.5 mm. Assuming an equal

Fig. 2 — Diagram of the hybrid laser-gas metal arc welding process.

Fig. 3 — Illustration of how a large root opening greatly increases the quantity ofadditional filler metal required.


legged fillet, the joint is now 4.5 × 4.5mm. That means to address the legsalone, the volume of material depositedmust increase by 3.24 times the “no-rootopening” condition.

In turn, if the welding speed is to re-main constant, then the weld wire feedspeed must increase by that factor (withan increase in current) or the weldingspeed must decrease. Assuming the useris GMA welding at 17 mm/s (40 in./min),then the wire feed speed for a no-rootopening situation would be 34 mm/s (118in./min) for 1.2-mm- (0.045-in.-) diame-ter wire and 112 mm/s (472 in./min) witha 2-mm root opening.

These speeds are well within typicalwire feed and corresponding welding pa-rameters for typical equipment. How-ever, for a typical 6-kW-laser HLAWprocess, the welding speed would be ex-pected to be 50 mm/s (120 in./min). Thismeans to achieve the same fillet size, thewire-feed speed for zero root openingwould be 161 mm/s (354 in./min) and 523mm/s (1418 in./min).

As an alternative to these parameters,it may be possible to decrease the travelspeed. Unfortunately, if the speed is de-creased much below 42 mm/s (100in./min), the travel speed will be veryclose to speeds achievable with tandemGMAW, which is less expensive to ac-quire and operate.

Other ConsiderationsIn considering the use of HLAW vs.

GMAW, the total number of welds perpart and the length of each of these weldsmust be considered. As an example, formany automotive parts, the GMA weld-ing that is accomplished is done as smallstich welds that may be only 50 to 75 mm

(2 to 3 in.) in length. While these weldsmay only be made at a quarter to one-third of the speed of HLAW, the “airtime” of the robot constitutes most of thecycle time. Therefore, moving fromGMAW to HLAW will not substantiallydecrease the cycle time. For parts with alarge number of short welds, the cycletime and, therefore, the number of weld-ing cells required to meet a productionrate, is not going to be changed dramati-cally by the higher welding speed of theHLA process. It may actually be less ex-pensive and faster to add another GMAwelding robot than to convert to HLAW.

As with any fusion process, the mate-rial that may be added to the weld pooland the amount of heat determines theproperties of the entire weldment, orweld metal and heat-affected zone(HAZ). For a typical GMA weld, thefiller material constitutes the majority ofthe weld metal and therefore the me-chanical properties. And because thewire has been developed around certainwire-feed rates and heat input, the prop-erties are fairly well understood.

As for the HLAW, depending on theweld joint, a number of conditions mayexist that differ from typical GMAW. Asthe HLAW approaches an “autogenous”weld (no filler), the microstructure of theweld metal will approach that of the cast(and rapidly cooled) base material. Formany moderate to highly alloyed steels,for example, this may mean a weld withvery high hardness and very little ductil-ity. The result of this would be that theweld may be more prone to cracking.Therefore, for welding of these alloyswith HLAW, a welding wire with less al-loying may be required.

Added to any issues with the weldmetal will be the concern over the HAZof the weld joint. In GMAW or HLAW,the chemistry of the HAZ material can-not be changed. The only option with theHAZ is to alter the thermal cycle that thematerial goes through during the weld-ing process. What happens in the HAZis highly influenced by the alloy that isbeing welded and the “condition” thematerial is in when welded. As an exam-ple, if the material being welded is aquench and tempered steel that has beenthermally treated to have a high hard-ness, the HAZ of a GMA weld will de-pend on the chemistry, parameters, andprocedures used. The material can beovertempered in the HAZ and result ina “softened” zone. If the same alloy inthe same condition is HLA welded, theHAZ may be reaustenized and re-

quenched, resulting in a HAZ with veryhigh hardness. Actually, due to the higherheat input from the HLAW vs. the auto-genous laser welding, the HLAW may ac-tually have a lower HAZ hardness.

Another scenario would be in materi-als that are precipitation hardened. Likethe quench and temper materials, theGMAW may over “heat treat” these ma-terials and result in a softer HAZ, espe-cially if multipass GMAW is needed tomake the joints. However, for HLAW, thethermal cycle may be so short that theremay not be a noticeable HAZ. So, forsome materials, the use of HLAW mayactually offer benefits over welding withGMAW.

While these examples and considera-tions show where HLAW may not alwaysbe the process of choice, there are appli-cations where HLAW will be preferred.A general statement is that the HLAWprocess should not be substituted intomost typical joints designed for GMAW.In some cases, it may be better to re-design the joint specifically for theHLAW process or to improve the jointto take advantage of the low heat inputand high welding speed associated withHLAW. Also, the greatest advantages forHLAW are realized in very long weldsand situations where distortion of thepart is very critical.

Conclusions

In summary, HLA welding is not amagic bullet that can be used on any andall applications presently being GMAwelded. In most cases, substitutingHLAW directly into a GMAW applica-tion is usually unsuccessful. However,when the application is selected properly,possibly requiring a part/joint redesignfor HLAW, changes to the procedures,and even the materials, it may be possi-ble to successfully implement HLAWinto production.♦

References

1. Bruck, G. J., et al. 1998. Method ofWelding. U.S. Patent No. 4,737,612.

2. Diebold, T. P., and Albright, C. E.1984. Laser-GTA welding of aluminumAlloy 5052. Welding Journal 63(6):18−24.

3. Personal communication with Dr.Frank Roland, former managing direc-tor, Center of Maritime Technologies,Hamburg, Germany, and former man-ager for Advanced Welding Technolo-gies, Meyer Werft Shipbuilding.

41WELDING JOURNAL

Fig. 4 — Image of HLAW edge filletweld. Leg length L is much less thanmaterial thickness T. However, the pen-etration P is much greater than T, sothe weld strength is greater than if Lwas equal to T.


JANUARY 201342

Friction stir welding (FSW), in-vented at The Welding Institute in1991 (Ref. 1), is a solid-state join-

ing process in which welding defectsformed in conventional fusion welds arenot observed (Ref. 2). The shoulder pro-vides the fundamental source of heat byfriction, prevents the material expulsion,assists the material movement aroundthe tool, and mixes the material under thetool shoulder. During the process, heat isgenerated by plastic deformation as wellas by the friction between the tool andworkpieces. Friction stir welding is car-ried out in several steps. First, the pin isplunged into the joint formed by the twosheets to be welded, until the shouldergets in contact. The sheets are heateduntil melting temperature by rotation ata high velocity without any translationalmotion. Then, the tool is moved along theweld interface, heating the material fur-ther by the stirring action and moving thesoftened (but always solid) material fromthe front of the tool, and depositing it be-hind its trailing edge to produce the weld.

Advantages of Friction Stir Welds

The advantages of FSW include lowresidual stress, low energy input, and finegrain size compared to the conventionalwelding methods.

Ferritic steels are generally more dif-ficult to weld than austenitic steels. Thisis the main reason they are not used tothe same extent as austenitic steels. AISI

430 has greatly reduced ductility in theweld. This is mainly due to strong graingrowth in the heat-affected zone (HAZ),but also to precipitation of martensite inthe HAZ.

Many parameters affect the weldingsuccess and quality of FSW, especiallystainless steels, which are difficult to welddue to their high melting points com-pared with aluminum, brass, and copper.Researchers and scientists are still work-ing on the effects of these parameters onthe welding and welded joint strength.

Results of Earlier Studies

Alptekin (Ref. 3) obtained the bestweld joint in 304 austenitic stainless steelusing 1000 rev/min rotational speed, 63mm/min traverse speed, and tool angle of1 deg 45 s using a 20-mm-diameter tung-sten carbide tool.

Meran and Canyurt (Ref. 4) studiedthe effect of tool angle on friction stirweldability of AISI 304 austenitic stain-less steels, and they found the highesttensile and impact test results at 2-degtool angle at a constant 1180 rev/min, 60mm/min welding speed, and 9 kN axialforce.

Hattingh et al. (Ref. 5) investigatedthe characterization of the effect of FSW

tool geometry on welding forces and weldtensile strength using an instrumentedtool. They searched the effect of impor-tant parameters including flute design(e.g., number, depth, and taper angle),the tool pin diameter and taper, and thepitch of any thread form on the pin. Theyanalyzed the force footprint and fluteangle. They obtained the highest strengthwelds with low angular rotation values ofthe maximum force and high ratios ofmaximum to minimum force on the tool.

Buffa et al. (Ref. 6) studied the designof the FSW tool using the continuum-based FEM model. They suggested thattool geometry plays a fundamental role inobtaining desirable microstructures inthe weld and HAZs, and consequentlyimproves the strength and fatigue resist-ance of the joint. They concluded that in-creasing the pin angle enlarges both theHAZ and thermomechanical zone result-ing in a bigger weld nugget. Also, they de-termined that the overall temperature inthe weld zone increases with pin angle.They suggested that an increase in the pinangle leads to uniform temperature dis-tribution along sheet thickness, which isfavorable for the reduction of distortion.They also suggested that the plastic de-formation in the nugget increases withthe pin angle.

Effect of Tool Angle on FrictionStir Weldability of AISI 430

MEHMET B. BILGIN([email protected]) is an Assistant

Prof. Dr.; and CEMAL MERAN and OLCAY E.CANYURT are Associate Prof. Drs., Dept. ofMechanical Engineering, Technology Fac-ulty, Amasya University, Amasya, Turkey.

Tests were conducted to determine the besttool angle for making friction stir welds

BY MEHMET B. BILGIN,CEMAL MERAN, AND OLCAY E. CANYURT

Table 1 — Chemical Composition of AISI 430 (%)

C Cr Si Mn P S Fe0.01 16.48 0.31 0.52 0.05 0.01 Bal.

friction stir feature January_Layout 1 12/11/12 2:13 PM Page 42

43WELDING JOURNAL

Padmanaban and Balasubramanian(Ref. 7) studied the selection of FSW toolpin profile, shoulder diameter, and mate-rial for joining AZ31B magnesium alloy.They found that the joint fabricated usinga threaded pin profiled tool made ofhigh-carbon steel with 18-mm shoulderdiameter produced mechanically soundand metallurgically defect-free weldscompared to their counterparts.

Cavaliere and Panella (Ref. 8) investi-gated the effect of tool position on the fa-tigue properties of dissimilar 2024–7075sheets joined by FSW. They measured thevariation of tensile strength, total fatiguelife, and crack toughness as the functionof the rotating tool distance from theweld interface, by moving it on theAA2024 tool advancing side. They sug-gested that mechanical properties of thewelds increase largely with increasing thedistance from the weld interface up to 1mm, after that a sensible drop was ob-served increasing more such parameter.

Chen and Nakata (Ref. 9) searchedthe effect of tool geometry on mi-crostructure and mechanical propertiesof friction stir lap welded (FSLW) mag-nesium alloy and steel. They suggestedthat the microstructure at the joining in-terface, failure loads, and fracture loca-tions of the joints varied significantly withthe probe length.

Zhang et al. (Ref. 10) searched the ef-fect of the shoulder on interfacial bond-ing during FSLW of thin aluminumsheets using a tool without a pin. Theyperformed their tests on a conventionalvertical milling machine without an ap-paratus to apply a vertical pressure to the

workpieces. In this case, the vertical pres-sure cannot be applied to the workpieceswhen the worktable stops rising. There-fore, the tool was tilted by 3 deg to en-hance the forging effect of shoulder andimprove the intimate contact betweenthe top and bottom workpieces. Theysuggested that the vertical forging effectcould be introduced and enhanced by tilt-ing the tool during FSLW using a com-mon vertical milling machine.

Rajakumar et al. (Ref. 11) studied theinfluence of the FSW process and toolparameters on the strength properties ofAA7075-T6 aluminum-alloy joints. Theysuggested that the joint fabricated at a1400 rev/min tool rotational speed, 60mm/min welding speed, 8 kN axial force,using a tool with a 15-mm shoulder di-ameter, and 45 HRc tool hardness,yielded higher strength properties com-pared to other joints.

There are limited studies about the ef-fect of tool angle on FSW. In this study,the effect of tool tilt angle on mechanicalperformance was investigated. The qual-ity joints with improved mechanical prop-erties can be obtained by the determina-tion of the proper tool tilt angle for thewelded joint of AISI 430 ferritic stainlesssteel (FSS) materials.

Materials and ExperimentalProcedure

AISI 430 (X6Cr17, material number1.4016) ferritic stainless steel was used inthis study. The chemical and mechanicalproperties are shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Rectangular butt joint configuration (100and 200 mm) with 3-mm thickness werefabricated FSW joints using an auto-matic, vertical, heavy-duty milling ma-chine with 13.5-kW spindle drive motor.

The ferritic stainless steel workpieceplates were secured with work-holdingfixtures on the machine traverse table.An initial hole with a diameter a littlelarger than the probe was drilled betweenthe abutting plates at the start of weldjoint. Traversing of tool was initiatedafter a period of time sufficient to plasti-cize the workpiece material, which was incontact with the shoulder and the probe.Preheating or interpass heating did nottake place throughout the process.

The shoulder diameter of the tool was16 mm, and the pin was approximately 5.7mm in diameter. Although the plateswere 3 mm thick, a 2.5-mm pin was usedto protect the workbench plate. The toolmaterial, hard metal carbide (WC-Cohard metal identified as K10, which con-sists of 94% tungsten carbide, 6% cobalt)with equilateral triangle tip profile, asshown in Fig. 1. Tool material (K10) wasmade up of tungsten carbide with 1650HV hardness. The tungsten-based toolmaterial has excellent toughness andhardness over a temperature range fromambient to a minimum of 1200°C.

The tool angles were changed be-tween 0 and 5 deg in order to observe thetilt effect on the welded joint strengthwhile holding the other parameters con-stant at 1120 rev/min tool rotationalspeed; 125 mm/min welding speed; and3.5 kN axial force. The experimental de-tails are shown in Fig. 2.

Table 2 — Mechanical Properties of AISI 430 at Room Temperature

Density Modulus of Tensile Strength Yield Elongation Hardness(g/cm3) Elasticity (GPa) (MPa) Strength (MPa) (%) (HRB)

7.8 200 459 373 22 85

Fig. 1 — A — Dimensions of the tool(K10); B — photograph of the tool.

A B


The tool pressure forces wererecorded using a load cell mounted underthe workbench with an indicator. Alldata, load, temperature, and pressureforce values were recorded using a com-puter during the experiments. The loadcell indicator helped to control the toolpressure force during the weldingprocess. Four thermocouples wereplaced 5 cm apart from each other at thebottom of the plate.

Friction stir welded specimens 12.5 ×150 × 3 mm thick were machined for thetensile tests, and specimens 10 × 55 × 3mm thick were prepared for the CharpyV-notch impact tests. All welded testspecimens were prepared perpendicularto the weld interface in order to examinetheir mechanical properties. The speci-mens were subjected to quasi-static andmostly monotonic tensile loading. Alltensile tests were performed with aZwick/Roell Z100 servo-hydraulic tensiletest machine with a load capacity of 100kN. The stress-control mode was chosenover stroke or strain modes due to theconvenience and smoothness of the oper-ation. The impact tests were performedwith a Wolpert PW30 notch impact test-ing machine with a capacity of 300 J.

Microstructural examination was per-formed in order to check for weld defectssuch as porosity, coarse dendrites, poorpenetration of the weld bead, and grainstructure of the HAZ.

The etchant used for microanalyseswas a mix of 50 mL hydrochloric acid and50 mL distilled water. Vilella’s reagent (amixture of 1 g picric acid, 5 mL hy-drochloric acid, and 95 mL ethyl alcohol)was the etchant used for microscopic mi-croanalyses.

Results and Discussions

The effects of the tool tilt angle wereexamined. Tool pressure strength and

temperature, related with the time at dif-ferent tool angles, are shown in Fig. 3.The tool pressure strength was givenabout 3.5 kN at the beginning of weldingand controlled constantly during welding— Fig. 3A.

The temperature was measured fromfour points with probes during welding,but only the highest temperature graph isshown in Fig. 3B. The temperaturechanges indicate there was a significantdecrease in the temperature with an in-crement in the tool angle. The tool tilt in-crement leads to a diminishment in thefrictional surface area between toolshoulder and base metal. The tempera-ture was measured approximately 500°Cat tool angles of 0 and 1 deg, and 350°Cat a tool angle of 5 deg — Fig. 3B.

The test results of tensile strength andnotch impact energy of FS welded jointsobtained from different tool angles aregiven in Fig. 4. The higher tensilestrength values were obtained between 0and 1 deg tool tilt angles while the otherwelding parameters were kept constant.The increase in the tool tilt angle causeda temperature decrease and an increase

in fluctuations in the welding zone inter-face. Therefore, the increment in the tooltilt angle leads to a significant drop in thetensile strength as shown in Fig. 4A.

The upper surface after welding,macroscopic and microscopic appear-ances of the friction stir welded joints atdifferent tool angles, are shown in Fig. 5.The smoothest welding surface wasachieved at the tool tilt angle of 0 deg —Fig. 5.

The FSW joint consists of the stir zone(SZ), base material (BM), and HAZ be-tween the SZ and BM, even though it isnot easy to clearly distinguish each zone.The SZ shows a basin-like shape thatwidens considerably toward the uppersurface (Ref. 12). The border region be-tween the SZ and BM is HAZ, where atransition to the coarse-grained BM mi-crostructure occurs — Fig. 5. The grainsize of the stir zone is finer than the basematerial. The fine-grained microstruc-ture in the SZ is due to the dynamic re-crystallization induced by severe sheardeformation and the significant amountof heat generated during FSW. It hasbeen observed that grain size becomes

JANUARY 201344

Fig. 2 — A — Tool mounted at an angleof 0 deg; B — tool angled at 5 deg.

Fig. 3 — A — Tool pressure force vs. time;B — temperature changes vs. time fordifferent tool angles.

Fig. 4 — A — Tensile strength vs. toolangle; B — impact energy vs. tool angle(constant 1125 rev/min, 125 mm/min,3.5 kN).

2A

3A

4A

2B

3B

4B


45WELDING JOURNAL

Fig. 5 — Upper surface, macroscopic and microscopic views (100 μm) of welded joints formed using different tool angles (with constant 1125 rev/min, 125 mm/min travel speed, 3.5 kN axial pressure).


smaller from base metal to welding zone.Half of the grain size was obtained frombase metal to HAZ, and the other halfwas obtained from HAZ to welding zone.It has been determined that the averagegrain size in the stir zone is about 6.5 μm,15 μm in the HAZ, and 30 μm in the BM.

The welding burr buildup at the weld-ing bead edges occurred with the largertool angle — Fig. 5. Although the innerstructure was not too much changed, in-sufficient penetration both inside andsurface of the weld bead occurred with in-creasing tool angle. Insufficient penetra-tion in the weld zone led to decreasingstrength and toughness of the weldedjoints — Fig. 4. The breaks were outsideof the stir and HAZ zones applying suit-able welding parameters — Fig. 6. There-fore, the strength and hardness of the stirzone with a fine-grained structure arehigher than those of the base material.Similar trends were observed for thenotch impact energy. The best notch im-pact energy value was obtained at 0 degtool tilt angle.

Conclusions

This study shows the effect of tool tiltangle on friction stir welding of AISI 430ferritic stainless steels that had greatly re-duced ductility in the weld. The followingimportant conclusions can be drawn fromthe results of this study:

• An incremental change in the tooltilt angle leads to significant change inthe tensile strength and notch impact en-ergy. The change of the tool tilt anglefrom 0 to 5 deg leads to a 2.0 and 4.5times decrease in the tensile jointstrength and notch impact energy, re-spectively. This originated from the di-minishment of the frictional surface areabetween tool and base metal and im-proper temperature level.

• The smoothest welding surface wasachieved with a tool tilt angle of 0 deg atconstant 1125 rev/min, 125 mm/mintravel speed, and 3.5 kN axial pressure.

The welding burr buildup at the weldingbead edges occurred with the larger toolangle.

• The best notch impact energy valuewas obtained at 0 deg and the higher ten-sile strength values were obtained be-tween 0- and 1-deg tool tilt angles whilethe other welding parameters were keptconstant. The increase in the tool tiltangle caused a temperature decrease andincreased fluctuations in the weldingzone interface.

• Good quality friction stir weldedjoints can be achieved with the propertool tilt angle.♦

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by Pa-mukkale University Scientific ResearchProjects with carrying out facilities of aproject number of 2009FBE022. The au-thors express their gratitude to Pa-mukkale University Scientific ResearchProjects Coordination Unit (PAUBAP)for the financial support to carry out thisprogram.

References

1. Thomas, W. M., Nicholas, E. D.,Needham, J. C., Murch, M. G., Temple,S. P., and Dawes, C. J. 1991. Improve-ments relating to friction welding. GreatBritain Patent No. 9125978.8.

2. Thomas, W. M., and Nicholas, E. D.1997. Friction stir welding for the trans-portation industries. Mater Des 18(4−6):269–73.

3. Alptekin, A. 2006. A research on ap-plicability of friction stir welding of AISI304 ferritic stainless steel. Pamu KkaleUniversity Institute of Science.

4. Meran, C., and Canyurt, O. E. 2010.The effect of tool angle on friction stirweldability of AISI 304 austenitic stain-less steel, 13th Int’l Materials Sympo-sium, 56−64, Denizli (in Turkish).

5. Hattingh, D. G., Blignault, C., Niek-erk, van T. I., and James, M. N. 2008.Characterization of the influences ofFSW tool geometry on welding forcesand weld tensile strength using an instru-mented tool. Journal of Materials Process-ing Technology 203: 46–57.

6. Buffa, G., Hua, J., Shivpuri, R., andFratini, L. 2006. Design of the friction stirwelding tool using the continuum basedFEM model. Materials Science and Engi-neering A 419: 381–388.

7. Padmanaban, G., and Balasubra-manian, V. 2009. Selection of FSW toolpin profile, shoulder diameter, and mate-rial for joining AZ31B magnesium alloy— An experimental approach. Materialsand Design 30: 2647−2656.

8. Cavaliere, P., and Panella, F. 2008.Effect of tool position on the fatigueproperties of dissimilar 2024-7075 sheetsjoined by friction stir welding. Journal ofMaterials Processing Technology 206:249–255.

9. Chen, Y. C., and Nakata, K. 2009.Effect of tool geometry on microstruc-ture and mechanical properties of fric-tion stir lap welded magnesium alloy andsteel. Materials and Design 30:3913−3919.

10. Zhang, G., Su, W., Zhang, J., Wei,Z., and Zhang, J. 2010. Effects of shoul-der on interfacial bonding during frictionstir lap welding of aluminum thin sheetsusing tool without pin. Transactions ofNonferrous Metals Society of China 20:2223–2228.

11. Rajakumar, S., Muralidharan, C.,and Balasubramanian, V. 2011. Influenceof friction stir welding process and toolparameters on strength properties ofAA7075-T6 aluminum alloy joints. Mate-rials and Design 32: 535−549.

12. Hoon-Hwe, C., Heung, N. H.,Sung-Tae, H., Jong-H. P., Yong-Jai, K.,Seok-Hyun, K., and Russell, J. S. 2011.Microstructural analysis of friction stirwelded ferritic stainless steel. MaterialsScience and Engineering A 528:2889−2894.

JANUARY 201346

Fig. 6 — Views of where the breaks occurred in welds made withtools mounted at 0 deg (top photo) and 5 deg (with constant 1125rev/min, 125 mm/min travel speed, 3.5 kN axial pressure).



weld engineering_FP_TEMP 12/11/12 2:49 PM Page 47

JANUARY 201348

Galvo-based scanners have beenused for many years in laser mate-rial processing, primarily in laser

marking-based systems and fixed-headsystems in CO2 lasers. Galvo scannershave not been commonly used in solid-state lasers (SSL) due to their low-beam

quality. Because of the low-beam qual-ity, the focal lengths had to be very short,providing a very small and impracticalwork envelop. Additionally, when work-ing close to the process, smoke and spat-ter quickly contaminate the lens/cover-slide, even with the use of elaborate air-

knifes and exhaust systems. With thesedrawbacks, expensive galvo-based opticshad no practical applications.

A galvo-based system in SSL waspretty much limited to low power wheregood quality beams could be achievedand the primary function was laser mark-ing. With advancement of high-beamquality disk and fiber lasers, galvo-basedscanners are quickly expanding into in-dustrial applications with the promise ofreduced cycle times, cost reductionthrough simpler system design, largework envelopes, and flexibility.TRUMPF has several models of galvo-based optics called programmable focus-ing optic (PFO), primarily in the high-power region PFO 33, which is a 2D for-mat with focal lengths of 255, 345, and450 mm and a PFO 3D that adds a Z-axismovement with focal lengths of 255, 345,450, 900, and 1200 mm.

How a PFO WorksA high-beam quality laser light is de-

livered via a fiber-optic cable to the PFO.The same as in other types of processing

Benefits of RemoteLaser Welding in theAutomotive Industry

TRACEY RYBA and DAVID HAVRILLA arewith TRUMPF, Inc., Plymouth, Mich.ANDREY ANDREEV is with TRUMPF,Inc., Ditzingen, Germany. Based on apaper presented at Sheet Metal Welding Conference XV, Livonia, Mich., October 2–5, 2012.

Highvolume production componentssuch as doors, side panels, and seatframes can be remote laser weldedwith one robot

BY TRACEY RYBA, DAVID HAVRILLA,AND ANDREY ANDREEV

Fig. 1 — Optical layout of 2D PFO.

Ryba 1-13_Layout 1 12/12/12 8:43 AM Page 48

49WELDING JOURNAL

optics, the light goes through a collima-tor to produce a beam at the optimizeddiameter to achieve high-quality process-ing characteristics at the workpiece andto minimize energy densities on the steer-ing mirrors and focusing lens — Fig. 1.

In the basic operation of a 2D PFO,after the beam is collimated, it is de-flected off a coated optical plate (mirror),which also allows visible light to pass backto an optional camera system. The de-flected laser beam then is steered to theworkpiece by the combination of two mir-rors mounted to precision galvo motors,one for each axis (X axis and Y axis), pro-ducing the motion while the part being

processed remains stationary. The de-flected beam then passes through a seriesof lenses, called a flat-field lens assem-bly. This is done because if a single focus-ing lens was used as you move the beamacross the lens, you would pass throughdifferent thicknesses of the lens causingdifferent indexes of refraction, and yourfocal point at the workpiece would shiftup and down depending where you wereon the lens at the time. By using multipletypes of focal lenses in a stack, one cancreate an area where the laser beam focalplane remains constant. Adding a motor-ized lens between the input and first galvomirror one can then create adjustment of

During the last few years, remotewelding with today’s high brightnessfiber delivered lasers has gainedglobal acceptance in the automotivesector. Pictured are both laser welding and cutting shots.

Fig. 3 — Productivity of PFO vs. traditional laser fixed optic.Fig. 2 — Examples of PFO 3D equipment.


JANUARY 201350

the focus in the Z-axis giving you a 3Dworking area — Fig. 2.

Productivity of RemoteLaser Welding vs.Traditional Laser Welding

On small parts, it may be possible tohave a fixed part and mount the PFO ina fixed position giving you a simple over-all system design with no moving motionsystem other than the PFO. For partslarger than the work envelope, it is pos-sible to mount the part in a fixture andthen provide a simple stage allowing youto weld half or a quadrant at a time andthen shift the PFO or part. Larger partstypically are fixed and the PFO ismounted to a robot. With this setup youcan move to spots and put down weld pat-terns or use the PFO “welding on the fly”option, which allows you to synchronize

the PFO position with the robot positionto move over the part and weld withoutstopping the robot, reducing cycle timeeven more. The key benefit of the PFOis its ability to jump to the next weld po-

sition almost instantaneously unlike atypical Cartesian coordinate motion sys-tem. The weld speeds are the same as atraditional fixed-optic processing headso the efficiency comes from eliminatingunproductive repositioning time — Fig. 3.

Most common applications of thePFO today are found in the automotiveindustry. TRUMPF has more than 2000high-power SSL PFOs in everyday pro-duction in such applications as weldingoil filters, fuel filters, fuel injectors, au-tomotive sensors, car doors, trunk lids,seat backs, seat rails, instrument panelframes, car batteries, metal gaskets, andmany other applications.

Another advantage is the ability tocustomize your weld geometry and/orweld pattern — Fig. 4. This can be im-portant in a traditional part, but it is veryimportant since the thinner gauge mate-rial used today has less surface area atthe weld interface.

A traditional spot weld has a largeround spot that provides the strength atthat point. With a laser and PFO, one cancreate almost any shape desired from asimple stitch weld for narrow flanges, toS, or staple shapes to provide multidirec-tional strength to a custom shape aroundcorners, mounting points or high stresspoints. These customized shapes take lit-tle to no extra time depending on weldlength and weld speed — Fig. 5.

Remote Laser Benefits inCar Body Welding

The biggest advantages of remotelaser welding (RLW) in car body produc-tion are as follows:

1) Productivity — Up to 10 times

Fig. 4 — Customized weld patterns.

Fig. 5 — Customized weld shape depending on location (source Daimler AG).

Fig. 6 — Example of actual project.


higher welding speed than resistance spotwelding (RSW). Up to 80% reduction ofprocessing times compared to RSW.

2) Costs — Investment and runningcosts of up to five RSW cells may be re-placed by one remote laser welding cell.Less floor space usage. Less maintenance

and logistics are required for robots andspot resistance guns.

3) Flexibility in car body manufactur-ing — Any weld seam pattern like a cir-cle, stitch line, S, or C shape is possible.Weld seam geometry can be adapted pre-cisely to actual load situation at the joint.

Weld seam patterns allow for smallerflanges and reduced weight and materialcost. Different tasks or parts can beprocessed within one single remote weld-ing cell.

4) Flexibility in car body design —Single-sided access to the weld joint ispossible. Components with closed crosssections may be laser welded. Tubes andprofiles may be used in car body design,offering higher rigidity than pressed pan-els, along with reduced cost and weight.

5) Process advantages — Higher pre-cision parts are possible due to the flexi-bility of laser welding. Less heat inputresults in less distortion and higher pre-cision of welded parts.

6) Total costs — Better balance oftotal costs as compared to RSW. Faster

51WELDING JOURNAL

Fig. 7 — Actual project used for comparison of processes.

Fig. 8 — Metal vapor dissipated withprocess jets.


processing, less floor space, consumablesand maintenance, higher design criteriapossible, process flexibility, reduced ma-terial costs, and stronger safer designthrough the use of custom weld shapesand patterns.

Examples of Remote Laser Use

Two examples of automotive manu-facturers replacing traditional RSW withtraditional fixed optic laser welding andeventually with remote laser welding aredetailed below.

The first example, as shown in Fig. 6,is a laser welding cell that required fourrobots and five weld guns to complete 34spot welds in 35 s. It was replaced by onerobot, one PFO 33, and one TruDisk 4002laser, which still put down 34 laser Cwelds (comparable to RSW), requiring13 s. Processing was reduced by nearlythree times, and three fewer robots wererequired to complete the task, saving cap-ital expenditures and valuable floorspace.

The second example, shown in Fig. 7,displays a progression through three dif-ferent methods. The original part usingRSW took 30 s to complete the welds.The first evolution was to use a laser andreplace the weld gun with traditionalfixed optic laser welding head and laserconnected to the same robot cell, whichachieved nearly a 25% reduction of cycletime. The next step replaced the fixedoptic weld head with a remote scanner(PFO), and utilized the “welding on thefly” process to achieve the maximum ben-efit of the PFO. The final processing timewas five s with a final 84% reduction ofcycle time, which is a 600% increase inproduction capacity.

