A
AP Biology Comprehensive Free Response Question List
A.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE: CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
Water
Organic Molecules in organisms
Free energy changes
Enzymes
(1968)Suppose that you have isolated an extract from a tissue
and you have found that the extract speeds up the rate of a
particular reaction. What kind of information would you need to
demonstrate that the substance responsible for increasing the rate
of this reaction is an enzyme? Explain how this information would
indicate that the catalytic effect is due to an enzyme.
(1969)Proteins functioning as enzymes exhibit precise
specifications. Discuss the levels of structural organization
within proteins which are responsible for specific molecular
interaction.
(1972)A class of biology students performed an experiment on the
digestion of starch by salivary amylase. Each student determined
the length of time required for different dilutions of his saliva
to digest completely a standard concentration of starch. Iodine was
used to test for the presence of starch. The results obtained by
some of the class are summarized in the table below.
TIME REQUIRED FOR THE DISAPPEARANCE OF STARCH WITH VARIOUS
SALIVA DILUTIONS
(saliva: H2O)
Student 1:9 (10%)1:19 (5%)1:49 (2%)1:99 (1%)
A45 seconds50 seconds100 seconds135 seconds
B(no end point)
C90 seconds100 seconds200 seconds270 seconds
D260 seconds300 seconds600 seconds800 seconds
a.Present the data for Student A in graphic form.
b.Carefully examine the data collected by the four students
above and state as many conclusions as you can that are supported
by these data.
c.Assuming there have been no errors in techniques, form as many
hypotheses as you can to explain the differences observed.
d.Design one experiment to test the validity of one hypothesis.
Clearly state what data you would want to collect in this
experiment to test your hypothesis.
(1973)Hypotheses derived from laboratory experiments and field
observations have been advanced to explain the origin of life on
earth. Starting with a probable prelife environment, describe the
formation and evolution of the various trophic forms (nutrition
types) to and including unicellular organisms. Describe at least
one experiment whose results support one of these scientific
hypotheses.
(1978) Give specific examples to illustrate the theory of enzyme
action, and include in your discussion the effects of each of the
following:
a.Substrate concentration
b.pH shifts
c.Temperature shifts
d.Competitive inhibition.
(1981)Discuss the biological importance of each of the following
organic compounds in relation to cellular structure and function in
plants and animals.
a. Carbohydrates b. Proteins c. Lipids d. Nucleic Acids
(1975)Describe the chemical compositions and configuration of
enzymes and discuss the factors that modify enzyme structure and/or
function.
(1991)Carbon is a very important element in living systems.
a.Describe the various characteristics of the carbon atom that
make possible the building of a variety of biological
molecules.
b.Explain how reactions involving carbon-containing compounds
can contribute to the greenhouse effect.
c.The following structures are examples of two different
categories of biological compounds. Describe how each category of
compounds is important to the structure and functions of living
systems.
Category ICategory II
A drawing of a phospholipid* A drawing of an amino acid
*Drawings not available
(1994)Enzymes are biological catalysts.
a.Relate the chemical structure of an enzyme to its specificity
and catalytic activity.
b.Design a quantitative experiment to investigate the influence
of pH or temperature on the activity of an enzyme.
c.Describe what information concerning the structure of an
enzyme could be inferred from your experiment.
(1996) The unique properties (characteristics) of water make
life possible on Earth. Select three properties of water and:
a. for each property, identify and define the property and
explain it in terms of the physical/chemical nature of water.
b. for each property, describe one example of how the property
affects the functioning of living organisms.
(2001) Proteins-large complex molecules- are major building
blocks of all living organisms. Discuss the following in relation
to proteins.
(a) The chemical composition and levels of structure of
proteins.
(b) The roles of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis
(c) The roles of proteins in membrane structure and transport of
molecules across the membrane
A.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE:
CELLS:
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Subcellular organization
Cell cycle and its regulation
(1959)Some of the differentiated structures of plant and animal
cells are cell walls, plasma membranes, chromosomes, chloroplasts,
mitochondria, and spindle fibers. Discuss four of these with
respect to:
1) function and 2) physico-chemical nature.
(1960)
a. Make a schematic diagram of a generalized plant or animal
cell, showing the structure of its parts as revealed by electron
microscopy. Make a diagram the size of a full page and label it
completely, indicating whether the cell is from a plant or an
animal.
b. List the parts included in your diagram and describe briefly
the activities or functions thought to be performed by each
one.
(1964)a. Describe the structure of the cell membrane as revealed
by electron microscopy and biochemical studies.
b. Explain how the passage of substances through the cell
membrane is regulated by the physical and chemical properties of
the substances involved.
c. Explain how the concentration of a solute on either side of a
semi-permeable membrane affects osmosis.
(1969)Suppose a team of scientists is examining the cells of a
newly discovered species. They observe under the light microscope
an organelle that appears to be different from any that has been
described before. Assume that you are the director of the research
team. Describe the methods that you would have the team use to
determine whether the structure is a mitochondrion, ribosome,
lysosome, nucleolus, or indeed a new organelle. Discuss the
advantages and limitations of each method in revealing the role of
the unknown organelle in the living cell.
(1970)Electron microscope studies have revealed the probable
structures of plasma membranes and the membranes of various cell
components.
a.Describe the kinds of observations and experiments that are
used to study the basic structure and molecular components of these
membranes.
b.Discuss mechanisms by which materials are thought to move
across membranes.
c.Discuss the significance of membranes in the biochemical
events which occur in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
(1975)All living cells exploit their environment for energy and
for molecular components in order to maintain their internal
environments. Describe the roles of several different membrane
systems in these activities.
(1978)Describe a model of the cell membrane of a eukaryotic cell
and discuss different ways in which substances move across the
membrane.
(1981)Describe the structural arrangement and function of the
membranes associated with each of the following eukaryotic
organelles:
a.Mitochondrion
b.Endoplasmic Reticulum
c.Chloroplast
d.Golgi Apparatus
(1983)Describe the fluid-mosaic model of a plasma membrane.
Discuss the role of the membrane in the movement of materials
through by each of the following processes.
a.Active Transport
b.Passive Transport
(1984)Describe the structure of a generalized eukaryotic plant
cell. Indicate the ways in which a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic
cell would differ in structure from this generalized eukaryotic
plant cell.
(1987)Discuss the process of cell division in animals. Include a
description of mitosis and cytokinesis, and of the other phases of
the cell cycle. Do not include meiosis.
(1993)Membranes are important structural features of cells.
a.Describe how membrane structure is related to the transport of
materials across a membrane.
b.Describe the role of membranes in the synthesis of ATP in
either cellular respiration or photosynthesis.
(1994)Discuss how cellular structures, including the plasma
membrane, specialized endoplasmic reticulum, cytoskeletal elements,
and mitochondria, function together in the contraction of skeletal
muscle cells.
(1998) Cells transport substances across their membranes. Choose
THREE of the following four types of cellular transport.
Osmosis
Active Transport
Facilitated diffusion
Endocytosis/exocytosis
For each of the three transport types you choose
a. describe the transport process and explain how the
organization of cell membranes functions in the movement of
specific molecules
across the membrane.
b. explain the significance of each type of transport to a
specific cell (you may use different cell types as examples.)
(2006)A major distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is
the presence of membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotes.
a. Describe the structure and function of TWO eukaryotic
membrane-bound organelles other than the nucleus.
b. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have some non-membrane-bound
components in common. Describe the function of
TWO of the following and discuss how each differs in prokaryotes
and eukaryotes.
