‘What are the benefits of using horticulture as a vehicle for … · 2019. 9. 16. · 2 MA Education Abstract The aim of this case study is to investigate using horticulture as

1 MA Education

‘What are the benefits of using horticulture as a

vehicle for learning in a small, urban, one form

entry, Primary School?’

A Case Study

Mrs C. Morris

MA in Education

August 2014

This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the

MA in Education Leadership and Management,

Roehampton University.

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Abstract

The aim of this case study is to investigate using horticulture as a vehicle for learning in a

small, urban, one form entry primary school. Although there is research around this area in

the UK there seems to be much more in Europe and the United States. Research includes the

benefits of contact with nature through to the benefits of garden based nutrition programmes.

This study was guided by three research questions which focused on both pupil, parent and

teacher perceptions of the benefits of horticultural activities in this context. Data collections

tools in this case study are six semi-structured interviews; two group interviews and four

individual interviews. This study is trying to show the impact of the garden based initiative as

perceived by the participants and to evaluate the benefits in this context. As this research

follows a case study design (Bassey,1999) the outcomes cannot be generalised. This study is

limited in its scale however it is unique in its context. This research has increased my

knowledge of the benefits of using horticulture as a vehicle for learning in this context as well

as offering possible vehicle learning for schools in a similar context.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all the participants for their overwhelming enthusiasm for the garden. I

would also like to thank the RHS and particularly the London Advisor for Schools 2010-2013

without his support and help this project would not have been so much fun.

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Contents

Chapter One –Introduction 1.0 Introduction and Background 6

Chapter Two-Literature Review

2.0 Introduction 8

2.1 Learning through nature 8

2.2 The importance of contact with nature 11

2.3 Impact of nature on performance 13

2.4 Impact of nature on behaviour 13

2.5 Horticulture in the USA 14

2.6 Horticulture in the UK 16

2.7 Emerging Issue 18

2.8 Challenges 19

2.9 Conclusion 20

Chapter Three-Methodology

3.0 Introduction 21

3.1 Education Research 21

3.2 Positivist Paradigm 21

3.3 Interpretivist Paradigm 22

3.4 Case Studies 23

3.5 Research Tools 25

3.6 Semi-Structured Interviews 25

3.7 Context 27

3.8 Research Sample 28

3.9 Individual Interviews 30

3.11 Analysis 31

3.12 Ethics 32

3.13 Conclusion 33

Chapter Four-Data and Analysis 4.0 Introduction 34

4.1 Context 34

4.2 Choosing Participants 35

4.3 Individual Interviews 35

4.4 Interviews 36

4.5 Analysis 36

4.6 Learning from others 37

4.7 Learning from nature 44

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4.8 Learning for the future 49

4.9 Perceived Benefits 51

4.11 What other areas emerge? 56

Chapter Five-Conclusions 5.0 Conclusion 58

Appendix Green care Diagram 60

Proposed Questions 61

Proposed Questionnaire 62

Interview Transcripts 63

Ethical permissions template 63a

Bibliography 94

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Chapter One

Introduction and Background

This research is motivated by my experiences as a primary school leader in an urban context.

I have worked with children and adults in urban environments for over twenty years. The

settings in which I have worked staff and pupils have had little or no exposure to outdoor

learning.

I became interested in outdoor learning and particularly using horticulture as a vehicle for

learning when I moved to my present school which was under Special Measures at the time.

Behaviour at the school was particularly challenging and I was working with KS2 pupils in a

Year Three Class. The lessons that I created involving hands on outdoor activities seemed to

be successful and have an impact on behaviour and learning outcomes.

When I became the Headteacher in 2009 I decided to develop outdoor learning in the school

and particularly using horticulture as a way of enabling learning across the curriculum. Two

outdoor spaces were developed. The site which this study concerns is a piece of land leased

within the local estate that has been transformed over the past three years into an urban oasis.

The National Federation for Education Research (2011) found that gardening had the

capacity to offer curricular and social and emotional benefits to pupils and was beneficial in a

whole school context. Outcomes from involving pupils in school gardens were reported to be:

Greater scientific knowledge and understanding.

Enhanced literacy and numeracy, including the use of a wider vocabulary and greater

oracy skills.

Increased awareness of the seasons and understanding of food production.

Increased confidence, resilience and self-esteem.

Development of physical skills, including fine motor skills.

Development of a sense of responsibility.

A positive attitude to healthy food choices.

Positive behaviour. Improvements in emotional well-being.

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The Cambridge Primary Review (2010) had identified that when children had been involved

in environmental action and energy saving projects they had acquired a confidence that they

could change things. It also stated categorically that children’s views should be taken into

account. Along with the view that contact with nature is important for health (Louv, 2008)

and the impact of nutrition based studies carried out in the USA showing that children will

eat more fruit and vegetables if they are involved with growing it themselves(Graham H, Beall

DL, Lussier M, McLaughlin P, Zidenberg- Cherr S ,2005). I wanted to know the impact of our work

with horticulture at Greenville on our pupils.

I decided to create a qualitative study to explore the perceptions of children first and

foremost in relation to the garden but triangulating their views with perceptions of parents

and teachers (Yin 2009). My main research question is ‘What are the benefits of using

horticulture as a vehicle for learning in a small, urban, one form entry primary school?’

The following research questions will be used to develop my work:

1. What are the benefits of horticultural activities for pupils in Year Three and Year Six?

2. Which areas of learning does horticulture impact on the most: Cognitive, Affective,

Behavioural or Interpersonal?

3. Has any new learning about the impact of horticulture emerged as a result of the study?

This will enable Greenville to have evidence of the impact of the work their work utilising

horticulture for learning which may then be useful with stakeholder and schools in similar

contexts. This question is of interest to me primarily because it is concerned with my

professional context however with the New Primary Curriculum being introduced in 2014 it

is important to have some research based evidence of the impact of the work we have done at

the school.

The research methodology is discussed in Chapter 3 with both Positivist and Interpretivist

approaches to research discussed. The advantages and disadvantages of the chosen research

tools are presented with a general discussion of qualitative research methodology and the

research sample. The conclusion to this chapter deals with validity and reliability issues, plans

for data analysis and ethics. Chapter 4 includes both Data Analysis and Discussion, as an

Interpretivist researcher I have found it difficult to delineate discussion from analysis. Finally

Chapter 5 concludes my research with a review of the research process, a critical evaluation of

the work undertaken and recommendations from my research.

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Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

The first part of this chapter reviews some the work of some prominent theorists who have

suggested the need for outdoor learning. This is followed by a review of the literature about

outdoor learning in Europe and the United States. Finally the research carried out in the

United Kingdom will bring the chapter to a close ending with my own research questions.

Garden based education is well grounded in the writings of educators such as Rousseau,

Thomas Jefferson, John Dewy, Froebel, Steiner, Montessori and more recently Howard

Gardner.

In order to review horticulture as a vehicle for learning it is important to look at what

educational theorists say about learning and what is viewed as ‘good’ education. In the

Oxford Dictionary it says that the word education comes from the Latin ‘Educare’ which

means to ‘lead out’. This ‘leading out’ has been interpreted by theorists in different ways.

Froebel, Dewey, Steiner, Montessori, Piaget and Vygotsky all believed in the importance of

children having the opportunity to learn outside. They have advocated different reasons and

methods for doing this and your attention is drawn particularly to Montessori and Vygotsky

because their methods of adult or peer instruction is one that is used by the case study school,

Greenville.