Remote Laser Welding IsNot without Challenges

Metal Vapor

During the welding process, a metalvapor fume rises up from the key holeand gets in contact with the laser beam.This ionized metal vapor plume, whicharises above the welding seam, leads toa reduction of the laser power, to a de-formation and enlargement of the focusdiameter, and finally to a fluctuatingwelding process. The solution is theusage of process jets to blow the metalvapor out of the laser beam, stabilizingthe welding process — Fig. 8. This can

also be achieved by extensive and elabo-rate cross-jets on the fixture near theweld areas.

Overlap Welding of ZnCoatedMaterial

Another very common issue with tra-ditional or remote laser welding is Zn-coated material. Due to different melt-ing points and gases released during theweld process, if the two pieces of mate-rial are tightly clamped together as theyshould be, the only place for these gasesto escape is through the melt pool. Thisresults in very poor quality welds both inappearance and strength. The best solu-tion to manage this problem is to intro-duce a controlled gap into the process;this can be achieved by mechanical meth-

ods in fixturing and part stamping or bylaser methods of creating small dimplesapproximately 0.15 to 0.20 mm high. Thiscontrolled gap then allows enough areafor the gas to escape without blowing upthrough the melt pool of the weld, andthe gap is small enough not to cause weld-gap issues — Fig. 9.

Additionally, other coatings and oxidelayers can cause problems with weld qual-ity such as cracking, porous welds, weakwelds, and brittleness just to mention afew.

Remote Vapor Pressure MeltCutting

The remote laser welding process isflexible. Many times a stamping die wasmissing a hole in early production, or

JANUARY 201352

Fig. 9 — Overlap issues with Zncoated material.


maybe some features were added, or leftand right parts exist so that a hole is re-quired. This can be achieved in the weld-ing cell using a PFO. This process is

called remote vapor pressure melt cut-ting. Openings created by this process arenot designed to be machined later be-cause of the large heat-affected zone.

There is not a high tolerance, but it al-lows for a simple hole/opening to be cre-ated within the weld cell for such thingsas a clearance hole to pass wire throughor connection point — Fig. 10.

ConclusionProgrammable focusing optic scan-

ners show the flexibility and reducedcycle time that can be achieved with anontraditional motion system. In somecases, neither the part nor the scanner ismoved, and with larger parts, a scannercan be mounted to a robot to extend theworking envelope. In some cases, pro-duction rates six times faster than resist-ance spot welding can be achieved whilereducing floor space requirements. Sincesmaller flanges are required and cus-tomized weld geometries can beachieved, less material and/or thinnergauge material can be used to saveweight, cost, and increase strength to im-prove car safety.♦

53WELDING JOURNAL

Fig. 10 — Remote cutting.



JANUARY 201354

Applications such as radiators,claddings, and vehicle parts attimes require stud welding be-

tween dissimilar metals (such as a steelstud and Al plate). Although arc studwelding is extensively used to join simi-lar materials, it is not suitable for joiningdissimilar metals because the moltenmetal cannot be completely extruded outof the joining interface, leading to thepresence of brittle intermetallic com-pounds. In the past ten years, friction stirwelding (FSW) (Ref. 1) and friction stirprocessing (FSP) (Ref. 2) have receivedmuch attention as versatile ways to joinor process Al in solid state. In addition,TWI has provided a video on friction studwelding of steel stud to steel plate as anovel variant of FSW for joining steels(Ref. 3). Since friction stud welding be-longs to the group of solid-state weldingtechniques such as friction stir welding,it possesses the advantages of disruptingthe oxide film and inhibiting excessivegrowth of the interfacial phase duringdissimilar joining. Therefore, frictionstud welding may be expected to join dis-similar metals such as aluminum to steel.However, to our knowledge, informationon friction stud welding of dissimilar met-als has been rarely reported.

The work reported in this article in-vestigated the feasibility of friction studwelding of steel stud to Al plate using atraditional milling machine in terms ofthe joint microstructure feature and frac-ture behavior. Especially, the formationof a secondary friction interface within

the softer Al and the effect of upsettingon eliminating cracks were demonstrated.

Experimental Procedure

Figure 1 shows a schematic of the fric-tion stud welding process with and with-out upsetting. The process can be dividedinto three primary stages: plunging stage,continuous heating stage by friction atplunge depth position (called in situ fric-tion stage), and stopping stage for the ro-tating motor with or without upsettingaction. In the preliminary work, an inex-pensive, traditional milling machinewithout braking and pressure-applyingdevices was used. Upsetting was achievedby manually lifting the work table with arotatable handle to stop the rotation ofthe motor.

A 10-mm-diameter, medium-carbonsteel bar was used as the stud, and a 1060Al plate with dimensions of 60 × 23 ×2.8 mm was used as the other base com-ponent. Before welding, each surface tobe joined was polished with #400 emery

paper and then cleaned with acetone.The selected welding parameters wereconstant, including 1500 rev/min rotationspeed, 0.5 mm plunge depth, and 3 s fric-tion time at the plunge position. Whenupsetting was applied, displacement wascontrolled to be 0.1 mm, and the result-ant upsetting force was measured usingthe testing device shown in Fig. 2. More-over, in order to measure the tempera-ture, a thermocouple was placed withinthe Al plate, ~1.5 mm below the surface.Generally, when applying upsetting, ittakes 7 s to completely stop the rotationof the milling machine’s motor withouta braking device. After welding, the jointswere evaluated by tensile test using thedevice shown in Fig. 3. The joint mi-crostructures were examined by a VEG-AII XMUINCA scanning electron mi-croscope (SEM) equipped with abackscattered electron (BSE) imageanalysis system, and the interdiffusionbehavior at the interface was examinedby energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy(EDS).

Friction Stud Welding

GUIFENG ZHANG, WEIMIN JIAO, JIPENGZHAO, and JIANXUN ZHANG are with StateKey Laboratory for Mechanical Behaviorof Materials, Xi’an Jiaotong University,Xi’an, China.

A sound friction stud welded joint ofsteel stud to Al plate was producedusing a traditional milling machine

BY GUIFENG ZHANG, WEIMIN JIAO,JIPENG ZHAO, AND JIANXUN ZHANG

of Dissimilar Metals

Fig. 1 — Schematic of friction stud welding process with (A–C) and without (A, B)upsetting.

A B C

Zhang Feature January 2013_Layout 1 12/13/12 9:08 AM Page 54

55WELDING JOURNAL

Results

Joint appearance, property and frac-ture surface. Figure 4A, B shows the ap-pearance of the joints produced by fric-tion stud welding with and without up-setting, respectively. Like general fric-tion stir welding, the steel stud was eas-ily plunged into the Al plate and the flashwas uniformly formed at the peripheryof the studs by extruding part of the metalbeneath the shoulder (depending onplunge depth). The remarkable flash for-mation suggested the following key is-sues could be favorably achieved:

• Breaking the oxide film by directfriction at the interface between the twoworkpieces

• Removing disrupted oxide flakes byextruding them out of the joint interface

• Intimate contact at the joint inter-face by extrusion force of the steel studtoward the Al plate. Moreover, for thejoint with upsetting, flash was greaterthan that for the joint without upsetting,indicating that manually applying upset-ting was effective in enhancing plastic de-formation in the weld region.

When upsetting was not applied, themeasured failure loads for the threejoints were 1.540, 1.166, and 1.132 kN,respectively. In this case, the average fail-ure load of the friction stud welded jointswas only 1.279 kN (~16.3 MPa). Whenupsetting was applied, the pressure wasmeasured and the results are shown inFig. 5. It can be seen that the upsettingforce reached ~1.95 kN (~24.8 MPa). In

the case with upsetting, the measuredfailure loads for the three joints were2.934, 3.990, and 2.827 kN, respectively,and the average failure load can be sig-nificantly increased to 3.25 kN (~41.4MPa), as high as 2.5 times of that with-out upsetting.

Figure 6 shows the fracture surfaceappearances of the friction stud weldedjoints after tensile testing. For the jointwithout upsetting, the outer region of thefracture surface of the Al side wassmoother than the central region, and asmall quantity of aluminum adhered tothe central region of the steel stud endafter tensile testing. The results showedthat stronger bonding was achieved pref-erentially in the central region. It can beattributed to a higher heating tempera-ture and lower cooling rate in the innerregion than those that occurred in theouter region, which were beneficial toavoiding debonding to some extent dur-

ing the stopping stage. For the joint with upsetting, although

the outer region of the fracture surfacewas smooth, the Al base metal in the cen-tral region was pulled out and adheredto the end surface of the steel stud, lead-ing to a hole with a diameter of about 6mm on the Al side. The information re-vealed: 1) stronger bonding was achievedpreferentially in the central region aswith the joint without upsetting, and 2)bonding in the central region was sostrong that even 2.2-mm-thick Al couldbe pulled out. Both the higher tensilestrength and much more favorable frac-ture path demonstrated that the upset-ting action can significantly improvebonding behavior, especially in the cen-tral region.

Microstructure of friction studwelded joints. Figure 7A, B shows theBSE macrographs of the friction studwelded joints. As shown in Fig. 7A, whenupsetting was not used, the intimate con-tact between Al plate and steel stud wasachieved well, and part of the plasticizedAl adhered to the steel stud end. How-ever, a large crack 10 mm in length (sameas the diameter of the steel stud) and 100μm in maximum width was present withinthe Al base metal near the interface, andran roughly parallel to the Al/steel inter-face. In addition, it should be pointed outthat, due to the inevitable error in ma-chining and assembling, a microgap waspresent at the side interface between theAl and steel periphery. Therefore, thejoint properties will depend primarily on

Fig. 5 — Measured axial pressurewhen upsetting was used.

Fig. 2 — Testing device used to measure upsetting force.

Fig. 3 — Schematic of tensile test.

Fig. 4 — Appearance of the joints produced by friction stud welding:A — Without upsetting; B — with upsetting applied.

4

2

3

A B


JANUARY 201356

the bonding behavior at the horizontalinterface between the Al and steel studend. In contrast, when upsetting was ap-plied, not only was the intimate contactbetween Al plate and steel stud achievedwell, but also no crack was observed inthe Al base metal — Fig. 7B.

Figure 8A, B shows the BSE micro-graphs of friction stud welded joints.When upsetting was not used, both voidand intermetallic compounds were hardto observe at the Al/steel interface evenat 10,000× magnification, as shown inFig. 8A. From Fig. 8B, when upsettingwas applied, a void-free bonded interfacewith a thin and discontinuous intermetal-lic compound layer (about 1.5 μm inthickness) can be seen. The EDS lineanalysis result showed the compositionvaried rapidly in this reaction layer, sug-gesting that the intermetallic compoundlayer would be metastable phases. Forexample, based on the EDS point analy-sis result at point 2 in Fig. 8B and the Al-Fe binary phase diagram, one of themetastable phases at the center of the in-terface layer would be Fe3Al2, which maybe a metastable phase between stableFe3Al and FeAl phases.

The crack formation mechanism inthe case without upsetting is discussed

below. A small amount of intermetalliccompound (see Fig. 8A) indicated thatthe crack within the Al plate did not re-sult from embrittlement of the Al basemetal, but should be related to the tor-sion of the steel stud. For the friction studwelding process, metal-metal intimatecontact at the joint interface can be eas-ily achieved in the first two stages (i.e.,plunging and in situ friction stages) viamechanical disruption of oxide films onthe two base metal surfaces and elevatedfrictional temperature resulting from di-rect friction between the two base met-als. Once a strong interfacial bond be-tween dissimilar metals is achieved (thatis, part of the Al strongly adhered to thesteel stud end), the plasticized Al nearthe Al/steel interface has to rotate withthe continuous rotation of the steel stud.On the other hand, the portion of the Albase metal far away from the Al/steel in-terface keeps static (not rotating) all thetime in the three stages. As a result, anew friction interface between the rotat-ing part and static part within the Al basemetal should be produced. Thus, the ac-tual friction interface should shift fromthe initial friction interface (Al/steel in-terface) into the softer, weaker Al basemetal. The authors call the newly formedactual friction interface within the Albase metal the “secondary friction inter-face.” In fact, unlike static pressure weld-ing, with the rotation of the motor in fric-tion stud welding, bonding and debond-ing occur simultaneously at the newlyformed secondary friction interfacewithin the Al base metal, and the second-ary friction interface shifts gradually, dy-namically, and in a nonparallel mannerdepending on interfacial bonding behav-ior in various zones.

For the case without upsetting, dur-ing the long freely stopping stage (at leastmore than 7 s), the debonding crack re-sulting from torsion at the secondary fric-tion interface within the Al base metalcannot be remedied well due to the lackof vertical plastic deformation producedat the key moment of dead stop of themotor because in the case without upset-ting, the pressure applying to the weld-

ing zone should only be a small elasticpressure (Ref. 4) resulting from thermalexpansion of base metals at elevated fric-tional temperature (especially in the keystopping stage), which should be at a lowlevel of about 0.97 kN (~12.3 MPa) (Fig.5). This would thus be insufficient toclose the torsion crack at the secondaryfriction interface at the key moment ofdead stop of the motor. Moreover, thelong stopping stage time (more than 7 s)will lead to a significant decrease in themomentary bonding temperature at thekey moment of the motor’s dead stop.Eventually, the torsion crack at the sec-ondary friction interface remained afterfriction stud welding. In contrast, whenmanually applying upsetting to the joint,since the moment of starting to stop therotary motor, the joint could undergomore intense plastic deformation alongthe axial direction, resulting in rebond-ing of the torsion crack at the secondaryfriction interface again at the moment ofthe motor’s dead stop. As a result, thetorsion crack at the secondary friction in-terface within the softer Al base metalwas eliminated and a sound friction studwelded joint was obtained.

From the joint appearance (Fig. 4B)and microstructure (Fig. 8B), it can beseen that the use of upsetting resulted inintense plastic deformation and a slightincrease in reaction layer thickness.However, the use of upsetting showed lit-tle effect on increasing bonding temper-ature due to a small difference in boththe maximum bonding temperature (~ 623 K (350°C)) and cooling rate in themeasured thermal cycles, as shown in Fig.9 (the difference in heating rate wascaused by the scatter in plunging rate inmanual operation). The low bondingtemperature can be attributed to thesmall shoulder diameter (10 mm) andshort friction time (3 s).

In a previous study, Rathod and Kut-suna reported that the critical bondingtemperature for an Al/steel couple was723 K (450°C), above which the diffusionof iron in Al is considerably fast (Ref. 5).Therefore, for the formation and growthof interfacial intermetallic compounds,

Fig. 6 — Fracture surface appear-ances of the joints after the tensiletest showing the effect of upsettingon improving joint fracture behavior:A, C — Without upsetting; B, D — withupsetting applied.

Fig. 8 — BSE micrographs of friction stud welded joints and the EDS pointanalysis result: A — Without upsetting; B — with upsetting applied.

Fig. 7 — BSE macrographs of frictionstud welded joints: A — Without up-setting; B — with upsetting applied

A

AA B

B

B

C D


it can be drawn that although upsettingtended to slightly enhance interdiffusionbetween the two base metals via furtherplastic deformation during the stoppingstage, the formed reaction layer at theinterface did not grow excessively due tothe lower bonding temperature. Sinceupsetting could rebond the torsion crackand did not result in excessive growth ofintermetallic compounds at the void-freeinitial interface, the joint with upsettingaction fractured neither along the sec-ondary friction interface nor along theinitial interface during tensile test, andexhibited a higher failure load.

Summary

In friction stud welding of a steel studto an Al plate, even when an upsettingaction was not introduced, intimate con-tact at the initial interface could beachieved. However, a crack roughly par-allel to the initial interface was presentwithin the softer Al plate, but not alongthe initial interface. A small amount ofintermetallic compound indicated thecrack did not result from embrittlementof the Al base metal, but was related tothe torsion of the steel stud. This torsioncrack could be the result of a combina-tion of factors, including the following:1) shift of actual friction interface frominitial interface into the softer Al plateto form a secondary friction interfacewithin the Al plate when strong interfa-cial bonding was established at the ini-tial interface, 2) very long stopping stagetime and, in particular, 3) the lack of join-ing pressure. When upsetting (24.8 MPa)was introduced manually, the debondingcrack at the secondary friction interfacecould be closed at/after the moment ofdead stop of the motor and the joint be-came so strong that most of the Al in thecentral bonded region adhered to thesteel stud end after the tensile test. ◆

References

1. Dawes, C. J., and Thomas, W. M.1996. Friction stir process welds alu-minum alloys. Welding Journal 75(3):41–45.

2. Mishra, R. S., Mahoney, M. W., Mc-Fadden, S. X., Mara, N.A., and Mukher-jee, A. K. 1999. High strain rate super-plasticity in a friction stir processed 7075Al alloy. Scripta Materialia 42(2):163–168.

3. Information on www.twi.co.uk/newsevents/videos/friction-stud-welding/

4. Zhang, G. F., Su, W., Zhang, J.,Zhang, J. X. 2011. Visual observation ofeffect of tilting tool on forging action dur-ing FSW of aluminium sheet. Science andTechnology of Welding and Joining 16(1):87–91.

5. Rathod, M. J., and Kutsuna, M.2004. Joining of aluminum alloy 5052 andlow-carbon steel by laser roll welding.Welding Journal 75(1): 16-s to 26-s.

57WELDING JOURNAL

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Fig. 9— The measured thermal cyclesduring friction stud welding with orwithout upsetting action.



LETTERS TO THEEDITOR

Reader QuestionsTungsten Sizes andDroplets

This letter concerns Gas Tungsten Arc Weld-ing Using an Arcing Wire, by J. S. Chen, Y. Lu, X. R. Li, and Y. M. Zhang, publishedin the October 2012 Welding Journal(261-s to 269-s).

The comments set forth by August F. Manz,an AWS Fellow, are in plain text. The answersand clarifications are italicized as submittedby corresponding author YuMing Zhang.

This fine article left me with a fewunanswered questions.

1. As shown in Fig. 4, both currents (I1+ I2) pass through the tungsten electrode.The current totals in the experimentsranged from 150 to 400 A. Such a rangeon tungsten electrodes would require achange in size, especially when comparedto ordinary gas tungsten arc welding(GTAW) with a cold wire or hot wire ad-dition. What was the authors’ experience?

You are absolutely correct that a tung-sten size should be appropriate to I1 + I2.However, in all our experiments, despite theamperage, we used the same tungsten (1⁄8 in.diameter) and torch (Weldcraft WP-18P500-A GTA torch) to produce the welds/re-sults documented in the article. We have notfound noticeable adverse effects in our ex-

periments when we use a relatively largetungsten size for a relatively small I1 + I2.

2. Again, referring to Fig. 4, what wasthe droplet transfer frequency? What wasthe droplet size? What was the directionof the arc force on the droplets?

The transfer frequency and droplet sizevary with the current of the side arc that isestablished between the wire and tungsten,i.e., I2. They also change with the currentof the main arc (gas tungsten arc), i.e., I1.

We did record high-speed videos for someof the experiments but not for all of thosereported in the paper. We saw the presenceof a few separate droplets with diametersmuch smaller than that of the wire forminga trajectory deviating more from the mainarc axis as approaching the workpiece(probably due to the arc force from the mainarc). We also saw a single large droplet witha diameter greater than that of the wire. Suchlarge droplets transfer from the wire tip tothe workpiece following a similar path, i.e.,deviating more from the main arc axis whenapproaching the workpiece. We did not seethe evidence that such large droplets affectthe stability of the main arc, which does nothave the wire as one of its two arc terminals.

In addition, we did not see the evidencethat such large droplets produce spatterprobably because of the presence of the mainarc. I expect that we will soon have quanti-tative results for the effect of various param-eters on the metal transfer.

3. In hot wire, the resistance heating

helps to remove volatiles from the wirebefore entering the work weld zone. Ingas metal arc welding (GMAW), the ef-fect of this resistance heating is minimal.As has been shown by Rykalin (see Manz,WRC Bulletin 223, Appendix A, January1977), resistance heating of the GMAWelectrode is minimal. It is the arc thatmelts the electrode. As a consequence,the volatiles are not removed in the samedegree as in hot wire welding.

You are correct. Our arcing-wire GTAWthat melts the wire primarily by the side arcdoes not typically remove the volatiles in thesame degree as in hot wire GTAW.

In a typical GTAW application, we prob-ably would not use a large wire extension.However, if we increase the length of the wireextension, we may increase the resistive heatto remove more volatiles. For GMAW, in-creasing the wire extension causes arc insta-bility for the arc that directly affects theworkpiece. For our arcing-wire GTAW, thiscause for arc instability will be partially com-pensated by the main arc.

Further, the arc that is subject to possi-ble instability due to the increased wire ex-tension is the side arc, which does not di-rectly affect the workpiece. Hence, our arc-ing-wire GTAW may have the possibility fora capability to approach the hot-wire GTAWin removing volatiles. However, at this time,we do not have any experimental data tosupport my argument.◆

JANUARY 201358

Letters to the Editor January 2013_Layout 1 12/12/12 2:28 PM Page 58

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Educational OpportunitiesLaser Vision Seminars. Jan. 23, 24; Feb. 20, 21; March 20, 21,April 24, 25; Maty 22, 23; June 19, 20; Aug. 28, 29, Oct. 2, 3; Nov.6, 7; Dec. 4, 5. Servo-Robot, Inc. www.servorobot.com.

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CERTIFICATIONSCHEDULE

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CONFERENCES

8th Shipbuilding ConferenceFebruary 26–27

New Orleans, La.

The technical program will feature presentations on advancedwelding processes, NDE, materials, robotics, and mechanizedwelding for shipbuilding applications. Presenters will discuss newflux cored welding electrodes for high-yield steels, a new ap-proach to reduce diffusible hydrogen content in the weld zone,aluminum applications, and welding tractors that can be used forall-position welding that do not require tracks. Other presenta-tions will address the integration of robotics and welding powersupplies, hybrid laser welding in shipyards, and the use of portablerobots to join thick steel plating. A keynote speaker will openthe event with an overview of welding technology in shipyards.

Weld Cracking ConferenceMarch 26–27

Las Vegas, Nev.

Much to their chagrin, most welding engineers have witnesseda crack or two or even more in the welds fabricated at their plants.That is serious. Most weld cracks can be prevented. All it takes ismore practical knowledge. Were the cracks caused by hydrogen dif-fusion, residual stress, some mix-up in heat treating, misuse of elec-trodes in dissimilar metal welds, or some unexplained problem withthe heat-affected zone? To find out what it takes to eliminate weldcracks, make plans to hear the experts at this conference, who willbe armed with solutions to many of your problems.

Pipeline ConferenceJune 4–5

Houston, Tex.Welding has always been an integral part of pipeline construc-

tion. It all goes back to the days when hand-held oxyacetylenetorches were used to join pipes in the field. Much has happenedsince, and what has happened or, better yet, is happening will bethe topics of this conference. Some of the key subjects that will

be covered include welding of high-strength X80 pipe steels, themany orbital processes that are seeing applications in pipelinespreads and offshore barges throughout the world, and hybridlaser arc welding.

Codes and Standards ConferenceJuly 16–17

Orlando, Fla.This conference will feature information about the AWS D1

Structural Welding Code — Steel, ASME Boiler and Pressure Ves-sel, and API pipeline codes, plus MIL and ISO standards, poten-tially the most valuable documents available to manufacturersand fabricators of welded products. Information will be providedabout the planning and execution of various welding processes,as well as useful data for designers, inspectors, and QC specialists.

16th Annual Aluminum ConferenceSeptember 17–18

Chicago, Ill.A distinguished panel of aluminum-industry experts will sur-

vey the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and prac-tice. You will also have several opportunities to network infor-mally with speakers and other participants, as well as visit an ex-hibition showcasing products and services available to the alu-minum welding industry. Aluminum lends itself to a wide varietyof industrial applications because of its light weight, high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and other attributes. How-ever, because its chemical and physical properties are differentfrom those of steel, welding of aluminum requires specialprocesses, techniques, and expertise. ♦

For more information, please contact the AWS Conferencesand Seminars Business Unit at (800) 443-9353, ext. 264, or e-mail [email protected]. You can also visit the Conference De-partment Web site at www.aws.org/conferences for upcomingconferences and registration information.

JANUARY 201364

AWS Trailer Highlights Welding CareersThe AWS Careers in Welding Trailer offers many attractive features to get young people excited about welding industry careers.In particular, the mobile exhibit showcases the following:• Five VRTEX® 360 welding simulators that feed computer-generated data with a virtual welding gun and helmet equipped

with internal monitors;• Interactive educational exhibits, including a display wall featuring 11 industry segments with trivia questions, fun facts, and in-

dustry artifacts;• “Day in the Life of a Welder” exhibit with videos depicting real-life environments in which welders work;• Life-size welder highlighting welding as a safe profession;• Social media kiosk; and• Welding scholarship information.The 53-ft, single expandable trailer designed and built by MRA experiential tours and equipment covers 650-sq-ft of exhibit space.To learn more and view its schedule, visit www.explorewelding.com.

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Friends and Colleagues:

I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feelhave a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standardsset by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the mostsenior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, andwho would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we takethe extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obviousindividual was available to start the nomination process.

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWSheadquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issueof the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have mademajor contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,2013. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2014consideration.

Sincerely,

Thomas M. MustaleskiChair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee

Fellow Letter 2013_Layout 1 12/12/12 9:16 AM Page 66

Fellow Description

DEFINITION AND HISTORYThe American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for

distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professionalstature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of theindividual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:

∗ Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology∗ Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding∗ Innovative development of welding technology∗ Society and chapter contributions∗ Professional recognition

RULES1. Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS2. Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society3. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters4. Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in

which the award is to be presented5. Nominations will remain valid for three years6. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence7. No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year

NUMBER OF FELLOWSMaximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.

AWS Fellow Application Guidelines

Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advance-ment of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifica-tions, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they con-tributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating thecandidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).

1. Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates mostsignificant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.

2. Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published inpeer-reviewed journals.

3. Inventions and patents.4. Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.5. Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and

any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).6. Contributions to handbooks and standards.7. Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.8. Consultancy — particularly as it impacts technology advancement.9. Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.

10. Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.11. Advocacy — support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.

Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed abovewill have a very low probability of success.

Supporting LettersLetters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These

letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of thecandidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.

Return completed Fellow nomination package to:

Wendy S. ReeveAmerican Welding SocietySenior ManagerAward Programs and Administrative Support

Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293

SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2013

8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130Doral, FL 33166

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FELLOW NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:


POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________


POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BESELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDESUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________

Print Name___________________________________The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, orsupporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquiredby photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package shouldbe submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________

CLASS OF 201

SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 201

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Join us in New Orleans for an exciting look into the world of shipbuilding! Our featured speakers will cover a multitude of topics including robotics and mechanized welding for shipbuilding applications, aluminum applications, advanced welding processes and much more.

AWS Conferences & Exhibitions:

8th Shipbuilding ConferenceFebruary 26-27, 2013 / Wyndham Riverfront New Orleans

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at

www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 264.

Highlights

Learn about the progress of new and innovative developments in shipbuilding.

Network with industry peers to discuss the best solutions for business growth.

Information on new and emerging technologies being developed for shipbuilding applications.

AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance. These PDHs can be applied toward AWS recertifications and renewals.

February 26-27, 2013

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shipbuilding conference_FP_TEMP 12/10/12 3:39 PM Page 69

WELDINGWORKBOOK

Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state process that producesa weld when two or more workpieces, rotating or moving rela-tive to one another, are brought into contact under pressure toproduce heat and plastically displace material from the fayingsurface (weld interface).

The main variations of friction welding are direct drive fric-tion welding (FRW-DD), inertia friction welding (FRW-I), andfriction stir welding (FSW). However, FSW features substantialdifferences in mechanics from the other two processes and is notcovered here.

In direct drive friction welding, the welding machine suppliesthe energy required to make the weld through a direct motorconnection for a preset period of the welding cycle. The storedrotational kinetic energy of the welding machine supplies the en-ergy required to make an inertia friction weld.

Following are some of the terms and definitions related tofriction welding:

Friction speed. The relative velocity of the workpieces at thetime of initial contact.

Friction force. The compressive force applied to faying sur-faces during the time there is relative movement between theworkpieces from the start of welding until the application of theforge force.

Friction time. The duration of time from the application offriction force until the application of forge force.

Friction upset distance. The decrease in length of workpiecesduring the time of friction welding force application.

Forge (upset) force. The compressive force applied to the weldafter the heating portion (friction stage) if the welding cycle isessentially complete.

Forge (upset) distance. The total reduction in the axial lengthof the workpieces from the initial contact to the completion ofthe weld.

Figure 1 shows the basic steps in the friction welding process.As shown in Fig. 1A, one workpiece is rotated and the other heldstationary. When the appropriate rotational speed is reached,the two workpieces are brought together (B) under axial force.Abrasion at the weld interface heats the workpiece locally andupsetting (axial shortening) starts, as shown in (C). These twosteps occur during the friction stage. Finally, rotation of the work-piece ceases and upset force (D) is applied to consolidate thejoint. This occurs during the forging stage.

Advantages

Following are some operational and economic advantages offriction welding:• No filler metal is required for all similar and most dissimilar

material joints• Flux and shielding gas are not normally required• Solidification defects and porosity are normally not a concern• The process is environmentally clean due to the minimization

of sparks, smoke, or fumes• Surface cleanliness is not as critical compared to other welding

processes• Offers narrow heat-affected zones

•Well suited for joining most engineering materials and dissimi-lar metal combinations• In most cases, the weld is at least as strong as the weaker of the

two materials being joined (high joint efficiency)• Operators are not required to have manual welding skills• Easily automated for mass production• Short cycle times• Requires minimal plant requirements such as space, electric

power, and special foundations.

Limitations

Following are some limitations of friction welding:• In general, one workpiece must have an axis of symmetry and

be capable of rotation about that axis• Alignment of the workpieces may be critical to developing uni-

form frictional heat• Preparation of the interface geometry may be critical to achiev-

ing proper heat balance• Capital equipment and tooling costs are high, but payback pe-

riods typically are short for high-volume production.♦

JANUARY 201370

Datasheet 337

Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Vol. 3, ninth edition.

Advantages and Limitations of Friction Welding

Fig. 1 — Basic sequence of friction welding.

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Welding Workbook January 2013_Layout 1 12/13/12 12:48 PM Page 70

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awo.aws.org

Mathematics is a necessary part of a welding professional’s activities. However, math can be complicated and confusing for beginners, and difficult for adults who haven’t used math principles awhile. This course provides a combination of clear step-by-step verbal and visual explanations that

make each mathematical concept easy to understand and remember. Topics include place value, simplification, estimation, measurement, and the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of whole numbers, fractions, decimals and mixed numbers. Practical exercises allow welders, welding

students, supervisors and inspectors to apply basic math skills to various aspects of the welding process. Eighteen PDHs are provided through this course toward AWS recertification.

Online Math for Welders Course

Sample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/math-for-welders-level-1

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awo math_FP_TEMP 12/10/12 3:36 PM Page 72

SOCIETYNEWSSOCIETYNEWS

73WELDING JOURNAL

AWS Elects National and District Officers for 2013

David J. Landonvice president

David L. McQuaidvice president

Robert G. Palitreasurer

Nancy C. Colepresident

Dean R. Wilsonvice president

Sean P. Morandirector-at-large

Thomas J. Lienertdirector-at-large

The American Welding Soci-ety elected its incoming slate ofnational and District officersNov. 12 in Las Vegas, Nev., dur-ing FABTECH. The officers taketheir posts on Jan. 1, 2013.

Nancy C. Cole was electedpresident. An AWS Fellow andLife Member, she has servedthree terms as a vice president.Before forming her own com-pany, she was program managerand contract manager at OakRidge National Laboratories. AtABB Combustion Engineering,she developed welding elec-trodes, fluxes, and flux coredwires, where she was awardedthree patents. Cole served aschair of the AWS Technical Ac-tivities, Fellows, and C3 Brazingand Soldering Committees. Shehas received the AWS HonoraryMember, Dr. René Wasserman,and McKay-Helm Awards.