DNA
Cell wall
Ribosomes
c. Explain the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of eukaryotic
cells and discuss an example of evidence supporting this
theory.
(2006) Sexual reproduction requires that half of the chromosomes
in a zygote come from one parent and the other half from the second
parent.
a. Describe the process by which a germ cell's complement of
chromosomes is halved in the formation of gametes.
b. Choose one organism or group of organisms that reproduce
asexually. Describe the mode of asexual reproduction in that
organism and explain the advantages to the organism of asexual
reproduction.
c. Choose one organism of group of organisms that reproduce
sexually. Describe the mode of asexual reproduction in that
organism and explain the advantages to the organism of sexual
reproduction.
(2007) Membranes are essential components of all cells.
(a) Identify THREE macromolecules that are components of the
plasma membrane in a eukaryotic cell and discuss the structure and
function of each.
(b) Explain how membranes participate in THREE of the following
biological processes:
Muscle contraction
Fertilization of an egg
Chemiosmotic production of ATP
Intercellular signaling
A.P. BIOLOGY: HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
A. HEREDITY
Meiosis and gametogenesis
Eukaryotic chromosomes
Inheritance patterns
B. MOLECULAR GENETICS
RNA and DNA structure and function
Gene regulation
Mutation
Viral structure and replication
Nucleic acid technology and applications
(1960)Discuss the gene, with regard to structure, duplication,
mutation, and nature of action.
(1962)Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA has been described as the
chemical basis of heredity. Discuss present-day concepts regarding
its:
a.chemical nature and physical structure
b.mode of duplication
c.relationship to protein synthesis
(1963)Describe two experiments, one from the area of bacterial
transformation and the other from the field of viruses, that have
helped to establish the belief that DNA is the chemical basis of
heredity.
(1965)Biologists and biochemists have made outstanding progress
within the past quarter century in elucidating principles and
structures which govern the activities of living matter. These
areas of progress include the structure and code of the DNA
molecule.
Discuss this development and its impact on biological though and
progress. Your answer should include:
a.a brief account of the development
b.the names of the most prominent investigators involved
c.the nature of its impact on biology.
(1965)Discuss the role of each of the following in protein
synthesis:
a.soluble or transfer RNA
b.messenger RNA
c.ribosomes
d.ATP
(1967)The formation of WatsonCrick complementary base pairs
between single strands of molecules of nucleic acids occurs in at
least three separate reactions. Discuss each of these reactions
from the following points of view:
a.the type of nucleic acids involved
b.the role of each nucleic acid in the duplication of cellular
constituents.
(1969)Proteins and nucleic acids are fundamental molecules of
the living state.
a. Write word equations for the synthesis of proteins and
nucleic acids, using the appropriate subunits.
b. A wide variety of macromolecules exists in proteins and
nucleic acids. For each group, explain how it is possible to have
such great variety of structure with a relatively small number of
different subunits.
c. Proteins functioning as enzymes exhibit precise
specifications. Discuss the levels of structural organization
within proteins which are responsible for specific molecular
interaction.
(1974)Describe protein synthesis in terms of molecular
structures of the nucleic acids and using a specific example,
explain how a new phenotypic characteristic may result from a
change in DNA.
(1977)Proteins are composed of amino acid subunits which form
stable three-dimensional structures.
a.Describe how the genetic instructions coded in DNA are
translated into the primary structure (sequence of amino acids
subunits) of a protein molecule.
b.Explain how interactions among the individual amino acid
subunits influence the transformation of the molecule into its
three-dimensional structure and how they stabilize it.
(1979)In relation to the chemical nature of the gene,
describe:
a.the chemical structure of the gene
b.the replication (self-copying) of the gene
c.gene mutations, including chromosomal aberrations
(1982)A portion of a specific DNA molecule consists of the
following sequence of nucleotide triplets:
TACGAACTTGGGTCC
This DNA sequence codes for the following short polypeptide.
methionine leucine glutamic acid proline arginine
Describe the steps in the synthesis of this polypeptide. What
would be the effect of a deletion or an addition in
one of the DNA nucleotides? What would be the effect of a
substitution in one of the nucleotides?
(1984)Experiments by the following scientists provided critical
information concerning DNA. Describe each classical experiment and
indicate how it provided evidence for the chemical nature of the
gene.
a.Hershey and Chase bacteriophage replication
b.Griffith and Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty bacterial
transformation.
c.Messelson and Stahl DNA replication in bacteria.
(1985)Describe the operon hypothesis and discuss how it explains
the control of messenger-RNA productions and the regulation of
protein synthesis in bacterial cells.
(1986)Describe the biochemical composition, structure, and
replication of DNA. Discuss how recombinant DNA techniques may be
used to correct a point mutation.
(1987)Describe the production and processing of a protein that
will be exported from a eukaryotic cell. Begin with the separation
of the messenger RNA from the DNA template and end with the release
of the protein at the plasma membrane.
(1990)Describe the steps of protein synthesis beginning with the
attachment of a messenger RNA molecule to the small subunit of a
ribosome and ending with the release of the polypeptide from the
ribosome. Include in your answer a discussion of how the different
types of RNA function in this process.
(2001) Proteins-large complex molecules- are major building
blocks of all living organisms. Discuss the following in relation
to proteins.
(a) The chemical composition and levels of structure of
proteins.
(b) The roles of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis
(c) The roles of proteins in membrane structure and transport of
molecules across the membrane
(2005)Protein synthesis is vital for cell growth and
metabolism.
(a)Describe transcription and translation.
(b)Identify similarities between transcription and
translation.
(c)Identify differences between transcription and
translation.
(d)Describe structural changes that can occur to a protein after
translation to make it function properly.
(2005)The unit of genetic organization in all living organisms
is the chromosomes.
(a)Describe the structure and function of the parts of a
eukaryotic chromosome. You may wish to include a diagram as part of
your description.
(b)Describe the adaptive (evolutionary) significance of
organizing genes into chromosomes.
(c)How does the function and structure of the chromosome differ
in prokaryotes?
(2009)
The flow of genetic information from DNA to protein in
eukaryotic cells is called the central dogma of biology.
(a) Explain the role of each of the following in protein
synthesis in eukaryotic cells.
RNA polymerase
Spliceosomes (snRNPs)
Codons
Ribosomes
tRNA
(b) Cells regulate both protein synthesis and protein activity.
Discuss TWO specific mechanisms of protein
regulation in eukaryotic cells.
(c) The central dogma does not apply to some viruses. Select a
specific virus or type of virus and explain how it
deviates from the central dogma.
A.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE: CELLULAR ENERGETICS
Coupled Reactions
Fermentation and cellular respiration
Photosynthesis
RESPIRATION QUESTIONS:
(1963)Compare the intermediate steps in the fermentation of a
molecule of sugar by yeast with respiration in a muscle tissue
cell. Include in your answer the role of ATP formed in each of
these two processes.
(1965)Biologist and biochemists have made outstanding progress
within the past quarter century in elucidating principles and
structures which govern the activities of living matter. These
areas of progress include:
a.The structure and code of the DNA molecule
b.The use of radioactive isotopes as tracers in biological
processes.
c.The citric acid cycle and its relationship to
mitochondria.
d.The use of electron microscopy in revealing the structure of
the cell.