2.1 Learning through Nature

The importance of understanding nature as part of their education was part of Friedrich

Froebel’s kindergarten (children’s garden) system. He believed that humans are inherently

creative beings and that play helps facilitate creative expression. Froebel believed that the

garden was where children experienced life through their senses and nature and people were

central to this. The teacher's role is to assist in the child's discovery. Froebel claimed that

effective learning occurs via a child's regular interaction with the world (Bruce 2012).

John Dewey along with Froebel believed that fostering the imagination and social

relationships should precede the expansion of the intellect. Dewey was a founder of the

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philosophical movement called pragmatism and was a key theorist of the progressive

movement in education. Like Froebel, Dewey believed that a child's daily experience is

critical to his learning and that the curriculum should relate to children's lives. Dewey

suggested that a child's mind grows via social participation, which is the primary purpose of

school. He felt, like Froebel, that children do not need activities to learn because they have

their own internal tendencies toward action. Lastly, Dewey argued that education should not

be solely about preparing for the future. Education should focus on the importance of living

in the present; he suggested that the garden offered the opportunity for social participation on

a large scale (Dewey 1899).

As Froebel before him Dewey advocates immersing students in the local environment and

stated that the school building itself should be ‘situated in a garden’. Dewey also wrote about

the importance of children being free to choose their own activity because then the teacher

can observe the needs and capabilities of each child (Dewey and Dewey 1915 142-4).

Rudolph Steiner followed both Dewey and Froebel in believing that teaching must be

connected intimately with life proceeding from whole to parts e.g. teaching about a plant

should be connected to understanding the earth (Fox, 1982). He argued that children must

understand how important it is to ensure you have healthy soil to encourage healthy growth

of roots. That in turn this will help a plant grow well, bare blossom which will turn to fruit in

the spring. Steiner writes that you cannot understand a plant properly if you study it by itself.

This echoed what Froebel had written about children experiencing life through their senses

and movements which have sensory and kinaesthetic feedback (Bruce 2012).

Steiner proposes that learning through nature helps children speak about plants in their true

relationship to the soil and of animals in their rightful place with human kind and as a result

find purpose in their lives. They also understand the relationship between humans and the

divine (Feez, 2010). All three theorists suggested that outdoor learning was vital for life.

The importance of outdoor learning is also a part of the Reggio Emilia philosophy in Italy. In

this approach the environment is a fully participating element in a child’s learning. As with

Steiner, this approach has interacting with nature as a core part of responding to what is

observed in their neighbourhood. As Dewey and Froebel had talked about the importance of a

primary school being set in a garden, the Reggio philosophy stated the importance of birds,

insects and flowers in young children’s education. They discussed importance of enabling a

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generation who could think and act for themselves and marvel at the world around them

(Abbott and Nutbrown 2001).

Plants and the natural world also play an important part in the work of Maria Montessori. The

concepts she explores link closely with Froebel, Dewey and Steiner and in a manner similar

them she expounds the importance of the senses in cultivating the independence of the child.

She agreed with Dewey that children have a natural aim to learn. Montessori wrote:

"When a new being comes into existence, it contains within itself mysterious guiding

principles, which will be the source of its work, character, and adaptation to its

surroundings." Montessori (1966) ‘The Secret of Childhood’ p 19’.

In some ways, Montessori’s ideas strayed from those of other theorists in that her methods of

working were very prescribed. When learning about horticulture, the discipline, repetition of

tasks and learning about the risks of the garden differ to Froebel because the adult models the

tasks. Montessori argued that only by developing the intellect could the imagination and

social relationships emerge. She emphasized freedom within a structured environment.

Maria Montessori took children from disadvantaged backgrounds and proved that

educational reform could lead to social progress. She enabled children to manipulate real,

concrete objects in purposeful ways that required concentration. Repeating self chosen

activities gave children independent control of movement and attention. Practical life

experiences gave children more freedom and more choice at home and at school. In their

practical activities in the Montessori approach children, rake leaves, make compost, plant

seeds, weed the garden, cut flowers and sweep the paths. They are shown exactly how to

carry out tasks and then are given lots of opportunity to imitate and repeat. Montessori states

that maths is drawn out in to the garden pairing gloves, planning planting, measuring and

organising (Feez, 2010).

All of these prominent theorists’ work provides various models using the outdoors as a

vehicle for learning however it is the use of constant interaction with adults or more able

peers for learning that I want to focus on. Vygotsky was familiar with the work of Montessori

and wrote about a phenomenon called the zone of proximal development which he

acknowledged Montessori had recognised first. He developed this idea, started by

Montessori, of children developing skills under adult guidance or that of more able peers. As

Froebel, Dewey and Steiner he wrote about the environment but as the source of

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development, not its setting. Vygotsky used Montessori as an example that reading and

writing should become necessary for a child in her play and that through constant interaction

with adults the low processes are transformed radically into higher mental processes (Moll, L.

1990). This suggests that opportunities that maximise this opportunity of guided learning

would enhance overall learning.

Piaget was a constructionist who argued that a child’s learning develops in a progression

sequence or order. He like Montessori and Vygotsky believed in hands-on learning focused

on creating mental models, not the pure rote memorisation of facts. The Californian ‘Garden

Curriculum’, discussed later, is a modern example of how that has been translated into the

core curriculum in the United States.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development focuses on stages of growth and on a child's ability

to acquire knowledge gradually. Piaget focused on intellectual development. He, too,

believed that children develop because of their personal interactions. He believed children

use schemas to acquire information. He agrees with Montessori in that the child receives a

mental model and then adapts it through experience. He suggests that children’s interactions

in the garden may progress through stages, developing into an understanding of the natural

world (O’Donnell, Reeve and Smith, 2012).

So, some prominent theorists from the last four hundred years believe that teaching matter

must be intimately connected with life. They agree a child should be taught concepts that are

capable of expansion. They also have in common that nature, to do with the laws of nature, is

one of these concepts.

In order to provide a background for this proposal I want to unpack both the chosen the

approach to learning as well as the horticultural vehicle. This includes explaining the choice

to focus on horticulture. To do this some background to the outdoor learning movement is

needed.

There is literature in Europe, the United States and the United Kingdom that advocates the

importance of contact with nature. This contact is shown to have an impact on behaviour and

academic performance. There is also evidence which shows that involvement with

horticultural projects impacts both on health and well being. These two areas will be explored

separately.

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2.2 The Importance of Contact with Nature

The ‘Forest School’ approach originated in Scandinavia and, although the idea spread to

many other countries, it is best known as having been developed in Denmark during the

1980s in relation to early years programmes. In 1993 the approach came to the UK. The

observed benefits of increased confidence and the growth of language competence and social

skills in young children resulted in heightened awareness of the value of outdoor education.

Forest School helps everyone to understand, appreciate and care for the natural environment

(Eastwood and Mitchell, 2003).

Forest School follows the constructivist approach discussed earlier where the focus is on

learning not on performance and that a child can construct meaning and knowledge with

guidance not instruction (Adams, 2006). Activities that are based on children’s interest can

provide a motivation for learning (Bredekamp et al. 1992, 3).

There is evidence that shows Forest School can contribute to young people’s health by

providing a space where children can be active on a regular basis (Bingley and Milligan

2004; Fjortoft 2004). Forest School is not only focused on learning in nature but also on

learning that is linked to the national curriculum and foundation stage objectives such as

English, Maths and Science.

Research suggests that if children don’t interact with nature they will miss out on the physical

and emotional benefits (Fjortoff, 2004; Ward Thompson et al, 2004). A report for the

National Foundation for Educational Research (Rickinson et al. 2004) suggests that outdoor

learning can have a range of impacts including; cognitive, affective, interpersonal and

physical/behavioural impacts. There is a range of evidence that supports the idea that regular

contact with nature can benefit a wide range of children including those on the autistic

spectrum, those with emotional and behavioural difficulties and with learning problems

(Kahn 1999;Forestry Commission Scotland 2005; O’Brien 2005; O’Brien and Murray 2006;

Borradaile, 2006).