Dean R. Wilson was electedto a third term as a vice president.Wilson is president of Well-DeanEnterprises, a company relatedto health, safety, and weldingproducts and industry consulting.Earlier, he was director of weld-ing business development atJackson Safety Products, andserved as president/owner of Wil-son Industries from 1987 to 2007.He has worked on numerousAWS standing committees, in-cluding WEMCO (An Associa-tion of Welding Manufacturers)where he served as chair in 2005.

David J. Landon was electedto serve a second term as a vicepresident. Since 1992, he hasworked as manager of weldingengineering and missions sup-port at Vermeer Mfg. Co. and isan AWS Senior Certified Weld-ing Inspector. Previously, he op-erated Landon’s Welding Serv-ices performing failure analyses,inspections, and welder training.Earlier, he worked as a weldingengineer for Chicago Bridge andIron Co. He has served on manyAWS technical committees andas a Delegate to the IIW Com-mission XIV, Welding Educationand Training.

David L. McQuaid waselected to his first term as a vicepresident. Currently, he heads D.L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.,which he founded in 1999. He haschaired the AWS D1 StructuralWelding and the Technical Activ-ities Committees. At AmericanBridge Div. of U.S. Steel Corp.,he served as senior welding engi-neer and corporate engineer. In2009, he received the AmericanNational Standards InstituteFinegan Standards Medal for hisoutstanding contributions to in-dustrial standards.

Robert G. Pali was reelectedtreasurer. He is vice president,secretary, and COO of J. P. Nis-sen Co. Pali is currently vice chairof the AWS Finance Committeeand a member of the AWS Pub-lications, Expositions, and Mar-

keting Committees. He hasserved on the WEMCO (An As-sociation of Welding Manufac-turers) executive board, NationalNominating Committee, and nu-merous subcommittees and pres-idential task forces. From 1965to 1978, he worked for Bethle-hem Steel Corp. in analyticalchemistry and plant operationsresearch. In 2006, he received theAWS National MeritoriousAward.

Thomas J. Lienert was electedto serve as a director-at-large. Heis a Certified Welding Inspector(CWI) and a technical staff mem-ber, Materials Science Technol-ogy Div., at Los Alamos NationalLaboratory. Lienert is a Princi-pal Reviewer and member of theAWS Technical Papers Commit-tee, and chairs the AWS WeldingHandbook chapters on FrictionStir Welding and Stainless andHeat-Resisting Steels, and is onthe C6 Committee on FrictionWelding and the AWS HigherEducation Committee. Lienert isalso vice chair of the EducationCommittee, and serves on theTechnical Activities Committee.

Sean P. Moran has beenelected to serve as a director-at-large. He is a welding engineerat Weir American Hydro in York,Pa. Earlier, he served as a busi-ness development manager anda welding engineer at HobartBrothers Co., an ITW company.He has worked ten years as a

welding instructor in bothpublic and private institu-tions, is a Certified WeldingInspector, Certified Weld-ing Educator, and CertifiedWelding Supervisor. Moranis a vice chair of the Educa-tion Scholarship Commit-tee and the Volume 3 Hand-book Committee, is chair ofthe Product Development,and a member of the D1Committees.

Society News January_Layout 1 12/13/12 10:36 AM Page 73

JANUARY 201374

Thomas A. Ferri has beenelected to serve a second term asDistrict 1 director. He is a CWIand has been an AWS member formore than 30 years. He is districtmanager New England for VictorTechnologies. He served fourterms as Boston Section chair,certification chair for seven years,and most recently as educationchair. He serves as a welding con-sultant to many companies inMassachusetts and is a member ofthe advisory committees at fivevocational technical schools.

Stewart A. Harris has beenelected to serve as District 4 di-rector. He is a CWI and CWE,is quality assurance groupleader and leader of the WeldSolutions Team at Altec Indus-tries, Creedmoor, N.C. He hasheld all executive posts at theTriangle Section, and servedthe past four years as deputyDistrict 4 director. He has re-ceived many awards, most re-cently the District nominationfor the National Dalton E.Hamilton Memorial CWI ofthe Year Award.

Uwe W. Aschemeier has beenelected to serve as District 7 di-rector. He is a CWI and an IIW-certified International WeldingEngineer, and is with MiamiDiver. Earlier, he was with H. C.Nutting, A Terracon Co., inCincinnati, Ohio. He has servedas chair of the Cincinnati Section,deputy Dist. 7 director, and mem-ber of the B1 Committee onMethods of Inspection and sev-eral Structural Welding Code sub-committees. He has received theDistrict Meritorious and the Dis-trict Dalton E. Hamilton Memo-rial CWI of the Year Awards.

Robert E. Brenner has beenelected to serve as District 10 di-rector. He is a CWI and a QC in-spector at CnD Industries, Inc.,Canton, Ohio, where he hasworked since 1991. At the facility,he has coordinated the safety pro-gram, established the OSHA li-brary, and conducted safety train-ing sessions for the employees. Forten consecutive years, he spear-headed and won the OSHA SharpAward for the company. Earlier,he was weld shop supervisor at Re-public Steel in Massillon, Ohio.

John A. Willard has beenelected to serve as District 13 di-rector. He is a CWI, serves atKankakee Community College,Kankakee, Ill., administering theDOT Highway Construction Ca-reers Training Program, and isalso studying for a degree in weld-ing. Until last year, he co-ownedAccurate American Inspectingand Consulting. He has 35 years’experience at Ironworkers Local465 in Kankakee as an apprenticecoordinator, and has served aschair of the JAK Section for tenyears where he remains active.

Dennis A. Wright, who has ful-filled David Landon’s term as Dis-trict 16 director, has been electedto his first full term. He is an AWSDistinguished Member, CWI, andCWE. He owns his own business,Wright Welding Technologies. Healso works in the general job shopat Zephyr Products, Inc., Leaven-worth, Kan., training penitentiaryinmates to weld using the AWSSENSE program. In the U.S. Navyhe served as a journeymanwelder/fitter in a shipyard.

Ken L. Johnson has beenelected District 19 director. Hehas served 31 years in the weldingtrades, primarily at Todd Pacific(now Vigor) Shipyards. He beganas a structural welder and is cur-rently in the welding engineeringdepartment. For the past 15 years,he has been a welding supervisorfor the U.S. Navy and commercialprojects, and has taught eveningwelding classes at Renton Techni-cal College for the past 17 years.Johnson has held officer posts atthe Puget Sound Section andchairs the D3 Committee onWelding in Marine Construction.

Kerry E. Shatell has beenelected District 22 director. He isa CWI and CWEng, and holds amaster’s degree in welding engi-neering. Currently, he is a seniorwelding engineer for Pacific Gas& Electric Co. Earlier, he was awelding engineer for Procter &Gamble Co., a welder trainer forPrecision Castparts Corp., and apipefitter apprentice for UALocal 598. He has served most of-ficer posts at the Sacramento Sec-tion. His awards include the Dis-trict Dalton E. Hamilton Memo-rial CWI of the Year Award.

Ken L. JohnsonDistrict 19 director

Kerry E. Shatell District 22 director

Dennis A. WrightDistrict 16 director

John A. WillardDistrict 13 director

Robert E. BrennerDistrict 10 director

Uwe W. AschemeierDistrict 7 director

Stewart A. HarrisDistrict 4 director

Thomas A. FerriDistrict 1 director

Society News January_Layout 1 12/12/12 4:12 PM Page 74

American Welding Society represen-tatives met with leaders of the Indone-sian Welding Society (IWS) and U.S. gov-ernment officials at the Ted Weiss Fed-eral Building in New York City Sept. 25to sign a cooperation agreement aimedat implementing AWS certification pro-grams in Indonesia. The agreement also

references plans for the future establish-ment of a training center in Indonesia toprovide training and certification forwelders and welding instructors in thatcountry. Participating at the meetingfrom American Welding Society wereVice President Dean Wilson, Jeff Weber,senior associate executive director, and

Jeff Kamentz, corporate director of in-ternational sales. The principal represen-tative from IWS was Achdiat Atmaw-inata, president. Representing the U.S.Department of Commerce were CraigAllen, deputy assistant secretary for Asia,and David Gossack, counselor for com-mercial affairs.

75WELDING JOURNAL

AWS to Cooperate with Indonesian Welding Society in Personnel Certification and Education

Achdiat Atmawinata (seated at left), IWS president, and Dean Wilson (seated at right), AWS vice president, are shown with representatives ofthe Indonesian Welding Society, American Welding Society, and the U.S. Department of Commerce.

November 1, 2013, is the deadline forsubmitting nominations for the 2014 Prof.Koichi Masubuchi Award.

This award is presented each year toone person, 40 years old or younger, whohas made significant contributions to theadvancement of materials joining through

research and development. Nominationsshould include a description of the candi-date’s experience, list of publications,honors, and awards, and at least three let-ters of recommendation from fellow re-searchers. This award is sponsored by theDept. of Ocean Engineering at Massachu-

setts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.), thisaward includes a $5000 honorarium.

E-mail your nomination package toTodd A. Palmer, assistant professor, ThePennsylvania State University,[email protected].

Candidates Sought for Welding-Related Awards

William Irrgang Memorial AwardThis award is given to the individual who has done the most

over the past five years to enhance the Society’s goal of advanc-ing the science and technology of welding. It includes a $2500honorarium and a certificate.

Honorary Membership AwardThis award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession,

or one who is credited with exceptional accomplishments in thedevelopment of the welding art. Honorary Members have fullrights of membership.

Nat. Meritorious Certificate AwardThis award recognizes the recipient’s counsel, loyalty, and

dedication to AWS affairs, assistance in promoting cordial rela-

tions with industry and other organizations, and for contribu-tions of time and effort on behalf of the Society.

George E. Willis AwardThis award is given to an individual who promoted the ad-

vancement of welding internationally by fostering cooperativeparticipation in technology transfer, standards rationalization,and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a $2500 hono-rarium.

Int’l Meritorious Certificate AwardThis honor recognizes recipients’ significant contributions to

the welding industry for service to the international welding com-munity in the broadest terms. The award consists of a certificateand a one-year AWS membership.

The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations.Contact Wendy Sue Reeve, [email protected]; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.


JANUARY 201376

Standards Approved by ANSIA9.5:2013, Guide for Verification and

Validation in Computation Weld Mechan-ics. New. 10/30/12.

D14.9/D14.9M:2013, Specification forthe Welding of Hydraulic Cylinders. New.10/30/12.

D15.2/D15.2M:2013, RecommendedPractices for the Welding of Rails and Re-lated Rail Components for Use by Rail Ve-hicles. Revised. 10/30/12.

D17.2/D17.2M:2013, Specification forResistance Welding for Aerospace Applica-tions. Revised. 10/30/12.

C4.6M:2006 (R2012) (ISO 9013:2002IDT), Thermal Cutting — Classification ofThermal Cuts — Geometric Product Spec-ification and Quality Tolerances. Reaf-firmed. 10/30/12.

Standards for Public ReviewAWS was approved as an accredited

standards-preparing organization by theAmerican National Standards Institute(ANSI) in 1979. ANSI requires that allstandards be open to public review forcomment during the approval process.

The following Reaffirmed Standardsare submitted for public review. The ex-piration date is 1/14/13. Draft copies, $25each, may be ordered from R. O’Neill,[email protected], (305) 443-9353, ext. 451.

B2.1-1-003:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuit-ing Transfer Mode) of Galvanized Steel (M-1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-WeldedCondition, with or without Backing

B2.1-1-004:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuit-ing Transfer Mode) of Carbon Steel (M-1,Group 1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with or without Backing

B2.1-8-005:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuit-ing Transfer Mode) of Austenitic StainlessSteel (M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through 10Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with orwithout Backing

B2.1-1/8-006:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuit-ing Transfer Mode) of Carbon Steel toAustenitic Stainless Steel (M-1 to M-8, P-8,or S-8), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with or without Backing

B2.1-1-007:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Galva-nized Steel (M-1), 18 through 10 Gauge,in the As-Welded Condition, with or with-out Backing

B2.1-1-008:2002 (R20XX), Standard

Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of CarbonSteel (M-1, P-1, or S-1), 18 through 10Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with orwithout Backing

B2.1-8-009:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of AusteniticStainless Steel (M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, withor without Backing

B2.1-1/8-010:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of CarbonSteel to Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-1, P-1or S-1 to M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through 10Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with orwithout Backing

B2.1-1-011:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Galva-nized Steel (M-1), 10 through 18 Gauge, inthe As-Welded Condition, with or withoutBacking

B2.1-1-012:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of CarbonSteel (M-1, P-1, or S-1 to M-1, P-1, or S-1),10 through 18 Gauge, in the As-WeldedCondition, with or without Backing

B2.1-8-013:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of AusteniticStainless Steel (M-8, P-8, S-8, Group 1), 10through 18 Gauge, in the As-Welded Con-dition, with or without Backing

B2.1-1/8-014:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of CarbonSteel to Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-1 toM-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 10 through 18Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, withor without Backing

B2.1-1/8-227:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of CarbonSteel (M-1/P-1, Groups 1 or 2) toAustenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8,Group 1), 1⁄16 through 11⁄2 Inch Thick,ER309(L), As-Welded Condition, Prima-rily Pipe Applications

B2.1-1/8-228:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of CarbonSteel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Groups 1 or 2) toAustenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8,Group 1), 1⁄8 through 11⁄2 Inch Thick,E309(L) -15, -16, or -17, As-Welded Con-dition, Primarily Pipe Applications

B2.1-1/8-229:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding followed byShielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel(M-1/P-1, Groups 1 or 2) to AusteniticStainless Steel ( M-8/P-8, Group 1), 1⁄8

through 11⁄2 Inch Thick, ER309(L) andE309(L) -15, -16, or -17, As-Welded Con-dition, Primarily Pipe Applications

B2.1-1/8-230:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS) forGas Tungsten Arc Welding with ConsumableInsert Root of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1,Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic Stainless Steel(M-8/P-8, Group 1), 1⁄16 through 11⁄2 InchThick, IN309 and ER309(L), As-WeldedCondition, Primarily Pipe Applications

B2.1-1/8-231:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Con-sumable Insert Root followed by ShieldedMetal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic Stain-less Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1) 1⁄8 through11⁄2 Inch Thick, IN309, ER309, and E309 -15,- 16, or -17, or IN309, ER309(L), andER309(L) -15, -16, or -17, As-Welded Con-dition, Primarily Pipe Applications

ISO Standards for Public ReviewCopies of the following Draft Interna-

tional Standards are available for reviewand comment through your national stan-dards body, which in the United States isANSI, 25 W. 43rd St., 4th Floor, New York,NY 10036; (212) 642-4900. Any commentsregarding ISO documents should be sentto your national standards body. In theUnited States, if you want to contributeto the development of International Stan-dards for welding, contact A. Davis,[email protected], (305) 443-9353, ext. 466.

ISO/DIS 14114 — Gas welding equip-ment — Acetylene manifold systems forwelding, cutting, and allied processes —General requirements

ISO/DIS 25980 — Health and safety inwelding and allied processes — Transpar-ent welding curtains, strips, and screens forarc welding processes

Technical Committee MeetingsNote: All of the following meetings will

be held at AWS World Headquarters inDoral, Fla. All AWS technical committeemeetings are open to the public. To attenda meeting, contact the secretary listed.

Jan. 23. Committee on Personnel andFacilities Qualification. S. Hedrick, ext.305.

Feb. 4, 5. B4 Committee on Mechani-cal Testing of Welds. B. McGrath, ext. 311.

Feb. 6. International Standards Activi-ties Committee. A. Davis, ext. 466.

Feb. 6, 7. Technical Activities Commit-tee. A. Alonso, ext. 299.

Feb. 26−March 1, D1 Committeemeetings. For details, call B. McGrath,ext. 311, or visit www.aws.org/WPZD8B.

Tech Topics


77WELDING JOURNAL

New AWS Supporters

SUSTAINING MEMBER

Lincoln College of Technology11194 E. 45th Ave.Denver, CO 80239

Representative: Eric T. Drobneywww.lincolncollegeoftechnology.com

Lincoln College of Technology teachesstudents of all ages to weld using an eight-stage program designed to move them intothe welding industry well rounded in theGMA, GTA, FCA, and SMA weldingprocesses. Students learn these tech-niques beginning with emphasis on safetyand proper equipment setup. The coursesare based on AWS standards with an em-phasis on code compliance.

AFFILIATE COMPANIESApplied Cryo Technologies

7150 Almeda GenoaHouston, TX 77075

DM & C Steel Corp.10949 Schmidt Rd.

El Monte, CA 91733

Eastern Oklahoma Fabrication27355 State Hwy. 112Cameron, OK 74932

Fedorki Performance Systems Ltd.PO Box 1534

Brockville, ON K6V6E6Canada

Great Lakes Mechanical Services, Inc.1221 Commerce Dr., Ste. 400

Crete, IL 60417

Howell Industries1650 Swisco Rd.

Sulphur, LA 70665

Killick Group Ltd.19 Dundee Ave.

Mount Pearl, NL A1N4R6, Canada

Peddinghaus Corp.300 N. Washington Ave.

Bradley, IL 60915

Playcore150 Playcore Dr.

Fort Payne, AL 35967

Tech Fab7450 Miller Rd. 2, Houston, TX 77049

SUPPORTING COMPANIESALFRA USA LLC

120 Prairie Lake Rd.East Dundee, IL 60118

Axis Inspection Group Ltd.1239 Manahan Ave., Unit B

Winnipeg, MB R3T5S8Canada

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONSCertified Welding

16 Walnut St.West Warwick, RI 02893

Daingerfield — Lone Star ISD200 Tiger Dr.

Daingerfield, TX 75638

Davis Applied Technology College550 E. 300 S.

Kaysville, UT 84037

Hallettsville High School200 N. Ridge St.

Hallettsville, TX 77964

North Bend High School2323 Pacific Ave.

North Bend, OR 97459

Savannah Technical College5717 White Bluff Rd.Savannah, GA 31405

Spooner High School801 Hwy A

Spooner, WI 54801

Tallahassee Community College444 Appleyard Dr.

Tallahassee, FL 32304

Texas State Technical CollegeWest Texas

300 Homer K. Taylor Dr.Sweetwater, TX 79556

Welding Skills Workshops181 S. Wineville Ave., Unit A

Ontario, CA 91761

D14 Committee on Machinery andEquipment seeks professionals in the de-sign, production, engineering, testing, andsafe operation of machinery and equipmentto prepare and revise its documents. E.Abrams, [email protected]; ext. 307.

C2 Committee on Thermal Sprayingseeks educators, general interest, and usersto update its documents. E. Abrams,[email protected]; ext. 307.

D16 Committee on Robotic and Auto-matic Welding seeks general interest andeducators to help revise its documents. B.McGrath, [email protected]; ext. 311.

D17J Subcommittee seeks members tohelp revise D17.3/D17.3M, Specification

for Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Al-loys for Aerospace Applications. Contact A.Diaz, [email protected]; ext. 304.

J1 Committee on Resistance WeldingEquipment seeks educators, general inter-est, and users to help develop its documentson controls, installation and maintenance,calibration, and resistance welding factsheets. E. Abrams, [email protected]; ext.307.

A5L Subcommittee on MagnesiumAlloy Filler Metals to assist in updating itsdocument. R. Gupta, [email protected], ext.301.

C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Weldingand Cutting seeks general interest and ed-

ucators to help review its documents. Con-tact E. Abrams, [email protected]; ext. 307.

D14H Subcommittee on Surfacing andReconditioning of Industrial Mill Rolls torevise AWS D14.7, Recommended Practicesfor Surfacing and Reconditioning of Indus-trial Mill Rolls. E. Abrams, [email protected]; ext. 307.

D8 Committee on Automotive Weldingseeks members to help prepare standardson all aspects of welding in the automotiveindustry. E. Abrams, [email protected];ext. 307.

D10P Subcommittee for Local HeatTreating of Pipe seeks members. B. Mc-Grath, [email protected]; ext. 311.

Opportunities to Contribute to AWS Welding Standards and CodesNOTE: LEARN MORE ABOUT TECHNICAL COMMITTEES AND APPLY FOR MEMBERSHIP ONLINE AT www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.

American Welding Society memberswill receive a discounted fee to attend theLaser Institute of America (LIA) 5th An-nual Laser Additive Manufacturing Work-

shop to be held Feb. 12 at Hilton HoustonNorth Hotel in Houston, Tex. The two so-cieties have signed a cooperating societyagreement wherein AWS is listed as a Co-

operating Society for the event and AWSmembers receive the LIA member dis-count. For complete information, visitwww.lia.org/conferences/lam.

Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop Offers Discounted Fee to AWS Members


JANUARY 201378

Member-Get-A-Member Campaign

Listed are the members participating inthe 2012−2013 campaign. Standings as of11/16/12. See page page 85 of this WeldingJournal for campaign rules and prize list orvisit www.aws.org/mgm. For information,call the Membership Department(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480.

Winner’s CircleSponsored 20 or more new Individual Mem-bers per year since June 1, 1999. The super-script denotes the number of times the mem-ber achieved Winner’s Circle status if morethan once.E. Ezell, Mobile10

J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7

J. Merzthal, Peru2

G. Taylor, Pascagoula2

L. Taylor, Pascagoula2

B. Chin, AuburnS. Esders, DetroitM. Haggard, Inland EmpireM. Karagoulis, DetroitS. McGill, NE TennesseeB. Mikeska, HoustonW. Shreve, Fox ValleyT. Weaver, Johnstown/AltoonaG. Woomer, Johnstown/AltoonaR. Wray, Nebraska

President’s RoundtableSponsored 9−19 new Individual Members M. Pelegrino, Chicago — 16E. Ezell, Mobile — 12R. Fulmer, Twin Tiers — 10W. Blamire, Atlanta — 9A. Tous, Costa Rica — 9P. Strother, New Orleans — 9

President’s ClubSponsored 3−8 new Individual Members

D. Galiher, Detroit — 7W. Komlos, Utah — 7J. Smith, San Antonio — 6C. Becker, Northwest — 5L. Webb, Lexington — 4A. Bernard, Sabine — 3P. Brown, New Orleans — 3D. Buster, Eastern Iowa — 3C. Daon, Israel — 3G. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 3D. Jessop, Mahoning Valley — 3A. Winkle, Kansas City — 3D. Wright, Kansas City — 3R. Wright, San Antonio — 3

President’s Honor RollSponsored 2 new Individual MembersP. Host, ChicagoW. Larry, Southern ColoradoE. Norman, OzarkA. Sam, TrinidadD. Saunders, LakeshoreA. Vogt, New JerseyJ. Vincent, Kansas CityM. Wheeler, ClevelandL. William, Western CarolinaW. Wilson, New OrleansR. Zabel, SE Nebraska

Student Member SponsorsSponsored 3 or more new AWS StudentMembers.B. Scherer, Cincinati — 39 W. England, West Michigan — 33H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley — 31R. Hammond, Greater Huntsville — 27 S. Siviski, Maine — 24B. Cheatham, Columbia — 23T. Geisler, Pittsburgh — 23C. Kochersperger, Philadelphia — 23

M. Arand, Louisville — 22G. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 21 R. Munns, Utah — 18S. Lindsey, San Diego — 17J. Falgout, Baton Rouge — 16E. Norman, Ozark — 16D. Pickering, Central Arkansas — 13R. Zabel, SE Nebraska — 13J. Daugherty, Louisville — 12C. Morris, Sacramento — 12R. Richwine, Indiana — 12S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley — 12R. Hutchinson, Long Beach/Or.Cty. — 11D. Saunders, Lakeshore — 11A. Theriot, New Orleans — 10A. Duron, Cumberland Valley — 10J. Boyer, Lancaster Section — 9G. Seese, Johnstown-Altoona — 8C. Schiner, Wyoming — 8C. Gilbertson, Northern Plains — 8J. Dawson, Pittsburgh — 7R. Udy, Utah — 7R. Vann, South Carolina — 7T. Buckley, Columbus — 6R. Fuller, Green & White Mts. — 6T. Shirk, Tidewater — 6A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. — 5P. Host, Chicago — 5K. Temme, Philadelphia — 5W. Wilson, New Orleans — 5C. Chifici, New Orleans — 4J. Reed, Ozark — 4G. Siepert, Kansas — 4P. Strother, New Orleans — 4R. Zadroga, Philadelphia — 4S. Liu, Colorado — 3G. Lunen, Kansas City — 3

Districts Council Actions and Membership Awards Notices

Actions of the Districts CouncilOn Nov. 11, after due consideration,

Districts Council approved the disband-ment of the Cuautitlan Izcalli Section,District 18.

Charters were approved for the Stu-dent Chapters at Strom Thurmond Ca-reer Center, District 5, and BlackhawkTechnical College, District 12.

The Shasta College Student Chapter,District 22, was approved for reinstate-ment.

Approved for disbandment were theStudent Chapters at Southeast Commu-nity College, District 16; Ozark MountainTechnical Center, District 17; Mount Ver-non High School, District 19; and ChollaHigh Magnet School, District 21.

Membership Promotion WinnersAnnounced

A special membership promotion washeld at the AWS Membership Booth dur-ing FABTECH, in Las Vegas. Everyonewho joined or renewed their membershipfor two years or longer received theirchoice of uniquely designed T-shirts or alimited edition American Welder patch,and were also entered in a raffle to win a$100 VISA gift card or an AWS duffle bag.

The VISA card winners included RyanCompton, Castaic, Calif.; Brian Henrick-son, Minneapolis, Minn.; and MikeMyers, Nikiski, Alaska. David Ennis,Winder, Ga., received the duffle bag.

District Director Award PresentedThe District Director Award provides

a means for District directors to recognizeindividuals and corporations for contribut-ing time and resources to the affairs of thelocal Section and/or District.

District 9 Director George Fairbankshas nominated James Carnell, BatonRouge Section, for the this award.

AWS Member CountsDecember 1, 2012

Sustaining ......................................553Supporting .....................................352Educational ...................................608Affiliate..........................................485Welding Distributor........................50Total Corporate ..........................2,048 Individual .................................58,118Student + Transitional ...............10,165Total Members .........................68,283


79WELDING JOURNAL

SECTIONNEWSSECTIONNEWS

District 1Thomas Ferri, director(508) [email protected]

Shown at the Boston Section vendor night event are (from left) Pat Fogarty, Nick Ryan, Alex Bill, Nick Stillwater, Megan Custer, Rick Costa,and Jim Carey.

Shown at the Central Mass./Rhode Island Section event are from left (front) Jeffrey Bar-boza, Zachery Smith, Instructor Douglas Desrochers, and Timothy Hurley; (back) MatthewAlger, Nathaniel St. John, Nicholas Demling, Michael McGraw, and Antonia Baravella.

Bill Campbell (center) is shown with Dave Paquin (left), Boston Section chair, and TomFerri, District 1 director.

BOSTONNOVEMBER 5Activity: The Section participated in a ven-dor night event hosted at Joseph P. KeefeRegional Technical School in Framing-ham, Mass. Representatives from Fraser& Malloy, Miller Electric, Victor Tech-nologies, Pferd Abrasives, Arc One, andEdmar Abrasives offered demonstrationsof stud welding, arc welding, and abrasiveproducts. Bill Campbell received the CWIof the Year Award from District 1 Direc-tor Tom Ferri and Dave Paquin, Sectionchair.

CENTRAL MASS./R.I.NOVEMBER 9Activity: The Section members partici-pated in the annual 8th grade careerawareness days designed to introduce stu-dents to the many vocations and coursesavailable in welding. Instructor DouglasDesrochers and his students in the weld-ing and joining technologies program ex-plained and demonstrated the gas metalarc and gas tungsten arc welding processes.The event was held at Old Colony Vo-TecHigh School in Rochester Mass.


JANUARY 201380

MAINEOCTOBER 25Activity: The Section members visitedEastern Maine Community College inBangor to tour its welder training facili-ties. A highlight was the weld testing cen-ter where Tom Giles discussed the proce-dures for destructive testing of welds, andthe welder performance qualifications re-quired at the college.

TRIANGLE & NE CAROLINAOCTOBER 23Activity: The Section members touredNash Tech Community College in Nash,N.C. Pitt Community College displayed itsmobile welding lab at the event. RussellWahrman from Wake C. C. discussed howbelonging to AWS has improved his careerand the activities of his school’s StudentChapter. Bobby Perkins, NortheasternCarolina Section chair, presented TedClayton the Section CWI of the YearAward, and the Section Educator Awardto Russell Wahrman.

PHILADELPHIANOVEMBER 15Speaker: Ken Moyer, metallurgistTopic: How grain structure affects the weldcharacteristicsActivity: The program was held at Villari’sLakeside Restaurant in Sicklerville, N.J.

Shown at the Maine Section tour are (from left) Jim Kein, Chris Maseychik, Mike Burgess, Tom Giles, Robb Smith, Mark Merry, MarkLegel, Reggie Munson, Joel Stanley, Mark Searle, and Patrick Blackie. Photo by Pat Kein, vice chair.

Attendees are shown at the Triangle Section tour of Nash Tech Community College.

Bobby Perkins (left), NE Carolina Sectionchair, is shown with Ted Clayton.

Russell Wahrman (right) is shown withBobby Perkins, NE Carolina Section chair.

Metallurgist Ken Moyer (left) is shown withKen Temme, Philadelphia Section chair.

District 2Harland W. Thompson, director(631) [email protected]

District 4Stewart A. Harris, director(919) [email protected]

District 3Michael Wiswesser, director(610) [email protected]


81WELDING JOURNAL

District 5Carl Matricardi, director(770) [email protected]

District 7Uwe Aschemeier, director(513) [email protected]

District 6Kenneth Phy, director(315) [email protected]

Shown at the Columbia Section program are (from left) Larry Dowd, District 5 DirectorCarl Matricardi, and Rick Shannon.

Shown at the North Florida Section meeting in September are (from left) Allen Garber, BobBitzky, Doug Yates, Drew Duffy, and Shelby Smith.

Shown at the South Carolina Section program are (from left) C. Ray Pearre, Chair GaleMole, and Bill Creek.

Shown at the Northern New York Sectionprogram are (from left) Bob Strugar, speakerDale Kapuscinski, and Chair Larry Hidde.

Speaker Bill Myers (right), an AWS past pres-ident, is shown with Charles Crumpton,Florida West Coast Section chair.

COLUMBIAOCTOBER 18Speaker: Michael DaleyAffiliation: Owen SteelTopic: Welding-related documents, welderqualification and certification require-mentsActivity: District 5 Director presented theCWI of the Year Award to Tommy Dowd,received in his absence by Larry Dowd.The event was held at Arclabs in Colum-bia, S.C., hosted by Rick Shannon.

FLORIDA WEST COASTNOVEMBER 14Speaker: Bill Myers, welding engineerAffiliation: Dresser Industries (ret.)Topic: Welding cast ironActivity: The event was held for 21 atten-dees at Frontier Steakhouse in Tampa, Fla.

NORTH FLORIDASEPTEMBERActivity: The Section members visitedCommercial Diving Academy in Jack-sonville, Fla.

SEPTEMBER 20Speaker: Bob Bitzky, training and processmanagerAffiliation: ESAB Welding & CuttingTopic: Spray and short circuit weldingprocesses

SOUTH CAROLINAOCTOBER 18Activity: The Section met at Trident Tech-nical College in North Charleston, S.C.,for a demonstration of blacksmithing tech-niques. The presenters were C. Ray Pearreand Bill Creek from the Philip SimmonsArtisans Blacksmith Guild.

NORTHERN NEW YORKNOVEMBER 6Speaker: Dale Kapuscinski, district salesmanager for New York stateAffiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.Topic: Welding technology advancementsActivity: Chair Larry Hidde presented BobStrugar the past chairman’s award.


JANUARY 201382

District 8Joe Livesay, director(931) 484-7502, ext. [email protected]

Pittsburgh Section members are shown at the November program.