Discuss any one of these developments and its impact on
biological thought and progress. Your answer should include:
a.a brief account of the development
b.the names of the most prominent investigators involved
c.the nature of its impact on biology.
(1967)When a cell is metabolizing in the absence of oxygen and
it is then exposed to an environment containing oxygen, a series of
oxidation-reduction reactions is initiated which enables the cell
to increase its activities.
a.Outline the oxidation-reduction reactions that are initiated
under these conditions and indicate the point at which molecular
oxygen interacts with the oxidative system.
b.Explain how the cell derives additional energy by switching
from non-oxidate to oxidative metabolism.
(1977)Explain how the molecular reactions of cellular
respiration transform the chemical bond energy of Krebs cycle
substrates into the more readily available bond energy of ATP.
Include in your discussion the structure of the mitochondrion and
show how it is important to the reactions of the Krebs cycle and
the electron transport chain.
(1982)Describe the similarities and differences between the
biochemical pathways of aerobic respiration and photosynthesis in
eukaryotic cells. Include in your discussion the major reactions,
the end products, and energy transfers.
(1989)Explain what occurs during the Krebs (citric acid) cycle
and electron transport by describing the following:
a.The location of the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain
in the mitochondria
b.The cyclic nature of the reactions in the Krebs cycle.
c.The production of ATP and reduced coenzymes during the
cycle
d.The chemiosmotic production of ATP during electron
transport.
(1997) Photosynthesis and cellular respiration recycle oxygen in
ecosystems. Respond to TWO (and only two) of the
following:
a. Explain how the metabolic processes of cellular respiration
and photosynthesis recycle oxygen.
b. Discuss the structural adaptations that function in oxygen
exchange between each of the
following organisms and its environment: a plant; an insect; a
fish.
c. Trace a molecule of O2 from the environment to a muscle cell
in a vertebrate of your choice.
(2005)Yeast cells are placed in an apparatus with a solution of
sugar (a major nutrient for yeast metabolism). The apparatus
detects bubbles of gas released by the yeast cells. The rate of
respiration varies with the surrounding temperatures as indicated
by the data below.
Temperature (C)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Number of bubbles of gas produced per minute
0
3
7
12
7
4
1
0
(a)Graph the results on the axes provided. Determine the optimum
temperature for respiration in yeast.
(b)Respiration is a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Using
your knowledge of enzymes and the data above analyze and explain
the results of this experiment.
(c)Design an experiment to test the effect of varying the pH of
the sugar solution on the rate of respiration. Include a prediction
of the expected results.
(2009) ATP and GTP are primary sources of energy for biochemical
reactions.
(a) Describe the structure of the ATP or the GTP molecule.
(b) Explain how chemiosmosis produces ATP.
(c) Describe TWO specific cell processes that require ATP and
explain how ATP is used in each process.
(d) An energy pyramid for a marine ecosystem is shown below.
Label each trophic level of the pyramid and
provide an example of a marine organism found at each level of
this pyramid. Explain why the energy
available at the top layer of the pyramid is a small percentage
of the energy present at the bottom of the
pyramid.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS QUESTIONS:
(1962)Discuss two experiments in which the use of isotopes as
tracers has contributed to present knowledge of the photosynthesis
process. One experiment should deal with the light phase and the
other with the dark phase.
(1965)Discuss the effect of each of the following factors on the
rate of photosynthesis in a living plant:
a. carbon dioxided. mineral nutrition
b. light intensitye. water conservation
c. temperature
(1971)The process of photosynthesis consists of two phases, the
light reactions and the dark reactions. Discuss each of these
groups of reactions and their interrelationships.
(1974)The overall equation for aerobic respiration is usually
written as the reverse of the overall equation for photosynthesis.
What features of the biochemical pathways involved in the two
processes are the reverse of one another and what features are
not?
(1978)Explain how the molecular reactions of photosynthesis
transform light energy into chemical bond energy. Include in your
discussion the relationship between chloroplast structure and light
and dark reactions.
(1979)In relation to plants, describe in detail one way of:
a.measuring the rate of transpiration
b.measuring the rate of photosynthesis
c.separating pigments
(1982)Describe the similarities and differences between the
biochemical pathways of aerobic respiration and photosynthesis in
eukaryotic cells. Include in your discussion the major reactions,
the end products, and energy transfers.
(1983)Relate the structure of an angiosperm leaf to each of the
following.
a.Adaptations for photosynthesis and food storage
b.Adaptations for food translocation and water transport.
c.Specialized adaptations to a desert environment.
(1986)Describe the light reactions of photosynthesis for both a
C3 & a C4 plant. Trace the path of a carbon dioxide molecule
from the point at which it enters a plant to its incorporation into
a glucose molecule. Include leaf anatomy and biochemical pathways
in your discussion of each type of plant.
(1995) Energy transfer occurs in all cellular activities. For 3
of the following 5 processes involving energy transfer, explain how
each functions in the cell and give an example. Explain how ATP is
involved in each example you choose.
Cellular movement
Active transport
Synthesis of molecules
Chemiosmosis
Fermentation
A.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE: HEREDITY
Meiosis and gametogenesis
Eukaryotic chromosomes
Inheritance patterns
(1961)A major concept of the gene theory of inheritance is that
the genes are located in chromosomes. Explain how each of the
following helps to establish this idea:
a.A genotypic ration of 1:2:1 in offspring of heterozygotes
b.The phenomenon of crossing over
c.Other chromosomal aberrations
d.The phenomenon of sex determination, as in man
(1963)a) In corn, a gene for colored (C) kernels is dominant
over one for colorless (c) kernels and a gene for smooth (S)
kernels is dominant over one for shrunken (s) kernels. Describe a
controlled genetic experiment to demonstrate that those genes are
linked.
b) Genetic evidence indicates that these genes are linked and
that their cross value is approximately 4%. Describe the process of
crossing over and explain how its percentage is determined.
(Labeled diagrams may be used as aids in explanation.)
(1966)The gene was first thought to be a discrete factor or
particle that controls a gross character of an organism such as
flower color or eye color. With the discovery of specific
relationships between genes, enzymes and proteins, this concept has
changed radically. Cite three specific experiments that illustrate
these changes and explain our present concept of the gene.
(1967)a) Describe in a brief paragraph the characteristics of
mutation.
b) List the various alterations in the hereditary material that
result in mutations. Illustrate with triple diagram.
c) Discuss the ways in which one of the alterations that you
list in part b causes hereditary changes.
(1970)In most organisms, there are characteristic sets of
chromosomes within cell nuclei. Describe ways in which the kinds or
numbers of chromosomes in the following cells differ from the usual
situation and discuss the possible significance of these
differences:
a.children whose cells have an extra autosome
b.cells from different members of a hive of honeybees
c.red blood cells in mammals
d.salivary gland cells in Drosophila
e.cells in tetraploid strains of wheat
f.gametes in humans containing extra sex chromosomes
(1972)Several kinds of organisms have been important in genetics
research. How have studies of microorganisms, peas, Drosophila, and
man each made a different contribution to our knowledge of
genetics?