Importantly research highlights that children’s senses are stimulated by nature and that the

experiences form children’s relationships with natural areas in a way that is often

remembered into adult life (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989).

Richard Louv (2010) creates a thought provoking and integrated approach detailing early

research linking lack of unstructured contact with nature and a variety of behavioural

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problems such as ADHD and potential ways forward. He brings together many studies and

organisations’ research to show some worrying trends. Indoor sedentary childhood is linked

to mental health problems; exposure to nature being essential for physical health, the increase

in technology and the lack of touch possibly leading to a more violent society. Louv draws

parallels with great writers and suggests some of their success may be due to their exposure

to nature. He explores the link between television and ADHD in the early years.

Louv cites a study from 1993 by the American Psychological Society (Kaplan 1989) that

suggests a person does not have to live in the wilderness to reap nature’s psychological

benefits that in fact just walking in a nature area, as opposed to reading or walking in an

urban area, can help boost children’s attention span, this links with the Forest School idea

that was developing at the same time. He also explores the notion that attachment theory can

be applied to children and nature and leaves them with a sense of being lost. He describes it

as a nature deficit disorder (Louv, 2010).

2.3 The Impact of Nature on Performance

As well as the use of the environment for learning there is the impact that the landscape itself

can have on the learner (Matsuoka 2010). Increasing children’s access to the outdoors can

have a positive impact on pupil performance. Large expanses of landscape lacking in natural

features are negatively related to test scores and nature based restoration process has been

associated with higher test scores ( Heschong, Mahone Group, 2003a), better attention levels

among pupils with ADHD (Faber, Taylor and Kuo 2009) and greater cognitive functioning

(Wells 2000) .The cognitive and behavioural benefits found among children and young

teenagers should transfer into better overall performance.

2.4 The Impact of Nature on Behaviour

Findings have also associated greater nature exposure with enhanced levels of discipline

(Faber, Taylor et al., 2002). There have also been positive connections found between the

presence of indoor classroom plants and reductions in misbehaviours, feelings of

unfriendliness and hours of sick leave in junior high students (Han 2009).

There are other studies that have found positive connections between natural playscapes and

enhanced physical activity (Dyment and Bell 2007), motor development (Fjortoft 2004),

creative play behaviours (Dyment and Bell 2007; Hernington and Sudtmann 1998; Tranter

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and Malone 2004) environmental learning (Tranter and Malone 2004) compared to traditional

environments (Ozdemir and Yilmaz 2005).

More natural environments are supportive of the restoration process (Kaplan and Kaplan

1989). Kaplan suggested that exposure to greater levels of nature could provide pupils with

an enhanced sense of psychological distance (being away) from school which could bring

mental restoration and an ability to learn more effectively.

The benefits of green settings were also highlighted for improving the attention span of pupils

with ADHD (Taylor, Kuo and Sullivan 2001).

Green settings have also been used to give children experience of being in and learning from

nature along the Froebel and Steiner model. Settings have also been used to teach children a

range of horticultural skills that fit more with the Montessori and Vygotsky approach to

learning discussed earlier. In order to identify the benefits of horticulture it is important to

look at research from the United States followed by the two major studies on the impact of

school gardening carried out in the United Kingdom by the RHS (2010) and NFER (2011).

2.5 Horticulture in the USA

Many useful studies have been carried out in the United States linking horticulture and

learning in fact there seems to be a greater range of evidence in the USA that supports garden

or environmental based learning. In outcomes some of the findings are similar or the same as

Forest School outcomes discussed earlier but there are also some further outcomes in

horticulture related research.

The Journal of American Dietetic Association (2009) published the results of a study that

summarised garden based intervention programmes and their impact on the fruit and

vegetable intake of young people. The study shows that the impact was on a wide range of

characteristics including; environmental attitudes, community spirit, social skills, self

confidence, leadership skills, volunteerism, motor skills, scholastic achievement and

nutritional attitudes.

There have been a range of initiatives in the USA that have been set up to develop

horticulture as a vehicle for learning. These include: Edible Schoolyard (1995) which was

established by restaurateur and activist Alice Waters through the Chez Panisse Foundation.

According to the Edible Schoolyard website, the Edible Schoolyard: involves students in all

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Watershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chez_Panisse

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aspects of farming the garden and preparing, serving, and eating food as a means of

awakening their senses and encouraging awareness and appreciation of the transformative

values of nourishment, community, and stewardship of the land. This programme reports

great successes.

There are a variety of Youth Farm and Market programs included in the journal’s research.

The conclusions drawn were that garden based programs have the potential to result in a

range of benefits associated with positive youth development and many offered hands on

opportunities to develop an understanding of food systems connected with food environments

and communities.

The research suggests that schools may consider integrating garden based education into the

curriculum as part of school wellness policies. The Child Nutrition Act of 2004 suggested

that garden based education may lead to improved academic achievement. It is difficult to

draw conclusions because there are not enough well designed, methodologically peer-

reviewed research studies available.

There are thousands of school gardens in the United States (Ozer 2006) and there is anecdotal

evidence that school garden programs can enhance students' learning in academic, social, and

health-related domains. There has been little rigorous research, however, on the effects of

school gardens or on the factors that promote the sustainability of these programs. Ozer

suggested that if this was to be taken forward there needed to be a broader evidence base

based on solid practice.

‘Nutrition to grow on’ shows the marked difference between children that learned about

nutrition in the classroom compared with children who were exposed to garden linked

activities as well as the nutrition based activities (Morris and Zeidenberg 2002). From these

studies the idea that horticulture needs to be linked to curriculum based material began to

emerge.

Similar research that explores garden based learning is the Californian the initiative ‘A

Garden in Every School’ (1995) which encouraged schools to establish and sustain school

and community gardens as a learning laboratory or outdoor classroom. This research

suggested that nutrition education should be provided in schools especially during elementary

and middle schools as eating patterns appeared to shift as students progressed into middle

school and junior high.

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The Californian research also suggests that teachers faced constraints because the current

education system focuses on academic achievement and meeting academic standards. The

paper states that teachers needed to be shown how to incorporate nutrition topics into existing

science, language, art, maths and social sciences.

The ‘Garden in Every School’ study assessed teachers use of gardens in academic study as

well as attitudes and perceived barriers associated with integration of school gardens within

the system.

From the ‘Garden in Every School’ study there were six areas in which garden based learning

emerged as moderately to very effective these were: academic performance, healthy eating

habits, social skills, science, physical activity and language. However it also emerged that

teachers agreed they needed resources that linked the garden to the curriculum in order to be

systematically effective. The greatest barriers identified were time as well as the pressure of

teaching within a standards-based system. In 2002 2,400 schools in California were reported

to have school gardens.

In the USA the national standards released in 2010 determined what and when concepts

would be taught but did not state how they should be taught. This offered the opportunity to

schools to select instructional materials. This opened the door to the use of school gardens.

This is mirrored by the release of the new curriculum in the UK 2013 that leaves the same

opportunity open to schools who wish to promote outdoor learning using a garden

curriculum. The aim of the Royal Horticultural Society is to get 80% of schools enrolled in

their school garden programme. If this is to be the case there are some outcomes to address.

2.6 Horticulture in the United Kingdom

Broadly outdoor education has been a topic of debate since the 1900’s with the scout

movement formed by Robert Baden Powell. The second half of the twentieth century saw a

huge increase in outdoor activities. Over the last decade ‘Healthy Schools’ (May 1998) has

helped to bring about a major culture shift within schools, including the widespread

recognition that a healthier, happier child will be likely to achieve more in school and in life.