Pittsburgh Section members shown at FABTECH (from left) are Bill Kashin, District 7 Di-rector Don Howard, AWS Vice President-Elect Dave McQuaid, and Ed Yevick.

Speaker Timothy Andreychek (left) is shownwith John Menhart, Pittsburgh Section chair.

CINCINNATINOVEMBER 6Speaker: Uwe Aschemeier, senior weldingengineerAffiliation: Miami Diver, LLCTopic: Repair of a product tankerActivity: The program was held at theCorinthian Restaurant in Cincinnati,Ohio, for 25 attendees.

NOVEMBER 19Activity: Several Pittsburgh Section mem-bers promoted the Section’s activities atthe FABTECH show in Las Vegas, Nev.,including AWS Vice President-Elect DaveMcQuaid, District 7 Director DonHoward, Bill Kashin, and Ed Yevick.

CHATTANOOGAOCTOBER 16Activity: The Section members visited Al-stom Power in Chattanooga, Tenn. JulioTolaini, welding group head, discussed awelding monitoring system. Doug Donald-son, material identification specialist, andRandy Theriot, welding qualification su-pervisor, at Partek Laboratories, Houma,La., demonstrated the TVC ALX II weld-ing data monitoring and recording system.

COLUMBUSSEPTEMBER 13Activity: The Section members joinedmembers of other local technical societiesat The Ohio State University to attend aworkshop on how to interview effectivelypresented by several local employers andcollege students. The speakers includedTom Ramsay, Elizabeth Brannon, andGreg Boyer.

SEPTEMBER 26Speaker: Jean-Vi Lenthe, authorTopic: Flying into Yesterday: My Searchfor the Curtiss-Wright Aeronautical Engi-neering CadettesActivity: The program was held at TheOhio State University in Columbus, Ohio.

PITTSBURGHNOVEMBER 13Speaker: Timothy Andreychek, engineerAffiliation: Westinghouse Electric Co.Topic: Improving corrosion-resisting com-ponents for the AP1000 nuclear reactorActivity: The program was held at Spring-field Grille in Mars, Pa.

Julio Tolaini discussed weld monitoring atthe Chattanooga Section program.


83WELDING JOURNAL

NASHVILLEOCTOBER 9Activity: District 8 Director Joe Livesaypresented the AWS Extraordinary Weld-ing Award to Preston Farabow, aKnoxville-area artist, for his stainless steelsundial sculpture Marking Time. The pres-entation was made at the I-40 SmithCounty Welcome Center in Buffalo Val-ley, Tenn., where the sculpture is on per-manent exhibition.

NE MISSISSIPPISEPTEMBER 12Activity: The Section held its program in

Starkville, Miss. Denny Cole received theSection Meritorious Award. David Car-wyle received the Section Dalton E. Hamil-ton Memorial CWI of the Year Award.

SEPTEMBER 20Activity: The NE Mississippi Section metwith Ron Martucci, salesman, The LincolnElectric Co., for a demonstration of theVRTEX®360 virtual reality arc weldertrainer technology.

OCTOBER 25Activity: The NE Mississippi Section mem-bers toured the Babcock & Wilcox WestPoint, Miss., facility. David Hutchins,welding engineer, conducted the program.

Doug Donaldson (left) and Randy Theriotare shown at the Chattanooga Section event.

Preston Farabow (right) receives the AWSExtraordinary Welding Award from JoeLivesay, District 8 director.

The NE Mississippi Section members are shown during their tour of Babcock & Wilcox Co. in October.

Northeast Mississippi Section members are shown at their September 20 event.

Shown at the NE Mississippi September 12 program are (from left) Chuck Robertson, DennyCole, David Carwyle, and Robbin Shull.


JANUARY 201384

Attendees at the NE Tennessee Section tour are (from left) Caleb Anderson, Lucas Hicks, Charles Leopper, John Folk, presenter PatrickWerner, Bruce Lowery, Brent Shattles, Joshua Burgess, David Hoff, Philip Bodanza, Lloyd Cadd, District 8 Director Joe Livesay, DarrenNail, Jim Werner, Chris Hayes, Paul Pipkin, Daniel Conner, and Jonaaron Jones.

Shown at the Acadiana Section program are (from left) Chair Mike Skiles, Gary Wilson,Sam Newton, Abby Bergeron, and David Reid.

Shown at the Birmingham Section program are (from left) Secretary Chris Williams, Treas-urer Nicholas Thomas, Vice Chair Chris Guined, Chair Randall Standridge, Program ChairRushton Syphurs, and Membership Chair Kendall Allen.

NE TENNESSEEOCTOBER 23Activity: The Section members toured theMaterials Engineering & Testing Corp. inOak Ridge, Tenn. Patrick Werner, presi-dent, conducted a shop tour including thewaterjet cutting, Charpy impact testing,weld X-ray, and chemical analysis areas.Attending were Joe Livesay, District 8 di-rector, and members from other AWS Sec-tions.

District 10 RoundtableNOVEMBER 3Activity: The District presented its firstCWI Roundtable as a forum for CWIs toshare their experiences and opinions. The12 attendees discussed four topics: whatCWIs do, steps to audit for code compli-ance, how to get the job done, and han-dling controversies. Participating wereLouis Verhas, Lance Besse, Pam Michal-ski, Thomas Kostreba, Dan Donaldson,

ACADIANAOCTOBER 16Activity: More than 70 representatives oflocal businesses and welding students at-tended the Section’s meeting held atCameron Corp. in Ville Platte, La. ChairMike Skiles made a presentation aboutAWS and local welding opportunities.Welding Supervisor Gary Wilson andManufacturing Manager Sam Newton con-ducted a tour of the facilities.

BIRMINGHAMNOVEMBER 13Activity: The Section held a “Chat with thePresident” program at Lawson State Com-munity College. College President PerryW. Ward recognized the various studentorganizations and discussed job opportu-nities and financial support programs.

MOBILENOVEMBER 1Speaker: Ryan O’Dell, district managerAffiliation: Miller Electric Mfg. Co.Topic: Weld data monitoringActivity: Welding students from LocklinTechnical Center attended the program.The event was held at Original OysterHouse in Spanish Fort, Ala.

Speaker Ryan O’Dell (left) is shown withJohnny Dedeaux, Mobile Section chair.

District 10Robert E. Brenner, director(330) [email protected]

District 9George Fairbanks Jr., director(225) [email protected]


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87WELDING JOURNAL

Lane Smerglia, Jim Myers, Dave Cook,Mark Demchak, Bob Gardner, GarySmerglia, and Richard Harris, District 10director. The District 10 roundtable washeld at Babcock & Wilcox Commercial inEuclid, Ohio.

MAHONING VALLEYOCTOBER 17Activity: The Section executive committeeand Student Chapter officers met to planactivities for the coming season. The meet-ing was held at Rachel’s Restaurant inAustintown, Ohio.

NOVEMBER 8Speaker: Robert Matteson, director oftechnologyAffiliation: Taylor-Winfield TechnologiesTopic: Resistance welding basics andequipmentActivity: About 70 members and guests at-tended this program, held at ColumbianaCounty Career Center in Columbiana,Ohio.

NORTHWESTERN PA.OCTOBER 9Speaker: Carl Peters, director of educa-tionAffiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.Topic: Education and careers in weldingActivity: The program, held at Erie Insti-tute of Technology in Erie, Pa., was at-tended by 42 members and guests.

NOVEMBER 6Activity: The Northwestern Pa. Sectionmembers and guests toured the Eriez® fa-cility in Erie, Pa. Christine Williamson,human resources manager, presented ahistory of the magnetics company and ledthe tour for the 50 attendees.

District 11Robert P. Wilcox, director(734) [email protected]

Shown are some of the participants at the District 10 CWI Roundtable event.

Central Michigan Section members and Boy Scouts are shown at the Merit Badge Clinicevent held in September.

Christine Williamson is shown with TomKostreba, Northwestern Pa. Section chair,during the November Eriez® tour.

Speaker Carl Peters (left) is shown with TomKostreba, Northwestern Pennsylvania Sec-tion chair, at the October meeting.

The Mahoning Valley Section executive committee and Student Chapter officers are shownat their planning meeting in October.

CENTRAL MICHIGANSEPTEMBER 22, 23Activity: The Section members conducteda Boy Scout Merit Badge Clinic at Lans-ing Community College in Lansing, Mich.The program qualified 14 boys to earntheir welding merit badges. Participatingwere Catherine Lindquist, Craig Barnes,Roy Bailiff, Bill Eggleston, and JeffHaynes.


JANUARY 201388

District 12Daniel J. Roland, director(715) 735-9341, ext. [email protected]

District 13John Willard, director(815) [email protected]

Madison-Beloit Section members are shown during the tour of Stoughton Trailers.

Shown during the Lakeshore Section tour are (from left) Chair Milt Kemp, Dick Brown,Andy Schmitt, and Mark Stenz.

Eric Stiles discussed welding robots for theDetroit Section members.

A Student Chapter member competes in thevirtual welding contest held by the Madison-Beloit and Racine-Kenosha Sections.

Dan Wellman (left) is shown with presenterMike Klos during the Detroit Section tour.

Willie Petzrick (left) and Kenneth Hunter areshown at the Madison-Beloit Section program.

DETROITNOVEMBER 8Activity: The Section members and guestsvisited IPG Photonics-Midwest in Novi,Mich., to tour the facility. Mike Klos, gen-eral manager, and Eric Stiles, applicationsmanager, discussed intelligent robots formaterials-joining applications. The eventattracted 75 attendees.

NORTHWEST OHIOJULY 6Activity: The Section held its annual Don-ald J. Leonhardt golf outing in Toledo,Ohio, for 64 participants. The event co-chairs were Mike Rogers, Tony Duris, andMark Scalise. The event benefits scholar-ships for Owen Community College.

LAKESHOREOCTOBER 11Activity: The Section members toured theMiller Implement Co. in St. Nazianz, Wis.,to observe the manufacture of agriculturalsprayer application equipment. The din-ner and meeting were held at Knox SilverValley Restaurant in Manitowoc, Wis., for25 attendees.

MADISON-BELOITOCTOBER 17Activity: The Section members touredStoughton Trailers in Stoughton, Wis., tostudy the manufacture of grain haulers,vans, domestic containers, container chas-sis, platform trailers, converter dollies, andflatbeds.

MADISON-BELOIT andRACINE-KENOSHANOVEMBER 7Activity: Members of the two Sections metat Blackhawk Technical College inJanesville, Wis., for a hands-on vendors’night activity including industry represen-tatives from Lincoln Electric, Miller Elec-tric, ESAB, Fronius, Airgas, and Hyper-therm. The college welding shop was avail-able for students and guests to work withthe various welding processes. The collegeand the Student Chapter hosted a weldingcontest using a VRTEX® 360 virtual arcwelding training equipment.


89WELDING JOURNAL

District 14Robert L. Richwine, director(765) [email protected]

Attendees are shown at the joint Chicago Section-ASNT chapter program.

The Ivy Tech C. C. Student Chapter members are from left (front row) Dustin Johnson,Dustin Hawkins, Cory Rix, and Andrew Gibson, (standing) Aaron Rich, Jonathan See, Wil-son Smith, Advisor Martina Miller, Terrence Smith, Justin Lui, Josh Noble, Thomas Faucett,Bethann Neal, and Advisor Bob Richwine, District 14 director.

The Iowa Section members are shown with the candidates who earned their Boy Scout welding merit badges in November.

Craig Tichelar (left) is shown with ChicagoSection Chair Pete Host.

Stuart Kleven (left) received a speaker plaquefrom Pete Host, Chicago Section chair.

CHICAGOOCTOBER 17Speaker: Stuart Kleven, inspectorAffiliation: Alloyweld Inspection Co.Topic: The Laser Interferometer Gravita-tion Observatory projectActivity: This was a joint meeting withmembers of the local chapter of ASNT.Craig Tichelar was presented an appreci-ation award for his services as chairman.

Ivy Tech C.C. Student ChapterOCTOBERActivity: The first AWS Student Chapterin the state of Indiana met at the college.The advisors are welding instructor Mar-tina Miller and Bob Richwine, District 14director. The Student Chapter membersattending included Dustin Johnson,Dustin Hawkins, Cory Rix, Andrew Gib-son, Aaron Rich, Jonathan See, WilsonSmith, Terrence Smith, Justin Lui, JoshNoble, Thomas Faucett, Malcom Duncan,and Bethann Neal.


JANUARY 201390

District 15David Lynnes, director(701) [email protected]

District 16Dennis Wright, director(913) [email protected]

IOWANOVEMBER 3Activity: The Section sponsored its firstBoy Scout welding merit badge event inWaterloo, Iowa. Participating were mem-bers of the Boy Scout troops fromScheffield, Cedar Falls, New Hampton,Bettendorf, Winthrop, Iowa City, LaporteCity, Van Horne, Clear Lake, Charles City,and Mason City. The Section membersworking the event were Greg Allison, Jor-dan Mason, Andy Morrison, AndySuprenant, Jonathan Lowery, JeffJantzen, and Kelly Jantzen.

KANSAS CITYNOVEMBER 8Speaker: Taylor Christmas, ASCE Stu-dent Chapter presidentAffiliation: University of Missouri, KansasCity Engineering SchoolTopic: Details of past and upcoming bridgebuilding competitionsActivity: About 60 members and guests at-tended this program, held at the univer-sity in Kansas City, Mo.

NEBRASKAOCTOBER 31Activity: The Section presented moneyfrom its scholarship fund to Burke HighSchool Industrial Technology Teachers Joe

Nebraska Section members and industrial technology students are shown at Burke High School.

Shown during the Oklahoma City Sectiontour are (from left) Keith Theesen, ChairCary Reeves, and Tony Solics.

Matt Terell observes a student using the vir-tual welding machine at the Oklahoma CitySection program.

Speaker Sgt. Tom Bell (left) is shown withPaul Wittenbach, Tulsa Section vice chair.

Shown at the Houston Section October program are (from left) Cary Roth, speaker WaltStein, David Mesle, and Barney Burks.

Houston Section Chair Justin Gordy (left)and Treasurer Barney Burks are shown atthe October program.


91WELDING JOURNAL

Olafson and Andy Schatzberg for the pur-chase of equipment needed for theschool’s welding education program. Offi-ciating were Chairman Chris Beaty, ViceChair Eric Nordhues, and Treasurer RichHanny.

OKLAHOMA CITYOCTOBER 11Speaker: Matt Terell, technical represen-tativeAffiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.Topic: The VRTEX® 360 virtual arc weld-ing trainerActivity: The Section members and weld-ing students and Instructor Keith Theesenfrom Caddo Kiowa Technology Center hada hands-on training session with the vir-tual welding equipment. The meeting con-cluded with a tour of the Trinity Industriesrail car manufacturing operations, hostedby Tony Solics.

TULSASEPTEMBER 25Speaker: Sgt. Tom BellAffiliation: Tulsa Police Dept.Topic: Industrial crime prevention

HOUSTONOCTOBER 17Speaker: Walt Stein, consultantAffiliation: Metallurgical Process ControlTopic: Procurement of welding materialsActivity: The program was held at Brady’sLanding in Houston, Tex.

OCTOBER 27Activity: The Houston Section hosted its

fall seminar for 48 participants at NCIBuilding Systems in Houston, Tex. Thetheme was Welding Quality Managementfor the Modern Fabricator. EducationChair Saty Segu, and speakers James Shel-ton, Ron Theiss, Fred Schweighardt, andHarry Harrison presented the program.

ALASKAOCTOBER 24Activity: The Section members and weld-ing students from local colleges touredUnique Machine LLC in Anchorage,Alaska. The facility offers CNC machin-ing centers providing drill pipe threadingservices for the oilfield, construction, min-ing, and fishing industries.

PORTLANDOCTOBER 23Activity: The Section members touredOregon Metal Slitters in Portland, Ore.Chris Holzgang led the tour of the rollingand cutting steel sheet facility.

PUGET SOUNDNOVEMBER 1Speaker: Ches King, west coast managerAffiliation: Lloyds Register North AmericaTopic: Ship classification and its role inship construction

Activity: Kevin McGuire was awarded a$500 Section scholarship. It was an-nounced that the Everett C. C. StudentChapter hosted a welding workshop forFirst Robotics high school teams. Morethan 70 people attended. Steve Pollard,Chair Dan Sheets, and Treasurer SteveNielsen provided technical assistance.

Presenters at the Houston Section seminar are (from left) Saty Segu, James Shelton, RonTheiss, Fred Schweighardt, and Harry Harrison.

Attendees are shown during the Alaska Section tour of Unique Machine.

District 19Ken Johnson, director(425) [email protected]

District 17J. Jones, director(940) [email protected]

District 18John Bray, director(281) [email protected]

Chris Holzgang (blue hat) is shown withPortland Section members in October.

Speaker Ches King (left) is shown with KenJohnson, Puget Sound Section chair.


JANUARY 201392

Attendees are shown at the Puget Sound Section’s Everett C. C. Student Chapter workshop.

Kevin McGuire (left) receives a scholarshipfrom Puget Sound Section Treasurer SteveNielsen (center) and Steve Pollard.

Presenter Gene Burr (left) chats with JohnSteele, Colorado Section chair, at the Sep-tember tour.

Ronda and Todd Peterson conducted theColorado Section members on a tour of theirfacilities in October.

Shown at the New Mexico State University Artweld Competition are (from left) EpimenioHernandez, Casey SuhVari, and Jesus Hernandez.

Samuel Colton (left) is shown with CharlesVega Schmidt, his host while traveling inSpain.

District 20William A. Komlos, director(801) [email protected]

COLORADOSEPTEMBER 13Activity: The Section members touredEaton Metal Products in Denver, Colo.,to study the various welding processes re-quired to manufacture above-ground stor-age tanks. Gene Burr presented a histori-cal overview of the company and its man-ufacturing techniques.

OCTOBER 11Activity: The Colorado Section memberstoured Peterson Machining, Inc., in Boul-der, Colo. The facility displayed its multi-axis CNC milling and lathe equipment andcapabilities to run prototype and short tolong run production and product develop-ment and tooling services for the medical,aerospace, and research industries. Own-ers Ronda and Todd Peterson conductedthe program.


93WELDING JOURNAL

Samuel Colton poses with welding students at Juan de Herrera welding school in Spain.

Nanette Samanich (center), District 21 director, is surrounded by AWCIWT Student Chapter members, welding industry representatives,and Ocotillo District boy scouts who earned their welding merit badges during the Welding Thunder 2012 event.

NEW MEXICONOVEMBER 1Activity: The Section members attendedthe first biannual Artweld Competitionheld at Carlsbad Museum and Art Center.The event was sponsored by the weldingdepartment at New Mexico State Univer-sity, Carlsbad, N.Mex. Taking top threeprizes for their welded entries were JesusHernandez, Casey SuhVari, and EpimenioHernandez.

SAN DIEGO AWCIWT Student ChapterSEPTEMBER 27−NOVEMBER 6Activity: Samuel Colton, professor ofwelding and Advisor for the Arizona West-ern College Institute of Welding Technol-ogy Student Chapter, accepted an invita-tion to present a paper at the SpanishWelding Society conference in Madrid,Spain. His host while in Spain was CharlesVega Schmidt. He also made a presenta-tion for the students at Juan de Herrerawelding school and participated in demon-strations at the Lincoln Electric Co. Dis-tribution Center open house event held inMadrid. The AWS San Diego Section,Miller Electric Co., and others contributedto making Colton’s trip possible.

OCTOBER 20Activity: Advisor Samuel Colton Sr. andthe AWCIWT Student Chapter membersworked with Ocotillo District boy scoutsto earn their welding merit badges duringthe Welding Thunder 2012 event. Themerit badge counselors were Larry Leb-sock, Gonzalo Huerta Sr., Gonzalo HuertaJr., and Samuel Colton Jr. Assisting wereDistrict 21 Director Nanette Samanichand representatives from Miller Electricand ESAB.

District 22Kerry E. Shatell, director(916) [email protected]

District 21Nanette Samanich, director(702) [email protected]


JANUARY 201394

Guide to AWS ServicesAmerican Welding Society

8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166(800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559; www.aws.org

Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.

AWS PRESIDENTNancy C. Cole

[email protected] Engineering

2735 Robert Oliver Ave.Fernandina Beach, FL 32034

ADMINISTRATIONExecutive Director

Ray W. Shook.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(210)

Sr. Associate Executive DirectorCassie R. Burrell.. [email protected] . . . . . .(253)

Sr. Associate Executive DirectorJeff Weber.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)

Chief Financial OfficerGesana Villegas.. [email protected] . . . . . .(252)

Executive Assistant for Board ServicesGricelda Manalich.. [email protected] . . . . .(294)

Administrative ServicesManaging Director

Jim Lankford.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)

IT Network DirectorArmando [email protected] . .(296)

DirectorHidail Nuñ[email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)

Director of IT OperationsNatalia [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(245)

Human ResourcesDirector, Compensation and Benefits

Luisa Hernandez.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(266)

Director, Human Resources Dora A. Shade.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(235)

International Institute of WeldingSenior Coordinator

Sissibeth Lopez . . [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(319)Liaison services with other national and internationalsocieties and standards organizations.

GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICESHugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . [email protected], Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-eral issues of importance to the industry.

CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONSJeff Weber.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)

Director, Convention and Meeting ServicesMatthew [email protected] . . . . . . .(239)

ITSA — International Thermal Spray Association

Senior Manager and EditorKathy [email protected] . . .(232)

RWMA — Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance

Management SpecialistKeila [email protected] . . . .(444)

WEMCO — Association of Welding Manufacturers

Management SpecialistKeila [email protected] . . . .(444)

Brazing and Soldering Manufacturers’ Committee

Jeff Weber.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)

GAWDA — Gases and Welding Distributors Association

Executive DirectorJohn Ospina.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(462)

Operations ManagerNatasha Alexis.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(401)

INTERNATIONAL SALESManaging Director, Global Exposition Sales

Joe [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)

Corporate Director, International SalesJeff P. [email protected] . . . . . . .(233)Oversees international business activities involvingcertification, publication, and membership.

PUBLICATION SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)

Managing DirectorAndrew Cullison.. [email protected] . . . . . .(249)

Welding JournalPublisher

Andrew Cullison.. [email protected] . . . . . .(249)

EditorMary Ruth Johnsen.. [email protected] . .(238)

National Sales DirectorRob Saltzstein.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . .(243)

Society and Section News EditorHoward [email protected] . .(244)

Welding HandbookEditor

Annette O’Brien.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(303)

MARKETING COMMUNICATIONSDirector

Ross Hancock.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(226)

Public Relations ManagerCindy [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)

WebmasterJose [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(456)

Section Web EditorHenry [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(452)

MEMBER SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)

Sr. Associate Executive DirectorCassie R. Burrell.. [email protected] . . . . . .(253)

DirectorRhenda A. Kenny... [email protected] . . . . . .(260) Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWSheadquarters.

CERTIFICATION SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273)

Managing DirectorJohn L. Gayler.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(472)Oversees all certification activities including all inter-national certification programs.

Director, Certification OperationsTerry [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)Oversees application processing, renewals, and examscoring.

Director, Certification ProgramsLinda [email protected] . . . . . . .(298)Oversees the development of new certification pro-grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, andAWS Certified Welding Fabricators.

EDUCATION SERVICES Director, Operations

Martica Ventura.. [email protected] . . . . . .(224)

Director, Education DevelopmentDavid Hernandez.. [email protected] . . .(219)

AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORSSenior Manager

Wendy S. Reeve.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(293)Coordinates AWS awards, Fellow, Counselor nom-inees.

TECHNICAL SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)

Managing DirectorAndrew R. Davis.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(466)International Standards Activities, American Coun-cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)

Director, National Standards ActivitiesAnnette Alonso.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(299)

Manager, Safety and HealthStephen P. Hedrick.. [email protected] . . . . . .(305)Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-tics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Per-sonnel and Facilities Qualification

Managing Engineer, StandardsBrian McGrath .... [email protected] . . . . .(311)Structural Welding, Methods of Inspection, Me-chanical Testing of Welds, Welding in Marine Con-struction, Piping and Tubing

Senior Staff EngineerRakesh Gupta.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(301)Filler Metals and Allied Materials, InternationalFiller Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, ArcWelding and Cutting Processes

Standards Program ManagersEfram Abrams.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(307)Thermal Spray, Automotive, Resistance Welding,Machinery and Equipment

Stephen Borrero... [email protected] . . . . .(334)Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals andFluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols

Alex Diaz.... [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys

Patrick Henry.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(215)Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications

Senior Manager, Technical PublicationsRosalinda O’Neill.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(451)AWS publishes about 200 documents widely usedthroughout the welding industry

Note: Official interpretations of AWS standardsmay be obtained only by sending a request in writ-ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-nical Services, [email protected].

Oral opinions on AWS standards may be ren-dered, however, oral opinions do not constitute of-ficial or unofficial opinions or interpretations ofAWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal andshould not be used as a substitute for an officialinterpretation.

AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.www.aws.org/w/a/foundation

General Information(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, [email protected]

Chairman, Board of TrusteesGerald D. Uttrachi

Executive Director, FoundationSam Gentry.. [email protected]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)

Corporate Director, Workforce Development Monica Pfarr.. [email protected]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)

The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corpora-tion established to provide support for the educa-tional and scientific endeavors of the American Weld-ing Society.

Promote the Foundation’s work with your financialsupport. Call (800) 443-9353, ext. 212, for completeinformation.


AWS Conferences & Exhibitions:

AWS invites you to join us in Las Vegas to expand your weld cracking knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures.

Gain practical knowledge on the types and causes of weld cracking.


AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance. These PDHs can be applied toward AWS recertifications and renewals.

Weld Cracking ConferenceMarch 26-27, 2013 / Las Vegas

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 264.

cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures. knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld

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cracking conference_FP_TEMP 12/10/12 3:38 PM Page 95

POSTER ABSTRACT SUBMITTAL ANNUAL FABTECH SHOW

Chicago, IL – November 18-21, 2013

Submission Deadline: April 19, 2013 (Complete a separate submittal for each poster.)

Primary Author (Full Name): School/Company: Mailing Address:

City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: Email: Poster Title (max. 50 characters): Poster Subtitle (max. 50 characters): Co-Author(s): Name (Full Name): Affiliation: Address:

City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: Email:

Name (Full Name): Affiliation: Address:

City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: Email:

Poster Requirements and Selection Criteria: Only those abstracts submitted on this form will be considered. Follow the guidelines and word limits indicated.

Complete this form using MSWord. Submit electronically via email to [email protected] or print and mail. Any technical topic relevant to the welding industry is acceptable (e.g. welding processes & controls, welding procedures, welding design,

structural integrity related to welding, weld inspection, welding metallurgy, etc.). Submittals that are incomplete and that do not satisfy these basic guidelines will not be considered for competition.

Posters accepted for competition will be judged based on technical content, clarity of communication, novelty/relevance of the subject & ideas conveyed and overall aesthetic impression. Criteria by category as follows:

(A) Student (B) Student (C) Student (D) Professional Students enrolled in 2 yr. college

and/or certificate programs at time of submittal.

Presentation need not represent actual experimental work. Rather, emphasis is placed on demonstrating a clear understanding of technical concepts and subject matter.

Practical application is important and should be demonstrated.

For students enrolled in baccalaureate engineering or engineering technology programs at the time of submittal.

Poster should represent the student’s own experimental work. Emphasis is place on demonstrating a clear understanding of technical concepts and subject matter.

Practical application and/or potential relevance to the welding industry is important and should be demonstrated.

For students enrolled in graduate degree programs in engineering or engineering technology at time of submittal.

Poster should represent the student’s own experimental work. Poster must demonstrate technical or scientific concepts. Emphasis is placed on originality and novelty of ideas presented.

Potential relevance to the welding industry is important and should be demonstrated.

For anyone working in the welding industry or related field.

Poster must demonstrate technical or scientific concepts. Emphasis is placed on original contributions and the novelty of the presentation.

Potential relevance to the welding industry is important and should be demonstrated.

(E) High School Junior or Senior high school

students enrolled in a welding concentration at the time of submittal.

Presentation should represent technical concepts and application to the welding industry.

Practical application and creativity are important and should be demonstrated.

Pages 96&97_FP_TEMP 12/12/12 9:24 AM Page 96

Check the category that applies:

(A) Student 2-yr. or Certificate Program

(B) Student 4-yr. Undergraduate

(C) Graduate Student

(D) Professional (E) High School

Poster Title (max. 50 characters): Poster Subtitle (max. 50 characters): Abstract: Introduction (100 words) – Describe the subject of the poster, problem/issue being addressed and it’s practical implications for the welding industry. Technical Approach & Results (200 words) – Explain the technical approach. Summarize the work that was done as it relates to the subject of the poster. . Conclusions (100 words) – Summarize the conclusions and how they could be used in a welding application.

Return this form, completed on both sides, via email to [email protected] MUST BE RECEIVED NO LATER THAN April 19, 2013

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Pages 96&97_FP_TEMP 12/12/12 9:25 AM Page 97

PERSONNEL

JANUARY 201398

Noble Gas Hires New Staff

Noble Gas Solu-tions, Albany, N.Y.,has named RobCollins business de-velopment specialistfor the company’smedical and spe-cialty segment, andKevin O’Rourke andMitch Evans cus-tomer service spe-cialists. O’Rourkepreviously worked at Woolferts RoostCountry Club. Evans most recently wascustomer service advocate for Wellpoint.

IPC Names PrincipalEngineer

IPC — Association Connecting Elec-tronics Industries®, Bannockburn, Ill.,has named Jasbir Bath principal engineerwithin its assembly technology area. Bath,who has about 20 years of experience inthe research and development of solder-ing, surface mount, and packaging tech-nologies using tin-lead and lead-free sol-ders, is with Bath and Associates Consul-tancy LLC, providing process consultingand training services for the electronicsmanufacturing industry.

O’Neal, Inc., Hires ProcessDepartment Head

O’Neal, Inc., Greenville, S.C., a designand construction firm, has hired StellaDominguez as a process department head.Dominguez previously served as a biofuelsproject engineer with BP-Biofuels inHouston, Tex.

M. K. Morse NamesRegional Sales Manager

The M. K. Morse Co., Canton, Ohio, asupplier of saw blades and power tool ac-cessories, has named James Reid III re-gional sales manager for the easternUnited States. Reid previously worked as

a sales manager and sales director in thecutting tools industry.

Gateway Fills Key Post

Gateway Safety,Cleveland, Ohio, hasappointed GregSchmidt to thenewly created posi-tion of product de-velopment manager,concerned with eye,face, head, hearing,and respiratory pro-tection. Previously,Schmidt worked forApplied Industrial

Technologies as product manager fortools, safety, and general industrial prod-ucts. Earlier, he served Rockwell Automa-tion as a product manager and design engineer.

Wall Colmonoy Staffs ItsEuropean Headquarters

Wall Colmonoy Ltd. (UK), Pontar-dawe, Wales, has appointed Kevin Nolanmanaging director, Philip Tilston chief fi-nancial officer, Steve Leahey operationsdirector, Mark Harrison continuous im-provement manager, Nick Clark machineshop business unit manager, John Lap-ping sales manager for alloy products,Richard Shaw sales manager for compo-nents, and Alun Rodge technical manager.

FMA Elects Officers

Fabricators & Manufacturers Associa-tion, International®, Rockford, Ill., haselected Burke Doar chairman of theboard. Doar, who is vice president, salesand marketing at TRUMPF, Inc., becameactive on the board in 2005. Serving as vicechairs are Carlos Rodriguez-Borjas withFeralloy Corp. and Edwin Stanley withGH Metal Solutions. Al Zelt, with ASKO,Inc., serves as secretary/treasurer.

TRUMPF Designates NWSales Representative

TRUMPF, Inc., Farmington, Conn.,has named Christopher Gildehaus North-west direct sales representative, specifi-cally for the northern parts of Californiaand Nevada. Previously, Gildehausworked in financial brokerage services inthe Boston, Mass., area.