(1976)Each year a number of children are born with biological
defects that impair normal function. For THREE of the following
conditions, discuss such aspects as the biological cause, the
methods of treatment and possible means of detection and/or
prevention.
a.Phenylketonuria (PKU)
b.Sickle cell anemia
c.Trisomy 21 (Downs syndrome)
d.Cretinism
e.Erythoblastosis fetalis
f.Blue-baby condition
g.Tay-Sachs
(1977)Discuss three of the following phenomena in which sex
chromosomes are involved with particular reference to their
significance or consequences in humans.
a.Sex determination
b.Sex-linked inheritance
c.Formation of Barr bodies (sex chromatin)
d.Variation in kinds and numbers of sex chromosomes
(1980)Describe in detail the process of meiosis as it occurs in
an organism with a diploid chromosome number of 4 (2n = 4). Include
labeled diagrams in your discussion. Indicate when and how each of
the following deviates from these conclusions.
a.Autosomal linkage
b.Sex-linked (X-linked) inheritance
c.Polygenic (multiple-gene) inheritance
(1988)Discuss Mendels laws of segregation and independent
assortment. Explain how the events of meiosis I account for the
observations that led Mendel to formulate these laws.
(1993)Assume that a particular genetic condition in a mammalian
species causes an inability to digest starch. This disorder occurs
with equal frequency in males and females. In most cases, neither
parent of affected offspring has the condition.
a.Describe the most probable pattern of inheritance for this
condition. Explain your reasoning. Include in your discussion a
sample cross(es) sufficient to verify your proposed pattern.
b.Explain how mutation could cause this inability to digest
starch.
c.Describe how modern techniques of molecular biology could be
used to determine whether the mutant allele is present in a given
individual.
(1995) The diagram below shows a segment of DNA with a total
length of 4,900 base pairs. The arrows indicate reaction sites for
two restriction enzymes (enzyme X and enzyme Y).
(XXY300700900500)
a. Explain how the principles of gel electrophoresis allow for
the separation of DNA fragments.
b. Describe the results you would expect from the
electrophoretic separation of fragments from the following
treatments of the DNA segment above. Assume that the digestions
occurred under appropriate conditions and went to completion.
I. DNA digested with only enzyme X
II. DNA digested with only enzyme Y
III. DNA digested with enzyme X and enzyme Y combined
IV. Undigested DNA
c. Explain both of the following.
(1) The mechanism of action of restriction enzymes
(2) the different results you would expect if a mutation
occurred at the recognition site for the enzyme
(1995) An organism is heterozygous at two genetic loci on
different chromosomes.
a.Explain how these alleles are transmitted by the process of
mitosis to daughter cells
b. Explain how these alleles are distributed by the process of
meiosis to gametes
c. Explain how the behavior of these two pairs of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis provides the physical
basis for Mendels two laws of inheritance. (Labeled diagrams
that are explained in your answer may be useful.)
(1998) By using the techniques of genetic engineering,
scientists are able to modify genetic material so that a particular
gene of interest from one cell can be incorporated into a different
cell.
Describe a procedure by which this can be done.
Explain the purpose of each step of your procedure
Describe how you could determine whether the gene was
successfully incorporated
Describe an example of how gene transfer and incorporation have
been used in a biomedical or commercial application.
(1999) Scientists seeking to determine which molecule is
responsible for the transmission of characteristics from one
generation to the next knew that the molecule must (1) copy itself
precisely, (2) be stable but able to be changed, and (3) be complex
enough to determine the organisms phenotype.
Explain how DNA meets each of the three criteria stated
above.
Select one of the criteria stated above and describe
experimental evidence used to determine that DNA is the hereditary
material.
(2000) Information transfer is fundamental to all living
organisms. For two of the following examples, explain in detail how
the transfer of information is accomplished.
a. The genetic material in one eukaryotic cell is copied and
distributed to two identical daughter cells.
b. The gene in a eukaryotic cell is transcribed and translated
to produce a protein.
c. The genetic material from one bacterial cell enters another
via transformation, transduction, or conjugation.
(2002) The human genome illustrates both continuity and
change.
(a) Describe the essential features of two of the
procedures/techniques below. For each of the procedures/techniques
you
describe, explain how its application contributes to
understanding genetics.
o The use of a bacterial plasmid to colon and sequence a human
gene
o Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
o Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis
(b) All humans are nearly identical genetically in coding
sequences and have many proteins that are identical in
structures
and function. Nevertheless, each human has a unique DNA
fingerprint. Explain this apparent contradiction.
(2004)Meiosis reduces chromosome number and rearranges genetic
information.
(a)Explain how the reduction and rearrangement are accomplished
in meiosis.
(b)Several human disorders occur as a result of defects in the
meiotic process. Identify one such chromosomal abnormality; what
effects does it have on the phenotype of people with the disorder?
Describe how this abnormality could result from a defect in
meiosis.
(c)Production of offspring by parthenogenesis or cloning
bypasses the typical meiotic process. Describe either
parthenogenesis or cloning and compare the genomes of the offspring
with those of the parents.
(2010) Certain human genetic conditions, such as sickle cell
anemia, result from single base-pair mutations in DNA.
(a) Explain how a single base-pair mutant in DNA can alter the
structure and, in some cases, the function of a
protein.
(b) Explain, using a specific example, the potential
consequences of the production of a mutant protein to the
structure and function of the cells of an organism.
(c) Describe how the frequency of an allele coding for a mutant
protein may increase in a population over time.
A.P. OUTLINE: EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY
Early evolution of life
Evidence for evolution
Mechanisms of evolution
(1959)Discuss how each of the following contributes evidence
that evolution has occurred.
a.Paleontology
b.Geographical distribution
c.Biochemical studies
(1959)Each group of organisms has a specific set of adaptations
(either in the parent animals or in the eggs they produce) which
helps to insure the survival of sufficient young to maintain the
population. Briefly summarize and compare the structures or other
adaptations bearing on this problem as found in an amphibian, a
reptile, a marsupial, and a placental mammal. What generalizations
can be made from these comparisons?
(1960)Although the arthropods began as aquatic animals, the
majority have become terrestrial. Discuss the adaptive
modifications in the arthropods for terrestrial existence with
reference to locomotion, reproduction, and development,
respiration, and water balance.
(1960)The factors of mutation and isolation are believed to play
significant roles in speciation. For each of these factors
discuss:
a.how it may occur
b.the role it plays in speciation
(1963)Discuss the evolution of both land animals and land plants
from aquatic ancestors with respect to their adaptations for:
a.water conservation
b.support
c.embryo protection
(1964)On the archipelago of the Galapagos Islands, which most
geologists believe to be of volcanic origin without ever having had
any land connection with the west coast of South America, Darwin
discovered a group of small finches. These birds have since been
classified into more than a dozen species. These birds have
differences, particularly in their adaptations for food-getting. It
is believed that all these species are descendants of a single
species which migrated from the mainland. On the mainland there has
never been more than a single species even though the rate of
mutation is thought to be the same in both locations.
Explain how each of the following could have played a role in
the development of the many species of Galapagos finches:
a.polyploidy
b.genetic drift
c.geographic isolation
d.unoccupied ecologic niches
e.Explain why the mainland species has not differentiated into
more than one species.
(1966)In the vertebrates, changes in mechanisms of fertilization
and embryonic development have been of adaptive value. Compare
these mechanisms and indicate their contribution to the
evolutionary success of the following animals:
a.fish
b.amphibian
c.bird
d.mammal
(1966)The theory of organic evolution is based on
interpretations of observations from diverse areas. Describe the
observations from each of the following areas and explain how they
support the theory:
a.paleontology
b.comparative anatomy or embryology
c.biochemistry or genetics
(1970)An interbreeding population sometimes gives rise to two
populations. Discuss the possible roles of each of the following
factors in the formation of two distinct species.
a.isolation
b.selection
c.mutation
d.genetic drift (Sewall Wright phenomenon)
(1972)Cite evidence from biochemistry, paleontology, and
population genetics that has led biologists to accept the theory of
evolution.