Guidance by OFSTED (2004) and a consultation (DfES, 2005) led to the ‘Learning Outside

the Classroom Manifesto’ (2006) which affirms increased emphasis on the value of outdoor

education and discusses how it can potentially enrich the curriculum.

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In ‘Toxic Childhood’ (2006) Sue Palmer draws attention to the SEN explosion in ADHD.

She draws attention to the concerns of many teachers especially in disadvantaged areas. Here

it needs to be remembered that the redefining of diagnoses and definitions also had an impact

on this.

The Royal Horticultural Society study (2010) reviewed the work it had done implementing

gardening activities in schools. The review was done in two parts; a desk study of all schools

involved in school gardening and a case study of ten schools. Cognitive outcomes were

reported including Science, Maths and Literacy including oracy. There were some good

examples of pupils being involved in practical tasks to develop learning and thinking as well

as comments that show the enjoyment of being outside.

Confidence and self esteem was an area that the study reported success, with children

overcoming fear of touching worms or beetles and learning to understand that getting dirty

was part of the process. Behaviour impact, in relation to eating, was reported as positive with

pupils developing a willingness to try new foods. Interpersonal outcomes and teamwork were

strengthened in the schools that took part both internally and in the wider community.

Resilience was identified as an important outcome in the study

When the RHS report (2010) was released showing the ‘enormous’ impact on children’s

learning and development’ it outlined some ways in which schools had used the garden to

develop learning. It must be remembered that, on the whole this study was dealing with

enthusiastic converts to gardening activities which could affect the outcomes.

In 2011 research undertaken by NFER ‘Food Growing Activities in Schools’ looked at the

impact of food growing in schools activities for pupils as well as schools and communities.

The study also looked at the extent schools were involved and how embedded the activities

were. The research confirmed the impact on, health, horticultural and scientific knowledge in

Primary aged children.

THRIVE, in association with the Centre for Child and Family Research, Loughborough

University produced a model of Health and well being (Appendix 1) as it gives a

comprehensive picture of the scope of Horticulture. This approach called ‘green care’. CCFR

also produced a summary of the main findings of a review of the literature on social and

therapeutic horticulture indicating the benefits of this approach for vulnerable people. This

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aspect of horticulture and learning will be brought into my study through the inclusion of

SEND children in the semi structured interviews.

The importance of learning about plants and their environment with co agency are an

important part my vehicle of learning (Hart 2003). If we are to be successful learners the

learning needs to be what Dewey calls ‘engaged enquiry’ operated with his caution of not

centring so much on the child that you lose the adult learning (Dewey 1902,p.16) .

If Vygotsky is right that we pick up our mental models from those around us it is important

for Greenville to find out what the perceived benefits may be for pupils involved in the

garden project so as to have some contextual evidence to support the implementation of new

curriculum which includes horticulture.

2.7 Emerging Issues

Some significant barriers to the use of school gardening have been identified (Graham et al).

Time and a lack of teacher interest, knowledge and experience. Schools without gardens

identified; funding, time constraints and lack of gardening resources. Gardening appeared to

be used by most schools to enhance academic instruction through teaching a range of subjects

including core curriculum standards.

In the USA, the same as in the UK, multi disciplinary approaches to educating pupils have

been shown to increase test performance attention and enthusiasm for learning as well as

decreasing discipline issues (Lieberman and Hoody 1998). The study ‘using the environment

as an integrated context for learning’ the environment has been the integrating context for

closing the gap. This study was of forty schools and indicated that students learned more

effectively within an environment based context than within a traditional educational

framework. Four hundred students were interviewed as well as two hundred and fifty teachers

and administrators. The study showed that students exposed to the EIC (Environment in

Context) approach often became enthusiastic motivated learners. Students improved in

academic performance as well as having an enriched overall school experience.

However the same study also identified that the link between the gardens and school meals

program was an area identified as one that needed improving. As well as strategies for

volunteers and community members to be used more effectively to relieve teachers from time

spent focusing on garden related responsibilities. Funding, curriculum resources and

improved training were also areas identified in need of improvement. Schools with the

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greatest success have a full or part time garden co-ordinator (Hazzard et al). This study

highlighted the collaboration that is needed with teachers to develop a standards-based garden

curriculum. It also highlighted the number of key players required.

A link was identified between garden based intervention and the behaviour of families at

home (Heim, et al 2011). This data suggested there was a change in home food environment

when pupils were involved with garden based interventions. Parents reported that skills

learned were reflected in their children’s behaviour at home. Parental value of fruit and

vegetables also appeared to change during the study. The small sample size of this study

made it difficult to examine changes in different groups.

2.8 Challenges

The Cambridge Primary Review (2010) was most comprehensive education enquiry in the

UK for 40 years. It identified that agency was vital for learning and well-being and that

attention should be paid to children’s voices. Their research had shown that children wanted

to know what they were doing and why. Sustainable activities in which pupils could make a

difference engaged them in their learning and respected their experience, voices and rights. It

identified that children needed real activities that engage them actively and directly in

decisions that affect their learning. Looking at the research evidence horticulture seems to

offer this opportunity both the activity as well as the decision making.

The review asks us to build on new research on children’s development, learning, needs and

capabilities. Using the research from the UK and USA it is possible to create a curriculum

that will do this. It also states that we must ensure that teacher education is fully informed by

these perspectives, this was identified by the Californian study and is part of what the RHS

are currently involved in.

If we look at what has been happening to the new primary national curriculum programmes

of study for English, math’s and science the government claims them to be more demanding

than the previous national curriculum. They align England with those countries that have the

highest-performing school systems. The government claims that by raising standards in

basics such as reading, grammar, fractions and basic scientific concepts, children will be

equipped to do more advanced work once they start secondary school (DFE 2012).

19 MA Education

2.9 Conclusion

Literature in this area has identified the need to keep children connected to nature and natural

landscapes. It has also suggested that children develop better when they have access to

outdoor learning. This learning it has been suggested can impact on their cognitive learning,

their behaviour and social interactions as well as their well being. Academic progress has also

been linked to exposure to the outdoors as well as learning about horticulture through

horticultural experiences. Links have been made to health and well being through nutrition

based programmes.

Some research suggests that gardening in schools does not yet reach its full potential because

the resources to support schools and teachers are not developed enough yet. There is also not

enough research within this area that has been carried out with strict research methodology to

provide a solid evidence base. Although my research is a case study and using qualitative

data I hope to provide evidence that in Greenville’s context horticulture is an appropriate

vehicle for learning.

Research Questions

1.What are the benefits of horticultural activities for pupils in Year Three and Year Six?

2. Which areas of learning does horticulture impact on the most: Cognitive, Affective,

Behavioural or Interpersonal?

3. Has any new learning about the impact of horticulture emerged as a result of the study?

20 MA Education

Chapter Three

Research Methodology

3.0 Introduction

The aim of my case study is to identify ways that horticulture acts as a vehicle for learning in

a defined context. This chapter will outline the meaning of educational research and the main

paradigms associated with it. It will outline the approach I am taking and justify the data

collection tools being used. I will explain why I have decided to use a case study and describe

the data collection tools I am using as well as their suitability for this study. I will then

discuss reliability and ethical considerations to conclude this chapter.