Watts Specialties AppointsPipe Sales Manager

Watts Specialties, Puyallup, Wash., hasappointed David Carr sales manager,based in Houston, Tex. With more than 27years of experience in industrial sales ofpipe equipment, Carr will be responsiblefor managing the company’s pipe-cuttingmachinery industry.

IMS WaterJet Hires ShopForeman

IMS WaterJet,Inc., a supplier ofwaterjet cutting sys-tems, has hiredThomas DeMatteoas shop foreman atits new facility in Wa-terbury, Conn. Withnearly 30 years ofmanufacturing expe-rience, DeMatteopreviously worked at

Radiall USA as a CNC toolmaker andtooling engineer.

Folkerts Joins Battelle

Battelle, Tampa, Fla., has hired JohnFolkerts, major general (ret.), U.S. AirForce, to lead its business with Special Op-erations Forces to further the company’sbusiness with Dept. of Defense SpecialOperations Forces.

Obituaries

Keith Van Loon Flood

Keith Van Loon Flood, 68, died Sept. 22in Albany, N.Y. Flood was an AWS LifeMember who served many years as treas-urer of the Northern New York Section.

Rob Collins Mitch Evans

Kevin O’Rourke

Greg Schmidt

Philip Tilston Steve LeaheyThomas DeMatteo


Personnel Jan._Layout 1 12/13/12 10:38 AM Page 98

general corporate_FP_TEMP 12/10/12 3:10 PM Page 99

He graduated fromChristian BrothersAcademy (CBA) in1961 then completedhis studies at AlbanyBusiness College.He joined The Lin-coln Electric Co.where he worked 42years as a districtsales manager be-fore retiring in 2005.He was active with

the CBA Alumni Association and ParentsAssociation, served as scoutmaster forSchenectady County Council Troop 47,and coached and managed his sons’Colonie Little League baseball team.During his retirement years, he enjoyedmeeting with cadets at West Point and hisfriends at the Army Reserve Unit Com-pany A 413QM Battalion, golfing, and va-cations at Ocean Grove, N.J. He is sur-vived by Sharon, his wife of 50 years, twosons, a sister, and four grandchildren. Do-nations to his memory may be made toCBA, 12 Airline Dr., Albany, NY 12205.

Jay Chennat

Jay Chennat died Aug. 25. Active withthe Detroit Section, he was well known inthe laser-processing industry. He was along-time welding engineering technicalspacialist at Ford Motor Co. in Transmis-sion Operations, and later at AdvancedManufacturing working with body laser

applications. He previously worked forLumonics, Foro Energy, and held variousother consulting positions. He receivedhis master’s degree in welding engineer-ing from The Ohio State University,served as chair of the AWS Subcommitteeon Laser and Electron Beam Welding,and was chairman of the Welding Hand-book chapter on laser beam cutting. Hepresented many papers at AWS, ICA-LEO, ALAW, and other conferences, andheld patents in welding. He is survived byhis wife and two daughters.

Jerry Howard Hope

Jerry HowardHope, 72, died Sept.7 at his home in Ren-ton, Wash. An AWSLife Member, hewas very active inAWS national andPuget Sound Sec-tion activities. Heserved as Sectionchair 1985–1986,and received theSection and District

19 Meritorious awards on several occa-sions. He served on the CertificationCommittee, Certification of Welding In-spectors Subcommittee, Test SupervisorInstructors Subcommittee, and per-formed as an AWS test supervisor for 15years. Hope was born in Ventura, Calif.,graduated from Pine Valley High Schoolin Halfway, Ore., and served in the U.S.Navy before moving to Renton. After re-tiring from Boeing, Hope served his localcommunity and remained active with

AWS. He is survived by two sisters, abrother, a daughter, a son, and five grand-children. Donations to his memory may bemade to AWS Puget Sound Section, POBox 2923, Everett, WA 98213-2923, c/oJerry Hope Memorial Scholarship Fund.

Edwin F. Crane

Edwin F. Crane died Sept. 13 in St.Louis, Mo. He joined the American Weld-ing Society in 1953, was an AWS LifeMember who was active with the St. LouisSection. He is survived by two sons, threegrandchildren, and two great-grandchil-dren. Donations to his memory may bemade to Webster Groves Baptist Church,308 Summit Ave., St. Louis, MO 63119, orto the The First Tee of Greater St. Louis,PO Box 15175, St. Louis, MO 63110.

Thurman Dale Hesse

Thurman Dale “Terry” Hesse, 73, diedNov. 16 in Madison, Wis. He was a mem-

ber of the Madison-Beloit Section, anAWS Life Member,served eight years asa District director,and was a memberof numerous techni-cal committees. Hereceived his bache-lor’s degree at theUniversity of Wis-consin (UW)-Plat-teville and master’sat UW-Stout. He

taught welding and metallurgy at MATCfor more than 30 years.♦

Jerry Hope

Keith Flood

Thurman Hesse

JANUARY 2013100

— continued from page 98

PERSONNEL

amperage rating charts. Full-page spreadsoffer photos, diagrams, and detailed in-formation on the products and consum-ables.

Bernard Welding Equipmentwww.bernardwelds.com(800) 946-2281

Programming SystemGenerates Tool Paths

The LaCam3D offline programing sys-tem enables process developers and end-users to generate tool paths quickly, evenfor laser material deposition (LMD) tasksthat have nonstandard welding strategies.The generated paths are translated intomachine code and can be tested for possi-

ble collisions via a machine simulation.The system provides functionalities forLMD strategies that enable the LMD se-quence and welding direction of individ-ual paths to be modified. It comes with asimulation tool that can check in advancewhether the planned LMD process willcause the laser processing head to collidewith the part.

Fraunhofer Institute for LaserTechnology ILTwww.ilt.fraunhofer.de/en.html+49 241 8906-0

Guides for Cutting PipesCome in Five Sizes

The Pipe-Pro cutting guides come infive sizes with four cutting templates oneach guide. To use, place around the pipe,mark the desired angle, remove, then cut.They work for various pipe cutting needs,including fencing, corrals, handrails, orrace cars.

Nation Wide Productswww.pipeproguides.com(800) 797-3709

PRODUCT & PRINTSPOTLIGHT

— continued from page 26

Personnel Jan._Layout 1 12/12/12 2:37 PM Page 100

awo.aws.org

Online Welding Safety Certificate Course

Earn PDHs and increase your ability to improve safety and health of your welding operations.Three-hour self-paced course covers electric shock, vision and skin protection,

ventilation, fire protection, handling of gases, and much more.

Sample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/safety

OSHA estimates that4 out of every 1,000welders willexperience a fatalinjury or accident overtheir working lifetime

Online elding SafetWOnline y Certificate Courseelding Safety Certificate Coursey Certificate Course

their working lifetimeinjury or accident overexperience a fatalwelders will4 out of every 1,000

estimates thatAOSH

their working lifetimeinjury or accident overexperience a fatal

4 out of every 1,000 estimates that

Earn PDHs and increase your ability to improve safety and health of your welding operations.


Three-hour self-paced course covers electric shock, vision and skin protection, Earn PDHs and increase your ability to improve safety and health of your welding operations.





their working lifetime


Sample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/safetySample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/safetySample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/safety

awo safety_FP_TEMP 12/10/12 3:36 PM Page 101

International Institute of Welding LaunchesWhite Paper

The International Institute of Welding (IIW) launched itsWhite Paper, Improving Global Quality of Life through OptimumUse and Innovation of Welding and Joining Technologies.

The document, available online at http://publ.com/6lULyGu,was developed by IIW experts in the fields of materials weldingand joining technologies, training and education, as well as de-sign and assessment of welded structures. It describes strategicchallenges and agendas for the welding industries, personnel, sci-entists, and end-users through the next 10 years (2012–2021).The agenda also details strategies for improving quality of lifethrough using new materials, design, and advanced joining tech-nologies to reduce manufacturing cost and improve structuralperformance and life-cycle via better personnel, inspection, andintegrity assessment rules while meeting the societal expecta-tions in health, safety, environmental, and growth issues. Its pub-lication has been sponsored by several sources, including theAmerican Welding Society.

Deere to Invest in Improvements

Deere & Co. will invest approximately $58 million to enhanceoperations at John Deere Seeding, Moline, Ill., where the com-pany manufactures planting equipment. It will be made in con-junction with the implementation of a new factory master plantargeting efficiency and quality enhancements. Improvementsinclude increased automation and robotics use. Currently, thisdivision has approximately 800 employees and does not antici-pate a big change to total employment as a result of the announcement.

Industry Notes• The owners of JWF Industries, Johnstown, Pa., established a

scholarship in honor of their late father, John J. Polacek Sr.In partnership with Pennsylvania Highlands Community Col-lege, the scholarship will be offered to new and currently en-rolled students in the welding program. For more details andan application, due by Jan. 31, email [email protected].

• North Idaho College has been awarded a $2.97 million grantintended to create an aerospace center. It is expected to cre-ate 520 new jobs by 2015, according to grant application pro-jections. The college anticipates offering courses by fall 2013.

• Markal, Elk Grove Village, Ill., unveiled a new, multilingualWeb site at www.markal.com featuring the “Find a Marker”online search tool, plus an updated product database.

• CONCOA, Virginia Beach, Va., a designer and manufacturerof gas controls, is celebrating its 25th anniversary. The com-pany commemorated the occasion with a luncheon, openhouse, and guided facility tours.

• Rolled Alloys’ recently opened Richburg, S.C., facility hasreached full operating status. The 33,000-sq-ft service center

features an inventory of stainless steel bar stock. Also, thecompany opened its new facility in Windsor, Conn. This40,000-sq-ft service center will replace the current location.

• The Manufacturing Institute has partnered with the Preci-sion Machined Products Association to expand Right SkillsNow, a fast-track machining training program aligned to theNational Association of Manufacturers-Endorsed Manufac-turing Skills Certification System.

• Georgian American Alloys, Inc., Miami, Fla., has recently ac-quired the membership interests of CC Metals & Alloys, aproducer and supplier of high-grade ferrosilicon alloys, fromaffiliated Optima Group LLC in exchange for companyshares.

• Siemens Industry’s Metallurgical Services Offline Mainte-nance group expanded capacity at its Benton Harbor, Mich.,facility for roll overlaying and steelmaking technology.

• Joining Technologies, Inc., East Granby, Conn., an industriallaser applications and welding services provider, is celebratingits 20th anniversary. The company was founded by MichaelFrancoeur.

• Bernard and Tregaskiss partnered to launch a new brandinginitiative. Bernard will now offer only semiautomatic gasmetal arc guns, while the Tregaskiss brand will be focused onrobotic gas metal arc guns and peripherals.

• At Austin Polytechnical Academy, Chicago, Ill., Mayor RahmEmanuel recently announced the city will invest $1.25 mil-lion in advanced manufacturing education programs led bythe Chicago Manufacturing Renaissance Council.

• PFERD Inc., a subsidiary of August Rüggeberg GmbH & Co.,Marienheide, Germany, and Superior Abrasives, Dayton,Ohio, reported Superior has been acquired by the RüggebergGroup. It will be named Superior Abrasives LLC.

• Kalamazoo Valley Community College, Kalamazoo, Mich., isoffering Machine Tool Operator, CNC Operator, and Weld-ing Certificates. For more information, visit www.kvcc.edu.

• The National Safety Council launched the Campbell Institute.Believing environmental, health, and safety management is atthe core of business vitality, it is committed to helping moveorganizations forward on their continuous improvement goals.

• Taylor-Wharton International, LLC, a technology, service,and manufacturing network for gas applications, is relocat-ing its corporate headquarters from Mechanicsburg, Pa., toMinneapolis, Minn., adding 25–30 new jobs.

• Thanks to local support and America’s Farmers Grow RuralEducationSM, Tully Central School District, N.Y., received a$10,000 grant to get students interested in the industry bypurchasing welding equipment for agriculture mechanics andconstruction courses at the junior high and high schools.

• IMS WaterJet, Inc., moved its HQ to a new location in Wa-terbury, Conn. The larger site will enable rapidly producing,designing, and fabricating elaborate, specialized machines.◆

JANUARY 2013102

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY— continued from page 10


Join us in Houston for the debut of the AWS Pipeline Welding Conference! Our featured speakers will cover a multitude of topics including the welding of high-strength X80 pipe steels, orbital processes used in pipeline construction throughout the world, the new FRIEX system from Belgium and many other exciting topics.

AWS Conferences:

Pipeline ConferenceJune 4th – 5th / Houston

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at

www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 224.

Highlights

Learn about the progress of new and innovative developments in pipeline welding.

business growth.

AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance.

and renewals.

pipeline conference_FP_TEMP 12/10/12 3:45 PM Page 103

SERVICES

JANUARY 2013104

CLASSIFIEDS

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including SNT-TC-1A, ISO 9712, etc.Visit www.worldspec.org today and save

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Place Your Classified Ad Here!

Contact Frank Wilson,Senior Advertising

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Put Your Products andServices to Work in the April 2013

Welding Marketplace

Spread the word on your company around the world by promoting afull-color photo of your newest and hottest welding product orservices to more than 80,000 AWS members and customers in thefamous welding product photo guide, WELDING MARKETPLACE.As an extra bonus your ad will be posted on the AWS Web site withan active link to your Web site. Also a digital link of WeldingMarketplace will be sent to more than 69,000 AWS members. MakeAWS members your customers! Closing date is February 15, 2013

Call the AWS sales team at: (800) 443-9353, RobSaltzstein at ext. 243, [email protected] or Lea Paneca atext. 220, [email protected]

JAN 2013 WJ CLASSIFIEDS_Classified Template 12/14/12 8:31 AM Page 104

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awo welding fundamentals_FP_TEMP 12/10/12 3:37 PM Page 107

PROFESSIONAL PROGRAM ABSTRACT SUBMITTAL ANNUAL FABTECH SHOW

Chicago, IL - November 18-21, 2013

Submission Deadline: March 29, 2013 (Complete a separate submittal for each paper to be presented.)

Primary Author (Full Name): Affiliation: Mailing Address:

City: State/Province Zip/Mail Code Country: Email: Co-Author(s): Name (Full Name): Affiliation Address: City: State/Province Zip/Mail Code Country: E-Mail:


City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: E-Mail:





Answer the following about this paper Original submittal? Yes No Progress report? Yes No Review paper? Yes No Tutorial? Yes NoWhat are the welding/Joining processes used? What are the materials used? What is the main emphasis of this paper? Process Oriented Materials Oriented Modeling To what industry segments is this paper most applicable? Has material in this paper ever been published or presented previously? Yes No

If “Yes”, when and where? Is this a graduate study related research? Yes No If accepted, will the author(s) present this paper in person? Yes Maybe No Keywords: Please indicate the top four keywords associated with your research below

Guidelines for abstract submittal and selection criteria: Only those abstracts submitted on this form will be considered. Follow the guidelines and word limits indicated. Complete this form using MSWord. Submit electronically via email to [email protected]

Technical/Research Oriented Applied Technology Education New science or research. Selection based on technical merit. Emphasis is on previously unpublished work in science or engineering relevant to welding, joining and allied processes.

Preference will be given to submittals with clearly communicated benefit to the welding industry.

New or unique applications. Selection based on technical merit. Emphasis is on previously

unpublished work that applies known principles of joining science or engineering in unique ways.

Preference will be given to submittals with clearly communicated benefit to the welding industry.

Innovation in welding education at all levels.

Emphasis is on education/training methods and their successes.

Papers should address overall relevance to the welding industry.

Check the category that best applies:

Technical/Research Oriented Applied Technology Education

SIONAL PROFESANNUAL

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Page 108&109_FP_TEMP 12/12/12 9:41 AM Page 108

Proposed Title (max. 50 characters): Proposed Subtitle (max. 50 characters): Abstract: Introduction (100 words max.) – Describe the subject of the presentation, problem/issue being addressed and its practical implications for the welding industry. Describe the basic value to the welding community with reference to specific communities or industry sectors. Technical Approach, for technical papers only (100 words max.) – Explain the technical approach, experimental methods and the reasons why this approach was taken. Results/Discussion (300 words max.) – For technical papers, summarize the results with emphasis on why the results are new or original, why the results are of value to further advance the welding science, engineering and applications. For applied technology and education papers, elaborate on why this paper is of value to the welding community, describe key aspects of the work developed and how this work benefits the welding industry and education. .Conclusions (100 words max.) – Summarize the conclusions and how they could be put to use – how and by whom.

NOTE: Abstract must not exceed one page and must not exceed the recommended word limit given aboveNote: The Technical Program is not the venue for commercial promotions of a company or a product. All presentations should avoid the use of product trade names. The Welding Show provides ample opportunities for companies to showcase and advertise their processes and products.

Return this form, completed on both sides, via email to [email protected]

MUST BE RECEIVED NO LATER THAN MARCH 29, 2013

Page 108&109_FP_TEMP 12/12/12 9:42 AM Page 109

D. K. AidunM. C. AkunerA. AlShawafJ. AntoniniA. AroraR. E. AveryN. K. BabuS. BagD. BechettiM. BlossS. BoetcherJ. E. M. BraidR. BrananJ. BrauserK. L. BrownX. CaoC. L. ChanK. R. ChanB. Y. J. ChaoC. C. ChenJ. ChenJ. ChenD. E. ClarkM. J. ColaK. ColliganG. E. CookB. CraigM. CunninghamE. N. C. DalderP. DawsonL. De FilippisA. DebiccariB. DeForceF. M. DiezP. J. DitzelH. DongH. DoudeW. DrakeD. DunbarM. DutoitD. EnoR. EtienZ. FangD. A. FinkS. R. FioreK. FriisJ. GabbitaP. GadheG. W. GalanesW. F. GaleD. L. GaliherY. P. GaoJ. A. GianettoB. GirvinS. GordonK. GraffJ. GreerM. GuhelM. HackettP. HallM. HansonI. D. HarrisD. HauserV. B. HernandezG. HinkleK. HollisT. HongB. Horn

W. HouJ. HutchinsD. L. IsenhourJ. R. JachnaD. A. JavernickN. T. JenkinsC. JiangM. Q. JohnsonJ. E. JoneA. KarL. KarlssonA. KasapogluD. D. KautzF. KavanaraC. KellyS. KellyT. J. KellyR. K. KerseyI. KhanD. S. KimJ. K. KimY. S. KimM. KimchiD. KlingmanD. B. KnorrH. KoikeF. KongS. KoreT. KostrivasR. KovacevicL. KramerA. KumarM. KuntzJ. J. KwiatkowskiM. LabbeK. LachenbergA. LandauB. LeisterL. LiM. V. LiT. LiD. Liang

E. LiguoS. LillardC. C. LuW. LuD. MaatzM. ManoharI. MaroefB. MarschkeR. P. MartukanitzM. P. MaryaK. MasubuchiV. MatthewsM. MayerA. MaynardJ. MazumderM. McAninchS. McCrackenA. MengelR. MenonR. W. MesslerJ. O. MilewskiR. MishraW. C. MohrT. MorrissettP. E. MurrayS. J. NaX. NaB. NarayananT. V. NataleT. C. NguyenJ. T. NorrisY. OgawaT. OyamaA. PandeyJ. PengJ. A. PensoF. PerezE. C. PessoaW. PetersonC. PetterssonA. PeuscF. Pfefferkorn

S. PilliM. PiltchJ. P. PlanckaertA. PolarN. PorterM. PragerP. PrangnellM. PrimeJ. D. PuskarJ. QuerinT. P. QuinnA. RabinkinJ. RamA. RarazS. ReamC. B. ReedR. RessA. P. ReynoldsD. RichardsB. RidgwayA. M. RitterG. RoyD. RudlandF. RumicheD. J. RybickiE. F. RybickiS. SadagopanM. SantellaS. SanthanakrishnanD. SchickJ. ScottK. ScottA. ShapiroA. ShuklaM. S. SierdzinskiT. SiewertH. B. SmarttC. SmithB. R. SomersR. SomersH. SongW. H. Song

G. SonnenbergC. D. SorensenV. SoundararajanW. J. SperkoJ. E. StallmeyerR. J. SteeleA. W. StockdaleT. StotlerJ. SutliffH. TangM. TeagueK. TelloD. J. TillackW. TongD. W. TreesC. L. TsaiJ. TuckerG. D. UttrachiD. M. VandergriffP. T. ViancoB. VictorG. WangW. WangY. Y. WangB. WarkeD. C. WeckmanM. M. WeirE. M. WestinT. C. WheelerT. WongP. WoollinC. WuC. Y. WuL. XiaoJ. XieR. XuZ. XuZ. YangL. YepezG. YoungT. ZachariaP. Zhang

AWS Peer Review Panel

All papers published in the Welding Journal’s Welding Research Supplement undergo Peer Review before publication for: 1) originalityof the contribution; 2) technical value to the welding community; 3) prior publication of the material being reviewed; 4) proper creditto others working in the same area; and 5) justification of the conclusions, based on the work performed. The following individuals serveon the AWS Peer Review Panel and are experts in specific technical areas. All are volunteers in the program.

Y. AdonyiB. AlexandrovS. S. BabuM. BalmforthH. R. CastnerB. A. ChinC. E. CrossC. B. DallamB. K. DamkragerT. DebRoyX. DengJ. N. DuPontT. W. EagarJ. W. ElmerD. F. FarsonZ. FengR. W. Fonda

P. W. FuerschbachA. GerlichJ. E. GouldM. HarrisD. HartmanP. HochanadelT. HolversonF. M. HoskingR. HutchisonJ. E. IndacocheaG. A. KnorovskyP. J. KonkolD. J. KoteckiS. KouS. H. La LamD. LandonK. Li

L. LiT. W. LiaoT. J. LienertD. LinW. LinS. LiuM. J. LucasR. B. MadiganM. C. MaguireP. F. MendezR. MenonD. W. MeyerP. MichalerisD. MillerP. B. NagyT. W. NelsonR. Noecker

D. L. OlsonT. A. PalmerJ. J. PerdomoR. PolaninJ. RamirezG. W. RitterJ. R. RoperJ. SchneiderD. R. SiglerX. SunM. TumuluruP. C. WangY. P. YangH. ZhangW. ZhangY. M. ZhangY. N. Zhou

Principal Reviewers

JANUARY 2013110

Peer Review 2013[1]_Layout 1 12/12/12 9:56 AM Page 110

Introduction

Prized for its excellent strength-to-weight ratio, magnesium and its alloys arecurrently under intense investigation foruse in many applications in the automo-tive and aerospace industries (Refs. 1–3).However, steel sheet is still the most com-monly used material in the automotive in-dustry for fabrication of autobody struc-tures. The ability to make hybridstructures of magnesium alloy and steelsheet would be desirable for many appli-cations in the automotive industry, be-cause the overall weight of the autobodycould be reduced resulting in better fuelefficiencies and lower environmental im-

pact. Therefore, there is increasing inter-est in identifying and developing new tech-niques and processes that can be used tomake dissimilar joints between magne-sium alloys and steel sheet (Refs. 3–9).

Joining magnesium alloys to steel byconventional fusion welding technologiesis difficult due to the large difference inthe melting points between Mg (649°C)and Fe (1538°C). In addition, the boilingpoint of magnesium is only 1091°C, so di-rect contact with molten steel causes cata-strophic vaporization of the magnesium(Refs. 3–8). Moreover, the maximum solid

solubility of Fe in Mg is estimated to beonly 0.00041 at.-% Fe (Ref. 6) and wettingof steel by molten magnesium is very poor(Ref. 8).

The weldability of magnesium to steelusing the hybrid laser-arc welding (Refs. 5,6, 8, 9) and resistance spot welding (Refs.4, 7) processes has been examined. Zhaoet al. (Ref. 5) used a hybrid laser-gas tung-sten arc welding (GTAW) process to joinAZ31B magnesium alloy and 304 stainlesssteel. However, oxides that formed at theinterface were found to cause joints withpoor tensile strength. Using the samewelding technique, Liu et al. (Refs. 8, 9)studied lap joining of AZ31B Mg alloy toQ235 steel with Sn and Cu interlayers.Mg2Sn and Mg2Cu intermetallic com-pounds were found to form along the grainboundaries of the Mg alloy when using theSn and Cu interlayers, respectively. Theuse of Sn and Cu interlayers was reportedas the main reason for the elimination ofgaps along the steel-fusion zone interfaceand the improvement of wetting proper-ties of the steel by molten magnesiumalloy (Refs. 8, 9). Finally, in a recent study,Liu et al. (Refs. 4, 7) used resistance spotwelding to join AZ31B magnesium alloyto DP600 Zn-coated steel. They foundthat a preexisting transition layer ofFe2Al5 between the Zn coating and thesteel improved wetting and bonding be-tween the steel and the magnesium alloy.

Review of the literature suggests thatjoining Mg alloys to steel will be possibleprovided the temperatures required forjoining are kept below the boiling point ofthe magnesium alloy (1091°C) and pro-vided another interlayer element is usedthat can interact and promote wetting andbonding between both immiscible alloys.For this reason, brazing can be a superiorchoice in joining dissimilar metals such asmagnesium and steel because brazing

SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, JANUARY 2013Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

Interfacial Microstructure of Diode LaserBrazed AZ31B Magnesium to Steel Sheet

Using a Nickel Interlayer

The formation of a nano-scale Fe(Ni) transition layer on the steel during laserbrazing was found to be responsible for the formation of a metallurgical bond

between the steel and magnesium

BY A. M. NASIRI, D. C. WECKMAN, AND Y. ZHOU

KEYWORDS

Laser BrazingAZ31B Mg SheetSteel SheetDissimilarIntermetallic Compound

A. M. NASIRI([email protected]), D. C.WECKMAN, and Y. ZHOU are with Departmentof Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering, Cen-tre for Advanced Materials Joining, University ofWaterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada.

ABSTRACT

The brazeability of AZ31B-H24 magnesium alloy and steel sheet with a microlayerof electro-deposited Ni in a single flare bevel lap joint configuration has been investi-gated. The macro- and microstructure, element distribution, and interfacial phases of thejoints were studied by optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM),transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Wetting of thesteel by the Mg-Al brazing alloy was improved significantly through the addition of a Nielectroplated interlayer. Bonding between the magnesium brazing alloy and the steel wasfacilitated by the formation of a transition layer composed of a solid solution of Ni in Feon the steel followed by a layer of α-Mg + Mg2Ni eutectic. A band of AlNi intermetal-lic compound with different morphologies also formed along the steel-fusion zone in-terface, but was not directly responsible for bonding. Ni electroplating was found to sig-nificantly improve the brazeability and mechanical performance of the joint. The averagefracture shear strength of the bond reached 96.8 MPa and the joint efficiency was 60%with respect to the AZ31B-H24 Mg alloy base metal. In all cases, failure occurred in thefusion zone very close to the steel-fusion zone interface.

1-sWELDING JOURNAL

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Nasiri Supplement January 2013_Layout 1 12/12/12 1:47 PM Page 1

temperatures are generally lower than themelting points of both base metals. In ad-dition, very fast heating and cooling ratescan be used during the brazing process tominimize the thickness of intermetalliccompounds that might form along the in-terfaces (Ref. 10).

The benefits of using laser brazing andlaser welding-brazing technologies forjoining dissimilar materials are also be-coming increasingly recognized due to thecombined attributes of furnace brazingand laser welding (Ref. 11). With a morelocalized energy input and more precisecontrol of the laser beam energy, highjoining speeds and accompanying highcooling rates can be realized with minimalheating of the parts. Also, laser brazingand laser welding-brazing can prevent orminimize excessive formation of detri-mental intermetallic phases. If intermetal-lic layers can be limited to thicknessesbelow 10 μm, acceptable joint strengthsand mechanical properties may be ob-tained (Refs. 12–14).

In our previous study (Ref. 15), a diodelaser brazing process was developed forjoining Mg alloy sheet to aluminized steelsheet where the Al-12Si coating served asthe interlayer. This coating was found topromote wetting of the steel by the mag-nesium brazing alloy; however, a preexist-ing layer of brittle θ-FeAl3 along thebraze-steel interface was found to degradethe mechanical properties of the joint as

failure of the joint always occurred by frac-ture of this brittle intermetallic layer. Fol-lowing a review of binary and ternaryphase diagrams, nickel was identified as apotentially viable interlayer element be-tween the steel and Mg-9Al-2Zn brazingalloy used. Therefore, the purpose of thispresent study was to investigate the braze-ability, interfacial microstructure, and me-chanical properties of the laser brazedAZ31B-H24 magnesium alloy to steelsheet with an electrodeposited layer of Nion the steel to act as the interlayer ele-ment. It is expected that development ofthis laser brazing technology for joining ofsteel-interlayer-Mg alloy combinationswith a strong metallurgical bond betweenthe steel and Mg alloy will facilitate in-creased application and use of Mg alloysin the automotive industry.


In this study, 2-mm-thick commercial-grade twin-roll strip cast AZ31B-H24 Mgalloy sheet and 1-mm-thick steel sheetwere used as the base materials. Thechemical compositions of the base materi-als are given in Tables 1 and 2. A 2.4-mm-diameter TiBraze Mg 600 filler metal(Mg-Al-Zn alloy) with solidus and liq-uidus temperatures of 445° and 600°C, re-spectively, was chosen for this study. Thecommercial flux used in the experimentswas Superior No. 21 manufactured by Su-

perior Flux and Manufacturing Co. Thispowder flux was composed of LiCl (35–40wt-%), KCl (30–35 wt-%), NaF (10–25 wt-%), NaCl (8–13 wt-%), and ZnCl2 (6–10wt-%) (Ref. 16).

The AZ31B Mg and steel sheets werecut into 60- × 50-mm specimens. Prior tolaser brazing, the oxide layers on the sur-faces of the magnesium sheets were re-moved by stainless steel wire brushing. Allthe specimens were ultrasonically cleanedin acetone to remove oil and other con-taminants from the specimen surfaces.

The edge of each steel sheet was bentin order to make a single-flare bevel lapjoint after clamping against the magne-sium sheet. After bending, the steel speci-mens were cleaned in acetone and thenground to 1000 grit using SiC abrasivepaper and again ultrasonically cleaned inacetone. The prepared surfaces were thenimmediately electroplated with elec-trolytic pure nickel. In the Ni electroplat-ing process, the clean steel sample was thecathode and graphite was the anode. Thecomposition of the electroplating solutionand the electroplating conditions arelisted in Table 3. Figure 1A shows aschematic of the Ni electrodepositionprocess used. In order to get a uniform 5-μm-thick Ni layer on the steel, differentcathode current densities and platingtimes were tested. Electrodeposition of Niusing a cathode current density of 120mA/cm2 for 10 min was found to provide a

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Fig. 1— A — Schematic of the Ni electrodeposition process on steel; B —transverse section of the Ni electrodeposited layer on the steel substrate.

Table 1 — Measured Chemical Composition of the AZ31-H24 Mg Alloy Sheet and TiBraze Mg 600Filler Metal (wt-%)

Al Zn Mn Si Mg

AZ31B-H24 3.02 0.80 0.30 0.01 Bal.TiBraze Mg 600 9.05 1.80 0.18 — Bal.

Table 2 — Measured Chemical Composition ofthe 1-mm-Thick Steel Sheet (wt-%)

C 0.01Mn 0.5P 0.010S 0.005Fe Bal.

A B


5.5 ± 0.9-μm-thick pure Ni coating layeron the steel with a defect-free interface.Figure 1B shows a SEM micrograph of thecross section of the nickel-coated steel.The white layer on top of the steel is theNi coating layer. The coating was of uni-form thickness with a void-free interface.Energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer(EDS) analysis of the electrodepositedlayer on the steel showed a pure Ni coat-ing layer.

After the electroplating process, theprebent steel sheet was clamped againstthe magnesium sheet to make a single-flare bevel lap joint as shown in Fig. 2A.The filler metal was cut into pieces andpreset on the workpiece at the weld inter-face with some flux before heating andbrazing by the laser beam.