(1973)On the basis of reliable sampling studies made during a
5-year period, the following observations were made about the
turtle populations of two lakes, one 300 miles north of the other.
Indicate and discuss factors that might account for this unequal
distribution.
a.Turtles of species A are abundant in the northern lake where
turtles of species B are rare.
b.Turtles of species B are abundant in the southern lake where
turtles of species A are rare.
(1974)Heredity variations are essential to the evolution of
populations.
a.Describe the different types of hereditary variability.
b.Explain how this variability can lead to the origin and
maintenance of species.
(1975)Most mammals live on land. Describe and discuss the
evolutionary adaptations that make mammals better adapted to life
on land than amphibians.
(1977)Two geographically isolated populations usually will
diverge over a long period of time.
a.Describe how the two populations may become different,
including factors that can account for these differences.
b.Discuss factors that may prevent interbreeding if the two
populations ever again occupy the same area.
(1978)Describe the nature of each of the following and discuss
the role of natural selection in each situation:
a.Industrial melanism
b.DDT resistance in insects
c.Sickle cell anemia and malaria
(1979)Charles Darwins theory of natural selection had a
significant influence on the understanding of the evolution of
organisms. Discuss each of the following:
a.the importance of Darwins voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle to the
development of his theory.
b.the major points proposed by Darwin in his theory.
c.two major refinements in Darwins theory that stem from modern
findings.
(1980)Discuss the significance of each of the events listed
below in the evolution of living things.
a.Primordial reducing atmosphere
b.Origin of photosynthesis
c.Increase in atmospheric oxygen and the development of the
ozone layer
d.Origin of eukaryotes
(1981)Define, discuss, and give an example of how each of the
following isolating mechanisms contributes to speciation in
organisms.
a.Geographical barriers
b.Ecological (including seasonal) isolation
c.Behavioral isolation
d.Polyploidy
(1982)Describe the special relationship between the two terms in
each of the following pairs.
a.Convergent evolution of organisms and Australia
b.Blood groups and genetic drift
c.Birds of prey and DDT
(1984)Describe the modern theory of evolution and discuss how it
is supported by evidence from two of the following three areas.
a.Population genetics
b.Molecular biology
c.Comparative anatomy and embryology
(1984)Describe how the following adaptations have increased the
evolutionary success of the organisms that possess them. Include in
your discussion the structure and function related to each
adaptation.
a.C4 metabolism
b.Amniotic egg
c.Four-chambered heart
d.Pollen
(1986)Describe the process of speciation. Include in your
discussion the factors that may contribute to the maintenance of
genetic isolation.
(1989)Do the following with reference to the Hardy-Weinberg
model.
a.Indicate the conditions under which allelic frequencies (p and
q) remain constant from one generation to the next.
b.Calculate, showing all work, the frequencies of the alleles
and the frequencies of the genotypes in a population of 100,000
rabbits, of which 25,000 are white and 75,000 are agouti. (In
rabbits, the white color is due to a recessive allele, w, and
agouti is due to a dominant allele, W.)
c.If the homozygous dominant condition were to become lethal,
what would happen to the allelic and genotypic frequencies in the
rabbit population after two generations?
(1990)a. Describe the difference between the terms in each of
the following pairs:
1. Coelomate versus acoelomate body plan
2. Protostome versus deuterostome development
3. Radial versus bilateral symmetry
b. Explain how each of these pairs of features was important in
constructing the phylogenetic
tree shown below. Use specific examples from the tree in your
discussion.
(1992)Evolution is one of the major unifying concepts of modern
biology.
a.Explain the mechanisms that lead to evolutionary change.
b.Describe how scientists use each of the following as evidence
for evolution.
1. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
2. Comparative biochemistry
3. The fossil record
(1994)Genetic variation is the raw material for evolution.
a.Explain three cellular and/or molecular mechanisms that
introduce variation into the gene pool of a plant or animal
population.
b.Explain the evolutionary mechanisms that can change the
composition of the gene pool.
(1994)Select two of the following three pairs and discuss the
evolutionary relationships between the two members of each pair you
have chosen. In your discussion include structural adaptations and
their functional significance.
PAIR A:green algaePAIR C:amphibians
vascular plants reptiles
PAIR B:prokaryotes
eukaryotes
(1995) The problems of survival of animals on land are very
different from those of survival of animals in an aquatic
environment. Describe four problems associated with animal survival
in terrestrial environments but not in aquatic environments. For
each problem, explain an evolutionary solution.
(1997) In a laboratory population of diploid, sexually
reproducing organisms a certain trait is studied. This trait is
determined by a single autosomal gene and is expressed as two
phenotypes. A new population was created by crossing 51
pure-breeding (homozygous) dominant individuals with 49 pure
breeding (homozygous) recessive individuals. After four
generations, the following results were obtained.
NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS
GenerationDominantRecessiveTotal
15149100
22800280
324080320
4300100400
5360120480
a. Identify an organism that might have been used to perform
this experiment, and explain why this organism is a goodchoice for
conducting this experiment.
b. On the basis of the data, propose a hypothesis that explains
the change in the phenotypic frequency between generation 1 and
generation 3.
c. Is there evidence indicating whether or not this population
is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? Explain.
(1998) The evolutionary success of organisms depends on
reproduction. Some groups of organisms reproduce asexually, some
reproduce sexually, while others reproduce both sexually and
asexually.
a. Using THREE different organisms, give an example of one
organism that reproduces sexually, one that reproduces asexually,
and one that reproduces BOTH sexually and asexually. For each
organism given as an example, describe two reproductive
adaptations. These adaptations may be behavioral, structural,
and/or functional.
b. What environmental conditions would favor sexual
reproduction? Explain. What environmental conditions would favor
asexual reproduction? Explain.
(1999) Scientists recently have proposed a reorganization of the
phylogenetic system of classification to include the domain, a new
taxonomic category higher (more inclusive) than the Kingdom
category, as shown in the following diagram.
Universal Ancestor
Domain BacteriaDomain ArchaeaDomain Eukarya
(Eubacteria)(Archaebacteria)(Eukaryotes)
Describe how this classification scheme presents different
conclusions about the relationships among living organisms than
those presented by the previous five-kingdom system of
classification.
Describe three kinds of evidence that were used to develop the
taxonomic scheme above, and explain how this evidence was used. The
evidence may be structural, physiological, molecular, and/or
genetic.
Describe four of the characteristics of the universal
ancestor.
(2001) Charles Darwin proposed that evolution by natural
selection was the basis for the differences that he saw in similar
organisms as he traveled and collected specimens in South America
and on the Galapagos Islands.
a. Explain the theory of evolution by natural selection as
presented by Darwin.
b. Each of the following relates to an aspect of evolution by
natural selection. Explain three of the following.
( i) Convergent evolution and the similarities among species
(ecological equivalents) in a
particular biome (e.g., tundra, taiga, etc.)
(ii.) Natural selection and the formation of
insecticide-resistant insects or antibiotic-resistant
bacteria
(iii) Speculation and isolation
(iv) Natural selection and behavior such as kinesis,
fixed-action pattern, dominance hierarchy, etc.
(v) Natural selection and heterozygote advantage.