3.1 Education Research

Before explaining the research methods it is important to understand what is meant by the

term research in an educational context. Research is how you set out to understand the

environment and the nature of phenomena it represents to the senses. It attempts to overcome

the limitations of personal experience and create tools to construct theories carefully and

systematically (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2011). Within education this means that a

social science research methodology has been used to explore something within an

educational context and the observable information or direct experience is the data (Punch,

2009). My research will give Greenville the structure and systems to give an account of

horticulture as a vehicle for learning.

At its simplest there are two forms of data quantitative and qualitative. The former being in

the form of numbers or measurements and the latter not in the form of numbers usually

words. The approach taken will determine the procedures used (Opie, 2010). A case study

design seems most suited to do this as it offers the opportunity to explore the boundaries

between horticulture and learning because they are not clearly evident (Yin, 1994).

3.2 Positivist Paradigm

The positivist paradigm is associated with the nineteenth century philosopher Auguste

Compe who was the first to use the word for philosophical position (Beck, 1979). Compe’s

view of positivism uses observation and reason as a means of understanding behaviour;

21 MA Education

explanation proceeds by way of scientific description (Cohen et al., 2011).This view led to

positivism that limited enquiry and belief to that that could be firmly established. It

developed into a rigorous orientation to social facts and natural phenomena to be investigated

empirically (Beck, 1979).

Positivist research has a natural science basis using procedures and methods to discover

general laws this leads to generalisations and causality while controlling the effects of

variables. Positivist enquiries usually use experiments, surveys and tests as data collection

tools (Cohen et al., 2011). As this research seeks the participants’ perceptions and values it

would not be an empiricist commitment to naturalism and quantitative methods (Seale,

1998:328).

The garden is a human story and the perceived value is the value held by the people involved.

Using positivist methods analyses must be expressed in laws or law like generalisations.

Positivism claims that science provides the clearest possible ideal of knowledge. (Cohen et al

2011). As my study has a focus on human behaviour in a given context positivism’s concern

for control and for passivity of behaviour would be unhelpful for an open ended creative

human focus on social behaviour (Habermas, 1972).

Although both quantitative and qualitative data were considered for my study I eventually

decided to use purely qualitative data as one of the strengths is that I can use naturally

occurring data to find the ‘how’ and the ‘what’ to establish the character of the garden

(Silverman, 2002). I am not attempting to make standardised or systematic comparisons

(Punch, 1998:244-5) rather compare the experiences of one person with another and one

group with another and then categorise the responses.

3.3 Interpretivist Paradigm

As the word implies interpretivism is based on interpretation and as such the researcher must

be aware of external-structural-forces shaping behaviour and events (Cohen et al., 2011). The

research paradigm that supports my area of study has an interpretive stance. There are risks

associated with interpretivist approaches these include the difficulty of maintaining privacy

and confidentiality, trust and open negotiation (Guba, Lincoln, 1989). The school is a one

form entry primary and therefore it is difficult to maintain confidentiality even with

anonymity.

22 MA Education

Choosing the interpretivist paradigm enabled the research to concentrate on the meanings

people bring to situations and behaviour which they use to understand their world or in this

case their garden (O’Donaghue 2007: 16-17). Positivism would limit the many interesting

and important human aspects of the garden project (Habermas, 1972:300). As an

interpretivist it is believed that individual’s behaviour can only be understood by the

researcher sharing their frame of reference. On the other hand social science in contrast to

hard science or natural science can be seen as a subjective rather than an objective

undertaking, the participants themselves define the social reality (Beck, 1979). The work

done at Greenville has opportunities for individuals and groups to work in the garden. The

garden is socially constructed and this forms the base of the interpretivist paradigm (Mertens,

1998, p11).

This approach combining ethnography, thick description (Gray, 2009) with interviews and

observations is my preferred approach as it will enable me to answer my research questions:

1.What are the benefits of horticultural activities for pupils in Year Three and Year Six?

2. Which areas of learning does horticulture impact on the most: Cognitive, Affective,

Behavioural or Interpersonal?

3. Has any new learning about the impact of horticulture emerged as a result of the study?

3.4 Case Studies

The case study as with other approaches in qualitative research aims to ‘understand the case

in depth, and in its natural setting, recognizing its complexity and its context’ (Punch, 2009,

p. 119). There are, however some researchers who bring out the potential use of case studies

for novice researchers these include Robert Yin, whose work is underpinned by a realist

ontology, for him case studies can be; exploratory, descriptive, explanatory (Yin 2009) and

Stake whose work supports the interpretive paradigm (Stake 1995).

Yin states that a case study is empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary

phenomenon in depth and within its context. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) state that a

case study portrays what it is like to be in a particular situation and Miles and Huberman

(1994) a phenomenon of some sort occurring in a bounded context. All three statements seem

to agree that this method can be all encompassing and not limited to just a data collection tool

(Stoecker, 1991). There is agreement that a case study appears to be a logical model that

23 MA Education

allows the researcher to plan a project, use a variety of data collection tools analyse, draw

inference, identify variables and perhaps find new ideas all within one piece of work

(Nachmias& Nachmias, 1992).

I considered using an action research approach however this would be more useful if I

wanted to address a real-life problem in the garden or I wanted to improve an aspect of it

(Hult & Lennung, 1980). The stance I have adopted as a researcher is an interpretivist

because the garden project is ‘multilayered and complex’(Cohen et al., 2011, p17). However

I did consider both the positivist and interpretivist paradigm as either stance could have been

adopted.

I chose a case study approach because it would help explore the garden and the possible

benefits it brings to Greenville. I wanted to be able to view it from participants perspective

(Denscombe, 1998). As Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) state a case study portrays

‘what it is like’ to be in a particular situation.

The essence of a case study can be to illuminate a decision or set of decisions, why they were

taken, how they were implemented and with what results (Shram, 1971). This study is aimed

at ‘illuminating’ the decisions taken about the garden, finding out more about the

horticultural activities the pupils participate in and what the perceived benefits are from the

point of view a sample of pupils, parents and staff involved.

A decision was made to use horticulture as a vehicle for learning and this case will explore

the perceived benefits for the pupils, parents and staff in a small, one form entry urban

primary school. Different names are given to case studies by different authors Yin calls them

; exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. Stake describes them as, intrinsic and instrumental

as it is the case itself not other things that are important. This study is intrinsic as I have a

personal interest and it may lead to a better understanding of the case (Stake 1995).

Having decided to use a case study approach there seemed to be a certain amount of

disagreement to what a case study was (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Case studies seemed to be

regarded with suspicion and hostility in some quarters (Adleman 1980). In 1999 Bassey

stated that ‘too many have the marks of ritual’ and suggested they were a waste of time in

education because students don’t continue in the field of research. A frequent criticism of this

method is that results are not widely applicable to life. Stake 1995 argued that data would

resonate experientially and would therefore facilitate a greater understanding of the

24 MA Education

phenomena. This would be valuable in my context as there are at least ten schools within the

local authority and more beyond who are working to establish horticulture as part of the

school curriculum. Greenville has had many visitors from schools trying to establish school

gardens. This research could offer colleagues an opportunity to read about another schools

experience.

As the research is mainly descriptive, and considered interpretive, through the experiences of

participants, some other lines of enquiry may emerge. There can be issues with this as there

can be a desire to draw conclusions (Walford, 2001:15). As the case has a relatively small

number of participants there will not be any conclusions drawn apart from for this particular

case. Important issues within the case study method are identified by many authors; the

questions to be asked, the literature that surrounds the topic, the areas that interest you as a

researcher may offer you a ‘loose end for future research are all important to case study

design’ (Philliber, Shwab& Sloss, 1980). This case intends to research what the horticultural

activities offer the participants and what the perceived benefits are. This leaves open any

unexpected or ‘loose end’ lines of enquiry.