An integrated Panasonic 6-axis robotand Nuvonyx diode laser system with amaximum power of 4.0 kW and a 0.5- ×12-mm rectangular laser beam intensityprofile at the focal point was used for laserbrazing. This energy distribution is moresuitable for brazing processes comparedwith the nonuniform Gaussian-distributedcircular beams generated by CO2 andNd:YAG lasers (Ref. 17). The beam wasfocused on top of the filler metal.

In order to limit oxidation, heliumshielding gas was provided in front of themolten pool with a flow rate of 30 L/minfrom a 6-mm-diameter soft copper feed-ing tube. Laser brazing was performedusing a range of laser powers, travelspeeds, and beam offset positions.

After laser brazing, transverse crosssections of the brazed specimens were cutand mounted in epoxy resin. The sampleswere then mechanically polished using300, 600, 800, 1000, and 1200 grades of SiCgrinding papers followed by polishingusing a 1-μm diamond suspension. Thepolished specimens were etched to revealthe microstructure of the braze metal andAZ31B base material. The etchant was

comprised of 20 mLacetic acid, 3 g picricacid, 50 mL ethanol,and 20 mL water (Ref.18).

Macro- and mi-crostructures of theetched joints were ex-amined using an opticalmetallographic micro-scope. The microstruc-ture and composition ofdifferent zones of thejoint cross section weredetermined using aJEOL JSM-6460 scan-ning electron micro-scope (SEM) and EDS.Phase characterizationof the phases formed inthe steel-fusion zone in-terface and on the frac-ture surfaces was car-ried out using X-raydiffraction (XRD)phase analysis in aRigaku AFC-8 diffrac-tometer with Cu target,50 kV acceleration volt-age, and 40 mA current.

A transmission electron microscope(TEM) foil of the steel-fusion zone inter-facial region was prepared using a focusedion beam (FIB) and in-situ lift out tech-nique. After attaching the TEM foil to a

copper grid, final thinning was performedon the sample at an acceleration voltage of30 kV, followed by 10 kV, and 1 kV for thefinal polishing step to get a 100-nm-thickTEM sample. The TEM studies were per-formed with a JEOL 2010F TEM

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Fig. 2 — A — Schematic of the laser brazing system used for joining AZ31Mg and Ni electro-plated steel sheets in the single-flare bevel lap joint config-uration showing the position of two thermocouples used for temperaturemeasurements; B — schematic of the 5-mm-wide tensile shear test specimen.

Table 3 — Composition of Ni Electroplating Solution and Electroplating Parameters

Plating Solution Composition (g/L) Electrodeposition Parameters

NiSO4•6H2O 263 Cathode current density 45–120 mA/cm2

Na2SO4 215 Time 5–20 minH3BO3 31 pH 3

Temperature 25°CAnode Graphite (8 cm2)Cathode Carbon Steel (6 cm2)

Fig. 3 — A laser-brazed Ni electroplated steel/AZ31B joint made using 8mm/s travel speed and 2.2-kW laser beam power: A — Top bead; B —transverse section of the joint.

A

A

B

B


equipped with an EDS.As shown in Fig. 2B, 5-mm-wide rec-

tangular-shaped specimens were cut fromthe brazed joints and subjected to tensile-shear tests with a crosshead speed of 1mm/min. Shims were used at each end ofthe specimens to ensure shear loads in thelap joint while minimizing induced cou-ples or bending of the specimens. Averagetensile shear strength was calculated fromtensile specimens to estimate the static

mechanical resistance and joint efficien-cies of the joints.

Results

A photograph of a laser-brazed Ni elec-troplated steel/AZ31B joint and a typicalcross-sectional view of the joint are shownin Fig. 3. This brazed joint was made using2.2 kW laser power, 8 mm/s travel speed,and 0.2 mm beam offset to the steel side.

The joint exhibited a uniform brazed areawith good wetting of both base materials.Partial melting of the AZ31B base metalwas observed. In contrast, when bare steelwas used, no bonding occurred betweenthe steel sheet and the braze alloy fusionzone (FZ) and wetting of the steel by thebraze metal was very poor (Ref. 15). The5.5-μm-thick Ni electrodeposited layer onthe surface of the steel significantly im-proved the wetting of the steel by molten


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Fig. 4 — Transverse sections of a laser brazed joint. A — Optical micrographof the entire joint and SEM images in different positions along the steel-FZinterface; B — position A; C — position C; D — position E; E — position F.

Fig. 5 — Typical temperature vs. time profiles measured during laserbrazing at the top and bottom side of the joint.

A

C

E

D

B


Mg-Al filler metal. Detailed microstruc-tural analysis of the fusion zone andAZ31B Mg alloy after the laser brazingprocess has been reported in our previousinvestigation (Ref. 15). This paper focuseson microstructural analysis of the steel-fu-sion zone interface.

Microstructural Evolution along the Steel-FZ Interface

Figure 4 shows the microstructure atdifferent locations of the steel-FZ inter-face. The Ni coating was not detected as aseparate layer along the interface after theLBP, which would suggest that it had en-tirely melted and gone into solution in theliquid immediately adjacent to the inter-face. It was observed that the microstruc-ture of the FZ-steel interface changed sig-nificantly across the FZ-steel interfacefrom the bottom (Position A, Fig. 4B) totop (Position F, Fig. 4E) side of the joint.In order to explain this change of mi-crostructure during the laser brazingprocess, temperature distribution acrossthe interface vs. time was measured duringlaser brazing using two thermocouples,one attached to the top side and the otherto the bottom side of the steel sheet (seeFig. 2A). According to the measured tem-perature profiles shown in Fig. 5, the steelsheet experienced maximum tempera-tures of 1151.1° and 652.7°C on the topand the bottom side, respectively. There-fore, a 500°C temperature gradient wasmeasured between the top and bottomside of the steel sheet during the laserbrazing process, since the laser beam wasfocused on the top of the filler metal, asshown in Fig. 2A (Ref. 15). This tempera-ture difference and gradient across thejoint interface during the laser brazingprocess is believed to be the main reasonfor the prominent change of microstruc-ture across the FZ-steel interface.

As shown in Fig. 4B, at the bottom ofthe interface a few diamond-shaped brightphases were formed near the steel-FZ in-terface. In order to identify these phases,a TEM foil was prepared from position Bof Fig. 4A. Figure 6 shows the TEM im-ages, EDS plot, and selected area diffrac-tion pattern (SADP) of these submicronparticles. The diffraction pattern shows astandard diffraction pattern of AlNi (withBCC structure) with [011] zone axis of theparticle. According to an EDS analysis ofthe diamond-shaped bright phases shownin Fig. 4B, the composition of the particleswas 49.6 ± 1.3 at.-% Ni, 45.4 ± 4.7 at.-%Al, and 5.0 ± 2.5 at.-% Mg, thus confirm-ing that the diamond-shaped particleswere mainly composed of AlNi inter-metallic compound (IMC). Representa-tive concentration profiles of Ni, Al, andMg across one AlNi particle are shown inFig. 6D, which indicates that a trace

amount of magnesium was found in thisparticle. It has been reported that each ofthe Al-Ni binary intermetallics has somesolubility for substitutional magnesiumatoms (Ref. 19).

Figure 7 shows the XRD spectra ob-tained from the middle of the steel-FZ in-terface. The area covered by the X-raybeam was a 300-μm-diameter circle. ThisXRD result confirmed the existence ofAlNi IMC, Fe, β-Mg17Al12, and α-Mg.The AlNi IMC compound was not foundat the middle of the FZ area, whereas theXRD pattern in Fig. 7 showed some weakpeaks suggesting that AlNi IMC hadformed mainly at the steel-FZ interface.

It was observed that upon moving fromthe bottom to the middle of the interface,which was associated with increasing tem-perature, the morphology of the IMC phasealong the interface changed from the dia-mond-shaped AlNi to a faceted dendritic-shaped phase (see Fig. 4C, D).

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometeranalysis results indicated this dendriticphase contained 43.0 ± 1.6 at.-% Ni, 52.1 ±2.0 at.-% Al, and 4.9 ± 0.5 at.-% Mg. Thiscomposition again corresponded with theAlNi IMC phase. In this area, the first pre-cipitated phase from the liquid was AlNiIMC, the same as at the bottom of the joint.This phase grew steadily in a faceted den-

dritic shape. As the interface temperatureincreased with moving from position A toposition E in Fig. 4A, the growth morphol-ogy of the AlNi phase changed from dia-mond-shaped to a faceted dendritic shape,as demonstrated in Fig. 4D. Continuousgrowth of the AlNi was observed in this areawith some dendrites having long secondarydendrite arms (see Fig. 4D).

At the top of the joint (position F in

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Fig. 6 — AlNi particle characterization at position B shown in Fig. 4A: A, B — TEM images; C — SADP inthe [011] zone axis of this particle; D — EDS composition line scans across an AlNi particle indicating linescans of Ni, Al, and Mg.

A

C D

B

Fig. 7 — X-ray diffraction pattern of the steel-FZinterface.


Fig. 4A), the morphology of the interfacialphase changed further and a high volumefraction of a particle-like phase with thecomposition of 48.4 ± 1.4 at.-% Ni, 50.1 ±1.2 at.-% Al, and 1.5 ± 0.4 at.-% Mg wasdetected (Fig. 4E). This phase was alsofound to be AlNi IMC phase. It shouldalso be noted that formation of the AlNiphase consumed almost all of the Al con-tent of the melt near the steel-FZ inter-face. Thus, no β-Mg17Al12 was observednear the interface compared with the cen-tral part of the FZ.

Solidification of the Remaining Meltbetween the AlNi IMC Phase and Steel

At the bottom of the joint, AlNi IMCfirst crystallized from the liquid close tothe interface and then supersaturated α-Mg solid solution containing 10.6 ± 3.6

at.-% Ni, 3.2 ± 1.7 at.-% Al, and 2.9 ±1.5 at.-% Fe (dark regions in Figs. 4B and8) solidified from the liquid during coolingalong with the AlNi phase. In some loca-tions between the bottom and middle ofthe interface, some gray lamellar phases,as shown in Figs. 8C and 9, were also ob-served between the AlNi IMC layer andthe steel. Figure 9A shows the position ofAlNi precipitates with respect to the steel-fusion zone interface in the prepared sam-ple during focused ion beaming for TEManalysis. Figure 9B, C shows TEM imagesof this lamellar (plate-like) phase. Ac-cording to EDS analysis, the white lamel-lae corresponded to α-Mg and the darklamellae containing 27.6 ± 7.2 at.-% Niand 72.3 ± 7.3 at.-% Mg represented theMg2Ni stoichiometric intermetallic com-pound (also confirmed by SADP analysis).Based on these results, these two phases

next to each other are the Mg-Mg2Nilamellar eutectic.

Formation of the Mg-Mg2Ni lamellareutectic was not uniform and continuousalong the interface. As shown in Fig. 8A,B, in some locations between the steeland the AlNi IMC layer, Mg2Ni crystal-lized in the form of a lamellar gray phaseand in other locations it was not seen anda dark solid solution of Mg containingsmall amounts of Ni, Al, and Fe wasformed. In the middle portion of the in-terface, the AlNi phase crystallized firstin the liquid (Fig. 4D). Then, dark α-Mgsolid solution containing 5.8 ± 2.1 at.-%Ni, 1.2 ± 0.3 at.-% Al, and 3.1 ± 0.5 at.-% Fe formed during cooling along withAlNi phase. Finally, at the top of thejoint, the AlNi phase precipitated heavilyin the liquid along the interface and thenthe remaining liquid solidified duringcooling in the form of α-Mg solid solution(containing 2.4 ± 0.6 at.-% Ni, 0.3 ± 0.1at.-% Al, and 3.4 ± 0.3 at.-% Fe) alongwith and among AlNi particles (see Fig.4E). Upon moving from the bottom tothe top of the interface, the Fe content ofthe remaining liquid between AlNi IMCand the steel increased from 2.9 to 3.4 at.-% due to more diffusion of Fe from thesteel side to the FZ at higher tempera-ture. In contrast, Al and Ni showed op-posite behaviors due to an increase in thethickness of AlNi IMC from the bottomto the top portion of the joint (from 5 to30 μm).

Transition Layer

Based on the TEM analysis, the AlNiphase did not grow epitaxially on the steelsubstrate, but instead nucleated and grew inthe liquid adjacent to the interface and wassurrounded by either α-Mg + Mg2Ni eu-tectic phases or just α-Mg phase close to theinterface. On the other hand, while it mayappear in Fig. 8 that all of the electroplatedNi had melted and gone into solution in theliquid and the α-Mg may have nucleatedand grown epitaxially from the steel surface,it is well known that Mg and Fe are an im-miscible couple. From a crystallographicpoint of view, it is not possible for magne-sium to nucleate on steel due to the verylarge lattice mismatching of Fe and Mg(Ref. 4). Therefore, another layer or phasemust be responsible for bonding betweenthe steel and fusion zone.

Further high-magnification mi-crostructural analysis of the steel-fusionzone interface was performed by TEM tofind an explanation for the observed in-terfacial phases. Figure 10A shows a TEMimage of the steel-fusion zone interface. Acontinuous nano-interlayer (50–200 nmthick) phase was observed along the inter-face, which was bonded to the steel side onone side and to the fusion zone on theother side. Higher magnification of this


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solidification morphology of remaining melt betweenthe IMC layer and steel side: A — Position A in Fig. 4Anear bottom side; B — position B in Fig. 4A; C — Mg-Mg2Ni eutectic phases.

A

C

B

A

B

C

Fig. 9 — A — TEM sample attached to a coppergrid; B, C — TEM images of the lamellar phasesformed along the steel-FZ interface.


layer (as shown in Fig. 10B) confirmedgood coherency between this layer andsteel as well as the fusion zone. Accordingto EDS point analysis, the Ni content ofthe transition layer varied between 17 and40 at.-%. Figure 10C shows the selectedarea diffraction pattern (SADP) on thetransition layer that identified it as Fe(Ni)solid solution with face-centered cubic(FCC) structure. Therefore, this layerproved to be the key factor for realizing ametallurgical bond between the steel andfusion zone. Representative concentra-tion profiles of Fe, Ni, and Mg across theinterface between the fusion zone and thesteel are shown in Fig. 10D. It is evidentfrom these line scans that Fe, Ni, and Mgdiffused into each other as a result of thehigh temperature experienced during thelaser brazing process. As a result, two dif-fusion or transition layers formed betweenthe steel and fusion zone. According to theelement distributions of Fe, Ni, and Mg(see Fig. 10D), in transition layer I with athickness of almost 70 nm from the steelside, the Fe content decreased graduallywhile the Ni content increased. In thislayer, solid-state diffusion of Ni and Feinto each other is believed to control theoverall thickness of this layer.

Another diffusion layer (transitionlayer II) was observed in Fig. 10D betweenthe transition layer I and the fusion zone.The thickness of this layer was ≈ 60 nm. Aslight diffusion of magnesium from fusionzone into transition layer II was detected.It would appear that there was sufficientsolubility of the Mg in this Fe(Ni) inter-layer for diffusion of the Mg to occur andthat wetting and bonding of the α-Mg +Mg2Ni eutectic phases had in fact oc-curred with the thin Fe(Ni) interlayer thathad formed during laser brazing, and notdirectly with the steel.

Mechanical Properties

Due to the nonsymmetric configura-tion of the 5-mm-wide tensile-shear testspecimens (see Fig. 2B), a combination ofshear and tensile forces existed at the in-terface. Consequently, the joint strengthsare reported here as fracture load, since itis not possible to separate tensile andshear stresses. The average tensile shearstrength of the laser brazed steel-Ni-AZ31B joints using the Mg-Al filler metalwas found to be 153.7 ± 2.7 kgf (or 1506.3± 24.5 N). This is 153% higher than ten-sile shear strength of the laser brazed Al-coated steel-AZ31B Mg alloy specimensobtained in our previous study (Ref. 15).The low standard deviation of the tensileshear strength of the laser brazed steel-Ni-AZ31B joints (±2.7 kgf) compared withthe laser brazed steel-Al-AZ31B joints(±11 kgf) indicated that the laser brazingprocess was inherently stable and repro-

ducible. If only the shear plane is consid-ered, the average shear strength of thejoints was 96.8 MPa, or 60% of that ofAZ31B-H24 Mg alloy base metal.

All tensile-shear specimens fracturedin the FZ very close to the steel-FZ inter-face. Typical fracture surfaces of both thefusion zone side and steel side after tensileshear testing are shown in Fig. 11. Figure11A, C are low-magnification SEM micro-graphs of the fracture surfaces of the fu-sion zone side and steel side, respectively,and dimples are shown at high magnifica-tion in Fig. 11B, D. This uniform distribu-tion of the dimples is characteristic of duc-tile fracture surfaces. These fracturesurfaces indicated that the specimensfailed under conditions similar to tensiletest with a strong shear stress component(tensile-shear test). The effect of shearstress on the morphology of the dimples isvery evident in these micrographs. Thevertical direction in each of the micro-graphs is parallel to the direction of theshear, and the elongation of the dimplesunder the action of shear stress is evidentin Fig. 11B, D. The AlNi IMC compoundwas not found at the fracture surfaces.

The EDS analysis results of the frac-ture surfaces of both the steel and FZ side

also indicated that crack propagation dur-ing the tensile shear tests had occurred en-tirely in the FZ. Based on the EDS results,the composition of the fracture surface forboth steel side and FZ side were similar tothe FZ, meaning fracture passed throughthe FZ near the steel-FZ interface.

Figure 12 shows the XRD pattern fromthe fractured surface of the joint on thesteel side. Fe, α-Mg, and AlNi peaks wereseen in this X-ray diffraction result. Thesefindings were consistent with the SEM andEDS analysis results.

Discussion

From the above results, the interactionbetween the filler metal and surface of theNi-plated steel can be explained as follows(see Fig. 13):

Firstly, the solid-state Ni-plated steel isin contact with the liquid filler metal (Mg-Al alloy) at the laser brazing temperatureand, subsequently, the liquid Mg-Al alloyflows over the Ni surface — Fig. 13A.

Secondly, dissolution and diffusion ofNi atoms into the liquid occur, as shown inFig. 13B. At the same time, some solid-state diffusion of Ni atoms into the steelalso occurs. A slight diffusion of Fe atoms

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A

C

B

D

Fig. 10 — A— TEM image of the steel-fusion zone interface; B— higher magnification of the selectedsquare area in A; C — SADP in the [011] zone axis of the interfacial phase; D — EDS line scan analy-sis of Fe, Ni, and Mg at the steel-fusion zone interface.


into the liquid was also observed. Mean-while, Mg atoms from the liquid mayslightly diffuse into the Ni-alloyed steel

side. Therefore, a thindiffusion or transitionlayer forms continu-ously along the inter-face between steel andfusion zone from thebottom side to the topside of the joint. Thistransition layer is asolid solution of Ni inFe (with low content ofMg for transition layerII). This Fe(Ni) solidsolution with FCCcrystal structure ismore favorable forbonding to Mg thanhaving a body-cen-tered cubic (BCC)phase along the inter-face. Zhang et al. (Ref.20) used an edge-to-edge matching crystal-lographic model topredict all orientation

relationships between crystals that havesimple hexagonal close-packed (HCP)and BCC structures, and they found that

the lattice mismatching of HCP (Mg) andBCC (Fe) is very large. On the basis of theobservation in our study, a diffusion layercomposed of Fe and Ni with FCC struc-ture can provide the conditions for theheterogeneous nucleation of α-Mg duringsolidification. The result is formation of ametallurgical bond between the steel andmagnesium alloy. A recent study by Liu etal. (Ref. 4) showed that a nano-layer ofFe2Al5 on steel can also be a transitionlayer to bond Fe to Mg due to the low en-ergy interfaces and good match of latticesites between Fe and Fe2Al5 as well as Mgand Fe2Al5. The same behavior was ob-served for the Fe(Ni) transition layer inthis study. Formation of a transition zonewas also reported in other studies (Refs.5–8) using different joining techniques,when an interlayer was used between steeland Mg alloy. These transition layers onsteels were reported to make it possible tojoin Mg and steel.

Thirdly, during the solidificationprocess, the AlNi phase with a high melt-ing point (1133°C) precipitates from theliquid and grows in a form of faceted den-drites very close to the interface — Fig.


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Fig. 11 — SEM images of typical fracture surfaces after the tensile shear test. A, B — Fusion zone side at different magnifications; C, D — steel side at differ-ent magnifications.

Fig. 12 — X-ray diffraction pattern of the fracture surface of the steel side.

DC

BA


13C. These faceted dendrites form due tokinetic difficulties in forming new planesof atoms (Ref. 21). In this type of dendrite,the growing direction of dendrite arms areones that are capped by relatively slowgrowing planes (usually low-index planes)(Ref. 21). The slowest growing planewould be expected to be the closest-packed planes. Weinberg and Chalmers(Ref. 22) reported that the axis of a pyra-mid, whose sides are the most closelypacked planes, is generally the major den-drite direction. As a result, for AlNifaceted dendrites with BCC structure, thisdirection is <100>. Therefore, theprocess of solidification at the middle partof the joint starts with the nucleation andgrowth of the AlNi-faceted dendritesalong the <100> growth direction.

Fourthly, if the Ni content of the re-maining liquid between the steel side andformed AlNi precipitates is high enough,Mg2Ni with a melting point of 762°C nu-cleates (see Fig. 13C). Formation ofMg2Ni depends on sufficient Ni concen-tration in the remaining liquid near thesteel-FZ interface after formation of theAlNi IMC. The Ni content of the remain-ing liquid after precipitation of AlNi in-creases from 2.4 at.-% at the top side ofthe interface to 10.6 at.-% at the bottomportion because formation of the AlNiIMC layer consumed the Ni atoms nearthe interface and the volume fraction ofthis phase increased from the bottom tothe top portion of the joint.

Based on the above analysis, highenough concentration of Ni in the re-maining liquid close to the bottom side ofthe joint after formation of AlNi IMC re-sulted in formation of the Mg2Ni + α-Mglamellar eutectic in the form of a grayphase between the AlNi IMC and steel. Inorder for this lamellar eutectic to grow,the local composition of the fusion zoneshould be close to the eutectic composi-tion (10 at.-% Ni, according to the Mg-Nibinary phase diagram) (Ref. 21). Reac-tions between Mg in the fusion zone andNi along the interface caused formation ofthe Mg-Ni eutectic phase. This reactioncan be represented by the following bal-anced chemical reaction:

L(10 at.-% Ni)←508°C→Mg2Ni(33 at.-% Ni)+Mg(0 at.-% Ni) (1)

Therefore, at the bottom of the inter-face, two reactions occurred; the first onewas precipitation of AlNi from the liquidand the second was the eutectic reactionbetween Mg and Ni in the FZ (reaction 1).In the case of reaction sequences, firstAlNi forms near the interface and then theremaining liquid with a low Al content be-tween the AlNi IMC and steel-FZ inter-face, which is still rich in Ni, undergoes aeutectic reaction with Mg and results in

the formation of the lamellarα-Mg + Mg2Ni eutectic.

With the formation of theAlNi IMC layer, diffusion ofNi atoms from the steel side tothe FZ is blocked. Therefore,the concentration of Ni in theremaining liquid between theinterface and preformed AlNiphase is expected to be higherthan the remaining liquid onthe other side of the AlNiphase. The result is the forma-tion of Mg2Ni just betweenthe AlNi phase and steel (seeFig. 8A, B).

In the top portion of theinterface, with the nucle-ation and growth of the AlNiparticles, most of the Niatoms are consumed. There-fore, the Ni content of theremaining liquid would notbe enough for formation ofthe Mg2Ni phase.

Conclusions

1. With the addition of anelectrodeposited Ni inter-layer on steel sheet, singleflare bevel lap joints ofAZ31B-H24 Mg alloy tosteel sheet were renderedpossible by the laser brazingprocess, and a uniformbrazed area with good wet-ting and bonding of both basemetals was achieved.

2. Dissolution of the Nicoating layer during the laserbrazing process led to theformation of new AlNi IMCphases and also a Mg-Ni eu-tectic zone along the inter-face. The AlNi intermetalliclayers at the steel-FZ inter-face formed in the sequenceof diamond-shaped, den-dritic, and nodules from thebottom to the top portion ofthe joint.

3. The formation of anano-scale Fe(Ni) transitionlayer on the steel by solid-state interdiffusion betweenFe and Ni during laser braz-ing was found to be responsi-ble for the formation of ametallurgical bond betweenthe steel and the Mg-Al braz-ing alloy.

4. The average shear strength of thejoints reached 96.8 MPa, 60% that of thebase metal of AZ31B Mg alloy. Fracturesurface analysis showed that fracture oc-curred in the FZ close to the steel-FZ interface.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge sup-port of the American Welding Society(AWS) Graduate Fellowship program, theNatural Sciences and Engineering Re-search Council of Canada (NSERC), and

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Fig. 13 — Formation of transitional layer and intermetallic com-pounds during laser brazing of Ni-plated steel-AZ31B with Mg-Alfiller metal: A — Wetting of the Ni-plated steel by molten filler metaland dissolution and diffusion of Ni into the FZ and steel substrate; B— formation of the transitional layer and aggregation of Ni along theinterface; C — nucleation and growth of AlNi IMC, and epitaxialgrowth of the remaining liquid in the form of α-Mg + Mg2Ni eutecticonto the thin Fe(Ni) interlayer.



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Magnesium Network of Canada (Mag-NET) for sponsoring this work. The au-thors would like to acknowledge the help-ful comments of Dr. Scott Lawson fromthe Centre for Advanced Materials Join-ing at the University of Waterloo.

References

1. Yan, J., Xu, Z., Li, Z., Li, L., and Yang, S.2005. Microstructure characteristics and per-formance of dissimilar welds between magne-sium alloy and aluminum formed by frictionstirring. Scripta Materialia 53: 585–589.

2. Mao, H. K., and Bell, P. M. 1979. Equa-tions of state of MgO and Fe under static pres-sure conditions. Journal of Geophysical Re-search 4533–4536.

3. Liu, L. 2005. Welding and Joining of Mag-nesium Alloys, Cambridge, UK: WoodheadPublishing Ltd.

4. Liu, L., Xiao, L., Feng, J., Li, L., Esmaeili,S., and Zhou, Y. 2011. Bonding of immiscibleMg and Fe by coated nanoscale Fe2Al5 transi-tion layer. Scripta Materialia 65 (11): 982–985.

5. Zhao, X., Song, G., and Liu, L. 2006. Mi-crostructure of dissimilar metal joint with mag-nesium alloy AZ31B and steel 304 for laser-tungsten inert gas lap welding. Transactions ofChina Welding Institution 27: 1253–1256.

6. Qi, X., and Song, G. 2010. Interfacial struc-ture of the joints between magnesium alloy andmild steel with nickel as interlayer by hybrid laser-TIG welding. Materials & Design 31: 605–609.

7. Liu, L., Xiao, L., Feng, J. C., Tian, Y. H.,Zhou, S. Q., and Zhou, Y. 2010. The mecha-nism of resistance spot welding of magnesiumto steel. Metallurgical and Materials Transac-tions A 41A: 2651–2661.

8. Liu, L., Qi, X., and Wu, Z. 2010. Mi-crostructural characteristics of lap joint be-tween magnesium alloy and mild steel with andwithout the addition of Sn element. MaterialsLetter 64: 89–92.

9. Liu, L. M., and Qi, X. 2009. Effects of cop-per addition on microstructure and strength ofthe hybrid laser-TIG welded joints betweenmagnesium alloy and mild steel. Journal of Ma-terials Science 44: 5725–5731.

10. Lockwood, L., and Shapiro, A. E. 2005.Brazing of magnesium. Brazing Handbook, 5thedition, Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.

11. Sierra, G., Peyre, P., Deschaux Beaume,F., Stuart, D., and Fras, G. 2008. Steel to alu-minium braze welding by laser process with Al-12Si filler wire. Science and Technology of Weld-ing and Joining 13(5): 430–437.

12. Wagner, F., Zerner, I., Kreimeyer, M.,Seefeld, T., and Sepold, G. 2001. Characteriza-tion and properties of dissimilar metal combi-nations of Fe/Al and Ti/Al-sheet materials.Proc. ICALEO’01 (CD-ROM), Jacksonville,Fla., October, LIA, Orlando, Fla.

13. Miao, Y., Han, D., Yao, J., and Li, F.2010. Microstructure and interface characteris-tics of laser penetration brazed magnesiumalloy and steel. Science and Technology of Weld-ing and Joining 15(2): 97–103.

14. Kreimeyer, M., Wagner, F., and Vollert-sen, F. 2005. Laser processing of aluminum-ti-tanium-tailored blanks. Optics and Lasers in En-gineering 43: 1021–1035.

15. Nasiri, A. M., Li, L., Kim, S. H., Zhou,Y., Weckman, D. C., and Nguyen, T. C. 2011.Microstructure and properties of laser brazedmagnesium to coated steel. Welding Journal90(11): 211-s to 219-s.

16. Material Safety Data Sheet. 2003. Supe-rior Flux & Mfg. Co. November 11. p. 1.

17. Saida, K., Song, W., and Nishimoto, K.2005. Diode laser brazing of aluminum alloy tosteels with aluminum filler metal. Science andTechnology of Welding and Joining 10(2):227–235.

18. Vander Voort, G. F. 1999. MetallographyPrinciples and Practice. Materials Park, Ohio:ASM International.

19. Belov, N. A., Eskin, D. G., and Avxen-tieva, N. N. 2005. Constituent phase diagramsof the Al-Cu-Fe-Mg-Ni-Si system and their ap-plication to the analysis of aluminum piston al-loys. Acta Materialia 53: 4709–4722.

20. Zhang, M. X., Kelly, P. M., Qian, M., andTaylor, J. A. 2005. Crystallography of grain re-finement in Mg-Al based alloys. Acta Materialia53: 3261–3270.

21. Flemings, M. C. 1974. Solidification Pro-cessing. McGraw-Hill. pp. 157–160.

22. Weinberg, F., and Chalmers, B. 1952.Further observations on dendritic growth inmetals. Canadian Journal of Physics 30:488–502.

AWS Expands International Services

With international membership on the rise, the American Welding Society (AWS)launched a series of country-specific Web sites known as microsites for members toaccess information in their native languages.

Multilingual microsites are now live for Mexico at www.aws.org/mexico, China atwww.aws.org/china, and Canada (English/French) at www.aws.org/canada. They fea-ture information on services offered by AWS in each country, membership benefits,exposition information, online education, and access to AWS publications and tech-nical standards.

Other countries will be added later.


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Introduction

As with most welding processes, fric-tion stir welding (FSW) produces a non-homogenous macrostructure whoseregions, illustrated in Fig. 1, include theheat-affected zone (HAZ), thermome-chanical-affected zone (TMAZ), and weldnugget or stir zone (SZ). Each zone ischaracterized by a unique microstructurerelated to different levels of thermome-chanical processing. The tool rotation andtravel impart a nonsymmetrical flow pat-tern that is observed in the nonsymmetricweld structure of the transverse section inFig. 1. The side where the tool rotationand travel vectors are in the same direc-tion is labeled the advancing side (AS),and where they are opposed is labeled theretreating side (RS). Because FSW is asolid-state process, correlation of the tem-perature at the workpiece/weld tool inter-face with the processing parameterspresents challenges. Understanding of thiscorrelation is needed for control of theprocessing temperature and optimizationof the resulting mechanical properties.

Because the maximum temperature inFSW is generally considered to be at theshear interface between the SZ and theTMAZ (Refs. 1–3), understanding thevariation in temperature in this region

with respect to processing parameters isnecessary. Numerous studies report theresulting weld temperature to be moststrongly influenced by the tool rotation ve-locity (Refs. 2–7). In addition to under-standing the temperature, the heating ratecan also affect the kinetics of the phasechanges in age-hardenable alloys such asthe AA2xxx series. Since the FSW processis considered to involve a large shear strainat high rates (Refs. 2, 8–12), the heating orup-quenching times associated with theprocess may be very rapid (Ref. 13).