(2004)Darwin is considered the "father of evolutionary biology."
Four of his contributions to the field of evolutionary biology are
listed below.
The nonconstancy of species
Branching evolution, which implies the common descent of all
species
Occurrence of gradual changes in species
Natural selection as the mechanism for evolution
(a)For each of the four contributions listed above, discuss one
example of supporting evidence.
(b)Darwin's ideas have been enhanced and modified as new
knowledge and technologies have become available. Discuss how two
of the following have modified biologists' interpretation of
Darwin's original contributions.
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Punctuated equilibrium
Genetic engineering
(2005) In the evolution of organisms, major adaptations arose in
certain groups, opening new evolutionary possibilities. For two of
the following types of organisms, discuss the evolutionary
significance of the features listed.
(a)Flowering: flowers, fruits and seeds, and broad leaves
(b)Flatworms: three germ layers, bilateral symmetry, and
cephalization
(c)Segmented worms: segmentation, coelom, and digestive
system
(d)Reptiles: amniotic eggs, waterproof skin, and well-developed
lungs
(2008) Evolution is one of the unifying themes of biology.
Evolution involves change in the frequencies of alleles in a
population. For a particular genetic locus in a population, the
frequency of the recessive allele (a) is 0.4 and the frequency of
the dominant allele (A) is 0.6.
(a) What is the frequency of each genotype (AA, Aa, aa) in this
population? What is the frequency of the dominant phenotype?
(b) How can the Hardy-Weinberg principle of genetic equilibrium
be used to determine whether this population is evolving?
(c) Identify a particular environmental change and describe how
it might alter allelic frequencies in this population. Explain
which condition of the Hardy-Weinberg principle would not be
met.
(2008) Scientists use the concept of homology in identifying
evolutionary relationships among organisms. Features shared by two
groups of organisms are said to be homologous if the similarities
reflect shared ancestry. Homology is found in comparisons of
structural, molecular, biochemical, developmental, physiological,
and behavioral characteristics of organisms. Select THREE of the
following hypotheses and explain TWO examples of homology that
support each hypothesis.
(a) Chloroplasts are related to photosynthetic prokaryotes.
(b) Spiders and insects are closely related.
(c) Echinoderms (sea stars and their relatives) are closely
related to the chordates (the phylum that includes
vertebrates).
(d) Reptiles and birds are closely related.
(e) Humans and chimpanzees are closely related primates.
(2009) Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species.
(a) The evolution of a species is dependent on changes in the
genome of the species. Identify TWO mechanisms of
genetic change, and explain how each affects genetic
variation.
(b) Based on the data in the table below, draw a phylogenetic
tree that reflects the evolutionary relationships
of the organisms based on the differences in their cytochrome c
amino-acid sequences and explain the
relationships of the organisms. Based on the data, identify
which organism is most closely related to the
chicken and explain your choice.
(c) Describe TWO types of evidenceother than the comparison of
proteinsthat can be used to determine
the phylogeny of organisms. Discuss one strength of each type of
evidence you described.
THE NUMBER OF AMINO ACID DIFFERENCES IN CYTOCHROME c AMONG
VARIOUS ORGANISMS
Horse Donkey Chicken Penguin Snake
Horse 0 1 11 13 21
Donkey 0 10 12 20
Chicken 0 3 1818
Penguin 0 1717
Snake 0
A.P. OUTLINE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN PLANTS
(1959)Considering the respective roles played by the root, stem,
and leaf in the life of a dicotyledonous plant, contrast the
organization of these three organs.
(1961)Discuss the movement of water from the soil through a
vascular plant during transpiration with regard to:
a.tissues traversed
b.processes and forces involved
c.environmental factors which are conducive to a high rate of
transpiration
d.the effects of this process upon the plant
(1962)The opening and closing of the stomata are, in part,
associated with the changing osmotic relationships existing between
the guard cells and the surrounding epidermis and mesophyll.
a.Describe the structure of a guard cell and discuss the osmotic
relationships that tend to result in stomatal opening.
b.Stomata are usually closed in the dark but tend to open in the
light. Describe two possible causes of change in the guard cells or
in their environment which result in stomatal opening.
(1964)Each of the five leaf structures indicated in the diagram
below is related to either the raw materials of, by products of, or
regulation of the rate of leaf photosynthesis.
a.Name the five structures in order.
b.Discuss how each may regulate or in some way affect the rate
of photosynthesis.
***Diagram not available
(1969)For plants, adaptations to a land environment are
different from adaptations to a fresh water environment. Using your
knowledge about anatomy, development, and physiology of
angiosperms, discusses the problems in a land existence and
adaptations of angiosperms that have evolved as solutions to these
problems.
(1973)Seeds that are randomly positioned when planted in a pot
of soil placed on a window sill produce seedlings with downward
growing roots and upward growing shoots. Above ground, the shoots
are oriented toward light. Describe the physiological mechanisms
that occur to produce:
a.the downward growth of the roots
b.the upward growth of the shoots
c.the bending of the shoots toward the light
(1974)
Individual organisms make short-term adjustments to temporary
environments: changes in temperature, moisture, light, or the
chemical environment. Choose any one of these environmental factors
and describe mechanisms by which plants may adjust to changes in
that factor.
(1976)Discuss the manner in which water, minerals, and organic
compounds are transported in flowering plants.
(1978)Discuss the structural and functional adaptations found in
higher plants that enable them to conserve water under different
environmental conditions.
(1979)In relation to plants, describe in detail one way of:
a.measuring the rate of transpiration
b.measuring the rate of photosynthesis
c.separating pigments
(1980)In flowering plants, describe in detail the transport of
water, carbohydrates, and inorganic solutes (nitrates, for
example). Discuss the theories that have been proposed to explain
how these substances are transported.
(1983)Relate the structure of an angiosperm leaf to each of the
following.
a.Adaptations for photosynthesis and food storage.
b.Adaptations for food translocation and water transport.
c.Specialized adaptations to a desert environment.
(1994)Define the following plant responses and explain the
mechanism of control for each. Cite experimental evidence as part
of your discussion.
a.Phototropism
b.Photoperiodism
(1988)Trace the pathway in a flowering plant as the water moves
from the soil through the tissues of the root, stem, and leaves to
the atmosphere. Explain the mechanisms involved in conducting water
through these tissues.
(1990)Discuss the adaptations that have enabled flowering plants
to overcome the following problems associated with life on
land:
a.The absence of an aquatic environment for reproduction
b.The absence of an aquatic environment to support the plant
body
c.Dehydration of the plant
(1992)
Survival depends on the ability of an organism to respond to
changes in its environment. Some plants flower in response to
changes in day length. Some mammals may run or fight when
frightened. For both of these examples, describe the physiological
mechanisms involved in the response.
(1995) Angiosperms (flowering plants) and vertebrates obtain
nutrients from their environment in different ways.
a. Discuss the type of nutrition and the nutritional
requirements of angiosperms and vertebrates.
b. Describe 2 structural adaptations in angiosperms for
obtaining nutrients from the environment. Relate structure to
function.
c. Interdependence in nature is evident in symbiosis. Explain
two symbiotic relationships that aid in nutrient
uptake, using examples from angiosperms and/or vertebrates.
(Both examples may be angiosperms, both may
be vertebrates, or one may be from each group.)