This research employs the three principles of data collection (Yin 2003):

1. Multiple data sources, called triangulation

2. Use a case study data base with my notes, transcriptions etc.

3. Maintain a chain of evidence relating to the garden.

3.5 Research Tools

A mixed method approach was considered. This combines the two methods to get a scientific

base but with the breadth that qualitative data collection tools bring. However I conducted an

initial pilot questionnaire (Appendix 2) and given the time it would take to ensure that all

participants could read and understand questionnaires I decided it would be a better use of

time to concentrate on interviews.

3.6 Semi-Structured Interviews

For this case semi-structured interviews are used. Face-to-face interviewing may be

appropriate where depth of meaning is important and the research is primarily focused in

gaining insight and understanding (Gillham 2000, page 11; Ritchie &Lewis 2003, p.138). . The interviews were targeted and could prove insightful into the garden project providing

25 MA Education

causal inferences and explanations (Yin 2009). Semi-Structured interviews also offer the

opportunity for pre-set questions allowing for prompts which allow more open ended answers

(Hannan, 2007).

Constructed carefully, group interviews can help build a picture of the case. Group interviews

can operate as a fluid stream of questions and have answers that illuminate rather than

remaining rigid (Rubin and Rubin, 1995). Group interviews can also give participants more

influence over the discussion which leads to less of a power imbalance (Hannan,2007).The

differentiation between ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions is important because ‘why’ questions can

create defensiveness in contrast to ‘how’ questions which can appear less threatening

(Becker, 1998). The questions in this case focus on ‘how’ horticultural activities benefit the

participant and in this case and could be insightful into interpersonal behaviour and motives

(Yin 2009).

The questions that were used in this research are devised using four areas of learning as a

base; cognitive learning, behavioural learning, interpersonal learning and affective learning.

This was done to make the analysis easier as there is a focus for the participant.

Four areas of learning are:

1. Interpersonal and social learning which concerns, communication, the ability to relate

to others and team work. Associated with contact with nature, landscapes and plants

that affect the way people behave

2. Affective learning which relates to the development of pupils attitudes, values, beliefs

and self perceptions. Outdoor learning that affects or impacts on behaviour including

habits formed, social interactions and well being.

3. Cognitive learning, concerning the acquisition of knowledge, understanding and other

academic outcomes. Horticultural evidence examining data collected during specific

garden projects that impacts on academic performance.

4. Behavioural and physical learning, involving personal behaviours, physical well being

and skills The work of theorists that support the use of the outdoor learning

(RHS, 2010)

Care was taken as perceptions can be transformed into assertions too quickly and should be

approached with caution (Stake, 1995). The opportunity for giving the participants the

26 MA Education

opportunity to qualify what they have said using a ‘how’ question can offer more insights

(Becker 1998, pp.58-60).On the other hand poorly constructed questions can be biased and

encourage the interviewee to say what the interviewer wants to hear. Particularly in this case

as the interviewer is also part of the case (Yin 2009). The questions in this case have been

worded to make sure they are not too broad or open ended but give participants enough

opportunity to comment without being asked leading questions (Merton, Fiske & Kendall,

1990).

Interviews can be time consuming and difficult to timetable (Johnson 1994). The interviews

were incorporated into the school timetable in advance and the teachers were involved in the

process. Adults were consulted about dates through a letter followed by personal contact to

confirm dates and times. The initial research proposal included more focus groups however

the time constraints meant the quality of the interviews might have suffered therefore only

two groups were included. There was also a need to include an individual interview that was

unexpected to preserve the integrity of the case.

3.7 Context

Greenville is a smaller-than-average primary school with a Nursery class. Nearly 90% of

the pupils are from differing minority ethnic heritages, with the largest proportions being

Black African and Black Caribbean. The proportion of pupils who speak English as an

additional language and who are not fluent in English when they enter the school is treble the

national average. The proportion known to be eligible for free school meals is also three

times higher than the national average. The proportions of disabled pupils and those who

have special educational needs have decreased over recent years and are in line with the

national average. Their main needs are moderate learning difficulties and emotional and

behavioural problems. The school meets the government’s current floor standards which set

the minimum expectations for pupils’ attainment and progress.

The majority of pupils live in small flats with no access to outdoor facilities apart from a

small balcony. Parents have long working hours and pupils are often restricted to sedentary

indoor activities. Parents and staff have limited access to outdoor learning and have limited

experience of horticultural activities.

The establishing of a new curriculum has also given an opportunity to link the garden to the

curriculum and embed the outdoor learning into the main learning in the school.

27 MA Education

3.8 Research Sample

Choosing the participants was a challenge because the case needed to be ‘complete’ and

perspectives considered needed to contain differing perspectives (Kelly and Yin, 2007). In

order to study the phenomenon of the unit creating generalisations about the wider unit the

initial unit has to be representative (Cohen et al. 1989). As a result I chose two group

interviews and carefully selected four participants for each group. I wanted the groups to link

to the areas of learning I had chosen, therefore I chose a pupil with Special Educational

Needs, a more able pupil, a pupil with behaviour needs as well as a pupil who had difficulties

working with and relating to other pupils. I also chose two boys and two girls in each group

to keep a gender balance. As the school has pupils from a range of backgrounds I chose to

include the main groups; African, Caribbean and White British in each group however there

was no one of White British origin in the year six group so I could only do that with the year

three group.

Participants

Pupil 1-Sarah Year Three Group interview

Caribbean Heritage Female

SEND Pupil with Speech and

Language needs.

Pupil 2-Jack Year Three Group interview

White British Male

Behaviour Needs-Anger

Management Challenges

identified.

Pupil 3-Alice Year Three Group interview

White British Female

More able pupil

Pupil 4-Alan Year Three Group interview

African Heritage Male

No identified need

Pupil 5-Jim Year Six Group interview

Caribbean Heritage Male

No identified need

Pupil 6-Henry Year Six Group interview

Caribbean Heritage Male

Behaviour Needs –Social and

emotional

Pupil 7-Sue Year Six Group interview

Caribbean heritage Female

More able pupil

Pupil 8-Carol Year Six Group interview

Caribbean heritage Female

SEND Pupil-Speech and

Language needs.

Pupil 9-John Year Six Individual interview SEND-Speech and Language

28 MA Education

African Heritage Male

Pupil 10-Clare Year Six Individual interview

African Heritage Female

More able pupil

Teacher-Mrs Green Individual Interview

White British Heritage

Teacher with a background in

horticulture.

Parent-Mrs Smith Individual Interview

African Heritage

Parent with no experience of

horticulture.

Different groups could potentially bring different results and different insights. The

participants were also selected on the basis of their involvement with the garden and their

ability to verbalise the experience. It is a convenience sample which is criticised because it is

not a representative sample (Cohen et al., 2011) however the researcher needs to take the

samples available (Punch 2009). I am aware that each choice would make a different case but

that makes it worth doing and repeating even when the research has been completed.

Triangulation of data is important to a case study (Patton, 2002) so to compare the data I

have also chosen to do two group interviews with pupils of different ages as well as a

contrasting interview with an individual pupil who stated did not like gardening activities, he

was the only pupil to say this on the pilot questionnaire. So this interview was added later as

it was important for the integrity of the case. To compliment the group interviews I chose a

member of staff involved with the garden and a parent whose children both choose to take

part in activities during school time and also in their leisure time. Each interview was

recorded and transcribed so that it could be revisited to check interpretation.

The interviews were conducted in the garden as being in the context can affect the responses

particularly in younger pupils (Dadds & Hart, 2001). The time needed was greater than

expected as pupils had a lot to say about how and what they learned. Waiting until responses

ran out gave more insightful material. The fluidity was surprising and needed time (Rubin &

Rubin, 1995). Good questioning helped avoid what at worst the case study can be, only in the

imagination of the case and the invention of the study (Kemmis, 1980).