Determining the temperature at theworkpiece/weld tool interface was directlyapproached using embedded thermocou-ples in 2xxx series aluminum alloys (Refs.1, 2, 14–20), and it has provided informa-tion on the relative homologous tempera-ture in the range of 0.80 to 0.90 Tm (whereTm is the melting temperature of the Alwith a value of 933 K). Little variance hasbeen reported with SZ temperature meas-urements of 525°C in AA2024 (Ref. 17)and 480°–520°C in AA2195 (Ref. 14),where the increase in temperature corre-sponded to an increase in tool rotation.Positioning the thermocouple close to theshear zone has noted difficulties due to

potential displacement by the resultingmaterial flow and response to rapid heat-ing conditions. Thus, most thermocouplemeasurements have been used to validatea numerical model with extrapolation ofmeasured temperatures outside the SZ tothe workpiece/weld tool interface. At-tempts to model the temperature in theshear region have often resulted in over-prediction of the weld temperature, whichhas been attributed to slippage occurringat the workpiece/weld tool interface (Refs.21, 22). While relationships between peaktemperature and processing conditionshave been shown (Refs. 2, 14), they are notconsidered to change the overall tempera-ture field significantly (Ref. 22).

Conversion of weld power to thermalenergy has also being pursued to deter-mine the weld temperature (Refs. 23–27),and may have validity if the temperaturedoes not exceed the eutectic or solidustemperature resulting in tool slippage andreduced efficiency (Refs. 13, 21).

Since the processing temperature con-trols the resulting mechanical properties,as affected by microstructural variations,interpretation of the resulting grain sizeand precipitate state can be used to verifyprocessing temperatures and provide in-sight as to the heating conditions, andhence, strain rate experienced duringFSW of age-hardenable alloys (Refs. 8–10,12, 13, 28). Due to the complex nature ofthe FSW process, various characterizationmethods at different length scales areoften needed to interpret the results. Al-though much research has been publishedon the resulting microstructure and me-chanical properties of FSW in the age-hardenable 2xxx series (Refs. 14, 15, 19,20, 27–39), these studies generally charac-terized a single FSW obtained with a sin-gle set of processing parameters thatcovered a range of tool rotations from 120to 1040 rev/min. Further adding to the dif-ficulty of comparing findings, not all stud-ies document details of the tool design andprocessing parameters. Thus, assessingwhether the microstructural evolution ob-served is due to the material, tool design,processing parameters, or some combina-tion is difficult and sometimes results inconflicting findings. Studies on 2024 (Refs.

Processing Effects on the Friction Stir Weld Stir Zone

This investigation attempts to understand the true temperature at theworkpiece/weld tool interface

BY J. SCHNEIDER, R. STROMBERG, P. SCHILLING, B. CAO, W. ZHOU, J. MORFA, and O. MYERS

ABSTRACT

While many researchers have carefully mapped out the various microstructural re-gions of a friction stir weld (FSW), concluding that each region undergoes differentthermomechanical cycles during the process, these studies generally have only con-sidered one set of FSW parameters. By considering only the shear zone (SZ) over arange of FSW process parameters, it can be observed that material within this regionis also subjected to different thermomechanical cycles. Whether this results from atemperature increase with higher rev/min and/or material held for an increased timeat temperature, is still not understood. This study, however, does give insight into theoften conflicting results published regarding the microstructural evolution in a FSW.

KEYWORDS

AluminumFriction Stir WeldingHeat-Affected ZoneShear ZoneSolid-State Welding

J. SCHNEIDER, J. MORFA, and O. MYERS arewith Mechanical Engineering Department, Mis-sissippi State University, Mississippi State, Miss.R. STROMBERG is with Hysitron, Inc., Min-neapolis, Minn. P. SCHILLING is with Mechan-ical Engineering Department, University of NewOrleans, New Orleans, La. B. CAO and W.ZHOU are with Advanced Materials Research In-stitute, University of New Orleans, New Orleans,La.

Schneider 1-13_Layout 1 12/13/12 1:00 PM Page 11

19, 30, 33–35) report a range of complexprecipitate morphologies in the SZ withcoarse particles dissolving providing solutefor postweld natural aging. In contrast,studies on 2219 report either particlecoarsening (Refs. 36–38, 40) and/or thedissolution of the Al2Cu phase in the SZ(Refs. 15, 20). Nonhomogeneities ob-served at the macroscale have been attrib-uted to banding of large constituentparticles, which correspond to tool rota-tion variations in 2024 (Refs. 41, 42), dif-ferent tempers of 2219 (Ref. 36), oroverpass repair welds in 2219 (Ref. 38).While differences in the microstructural

characterization of 2195 intwo different studies were at-tributed to variations in phasetransformations kinetics as in-fluenced by FSW process pa-rameters (Refs. 14, 31), nosystematic study has been con-ducted to verify.

Conductivity measurementsprovide a well-established non-destructive evaluation (NDE)technique for determining thetemper of a metal. However, itssensitivity is affected by varia-tions in alloy uniformity due toheat treatment condition, thedegree of cold work, presenceof residual stresses, or effect ofthermal exposure (Refs.43–45). Thus, a combination ofNDE techniques are often usedto evaluate the temper of analloy such as combining eddycurrent with hardness testing.While these standard tech-niques are typically used at themacroscale where homogeneityof the thermomechanical pro-

cessing is assumed, characterization at themicroscale can provide insight into nonho-mogenous variations.

This study evaluated the combined useof conductivity measurements with hard-ness testing at the macro and micro lengthscales to evaluate the resulting mi-crostructure in a FSW SZ formed by vary-ing the tool rotation. The range of toolrotations in the study was selected basedon earlier studies where a large change inthe resulting SZ strength was observed(Ref. 46). Microstructural features werecorrelated with conductivity and hardness

measurements. The results in this studywere also compared with temperature cal-culations based on conversion of weldpower to thermal energy (Ref. 27).


Friction stir welds were made in rolledpanels of aluminum alloy 2219-T87 approx-imately 610 mm long, 152 mm wide, and 6.4mm thick that were butted together. Nomi-nal composition of the 2219 alloy (wt-%) isCu 6.30%, Mn 0.30%, Zr 0.17%, V 0.10%,Ti 0.06%, Fe 0.15%, Si 0.10%, and balanceAl. The FSW tool consisted of a 12.7-mm-diameter UNF left-handed pin, a 30.5-mm-diameter scrolled shoulder, and a pin lengthof approximately 6.2 mm. All FSWs wereperformed with a zero degree lead angleand in-position control. A RM-1 modelFSW machine from Manufacturing Tech-nology, Inc. (MTI), was used to produce thewelds with the data recorded using a high-speed National Instruments Data Acquisi-tion system.

Metallographic specimens were takenof the transverse section of each FSW seg-ment. The specimens were mounted andpolished using standard metallurgical pro-cedures. All samples were etched usingKeller’s reagent to document themacrostructure as recorded with a NikonD1 camera. Surface topography was ob-tained in a scanning probe microscopy(SPM) using a diamond Berkovich probemounted on the Hysitron TI 950™. Priorto SPM, the specimens were mechanicallyreground and repolished using 1.0- and0.5-micron alumina on the pad followed bycolloidal silica.

Indentation experiments were con-ducted using the Hysitron TI 950™ instru-ment equipped with the nanoECR™(electrical contact resistance) package anda conductive boron-doped diamondBerkovich probe with a tip radius of ap-proximately 150 nm. The nanohardness ofeach transverse specimen was measuredacross the width approximately 1.3 mmbelow the crown surface. One hundred in-dents with a spacing of 250 µm were madeusing a 5-s loading to a peak of 10 mN, 5-s hold, and 5-s unloading segments, whichcorresponded to an average indentationcontact depth of 485 nm.

To measure the nanoconductivity, thenanoECR™ package was used, which en-ables simultaneous electrical measure-ments to be made during standardnanoindentation testing. During testing, afixed voltage was applied to the sample viaa conducting stage and the resultant cur-rent flow through the sample was meas-ured through the conducting tip. Voltagewas held constant at 2 V and the measuredcurrent was used to calculate the averagecurrent density based on the contact areaof the indenter at peak loading.


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Fig. 1 — Transverse view of a conventional friction stir weld with regions of interest labeled.

Fig. 2 — Miniature tensile specimens fabricated from the FSWnuggets. A — Shown are the specimens from the FSW transverse mi-crostructure with the specimen geometry superimposed; B — an endmill was used to machine the dogbone geometry; C — which was thensliced into individual specimens using wire EDM.

A B

C


Bulk eddy current measurements weremade with Rohmann GmbH Elotest M2with a probe diameter of approximately1.3 cm, which was operated at a frequencyof approximately 1 MHz. The values wererecorded as % IACS, where the electricalconductivity of annealed Cu was refer-enced as 100% IACS at 20°C, and IACSrefers to the International Annealed Cop-per Standard, which was established in1913 (Ref. 47). Advertised accuracy ofmeasurements was ± 0.1% IACS. Becausethe probe diameter was larger than theweld cross section, some air was picked up.Although this may have resulted in slightlylower values for % IACS, the comparativetrend was considered valid.

To evaluate the mechanical propertiesof only the SZ of the FSW, tensile speci-mens were designed with the gauge sec-tion entirely within the transverse sectionof the FSW SZ, as shown in Fig. 2A. Thegeometry was first machined, and thensliced using wire electrical discharge ma-chining (EDM) into individual specimens2.0 cm long × 0.64 cm wide × 0.03 cm thick,as shown in Fig. 2B and C, respectively.The tensile specimens were tested in uni-axial tension using a stepper-motor-drivenminiature tensile tester with a 0.5-kN (100-lbf) load cell. All tests were run at ambi-ent temperature at a constant crossheadvelocity of 0.05 mm/min with a data-acquisition rate of 1 sample per s. Themaximum load (Fmax) was divided by theinitial specimen cross-sectional area (A) tocalculate the engineering stress (σ). Yieldstrength (σYS) was defined using the0.02% offset criteria (Ref. 48) and ulti-mate tensile strength (UTS) was definedusing the maximum load carried by thespecimen cross-sectional area.

A JEOL 6500 F field emission, scan-ning electron microscope (FE-SEM) withan Oxford electron backscatter detector(EBSD) was used to obtain orientationimage maps (OIM) of the SZ. Analysiswas performed in 0.4-μm steps over 215-× 161-μm rectangular areas in the bandedregions of the transverse sections. AllOIM scans were obtained using an excita-tion condition of 20 kV with a working dis-tance of 20 mm. EBSD/OIM was used todetermine grain size based on a 5-deg mis-orientation angle.

Transmission electron microscope(TEM) foils, 3 mm in diameter, werepunched from the SZ region of the FSWspecimens and were prepared for imagingusing traditional techniques of mechanicalthinning, two-sided dimpling, and ionmilling to electron transparency. Initialimages were obtained in a JEOL JEM-100CX TEM with a tungsten filament op-erated at an accelerating voltage of 100 kVto obtain bright field image (BFI). Com-plementary higher-resolution BFIs and se-lected area diffraction (SAD) patterns

were obtained using a JEOL 2010 200KeV field emission (FE) TEM.

A Rigaku Smartlab X-ray diffractome-ter (XRD) with Cu-k X-ray was used toidentify the minor phases present in thealuminum matrix. A continuous scan wasmade at a rate of 0.035 deg/min over a 2-θrange of 18 to 55 deg.

The SZ temperature was taken to bethat of the workpiece/weld tool interfaceor the shear zone. The shear zone tem-perature was calculated from the meas-ured experimental torque values using analternative heat index (Ref. 27). This nu-merical approach considered the powergenerated by rotating an axial symmetric

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Table 1 — Summary of FSW Conditions and Corresponding Shear Strain Rate

RPM Tool Radius Shear Zone Shear(mm) Thickness Strain Rate

(mm) (s-1)

150 6.35 0.13 5 × 104

200 6.35 0.13 6 × 104

300 6.35 0.13 9 × 104

Fig. 3 — Flow stress of 2219-T87 vs. temperatureshowing a precipitous drop at 0.5Tm before reach-ing an almost constant, linear plateau in the rangeof 0.7 to 0.9 Tm (Ref. 50).

Fig. 4 — Phase diagram for the Al-Cu binary sys-tem (Ref. 51).

Table 2 — Grain Size as Inferred from EBSD/OIM

Specimen Grain Size (μm)

AS RS150 2.5 1.8200 2.8 2.6300 4.1 4.2

A B

Fig. 5 — A — A low-magnification image of the base metal in which a few large overaged particles(200–500 nm) can be observed; B — the higher-magnification image shows the θ’ strengthening phasesin the base metal matrix.


plug of metal around the tool. By assum-ing that 100% of the weld torque was con-verted into thermal energy and contactconditions remain constant, an energy bal-ance was used to equate the heat input(Qg) with the heat loss terms as given inEquation 1. The heat loss terms includedconduction, through the weldment (Qw),anvil (Qa), and spindle (Qsp), in additionto convection, which captured the pre-heating of metal (Qv) passing through theshear surface in advance of the weld.

Qg = Qw + Qa + Qsp+Qv (1)

The resulting relationship given in Equa-tion 2 was used to determine a FSW tem-perature from the actual weld torque (Mt)(Refs. 27, 49) where ω was the tool rota-tion, τ was the flow stress, Rs was the ra-dius of shear surface, R was the radius ofthe tool pin, and H was the length of thetool pin.

(2)

The flow stress (τ) was approximated byMt* ΔT such that as the shear zone temper-ature approached Tm, the flow stress ap-proaches zero (Refs. 27, 49). This linearapproximation was based on Fig. 3, whichplots the flow stress vs. temperature forAA2219-T87 7 and shows a precipitous drop

at around 0.5 Tm reaching a constant, linearplateau at approximately 0.7 Tm (Ref. 50).The value of flow stress at Tm was assumedto be zero. Thus, considering the range ofpublished temperature measurements forFSW Al alloys of 0.8 to 0.9 Tm, the corre-sponding flow stress was relatively unaf-fected by temperature and was consideredlinear just prior to reaching Tm.

Results and Discussion

AA2219 is an Al-Cu alloy whose nom-inal composition is slightly above the max-imum solid solubility as shown in theequilibrium diagram in Fig. 4 (Ref. 51).This yields a microstructure composed pri-marily of the saturated α-aluminum ma-trix plus a small amount of excess θ phase.The T87 temper used in this study refersto a heat treatment that artificially agesthe Cu-rich precipitates in the α-matrixthrough a well-accepted sequence of equi-librium transformation given in Equation3, where αss refers to a solid solutionizedAl matrix.

αss→GPI→GPII→θ′→θ (3)

The T8 temper refers to a solid-solutionheat treatment of the α phase at 535°C,followed by cold work and artificial agingat 175°C for 18 h (Ref. 52). This results ina base metal with the main strengthening

metastable phase of θ′phase as shown inFig. 5. Figure 5A is a low-magnificationimage of the base material microstructure,which shows a few large Cu-rich particlesaround 200–500 nm, corresponding to theexcess θ phase. Figure 5B is a higher mag-nification image that shows theθ′strengthening metastable phase with areported morphology of tetragonal discsthat are semicoherent with the α-alu-minum matrix (Ref. 53).

The FSW process is considered tooccur at high strain rates and impart a highstrain to the metal surrounding the weldtool (Refs. 2, 8–12). Thus, the kinetics ofthe dynamic microstructural evolutionwould be expected to differ from the staticequilibrium conditions (Refs. 13, 19). Theoccurrence of a high strain rate acting onthe metal as it moves around the weld toolimplies very rapid deformational heatingand associated up-quenching followed byslow cooling. The strengthening precipi-tates in the base metal undergo coarsen-ing during the FSW process and eventuallylose their strengthening effectiveness dueto elevated temperatures and/or longertimes at elevated temperatures.

Near the workpiece/weld tool interface,where the rate of heating was the highestdue to the high shear strain rates, the Cu-rich phases underwent dissolution. Duringthe rapid up-quenching, if the eutectictemperature was exceeded at the work-piece/weld tool interface, the remaining θphase may have liquated (Refs. 13, 54).However, if the temperature remainedbelow the eutectic, an increasing degree ofdissolution of the Cu-rich phases was ex-pected as the rate of temperature rise in-creased at the workpiece/weld tool inter-face, thereby increasing the soluteconcentration. At lower strain rate regionsaway from the shear zone, the Cu-richphases would have continued to coarsen,depleting the solute from the α matrix(Ref. 19).

Estimations of the strain rate associatedwith FSW have been based on various ana-lytical or numerical models that rely on ma-terial property databases (Refs. 8–11) inaddition to use of the Zener-Holloman parameter, which relates grainsize to strain rate (Ref. 12). These methodshave provided estimates in the range of 104

to 101 s–1, respectively, with lower values cal-culated from the Zener-Holloman method.Studies have indicated that the grain size at

Q RR

R

H

Rgs=

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟ +

⎡

⎣⎢⎢

⎤

⎦⎥⎥

ωτ π21

33

3


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Table 3 — Tensile Strength of the FSW SZ Specimens

Specimen Yield Strength Ultimate Tensile Strength(MPa) (MPa)

150 151 ± 2 269 ± 11200 163 ± 11 295 ±11300 190 ± 2 332 ± 9PM 396 469

Fig. 6 — Macrographs of the FSWs in this study with horizontal line indicating locationof nanoindentations.

Table 4 — Bulk Eddy Current Measurements

Specimen Eddy Current(% IACS)

150 26.2 ± 0.1200 26.2 ± 0.7300 22.7 ± 0.1


the workpiece/weld tool interface aresmaller than in the FSW wake, which hasbeen attributed to grain growth during theslow cooling of the workpiece (Ref. 55). Asgrain sizes have been reported to increasewith increasing tool rotation due to post-weld grain growth, use of the Zener-Hollo-man method results in an underestimationof the strain rate. The highest shear strainrate has been estimated based on a kine-matic approach that does not rely on an as-sumption of material properties at the FSWconditions (Refs. 11, 49). Using this ap-proach, an estimate of the mean shearingstrain rate (γ) across the shear surface ofthickness (δ) at the workpiece/weld tool in-terface has been made using Equation 4(Ref. 11).

(4)In Equation 4, r is the radius of the shearsurface approximated by the pin tool ra-dius and ω is the angular velocity of themetal inside the shear surface taken to beapproximately the same as that of the tool.The shear zone thickness, δ, is estimatedto be on the order of 0.1 times the pin di-ameter (Refs. 1, 3, 46, 49). The estimatedshear strain rates are summarized in Table1 showing increasing rates as the tool ro-tation increases. As the travel speed wasconstant in this study at 114 mm/min, thehigher strain rate corresponded to a fasterheating rate at the shear surface sur-rounding the SZ. Note that this was an in-stantaneous shear strain rate that thematerial experienced as it crossed theshear zone. Neighboring material adjacentto the shear zone experienced less shear-ing, and hence, lower temperatures. Theintertwining of these two flow paths in theSZ region was reported to result in theshear textures or onion ring pattern ob-served in the FSW SZ (Refs. 56, 57)

Macrographs of the etched transversesections of the three welds are shown inFig. 6. They were repolished to obtain the

SPM surface profiles shown in Fig. 7. Pref-erential polishing around the harder Cu-rich particles reveal an increasing numberas the rotation is increased from 150 to200 rev/min. However, at 300 rev/min, adecrease in the average size and the vol-ume fraction of hard Cu-rich particles as-sumed to be the θ phase was observed.This would correspond to an increaseddissolution rate of the θ phase as therev/min, and hence the strain rate, in-creased above a critical level.

The representative grain size measure-ments for the three FSWs in this study wereobtained using electron backscattered dif-fraction (EBSD)/orientation image map-ping (OIM). Table 2 summarizes thevariation in grain size observed between theAS and RS of the FSWs. The larger, moreuniform grain size in the 300 rev/min FSWspecimen was consistent with exposure tohigher temperatures or longer cooling timesfor the workpiece, similar to other reports(Refs. 39, 55). Thus, the higher SZ strengthat the higher revs/min cannot be attributedto Hall-Petch strengthening, but rather tothe precipitate state.

The horizontal dashed line, shown onthe macrographs in Fig. 6, indicate the lo-

cation of the nanoindentations summa-rized in Fig. 8. While a reduction in hard-ness was observed for the welds made at150 and 200 rev/min, the 300 rev/min FSWhad a higher value. Table 3 lists a compar-ison of the FSW strengths to the basemetal. Although all FSWs had a lowerstrength than the base metal, a trend to-ward increased tensile strength was notedfor the SZ as the tool rotation increased.Estimating a weld temperature based onconversion of power to heat, assuming a100% efficiency and constant contact con-ditions, predicted a higher temperature atthe higher tool rotation. For natural agingto occur, Cu-rich phases in the 2219-T87material would have to dissolve and in-crease the amount of solute in the α-ma-trix in the wake of the FSW. TEM imagesindicated that the θ phase was dissolved,thus replenishing the solute in the α phasefor postweld natural aging.

On the basis of the hardness data andcorresponding SPM images, there was a sig-nificant change in either the localized tem-perature or the heating rate between theFSWs made at 300 rev/min and the 150 and200 rev/min. There was no evidence of ex-ceeding the eutectic temperature, either by

γω

δ≅

( )r *

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Fig. 7 — SPM images show higher amounts of precipitates on the surfaces of the FSWs made at A — 150 rev/min; B — 200 rev/min; than on the C — 300rev/min sample surface.

Fig. 8 — Nanohardness measurements on FSW samples showing higher hardness at 300 rev/mindue to natural aging.

.


a decrease in FSW torque or in the mi-crostructure. A reduction in the volumefraction of the θ phase accompanied by acoarsening of the θ′ phase cannot be ex-plained by equilibrium kinetics, whichwould predict the dissolution of the smallerparticles and coarsening of the larger parti-cles within a constant temperature field.

Table 4 summarizes the bulk eddy cur-rent measurements. Similar readings wereobtained for the 150 and 200 rev/min spec-imens, whereas the 300 rev/min specimenwas significantly lower. It has been re-ported that the hardness does not have a1-to-1 correlation with electrical conduc-tivity in heat-treatable alloys (Ref. 45). Atsufficiently high temperatures, dissolutionof particles increased the amount of solid-solution solute causing a decrease in elec-trical conductivity. The increased solutepresence results in natural aging of theweld nugget postweld thereby increasingthe hardness. This hardness reversion withdecreased electrical conductivity has beenreported in other 2xxx series aluminum al-loys (Refs. 45, 58) similar to the findingsin this study. Although the combined useof eddy current and hardness testing wasnot generally used for identification of2xxx series aluminum alloys (Ref. 45), itwas useful for understanding the precipi-

tate state in the difference zones of aFSWs by correlation with complementarymicroscale techniques.

To further probe the bulk eddy currentmeasurements, corresponding nanocurrentdensity measurements were calculated fromindents applied in the center SZ region andthe base metal region which was assumed tobe near the edge of the transverse specimen.Figure 9 presents a bar graph plot showingthe relative occurrence of each current den-sity for the SZ (lighter color) and the basemetal (darker color). At all rev/min condi-tions, a low occurrence of current densitiesin the range of 13–27 A/mm2 is observedonly in the SZ region. Comparing Fig. 9Aand B, corresponding to the 150 and 200rev/min specimens respectively, an increasecan be observed in the occurrence of thecurrent densities in the range of 11–21A/mm2. This increase in higher current den-sities for the 200 rev/min specimen corre-sponds to a decrease in the occurrence ofthe lower current densities (< 10 A/mm2).For the 300 rev/min specimen in Fig. 9C, themajor occurrence of current densities is inthe range of 1–5 A/mm2 with similar behav-ior noted for the SZ and the base metal.Very few higher current densities in the SZare observed in the narrower range 18–22A/mm2.

To understand this variation, individualcurrent density measurements were madedirectly on the Cu-rich particles and com-pared with the Al matrix as shown in Fig. 10.As can be observed, a higher current den-sity range of 11–16 A/mm2 was associatedwith the large Cu-rich particles. with a lowercurrent density range of 1–7 A/mm2 was as-sociated with the matrix. Thus, the his-tograms can be interpreted as the 150 and200 rev/min FSWs having a higher concen-tration of larger Cu-rich particles in the SZthan in the 300 rev/min FSW. This corre-sponded with the decrease in eddy currentmeasurements as the volume fraction oflarge Cu-rich particles decreased. This wasalso consistent with predominant coarsen-ing of the θ phase at lower revs/min andgreater dissolution at the higher revs/min.

To investigate the details of the precip-itate state, TEM images were obtained assummarized in Figs. 11–13 for FSWs at150, 200, and 300 rev/min respectively. At150 and 200 rev/min, a mixed precipitatestate was observed, which included a rangeof large Cu-rich precipitates that wereidentified as CuAl2 or θ phase. Smaller θ′disc-shaped strengthening precipitates,ranging from 20–50 nm, were also ob-served in Fig. 11, which coarsen to 50 to150 nm in Fig. 12. In Fig. 13, for the 300rev/min specimen, a more uniform coars-ening of the smaller θ′ precipitates was ob-served, which was also observed in thesuperlattice reflections in the accompany-ing SAD pattern of Fig. 13C due to in-creased volume fraction (Ref. 20). Themicrostructure of the 300 rev/min speci-men showed almost none of the largeroveraged phase or CuAl2 precipitates ascompared with Figs. 11 and 12. Instead,the microstructure was similar to that of


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Fig. 9 — Histograms of current density from indents performed within the weld nugget and at the outer edge of each sample. High current density “outliers” are linkedto the presence of Cu-rich precipitates.

Fig. 10 — Piezo-automation results confirming higher current density for indents placed on Cu-richprecipitates.

Table 5 — FSW Temperatures CalculatedUsing the Alternative Heat Index

Specimen Calculated Temperature(°C)

150 523200 532300 542

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ency

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ure

nce

Fre

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ency

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nce

150 RPM 200 RPM 300 RPM


the base metal shown in Fig. 5. To obtain a bulk characterization of

the precipitate state in the FSW nugget,corresponding XRD analysis was alsoconducted. The XRD data are summa-rized in Fig. 14 with the minor peaksidentified as the stable θ phase (Ref. 59).The θ phase peaks increased in intensityfor the SZ of the 150 rev/min weld shownin Fig. 14B, decreased in intensity in Fig.14C of the 200 rev/min weld, with furtherreductions in the 300 rev/min weld in Fig.14D, which were similar in intensity tothe base metal in Fig. 14A. This bulkXRD analysis was in agreement with the

TEM images in Figs. 11–13.Using the torque data from the FSW

panels, an alternative heat index (Ref. 27)was used to calculate the FSW tempera-tures as summarized in Table 5. The calcu-lated temperatures ranged from 0.86–0.88Tm, corresponding to the empirically pub-lished range of 0.80–0.90 Tm for FSW ofAA2xxx alloys (Refs. 1, 2, 14–20). The phasediagram in Fig. 4 for Al-Cu binary systemshowed the nominal 6.30% Cu alloy wasslightly above the maximum solid solubilitycomposition. The α and θ phases can forma eutectic at a composition of 33.2 wt-% Cuwith a eutectic temperature of 548°C. The

calculated temperatures were in agreementwith experimental studies that showed anincrease in peak temperature as the tool ro-tation increased. However, whether thesmall amount of temperature difference wasresponsible for the variations observed inthe microstructure is questionable. Ratherthan a critical temperature threshold beingcrossed, it was proposed that only the ma-terial flow that crosses the severe shear zoneinto the SZ experiences heating rates thatdrive the stable θ phase into dissolution.Since a constant tool travel was maintained,the corresponding higher shear strain ratein addition to the higher tool rotation re-

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Fig. 11 — A and B — TEM images of the 150 rev/min FSW specimen; C — corresponding SAD pattern for the [100]Al zone axis of the aluminum matrix.

Fig. 12 — A and B — TEM images of the 200 rev/min FSW specimen; C — corresponding SAD pattern for the [100]Al zone axis of the aluminum matrix.

Fig. 13 — A and B — TEM images of the 300 rev/minFSW specimen; C — corresponding SAD pattern for the [100] zone axis of the aluminum matrix. Notethe superlattice reflections in the SAD pattern corresponding to the Θ' phase.

A B C

AB

C

A B C


sulted in this material staying at tempera-ture longer. Thus, the high heating rate in-crease combined with a longer time attemperature at 300 rev/min resulted in theθ dissolution that replenished the solute inthe supersaturated α phase for postweldnatural aging.

Based on the macro and micro scaledata, the SZ of the FSW had a mixed stateof stable and metastable Cu-rich phases. Toobtain both dissolved larger particles andcoarsened small particles implied that thematerial was subjected to two different tem-perature fields (Refs. 56, 57). This was ex-plained using the kinematic model for FSWin which some material flow lines near theweld tool crossed a severe high shear rateregion while other material flow lines fur-ther from the weld tool were subjected tolower shear rates and hence lower temper-ature (Refs. 11, 49, 56, 57).

Other researchers have observed de-creased second phase particle size in theFSW microstructure corresponding with in-creased tool rev/min, which was attributedto fragmentation resulting from the shear-ing action of the material flow in the FSWprocess (Refs. 60, 61). Although agglomer-ation of θ particles have also been reportedin a study at higher tool revs/min (Ref. 40),in addition to a study on second pass repairFSWs (Ref. 38).

The results in this study were consistentwith another study on the microstructuralevolution in AA2219-T87 (Ref. 15). Al-though that study (Ref. 15) only reportedone set of unknown FSW parameters, sim-

ilar FSW strengths and precipitate statewere reported that align with the results ofthe 200 rev/min specimen in this study. Cor-relation of microstructural evolution withthe FSW temperature relied on the use ofthermocouples mounted away from the SZ(Ref. 15). The measured temperature wasextrapolated to the SZ resulting in a esti-mated value of 475°C or 0.8 Tm, which islower than the 532°C or 0.86 Tm tempera-ture calculated from the FSW data in thisstudy for the shear zone.

Conclusions

In all the FSWs, a coarsening of the θ′phase was observed that resulted in thedecreased SZ hardness and tensilestrength. The solute lost from the α-ma-trix due to the coarsening of the θ′ phaseswas eventually replaced by the dissolutionof the θ phase at the higher tool rotation,which promoted postweld natural aging.Occurrence of coexisting coarsened θ′ andθ phases in the SZ result from the com-bined effect of two flow streams of metal,which were subjected to different thermo-mechanical processing conditions. Thus,only the metal flow stream that crossed thesevere shear zone experienced eitherhigher temperatures or more severe shearas influenced by the tool rotation. Athigher revs/min, the material also remainsaround the tool for a longer time, whichsuggests time at temperature was also crit-ical to the final precipitate state.

Using the alternative heat indexing

method, the calculated temperature at 300rev/min was estimated to be 542°C, whichwas close to the 548°C eutectic temperatureshown on the Al-Cu phase diagram in Fig.3. This provided a temperature rate suffi-cient for up-quenching to dissolve theθ phase in the FSW nugget region, but in-sufficient temperature to cause spontaneousmelting of the θ phase. The resulting mi-crostructure was similar to the base metal inconductivity as shown in Fig. 10 and hard-ness as shown in Fig. 8. While the calculatedtemperatures for the shear zone were notextreme over the range of FSW parametersinvestigated, they did highlight a regionwhere critical changes in the microstructurein the SZ occurred. It was speculated thatfurther increases in FSW rev/min may resultin liquation as evidenced by a drop in weldpower or torque. These FSWs were not per-formed as higher rev/min conditions in com-bination with the tool used in this study haveresulted in voids.

The results of these experimentsshowed that processing parameters ofFSW have a strong impact on precipitateposition and dispersion, affecting localizedmechanical and electrical properties. Dueto the nonhomogeneity of the resultingFSW SZ, microscale hardness and con-ductivity measurements were useful in un-derstanding the effect of precipitate stateon the resulting electrical properties.