(2006) The movement of water through vascular plants is
important to their survival.
a. Explain the mechanism of water movement through vascular
plants during transpiration. Include a discussion of how
the anatomy of vascular plants and the properties of water
contribute to this process.
b. Explain how gas exchange affects transpiration.
c. Describe TWO adaptations that affect the rate of
transpiration in desert plants.
(2006)
While studying transpiration, a scientist used a dendrometer to
record the small daily changes in the diameter of a tree trunk at
two different heights (2 meters and 3 meters) above the ground at
the same time. The diameter decreased in the daytime. This decrease
happened first at the higher location. Discuss the following in
relation to water movement in plants.
a. Identify how TWO different environmental factors could be
involved in the daily fluctuations shown above.
b. Discuss the mechanisms involved in the uptake and transport
of water by vascular plants.
c. Discuss the role of water in the normal functioning of
plants.
A.P. OUTLINE: PLANT REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
1.Alternation of generations in moss, fern, pine, and flowering
plants
a. Spore and gamete formation
b. Fertilization and sporophyte formation
2.Seed structure and germination
3.Growth and development: hormonal control
(1960)The seed is the organ having great survival value. Discuss
(a) the structure of seeds from this point of view, and (b) the
phenomenon and biological importance of dormancy of seeds.
(1961)Trace the evolutionary trends shown by the gametophyte
generation in a bryophyte (a liverwort or moss), a fern, and a pine
with respect to:
a.origin and structure
b.mode of nutrition
c.structure and mode of transport of the sperm
d.relative size and longevity compared to the sporophyte
generation
(1962)A.Compare the nutrition of bread mold (Rhizopus) with that
of the gamethophyte generation of a ferrn.
B.Compare the conduction of food materials, water, and salts in
the sporophyte generation of a liverwort with that in the
sporophyte generation of a fern.
C.Compare sexual reproduction in an alga (such as Spirogyra or
Oedogonium) with that in a moss.
(1964)During its development from zygote to maturity, a bean
plant forms the following structures:
l. stem
2. secondary roots
3. vascular cambium
4. embryo sac
5. cotyledons
A.Describe briefly the developmental origin of each of the
five.
B.Describe briefly the functions of each of the five.
(1965)Discuss trends in the evolution of the sporophytes and
gametophytes, using a moss, fern, and a flowering plant, as
examples emphasizing:
a.structure or morphology
b.mode of nutrition
(1965)The diagram at the right represents a longitudinal section
of a complete flower. This is one of the most highly evolved
structures in the plant kingdom and is at least partially
responsible for the degree of success that these organisms have
achieved in our present environment.
a.Name the numbered parts and give the function of each in the
life cycle of the plant.
b.Tell in what way each of these parts has improved the chances
of survival of this plant as compared with a fern.
(1967)Asexual reproduction is common among plants, including the
fungi. Explain four methods of sexual reproduction (either natural
or artificial) and give an example of each.
(1968)Flowering plants have become the predominant, widespread
plants of the land whereas ferns are more restricted in their
distribution. Explain the features of flowering plants that have
made them more successful than the ferns.
(1969)For plants, adaptations to a land environment are
different from adaptations to a fresh water environment. Using your
knowledge about anatomy, development, and physiology of
angiosperms, discuss the problems in a land existence and
adaptations of angiosperms that have evolved as solutions to these
problems.
(1975)Most flowering plants live on land. Describe and discuss
evolutionary adaptations that make flowering plants better adapted
to life on land than mosses.
(1977)Discuss the reproduction of a flowering plant, including
pollination, fertilization, fruit formation, and seed
development.
(1982)In the life cycles of a fern and a flowering plant,
compare and contrast each of the following:
a.The gametophyte generation
b.Sperm transport and fertilization
c.Embryo protection
(1985)Describe the structure of a bean seed and discuss its
germination to the seedling stage. Include in your essay hormonal
controls, structural changes, and tissue differentiation.
(1987)Describe the effects of plant hormones on plant growth and
development. Design an experiment to demonstrate the effect of one
of these plant hormones on plant growth and development.
(1996) Numerous environmental variables influence plant growth.
Three students each planted a seedling of the same genetic variety
in the same type of container with equal amounts of soil from the
same source. Their goal was to maximize their seedlings growth by
manipulating environmental conditions. Their data are shown
below.
Plant Seedling Mass (grams)
Day 1 Day 30
Student A 424
Student B 535
Student C 464
a. Identify three different environmental variables that could
acount for differences in the mass of the seedlings at day
30. Then choose one of these variables and design an experiment
to test the hypothesis that your variable affects
growth of these seedlings.
b. Discuss the results you would expect if your hypothesis is
correct. Then provide a physiological explanation for the
effect of your variable on plant growth.
(2005)Angiosperms (flowering plants) have wide distribution in
the biosphere and the largest number of species in the plant
kingdom.
(a)Discuss the function of four structures for reproduction
found in angiosperms and the adaptive (evolutionary) significance
of each.
(b)Mosses (bryophytes) have not achieved the widespread
terrestrial success of angiosperms. Discuss how the anatomy and
reproductive strategies of mosses limit their distribution.
(c)Explain alternation of generations in wither angiosperms or
mosses.
(2008) Flowering plants have evolved various strategies for
fertilization.
(a) Describe the process of fertilization in flowering
plants.
(b) Discuss TWO mechanisms of pollen transfer and the
adaptations that facilitate each mechanism.
Some species of flowering plants have evolved mechanisms to
prevent self-fertilization.
(c) Discuss an evolutionary advantage of preventing
self-fertilization.
(d) Describe TWO mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization.
(2010) On a trip to a dense forest, a biologist noticed that
millipedes (small invertebrates) were plentiful under logs but
were rarely seen in any other location.
(a) Propose THREE environmental variables (two abiotic and one
biotic) that could explain why millipedes are
found more frequently under logs.
(b) For ONE of the abiotic environmental variables you chose
above, design a controlled experiment to test a
hypothesis that this factor affects the distribution of
millipedes on the forest floor. Describe data that would
support your hypothesis.
(c) Suppose that you were examining the distribution of a plant,
instead of the millipede. Describe
modifications in the experiment that you designed in (b) that
would be required to determine whether the
abiotic factor you chose affects the distribution of the
plant.
(2009)
Discuss the patterns of sexual reproduction in plants. Compare
and contrast reproduction in nonvascular plants
with that in flowering plants. Include the following topics in
your discussion:
(a) alternation of generations
(b) mechanisms that bring female and male gametes together
(c) mechanisms that disperse offspring to new locations
A.P. OUTLINE: ANIMAL SYSTEMS
Reproduction, growth and development
Structural, physiological, and behavioral adaptations
Response to the environment
(1959)The blood, lymph, and other internal fluids have often
been referred to as the internal environment of the cells. Many
parts of the body are involved in maintaining the constancy of this
internal environment. Discuss how 1) the kidneys and 2) the
endocrine glands help to maintain the constancy of the internal
environment.
(1961)Describe and compare the excretory system of a flatworm
(Platyhelminthes), an earthworm (Annelida), and a grasshopper
(Arthropoda). Include labeled diagrams with your answer.
(1961)Discuss the structure and function of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system of a mammal. What neuroransmitters
are associated with each system? Labeled diagrams may be included
with your answer.
(1962)
a. Compare the digestive system of a planarian with that of an
earthworm.
b. Compare the body wall of a hydra with that of a tapeworm.
c. Compare the circulatory system of a crayfish with that of an
earthworm.