As well as the semi-structured interview the protocol of introductions was used so that

everyone had the opportunity to speak. This also helped set ground rules so everyone was

clear on expectations. Using group interview as opposed to individual interviews I was

concerned that pupils may be affected by what other pupils said. However because pupils

29 MA Education

were used to being together in the garden they were able to use the terms ‘I agree because’ or

‘I disagree because’ and used these quite freely. These methods enabled me to not only

explore the impact of the different areas of learning but also explore whether the impact

differed according to age or identified need. Two group interviews were conducted one with

Year Three children and the other with Year Six children.

The other four interviews were individual, a teacher, a parent and two Year Six pupils one

who said he did not like gardening and the other who volunteered every at opportunity.

3.9 Individual Interviews

Individual interviews were timetabled to follow the group interviews. These offered the

opportunity to be flexible and adaptable and ask questions that followed the lines of the pupil

interviews but follow up other lines of enquiry where required (Robson, 2002). Prior to the

interview participants were given a letter that detailed the purpose of the interview the option

to accept or decline the interview was given. My role certainly was advantageous here as I

made sure participants were available when I needed them.

In contrast to the group interviews the individual interviews offered the opportunity to pick

up other cues more easily and follow particular areas of interest to the interviewer and

interviewee. Judgement is all important as well as the search for additional interpretations

(Flick, 1992).

Keeping an exact record was important because if an exact record was not kept the meaning

could not be reviewed (Stake, 2007). All the interviews were recorded and transcribed

because repeated listening helps the emphasis of interpretation (Erickson, 1986). Permission

has been sought to do this. Highlighting was used to match perceived benefits to the area of

learning. This helped track the answers and identify if they linked to one area more than

another. This allowed the adult perceptions to be compared to the pupil perception and decide

if there was any correlation between the two. Walford (2001) however warns against

transcription of interviews as it can be over-used by the researcher.

To make sure the questions could be asked in the same way to all participants I spent time

scripting how I would set up the interviews as well as the exact words I would use to ask the

questions. This was to ensure that all participants received the questions in the same way.

30 MA Education

3.11 Analysis

Topic Coding (Richards, 2005) was the first analysis tool I decided to use. This meant I

labelled the transcripts with a code that denoted a positive referral to one of the four areas of

learning. Each area was done in a different colour and positives were ticked and negatives

were crossed. Memoing is the second basic operation of qualitative data analysis (Punch ,

2009; p179) this allowed me to note deeper concepts than the coding allowed for. It enabled

me to look for new patterns. These memos are not simply describing the data but have

conceptual content. Punch (2009, p180) describes these two methods as ‘the building blocks’

of qualitative analysis. I followed the one rule devised for qualitative data by Glaser

(1978:83) ‘Record all ideas, as they happen, as memos. When an idea occurs during coding,

stop coding and record the idea.’ The memos were organised later and organised for storage.

In the same way that quantitative data identifies variables qualitative data identifies first-

order concepts leading to second-order concepts (Punch 2009). This enabled me to follow

concepts that emerged within focus questions that provided another layer of interest. These

concepts were mapped onto a tree diagram (O’Leary, 2004).

The next step to the analysis was comparison as it can raise the level of abstraction (Glaser,

1978). Tesch (1990) sees it as the central activity in qualitative data analysis. The next step

would possibly be grounded theory (Glaser, 1992) however because the size of the study this

will be done with caution. The theory generated will only pertain to this case in this context.

3.12 Ethics

Being aware of the responsibility of carrying out research and the damage that can be done

(Punch, 1994) is a good starting point for any researcher. Although the garden is integral to

my work the research needs to be respectful and fair (Sieber, 1993).

The outdoor learning is seen as integral to the development of Greenville and therefore

pupils, parents and staff could feel ‘expected’ to express positive views. As part of the

introduction to the research it has been explained to participants that this research is to mark a

point in the work of the school in developing horticultural activities and write up all aspects

both positive and negative of the work.

31 MA Education

In order to make sure all ethical considerations had been taken into account when utilising the

research methods two pilots were carried out. Both used the same questions however the

participants were interviewed by different people. This was to find out how much my role

affected the responses (BERA, 2011).My position of authority in the school cannot be

underestimated and I needed to identify if this position may have altered the responses of the

interviewees. This is known as the Hawthorne effect which is a term referring to the tendency

of some people to work harder and perform better when they are participants in an

experiment. Individuals may change their behaviour due to the attention they are receiving

from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables.

Prior to the interview permission was sought to record the session and all participants gave

their permission. To be sure, an opportunity to give a written response was set up so a larger

group of pupils could give answers to the same questions without the pressure of having to

say what they thought to an adult. As a result of this one pupil expressed negative views

about the garden. I asked him whether he would consider being interviewed because I valued

what he had to say and he agreed. I gave him the choice of having someone else present if he

wished as it was not a group interview (United Nations Convention on the Rights of the

Child, 1992).

BERA 2011 states the need for informed consent and it was important that pupils and adults

knew what they were contributing to and why I explained the research and the reason for the

research prior to interview. One pupil asked me what was going to happen to the data and

whether anyone else was going to listen to it. It was explained to him that unless he gave his

consent it would not be used. With this pupil I knew there was a risk he would withdraw his

consent later however as he is part of a statistically under-achieving, hard to engage group it

was more important that the risk was taken.

In a small, one form entry school, confidentiality was difficult as anyone knowing the school

could work out who the individuals were. I made sure that I explained this to the participants

as it may not have been something they had considered and may affect whether they

participated.

Lastly I considered the impact of the research on the school itself. Public image and public

perception of a school is vital and I am responsible and accountable to the governing body of

Greenville for its reputation in the community. I discussed the research with governors and

had it approved by the chair of governors before I proceeded as part of my Performance

32 MA Education

Management. At this point it would be fair to say that if I was aware of a considerable

negative impact of the project I would not have subjected the school to this research.

3.13 Conclusion

Carrying out interviews to explore the perceptions of the horticultural activities on a range of

participants has been a good starting point for this project. As the work continues I will

embed the use of interviews into the evaluation of the work each year. This will not only alert

us to any changes in perception but also provide some justification for its use within this

community.

The results of the research will be fed back to pupils, parents and governors to ensure they are

aware of the perception of the work within the community. I want to understand the motives,

meanings and reasons for horticulture being a successful vehicle for learning at Greenville.

33 MA Education

Chapter Four

Data Analysis and Discussion

4.0 Introduction

This next chapter presents the analysis and discussion of the data collected in the field. This

will be used to answer the research questions presented earlier. As an interpretivist I will be

using the descriptions to collect and analyse data simultaneously( Thomas 2009). The data

will also be searched for general statements about relationships and underlying themes

(Marshall and Rossman, 2006). The thick descriptions (Geertz, 1973) will be used to create

concepts of importance. There is no single or correct way to present qualitative data: how one

does it should abide by the fitness for purpose (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2011). In fact

qualitative data is distinguished by the merging of data collection with data analysis (Gibbs

2007:3).

Initially I produced a general description that remained close to the original data based

around key questions derived from my research questions. The questions used are included in

the appendix. The research questions are:

1. What are the benefits of horticultural activities for pupils in Year Three and Year 6?

2. What are the most beneficial areas cognitive, affective, behavioural or interpersonal?

3. What other areas emerge as a result of this study?

Distinction needs to be made between description, analysis and interpretation as all three will

be used during this chapter. Description involves producing an account that stays close to the

original data and as a result many original quotations will be used. Alongside this there is

analysis which goes beyond the description which looks at key factors and relationships

among them. This will then lead to a final interpretation and conclusion which is more

inventive and creative and less cautious (Wolcott 1994).