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Fig. 14 — XRD results showing increasing presence of stable CuAl2 precipitates from the base metal (A); tothe 150 rev/min FSW (B). Intensity of the stable CuAl2 decreases slightly in the 200 rev/min FSW (C); re-verting to similar intensity as the base metal in the 300 rev/min FSW (D).

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Introduction

Ship structures are subject to a com-plex dynamic loading during service that issuperimposed on residual stress present asa result of fitup and fabrication. There-fore, high-performance steels for shipstructure applications have been a con-stant goal pursued by the United StatesNavy. In order to meet the requirementfor good combination of high strength andlow-temperature fracture toughness,high-yield-strength steels (HY series) andhigh-strength, low-alloy steels (HSLA se-ries) have been under development by theNavy for the last 50 years. Among them,HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65 areused extensively in surface ship and sub-marine construction today, and they willcontinue to be the principal structural ma-terials in the foreseeable future (Refs.1–3).

Navy shipbuilding has been heavily re-liant on welding as a fabrication tech-nique, and it has been of great practicalimportance to conduct weldability testing

of steels. Among various weldability issuesof high-strength steels, hydrogen-inducedcracking (HIC) (also referred as coldcracking) in the heat-affected zone(HAZ) following welding is of concern(Refs. 4–6), and thereby it is important toevaluate the naval steels’ susceptibility toHAZ HIC. Within the HAZ, the coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ) is the most sus-ceptible to formation of untemperedmartensite with coarse grain size (Refs. 7,8), and therefore potentially the most sus-ceptible to HIC (Ref. 9). Based on thestrong microstructure influence on HIC,CCT diagrams for the CGHAZ of HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65 have beenconstructed, as described in an earlierpublication (Ref. 10). In parallel with thatstudy, the susceptibility to HIC has beenevaluated for the same three steels.

In the present investigation, the im-plant test is used to evaluate susceptibilityto HIC. The microstructure of the weldCGHAZ from this test is characterized,and fractography is conducted to illustratethe HIC fracture behavior. The HIC testexperimental results will be used to de-velop a weldability database of currentNavy steels, which can serve as a bench-mark for the future development of high-performance steels.

Materials and ExperimentalProcedure

HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65were provided in the form of rolled plateby the Naval Surface Warfare Center,Carderock Division, West Bethesda, Md.Table 1 summarizes the chemical compo-sitions of the three steels used in this in-vestigation. The steel plates were ma-chined into the implant specimens, whosedimensions are listed in Table 2.

The implant test used in the present in-vestigation was first developed by HenriGranjon at the Institut de Soudure(French Welding Institute) (Ref. 11). Inthe implant test, a cylindrical sample witha 0.5-in.- (12.7-mm-) long 10-32 UNFthread on one end is inserted into a clear-ance hole in the center of the specimenplate. The other end with a 0.5-in.- (12.7-mm-) long 1/4-20 UNC thread is insertedinto a threaded connection rod of theloading system so that it is possible toapply a tensile load on the specimen afterwelding. A weld bead was then depositedon the top surface of the specimen platedirectly over the threaded sample andhole, creating a HAZ in the 10-32 UNFthread region, as shown in Fig. 1.

The thread serves to create a stressconcentration in the HAZ region, therebycausing HIC to occur in the HAZ insteadof the fusion zone. Two minutes after com-pletion of welding, the sample is loaded intension when the temperature of the weldassembly is in the range of 100°–150°C.The tensile load is provided by The OhioState University Modified Implant TestingSystem (OSU-MITS), as shown in Fig. 2,which was specially designed and built to

Evaluation of Heat-Affected ZoneHydrogen-Induced Cracking in Navy Steels

The implant test was conducted on HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65,plus the hydrogen-induced cracking susceptibility was quantitatively evaluated

BY X. YUE AND J. C. LIPPOLD

KEYWORDS

Implant TestHydrogen-Induced CrackingCGHAZ MicrostructureFracture BehaviorHSLA-100HY-100HSLA-65

X. YUE ([email protected]) and J. C. LIP-POLD are with the Welding Engineering Programat The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.Based on a paper presented at FABTECH 2012 inLas Vegas, Nev., November 12–14, 2012.

ABSTRACT

The implant test was conducted on HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65 to evaluatetheir susceptibility to heat-affected zone (HAZ) hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC).The stress vs. time to failure curve was plotted, and the normalized critical stress ratio(NCSR) and embrittlement index for each steel were determined, which can be used toquantitatively evaluate HIC susceptibility. The coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ) mi-crostructure of the three steels was characterized by means of optical and transmissionelectron microscopy. In addition, SEM fractography was conducted to study the HICfracture behavior. Intergranular (IG), quasi-cleavage (QC), and microvoid coalescence(MVC) fracture modes were found to occur sequentially during the crack initiation andpropagation process. The fracture behavior observed in the present investigation is ingood agreement with Beachem’s model. It can be concluded based on the implant testresults that, among the three steels, HY-100 is the most susceptible to HAZ HIC whileHSLA-100 and HSLA-65 exhibit good resistance. The difference in the HIC suscepti-bility of the three steels is further explained by combining the microstructure charac-terization of the CGHAZ and fracture behavior. These results can serve as a bench-mark for the future development of high-performance Navy steels.

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accurately control loading during the test.The design of the OSU-MITS ensures theimplant specimen is free of bending, tor-sion, or shock loading. It has the capabil-ity of providing tensile loads of up to10,000 lb (4500 kg), and the entire systemis easily moved. The times to failure for aseries of tests performed at various stresslevels were recorded by a computerequipped with a data-acquisition systemconnected to the OSU-MITS. The load(stress) applied is then plotted against thetime to failure. The highest stress at whichno failure occurs after 24 h loading is de-fined as the lower critical stress (LCS),which is taken as an index to determinesusceptibility to HIC.

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) wasused to deposit the weld bead on the topsurface of the specimen plates. The weld-ing consumable used was the 0.047 in. (1.2mm) Pipeliner®111M (AWS E111T1-GM) provided by The Lincoln Electric Co.Welding parameters were as follows: 25 V,current 225–235 A, travel speed 12 in./min(5.1 mm/s), and wire feed speed 300in./min (127 mm/s). This corresponds to aheat input in the range of 28.1 to 29.4kJ/in. (1.11 to 1.16 kJ/mm). Ar + 25%CO2is the recommended shielding gas for thisconsumable; however, in order to mini-mize the hydrogen loss, pure argon at aflow rate of 45 ft3/h (21.2 L/min) was usedinstead.

Welding with this consumable can pro-duce diffusible hydrogen content in therange of 4–5 mL/100 g for typical perform-ance as stated in the product specification.Previous tests show that cracking did notoccur without intentional introduction ofdiffusible hydrogen. Then, in order to in-troduce sufficient diffusible hydrogen tocause HIC in HAZ, a thin film of lubricat-ing oil was applied evenly on the specimenplate surface before welding, and theamount of oil was carefully controlled eachtime. This produced an average diffusiblehydrogen content of 8.1 mL/100 g (foursamples were tested with a standard devia-

tion of 0.2 mL/100 g), which was measuredusing the gas chromatograph method in ac-cordance with AWS A4.3.

Metallographic samples were sec-tioned perpendicular to the welding direc-tion through the axis of the implant speci-

mens. Then they were mounted, polished,and etched with 5% nital and examinedusing an optical microscope. The TEMsamples were evaluated in a PhilipsCM200 TEM operated at 200 kV. Vickershardness measurements were conducted

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Fig. 1 — Schematic drawing of the implant test.

Fig. 2 — The OSU Modified Implant Testing System (OSU-MITS) and implant specimen. A —Full view of the testing system; B — close-up view showing an implant specimen under loading andan unloaded one on the top right corner; C — the implant specimen.

Table 1 — Chemical Composition of the Test Steels

Element (wt-%) HY-100 HSLA-100 HSLA-65

C 0.18 0.051 0.074Mn 0.28 0.90 1.35Si 0.21 0.25 0.24P 0.008 0.008 0.011S 0.002 0.002 0.006

Cu 0.15 1.17 0.25Ni 2.32 1.58 0.34Cr 1.37 0.60 0.14Mo 0.26 0.37 0.06V <0.01 <0.01 0.058

Nb <0.01 0.017 0.018Ti <0.01 <0.01 0.012

A

B C


on the as-polished samples using a 1-kgload, in accordance with ASTM E 384-10.

Results and Discussion

Weld Macrostructure and Hardness

Figure 3 shows a transverse section ofa typical test weld taken along the axis ofthe implant specimen. The fusion bound-ary separating the weld metal and implantspecimen is clearly discernable. Due to theexcessive grain growth and possible for-mation of susceptible (high hardness) mi-crostructure, HIC will most likely occur inthe CGHAZ region, which is just adjacentto the fusion boundary. Note that theHAZ in the implant specimen is muchwider than that in the adjacent plate dueto the difference in heat flow and temper-ature gradient.

Vickers hardness measurements weretaken along the axis of the implant speci-mens of the three steels, as shown in Fig.4A–C. The hardness variation from weldmetal to HAZ and the base metal is ap-parent with the hardness of the weld metal

is in the range of 360 to 380 HV. Thehardness of CGHAZ of HY-100 ishigher than that of the weld metal, whichis in the range of 420 to 440 HV. Whilefor HSLA-100 and HSLA-65, theirCGHAZ hardness is lower than the weldmetal, in the range of 325 to 340 HV and300 to 317 HV, respectively. The locationof the CGHAZ, as shown in Fig. 4A–C,is determined by metallographic obser-vation. It should be noted that the red dot-ted line is only the approximate boundarybetween the CGHAZ and adjacent fine-grained HAZ (FGHAZ).

Microstructure Characterization of CGHAZof the Three Steels

Figure 5 shows the optical and TEMbright-field microstructure of theCGHAZ from the HY-100 implant speci-men. Martensite forms in the CGHAZ ofthis steel, and the packet of the martensitelaths (Ref. 12) can be seen in the highermagnification TEM microstructure, asshown in Fig. 5B. The dark thin film be-tween martensite laths is probably re-

tained austenite (Refs. 13, 14). The for-mation of lath martensite is consistentwith a CGHAZ in HY-100 with hardnessin the range of 420 to 440 HV.

The CGHAZ microstructure ofHSLA-100 is shown in Fig. 6A–C. Marten-site and bainite with a needle-like mor-phology form in the CGHAZ as shown inFig. 6A. Similar to HY-100, because thecarbon content of HSLA-100 is relativelylow (0.051 wt-%), the martensite formedis of the lath type, whose morphology isclearly seen in Fig. 6B. It is shown in Fig.6C that parallel laths with small intra-lathplatelet-like precipitates form in the mi-crostructure. The precipitates are mostlikely cementite, and they are directionallyoriented. This morphology is characteris-


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Fig. 3 — Typical implant test specimen sectioned near the implant axis. HY-100. 5% nital etch.

Fig. 4 — Vickers hardness measurements taken alongthe axis of the implant specimen. A — HY-100; B —HSLA-100; C — HSLA-65.

Table 2 — Specimen Plate/Implant Specimen Dimensions

Specimen Plate

Material A36 Steel

Plate thickness in. (mm) 0.5 (12.7)Plate width in. (mm) 2 (50.8)Plate length in. (mm) 4 (101.6)Length of the test bead in. (mm) 3.5 (88.9)Hole diameter in. (mm) 0.201 (5.1)

Implant Specimen

Material HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65

Total length of implant specimen in. (mm) 1 (25.4)Type of thread 10-32 UNFPitch in. (mm) 1/32 (0.79)Major diameter in. (mm) 0.1900 (4.83)Minor diameter in. (mm) 0.1517 (3.85)Thread length in. (mm) 0.5 (12.7)Thread angle 60 degThread root radius in. (mm) 0.004 (0.1)


tic of lower bainite (Ref. 15). Therefore,the HSLA-100 CGHAZ microstructure isa mixture of lath martensite and bainite,which has hardness in the range of 325 to340 HV.

The CGHAZ microstructure ofHSLA-65 is shown in Fig. 7A–C. It can beseen in Fig. 7A that a small amount of fer-rite forms along the prior austenite grainboundaries. The morphology of packets ofparallel laths free of precipitates can beseen in Fig. 7B, which is the feature of lathmartensite. Similar to HSLA-100, direc-tionally aligned intra-lath cementite

platelets can be observed in Fig. 7C, whichconfirms the presence of lower bainite.The difference is that these cementiteplatelets are coarser than the ones form-ing in HSLA-100. The formation of a mix-ture of ferrite, bainite, and martensite re-sults in a HSLA-65 CGHAZ with thelowest hardness (300 to 317 HV) amongthe three steels.

The Implant Test Results

A series of composite weldments ofspecimen plates and steel implants

welded with the same parameters wassubject to different levels of tensile load-ing after welding, and the time to failureat each stress level was recorded. Thesedata were used to generate the implanttest curves for the three steels, as shownin Fig. 8A–C. The tensile stress is equalto the load divided by the cross-sectionalarea of the root diameter of the 10-32thread. Because the lower critical stress(LCS) is an important index to quantifyHIC susceptibility, tests run at the high-est stress at which the implant specimendoes not fail after 24 h tensile loading

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Fig. 5 — CGHAZ microstructure of HY-100. A — Optical; B — bright-field TEM.

Table 3 — Implant Test Results

Steel CGHAZ Max CGHAZ Tensile Lower Critical Nominal Yield NCSRb EmbrittlementHardness Strengtha Stress Strength Indexc

(HV) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)

HY-100 440 212 (1462) 72 (496) 100 (689) 0.72 0.34HSLA-100 340 154 (1062) 83(572) 100 (689) 0.83 0.54HSLA-65 317 145 (1000) 76 (524) 65 (448) 1.17 0.52

(a) The CGHAZ tensile strength is converted from the CGHAZ max hardness using the ASTM hardess conversion chart.(b) NCSR stands for normalized critical stress ratio, which is the ratio of lower critical stress to nominal yield strength.(c) Embrittlement index is the ratio of lower critical stress to the CGHAZ tensile strength.

Fig. 6 — CGHAZ microstructure of HSLA-100. A — Optical; B and C — bright-field TEM.


were repeated twice to verify the LCS.The delayed nature of HIC can be seenfrom Fig. 8A–C, and, as expected, thereis a longer incubation time before im-plant specimen fracture with lower ap-

plied stress levels. It is also found that atcomparable stress levels, the incubationtime of HY-100 is shorter than that ofHSLA-100.

The implant test results for the three

steels are provided in Table 3. The LCS isdetermined to be 72 ksi (496 MPa), 83 ksi(572 MPa), and 76 ksi (524 MPa) for HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, respec-tively. Because the three steels have dif-ferent strength levels, a normalizationprocedure for critical stress is required.Also, in order to avoid the effect of vari-ation in notch tensile stress on quantita-tively rating HIC susceptibility, instead ofusing the embrittlement index used bySawhill (Ref. 16), a normalized criticalstress ratio (NCSR) is used in the presentinvestigation. This is simply the ratio ofLCS to nominal yield strength of the teststeels (Ref. 17). Therefore, an exactmeasure of HIC on percent degradationfrom nominal yield strength could be de-termined. As the nominal yield strengthis 100 ksi (689 MPa), 100 ksi (689 MPa),and 65 ksi (448 MPa) for HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, respectively. TheNCSR is determined accordingly to be0.72, 0.83, and 1.17 for HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, respectively.

Beside the NCSR, a new embrittle-ment index, which is the ratio of the lowercritical stress to CGHAZ tensilestrength, is proposed in the present in-vestigation to compare the HIC suscepti-bility of the three steels. Due to marten-site formation in the CGHAZ, themaximum CGHAZ hardnesses is 440,340, and 317 HV for HY-100, HSLA-100,and HSLA-65, respectively. And they aremuch higher than the three steels’ re-


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Fig. 7 — CGHAZ microstructure of HSLA-65. A — Optical; B and C — bright-field TEM.

Fig. 9 — Fracture morphology of HY-100 implant specimen at a stress level of 91.3 ksi (629 MPa) thatfailed after 3 min of loading. A — General fracture appearance (white arrow indicates the direction ofcrack growth); B — region I (IG); C — region II (QC); D — region II (MVC).

Fig. 8 — The implant test result curves of the following: A — HY-100; B — HSLA-100; C — HSLA-65.


spective base metal hardnesses, whichare 283, 284, and 201 HV for HY-100,HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, respectively.That means the weld CGHAZ has ahigher tensile strength than the basemetal for the three steels. If the tensilestrength of the CGHAZ can be deter-mined, then the influence of diffusiblehydrogen on the CGHAZ degradationcan be expressed by the ratio of lowercritical stress to CGHAZ tensilestrength. However, it is difficult to meas-ure the CGHAZ tensile strength directlyfrom the implant test, that is because if nohydrogen is introduced into the weld, thefailure will occur in the lower strengthbase metal rather than in the higher-strength CGHAZ. As a result, the maxi-mum CGHAZ hardness is converted intothe CGHAZ tensile strength accordingto the ASTM hardness conversion chart,which are determined to be 212 ksi (1462MPa), 154 ksi (1062 MPa), and 145 ksi(1000 MPa) for HY-100, HSLA-100, andHSLA-65, respectively. The embrittle-ment index is determined accordingly tobe 0.34, 0.54, and 0.52 for HY-100,HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, respectively.The higher the embrittlement index, thelower the HIC susceptibility, whichmeans the degradation of CGHAZ ten-sile strength due to diffusible hydrogen isnot serious. Note that the CGHAZ ten-sile strength is not experimentally deter-mined but only an approximation; how-ever, it can still be used as an index toevaluate the steels’ HIC susceptibility.

Based on the above implant test re-sults, both the NCSR and embrittlementindex show that HY-100 undergoes themost serious degradation due to the ef-fect of diffusible hydrogen among thethree steels, while HSLA-100 and HSLA-65 are less susceptible to HIC comparedwith HY-100. For HSLA-100 and HSLA-65, their embrittlement index is almostthe same, that is because of their rela-tively lower carbon and alloy addition(lower hardenability as shown in Table 3,Ref. 10) as well as their finer grain sizecompared with HY-100. However, itshould be noted that NCSR of HSLA-65(1.17) is higher than that of HSLA-100(0.83), which means the CGHAZ degra-dation from base metal yield strength dueto the effect of diffusible hydrogen forHSLA-100 is more severe than HSLA-65.Thereby, it indicates HSLA-65 has betterresistance to HIC than HSLA-100.

Fracture Behavior

Figure 9A–D shows the fracture mor-phology of the HY-100 implant specimenat a stress level of 91.3 ksi (629 MPa) thatfailed after 3 min of loading. It shows thatthe fracture surface can be divided intothree regions, which are region I, region

II, and final failure region. Region I is inclose vicinity to the thread root, where thehighest stress concentration exists. Acoarse intergranular (IG) fracture mode isdominant in region I, where the grain sizeis in the range of 70–90 μm as shown inFig. 9B. It can be concluded that cracking

initiates in the location where CGHAZand thread root coincides, or somewhereclosely behind the thread root (Ref. 18), asa result of stress concentration as well asthe presence of coarse-grained lathmartensite in the CGHAZ. The whitearrow in Fig. 9A indicates the crack prop-

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CHFig. 10 — Fracture morphology of HY-100 implant specimen at a stress level of 80.3 ksi (554 MPa) that

failed after 12 min of loading. A — General fracture appearance (white arrow indicates the direction ofcrack growth); B — region I (IG); C — region II (QC); D — region II (MVC).

Fig. 11 — Fracture morphology of HSLA-100 implant specimen at a stress level of 102.4 ksi (706 MPa)that failed after 1.5 min of loading. A — General fracture appearance (white arrow indicates the direc-tion of crack growth); B — region I (IG); C — region II (QC); D — region II (MVC).


agation direction. As the crack propa-gates, region II with different features isshown on the fracture surface. Both quasi-cleavage (QC) and microvoid coalescence(MVC) can be observed in region II,which are shown in Fig. 9C and D. With

further propagation, overload failure willtake place. Note that the boundaries sep-arating the three regions are not distinct,and the division of the fracture surface isbased on the fracture morphology.

Figure 10A–D shows the fracture mor-

phology of an HY-100 implant specimenat a stress level of 80.3 ksi (554 MPa) thatfailed after 12 min of loading. Similar tothe sample shown in Fig. 9, three distinctregions can also be seen on the fracturesurface. The fracture mode at crack initi-ation in region I is essentially intergranu-lar. Again, it is shown that the CGHAZ isthe most susceptible to HIC among theHAZ regions. Relative to the previoussample, a small difference in fracture mor-phology exists in that the area of IG fail-ure increases with decreasing the tensileloading. Both QC and MVC can be ob-served in region II, as shown in Fig. 10Cand D.

The fracture morphology of an HSLA-100 implant specimen at a stress level of102.4 ksi (706 MPa) that failed after 1.5min is shown in Fig. 11A–D. Similar toHY-100, the fracture surface can also bedivided into three regions as shown in Fig.11A. Region I with predominant IG frac-ture can only be observed in a small areaclose to the thread root, as shown in Fig.11B. In addition to the clear faceted IGshown on the fracture surface, the prioraustenite grain boundary can also be ob-served on the thread surface, and it is con-tinuous across the boundary separatingthe fracture surface and thread surface. Itshows that cracking initiates in theCGHAZ when a critical amount of hydro-gen diffuses to the stress concentrationarea. The prior austenite grain boundarybecomes the weak link under the influ-ence of both hydrogen and stress so thatthe relative grain boundary sliding occursin the CGHAZ. That is why the prioraustenite grain boundary can be observedon the thread surface. In region II, bothQC and MVC fracture modes can be ob-served as shown in Fig. 11C and D.

By decreasing the tensile stress inHSLA-100 to 85.8 ksi (592 MPa), the im-plant specimen failed after 60 min of load-ing. The fracture morphology of this sam-ple is shown in Fig. 12A–D. It is shown inFig. 12B that IG fracture can be observedin a small area of region I. Both QC andMVC can be observed in region II, asshown in Fig. 12C and D.

The fracture morphology of theHSLA-65 implant specimen is shown inFig. 13A–D. As shown in Fig. 13B, there issome faceted IG fracture with a smallergrain size in region I near the thread rooteven though it is not so clear as comparedto the fracture surface of the HY-100specimen. This is probably because of themixture of ferrite, bainite, and martensitein the CGHAZ. In region II adjacent to re-gion I, both QC and MVC can be ob-served, as shown in Fig. 13C and D.

The occurrence of IG, QC, and MVCfracture modes on the fracture surfacecan be explained using Beachem’s model(Refs. 19, 20), as shown in Fig. 14. As-


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Fig. 12 — Fracture morphology of HSLA-100 implant specimen at a stress level of 85.8 ksi (592 MPa)that failed after 60 min of loading. A — General fracture appearance (white arrow indicates the directionof crack growth); B — region I (IG); C — region II (QC); D — region II (MVC).

Fig. 13 — Fracture morphology of HSLA-65 implant specimen at a stress level of 77.5 ksi (534 MPa) thatfailed after 23 min of loading. A — General fracture appearance (white arrow indicates the direction ofcrack growth); B — region I; C — region II (QC); D — region II (MVC).


sume when the implant specimen is sub-ject to loading after welding, the combi-nation of stress intensity factor and hy-drogen concentration at the crack tipcorresponds to point a in Fig. 14. The hy-drogen concentration is not sufficient toinitiate a crack, so cracking will not occurimmediately. During the incubation pe-riod, atomic hydrogen continuously dif-fuses to the triaxially stressed region, andafter some time, it will reach the criticallevel indicated by point b in Fig. 14. Acrack will then be initiated in theCGHAZ and grow intergranularly. Asthe crack propagates, the stress intensityfactor increases while the hydrogen leveldecreases to point c, promoting a QCfracture mode. As the crack continues togrow, and if the combination of stress in-tensity factor and hydrogen concentra-tion reaches point d, the fracture modewill change to MVC. If the stress inten-sity factor continues to increase to thecritical value KC, ultimate failure willtake place.

Microstructure and the fracture be-havior taken together can explain the dif-ference in HIC susceptibility of the threesteels. As shown from fractography,cracking will always initiate in theCGHAZ, and the intergranular fractureoccurs first. For the same welding condi-tions, the HY-100 CGHAZ microstruc-ture is high-hardness (420 to 440 HV)martensite, while a mixture of bainite andmartensite with lower hardness (325 to340 HV) forms in the HSLA-100CGHAZ. For HSLA-65, the CGHAZ hasthe lowest hardness (300 to 317 HV)among the three steels as a result of the

presence of ferrite, bainite, and marten-site.

It has been shown previously (Ref. 10)that the prior austenite grain size is thelargest in HY-100, and the smallest inHSLA-65, with HSLA-100 intermediate.Based on the fracture surface observa-tions from the implant tests, HY-100 hasthe coarsest IG fracture and the largestarea of IG fracture region among thethree steels, while both of these featuresare the smallest for HSLA-65. As a resultof different grain size, microstructureand associated hardness of the CGHAZat the same welding condition, the HICsusceptibility of the three steels is differ-ent, which is indicated by the value ofNCSR and embrittlement index of thethree steels. Therefore, it can be con-cluded that HY-100 is the most suscepti-ble to HIC among the three steels, whileHSLA-65 is the least.

Conclusions

The results of the present investigationcan be summarized as follows:

1. In the present welding condition, thehardness of the CGHAZ is in the range of420–440, 325–340, and 300–317 HV forHY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, re-spectively.

2. Lath martensite with a thin film ofretained austenite is observed in theCGHAZ of HY-100. For HSLA-100, lathmartensite and bainite form in theCGHAZ. While for HSLA-65, a mixtureof ferrite, bainite, and martensite forms inthe CGHAZ.

3. When the average diffusible hydro-

gen content is 8.1 mL/100 g, the lower crit-ical stress (LCS) is 72 ksi (496 MPa), 83 ksi(572 MPa), and 76 ksi (524 MPa) for HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, respec-tively. The normalized critical stress ratio(NCSR) is determined accordingly to be0.72, 0.83, and 1.17 for HY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, respectively.

4. A new embrittlement index is pro-posed, that is the ratio of the LCS andtensile strength of the CGHAZ, which isapproximated by the hardness. Using thisapproach, the embrittlement index is de-termined to be 0.34, 0.54, and 0.52 forHY-100, HSLA-100, and HSLA-65, respectively.

5. Based on morphology and fracturemode, the fracture surface of the threesteels can be divided into three regions.In region I, the crack will initiate in theCGHAZ and grow intergranularly. Bothquasi-cleavage (QC) and microvoid coa-lescence (MVC) can be observed in re-gion II. Final failure occurs under over-load conditions.

6. As the crack initiates and propa-gates, IG, QC, and MVC fracture modewill occur in sequence. The observationof the three fracture modes on the frac-ture surface can be explained usingBeachem’s model.

7. Among the three steels, HY-100 hasthe coarsest IG fracture and the largestarea of IG fracture, while both of theseare the smallest for HSLA-65.

8. Based on the implant test results,HY-100 is the most susceptible to HICbecause of the formation of a high-hard-ness martensitic microstructure and largeprior austenite grain size in the CGHAZ.HSLA-100 is less susceptible as a result offormation of bainite and martensite withlower hardness and smaller grain size.HSLA-65 shows resistance to HIC, re-sulting from the mixture of ferrite, bai-nite, and martensite with the lowest hard-ness and smallest grain size in theCGHAZ.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge thefinancial support of the Office of Naval Re-search, Award No. N000140811000. GrantOfficers: Dr. Julie Christodoulou and Dr.William Mullins.

The authors would also like to thankJohnnie DeLoach, Matthew Sinfield, andJeffrey Farren with the Naval Surface War-fare Center Carderock Division, WestBethesda, Md., for providing the steels usedin this study and valuable discussions re-garding the weldability of these steels. De-jian Liu and Geoffrey Taber are acknowl-edged for their constructive ideas and helpon building the implant testing system.

In addition, Badri Narayanan, JohnProcario, and Garr Eberle with The Lin-

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Fig. 14 — Combined effect of stress intensity factor and hydrogen concentration at crack tip on the frac-ture mode.


coln Electric Co. are thanked for provid-ing the Pipeliner®111M welding consum-able used in the implant test.

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16. Sawhill, J. M. Jr., Dix, A. W., and Savage,W. F. 1974. Modified implant test for studying de-layed cracking. Welding Journal 53(12): 554-s to560-s.

17. Dickinson, D. W., and Ries, G. D. 1979.Implant testing of medium to high strength steel— A model for predicting delayed cracking sus-ceptibility. Welding Journal 59(7): 205-s to 211-s.

18. McMahon, C. J. Jr. 2001. Hydrogen-induced intergranular fracture of steels. Engi-neering Fracture Mechanics 68: 773–788.

19. Beachem, C. D. 1972. A new model for hy-drogen-assisted cracking (Hydrogen “embrittle-ment”). Metallurgical Transactions 3: 437–451.

20. Gedeon, S. A., and Eagar, T. W. 1990.Assessing hydrogen-assisted cracking fracturemodes in high-strength steel weldments. Weld-ing Journal 69(6): 213-s to 220-s.


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Authors: Submit Research Papers Online

Peer review of research papers is now managed through an online system using Editorial Manager software. Papers can be sub-mitted into the system directly from the Welding Journal page on the AWS Web site (www.aws.org) by clicking on “submit papers.” Youcan also access the new site directly at www.editorialmanager.com/wj/. Follow the instructions to register or log in. This online systemstreamlines the review process, and makes it easier to submit papers and track their progress. By publishing in the Welding Journal,more than 69,000 members will receive the results of your research.

Additionally, your full paper is posted on the American Welding Society Web site for FREE access around the globe. There are nopage charges, and articles are published in full color. By far, the most people, at the least cost, will recognize your research when youpublish in the world-respected Welding Journal.

Welding Journal Becomes Digital and Mobile

The Welding Journal can now be enjoyed by AWS members for free using their computers or Internet-ready mobile phones ortablets, including iOS (iPad® and iPhone®), Android®, Windows 7®, and HP Web OS® devices.

Presented below are three key areas with details for reading the magazine in various ways.• For desktops/laptops, the Welding Journal can be read online, or downloaded for offline reading and archiving. You can also do

custom searches within a single issue or throughout all the issues in the archive (dating back to December 2011), and print individ-ual pages or whole issues. Active links add convenience.

• For mobile devices, the Welding Journal can be used on Internet-capable tablets or phones. A Web app runs in your mobilebrowser and automatically recognizes the device, optimizing presentation and functionality. It is the best choice for those who pre-fer reading content online vs. downloading to their mobile device.

• For iPad and iPhone users, go to iTunes, type in “Welding Journal” in the search window, and download the app to retrieve themagazine online or download for immediate access. This is the best choice for those who prefer to store issues in their iOS devicesfor offline reading. In addition, build your Welding Journal catalog with all the available issues in the archive.

The digital edition will be sent to you automatically every month, but make sure your e-mail address is up to date by logging in atwww.aws.org.


When critical welding conditions necessitate performance without compromise, you can depend on Arcos to provide you with a comprehensive line of premium quality high alloy, stainless and nickel electrodes to conform to your stringent requirements.

You can be assured of our commitment to superior welding products because Arcos quality meets or exceeds demanding military and nuclear application specifications. Arcos’ dedication to excellence has earned these prestigious certifications:

ASME Nuclear Certificate # QSC448 ISO 9001: Certified Mil-I 45208A Inspection Navy QPL

We Can Meet Yours, Too!To learn more about the many reasons you should insist on Arcos high alloy, stainless and nickel electrodes for your essential welding applications, call us today at 800-233-8460 or visit our website at www.arcos.us.

Arcos Industries, LLC

Arcos ElectrodesMeet Exacting Militaryand Nuclear Standards.


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