4.1 The Context

In order for the case study findings to be generalised the context and any significant features

need to be stated (Descombe, 1998).

34 MA Education

Greenville is situated in ‘a forbidding urban environment’. Greenville is a smaller-than-

average primary school with a Nursery class. Nearly 90% of the pupils are from differing

minority ethnic heritages, with the largest proportions being Black African and Black

Caribbean. The proportion of pupils who speak English as an additional language and who

are not fluent in English when they enter the school is treble the national average. The

proportion known to be eligible for free school meals is also three times higher than the

national average. The proportions of disabled pupils and those who have special educational

needs have decreased over recent years and are in line with the national average. Their main

needs are moderate learning difficulties and emotional and behavioural problems. The school

meets the government’s current floor standards which set the minimum expectations for

pupils’ attainment and progress (Ofsted 2012).

4.2 Choosing Participants

For the semi structured group interviews participants were chosen using four categories:

1. Pupil with SEND (Special Educational Needs or Disability)

Year Three and Year Six were both girls with Speech and language needs.

2. Pupil with Behavioural Needs

Year Three and Year Six were both boys the former who had witnessed domestic

violence and had shown levels of anxiety and frustration in school and the latter who

was a carer for a parent who had mental illness.

3. More able pupil using National Curriculum level data 2013

Year Three and Year Six were both girls who had achieved the highest scores in their

APS (average point score) in maths and English.

4. An average pupil within Greenville’s context no defined need

Year Three and Year Six were both boys who were in the middle ability groupings in

their classes and had no identified needs.

4.3 Individual Interview Participants.

1. A teacher who works at Greenville and has a background and interest in Horticulture.

2. A parent who has no horticultural experience prior to the work at Greenville.

3. A pupil who stated that he did not like gardening in Year Six and as he was the only

pupil to do so it was important to find out why.

35 MA Education

4. A pupil who had thrived and not only learnt many horticultural skills in school had

developed it at home growing her own fruit and vegetables on her balcony.

5.

4.4 Interviews

Recordings of the six semi-structured interviews (Pupil Groups for Year Three and Year Six

as well as two individual interviews and two adult interviews) were transcribed and

transcriptions were read through alongside the audio of recordings to make a note of any

patterns in the discussions.

4.5 Analysis

Key areas- the analysis of description began by looking at any key factors or relationships

that seemed to emerge. The responses were highlighted in the transcripts and initially three

areas seemed to emerge:

Learning from others - which included interpersonal and social learning that concerns,

communication, the ability to relate to others and team work. It is also associated with contact

with nature, landscapes and plants that affect the way people behave.

Learning from Nature- Which incorporates affective learning that relates to the

development of pupils attitudes, values, beliefs and self perceptions. Outdoor learning that

affects or impacts on behaviour including habits formed, social interactions and well being.

Behavioural and physical learning, involving personal behaviours, physical well being and

skills The work of theorists that support the use of the outdoor learning.

Learning for the Future-which includes cognitive learning, concerning the acquisition of

knowledge, understanding and other academic outcomes. Horticultural evidence examining

data collected during specific garden projects that impact on academic performance.

I have used a form of coding that is deriving and developing concepts from data using

highlighting and comparing (Strauss and Corbin 1997). I have used Constant Comparisons:

the analytic process of comparing different pieces of data for similarities and differences have

helped to make comparisons between the different participants’ responses (Glaser 1978). This

helps the researcher to go through the transcripts and make decisions about what to exclude

and what to include.

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The emerging concepts have been used to help answer the first research question and break it

down into sections ready to answer the next research question. These will be addressed in

order.

What are the benefits of horticultural activities for pupils in Year Three and Year Six?

4.6 Learning from others

Learning from others links back to the theories of Vygotsky discussed earlier whose work

along with that of Maria Montessori believed that children imitate adults or more able peers

by creating mental models (Feez, 2010).

Mrs Green a class teacher gives an example of this when she talks about her earliest

childhood experiences:

‘I used to do the weeding for my parents. My Mum taught me the things to pull out and the

things to leave’

She sees her early experiences as an important part of her initial education and uses this

model now when teaching in the garden. She uses the phrase ‘without being conscious of

learning’ in relation to her own learning but also referring to observations she has made of

Greenville pupils when they learn in the garden.

This desire to ‘do things properly’ by learning from others is stated by John. John is a Year

Six pupil who talks about not liking gardening unless he has someone to work with who can

show him how to do things:

‘If I’m working with someone and like I’m in trouble they can tell me how you do it

properly....if you are planting something or fixing something you might not know but

someone else can show you how to do it by what they are doing and you can pick it up and

learn and then in the future you will always know what you are doing.’

It turns out that John’s dislike of gardening is based on his anxiety of damaging plants or

doing something incorrectly. John has had a number of health issues through the school and

as a result has had a lot of absence. He is a very cautious learner whose comments suggest he

is greatly reassured by working with another child or adult who know what they are doing.

He is not happy just to explore but feels reassured by guidance. The importance of learning

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from other children is stated by Jack, Year Three, who talks about learning from another

child about nettles:

‘When we were pulling out weeds earlier Alan said there may be some stinging nettles’. Jack

appreciates learning this from Alan and is cautious as a result. It is interesting to note that

Froebel believed that if a child takes notice of this:

‘Drop it or it will sting you’ he rejects something essential in himself (Froebel cited in Lilley

1967: 127). Perhaps the kind way in which Alan suggests it makes all the difference.

Jack goes on to explain that the garden makes him work with people he is not friends with

because he knows he can learn something from them ;

‘your friends might not be good at that job but other people that you are not friends with

might be good at that job so you have to ask them to help you. I went to work with Alan that

way.’

This suggests that Alan and Jack did not start out as good friends but have become so as a

result of their work together.

Clare, Year Six, talks about liking learning new skills from others:

‘I didn’t know pruning until Jim taught me I didn’t even know how to use secateurs or that it

(pruning) had to be done.’

Learning new skills is important to Clare, she liked tasks that she describes as ‘ not regular

jobs’. She explains that when she tried growing things at home, before the garden project

started, she was unsuccessful and as a result saw it as a waste of time. Being involved and

learning from horticultural specialists she feels more successful and she is keen to pass on

those skills at home to her parents. Jim also talks about learning from an adult in assemblies

or horticultural lessons how they inform him and help him get to know more about plants and

bugs.

During her time working in a horticultural capacity elsewhere Mrs Green was employed

creating courses for teachers. She talks about learning from others who were skilled in their

field of specialism without being conscious of the learning:

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‘I was learning through planning the courses and working with the tutors. I was gaining from

their knowledge and learning by osmosis...they would teach me about medicinal plants, basic

horticultural skills, pest control, botanical illustrations, photography in the garden.’

Alan talks about learning in a similar way:

‘I knew the stem of that plant has spikes.....sometimes the garden can be an excuse for

learning because you can ask your teacher to show you something in the garden.’

This learning is prompted by the garden but it leads to Alan seeking out an informed other to

help him. Mrs Green explains that curiosity leads to learning unconsciously in the garden:

‘I think the learning is really unconscious, children come into the garden and are learning

confidently but not in a prescriptive way. I don’t think they are even really aware of the fact

they are learning ......they are curious and they want to know the answers to questions, they

ask all the time and they want to know things.’

The curiosity in the garden is different to working in the classroom:

‘It’s almost like the balance has shifted so the child is asking quest