(1964)
a. Make a schematic diagram of a typical myelinated motor
neuron. Make the diagram the size of a full page and label it
completely.
b. List the parts included in your diagram and describe briefly
the function performed each one.
c. Discuss the mechanism of synaptic transmission.
(1964)In normal metabolism, the glucose concentration of the
blood tends to remain constant (within a range of 80 to 120
milligrams per hundred milliliters). Discuss the role of each of
the following in maintaining this homeostatic condition:
a.the kidneys
b.the islands of Langerhans
c.the pituitary gland
(1964)Describe the structure and the mechanism of operation of
each of the following:
a.a pseudopodium
b. a flagellum
c.a striated muscle cell
(1965)Discuss each of the following as it relates to the
functioning of the heartbeat in a mammal:
a.the autonomic nervous system
b.the structure of cardiac muscle
c.the sinus node, the atrial-ventricular bundle (bundle of
His)
(1966)Irritability or responsiveness to stimuli is a common
characteristic of living organisms. Among many others these
responses include.
a.Geotropic responses in plants
b.Simple reflex responses in animals
Discuss each of these responses. Your answer should include a
description of:
a.the response
b.an experiment which will demonstrate the responses
c.the mechanisms involved in the responses
(2007) Cephalization and the development of a brain were
important steps in animal evolution.
a. Discuss the evolutionary origin and adaptive significance of
cephalization in animal phyla.
b. Describe the development of the nervous system in the
vertebrate embryo.
c. At the sound of shattering glass, people quickly turn their
heads. Discuss how the human nervous system functions to produce
this type of response to an external stimulus.
(1967)Nitrogenous waste products are excreted by animals in
various forms. Many aquatic animals excrete ammonia, birds and
reptiles excrete uric acid, and man excretes urea. Describe the
formation of two of these waste products and discuss the adaptive
value of these three methods of nitrogenous excretion.
(1968)Self-regulatory or homeostatic feedback mechanisms are
present in the endocrine, vascular, and respiratory systems of
vertebrates. Describe one such feedback system, discussing the
evidence which indicates that feedback occurs.
(1971)Describe the anatomy and physiology of the autonomic
nervous system of vertebrates. How does this system help a
vertebrate to survive?
(1971)The transmission of an impulse from a nerve to the surface
of a resting muscle initiates a contraction in that muscle.
Biochemical and biophysical studies of muscle tissue have resulted
in an explanation for muscle contraction known as the
sliding-filament hypothesis.
a.Describe the chemical changes that occur when a nerve impulse
is transmitted to the surface of a resting muscle cell.
b.Describe the internal structure of a muscle fiber as revealed
by electron microscopy.
c.On the basis of this structure, explain the sliding-filament
hypothesis.
(1973)The action of organs and organ systems must be
coordinated. Discuss the interaction of factors involved in
controlling heart rate and breathing rate in mammals during periods
of relaxation and periods of stress.
(1974)Individual organisms make short-term adjustments to
temporary environmental changes in temperature, moisture, light, or
the chemical environment. Choose any one of these environmental
factors and describe mechanisms by which a) animals and b) plants
may adjust to changes in that factor.
(1975)Regulation of biological systems is commonly achieved by
means of feedback control. In each of the following systems,
describe how feedback control is used for regulation, and give a
specific example for each system.
a. the size of a population
b. the rate of a physiological process
c. the rate of an enzyme reaction
(1975)The immune response of organisms involve antigens,
antibodies, and other factors, Describe the immune response and
discuss its role in three of the following phenomena:
a.blood transfusions
b.Rh incompatibility
c.tissue transplants
(1976)Discuss the intake, transport, exchange, and release of
gases in mammals.
(1978)Discuss the mechanism by which a muscle cell contracts or
a nerve cell transmits an impulse Include in your discussion the
relationship between cell structure and function.
(1979)Describe the structure and function of the stomach,
pancreas, and small intestine as digestive and endocrine organs in
the human. (For each organ, include the relevant cell types and
their functions).
(1980)In humans, discuss the transport of gasses (oxygen and
carbon dioxide) by the blood and the exchange of these gasses
between the blood and cells of the body. Include in your discussion
the cellular and fluid composition of the blood.
(1981)Describe the structure and function of the mammalian
kidney. Include a discussion of the regulation of water balance by
kidney and hormonal interaction.
(1981)Describe the structure and function of the reflex arc in
higher vertebrates. Include a description of the cell types and a
discussion of the mechanism of transmission of the impulse.
(1982)Describe the following mechanisms of response to foreign
materials in the human body.
a.The antigen-antibody response to a skin graft from another
person.
b.The reactions of the body leading to inflammation of a wound
infected by bacteria.
(1983)Describe the structure of a mammalian respiratory system.
Include in your discussion the mechanisms of inspiration and
expiration.
(1984)Discuss the source and actions of each of the following
pairs of hormones in humans and describe the feedback mechanisms
that control their release.
a.Insulin...glucagon
b.Parathyroid hormone...calcitonin
c.Thyrotropin (TSH)...thyroxin (T4)
(1985)Describe the anatomical and functional similarities and
differences within each of the following pairs of structures.
a.Artery.vein
b.Small intestine.colon
c.Skeletal muscle.cardiac muscle
d.Anterior pituitary.Posterior pituitary
(1986)Beginning at the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular
junction, describe the physical and biochemical events involved in
the contraction of a skeletal muscle fiber. Include the structure
of the fiber in your discussion.
(1986)Describe the processes of fat and protein digestion and
product absorption as they occur in the human stomach and small
intestine. Include a discussion of the enzymatic reactions
involved.
(1987)Discuss the processes of exchange of O2 and CO2 that occur
at the alveoli and muscle cells of mammals. Include in your answer
a description of the transport of these gases in the blood.
(1989)Describe negative and positive feedback loops, and discuss
how feedback mechanisms regulate each of the following.
a.The menstrual cycle in a nonpregnant human female
b.Blood glucose levels in humans
(1991)The graphs below shows the response of the human immune
system to exposure to an antigen. Use this graph to answer part a
and part b of this question.
a.Describe the events that occur during period I as the immune
system responds to the initial exposure to the antigen.
b.Describe the events that occur during period II following a
second exposure to the same antigen.
c.Explain how infection by the AIDS virus (HIV) affects the
function of the T and B lymphocytes.
(1991) Describe the structure of the mammalian heart and factors
that affect heart rate. Compare the circulatory system and heart of
a fish and amphibians to the circulatory system and heart of the
mammals.
(1992) Survival depends on the ability of an organism to respond
to changes in its environment. Some plants flower in response to
changes in day length. Some mammals may run or fight when
frightened. For both of these examples, describe the physiological
mechanisms involved in the response. (Repeated question in
plants)
(1992) Biological recognition is important in many process at
the molecular, cellular, tissue, and organismal levels. Select
three of the following, and for each of the three that you have
chosen, explain how the process of recognition occurs and give an
example.
a.Organisms recognize others as members of their own
species.
b.Neurotransmitters are recognized in the synapse.
c.Antigens trigger antibody responses.
d.Nucleic acids are complementary.
e.Target cells respond to specific hormones
(1993)Many physiological changes occur during exercise.
a. Design a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis that an
exercise session causes short-term increases in heart rate
and breathing rate in humans.
b. Explain how at least three organ systems are affected by this
increased physical activity and discuss interactions among
these systems.
(1995) Angiosperms (flowering plants) and vertebrates obtain
nutrients from their environment in different ways.
a. Discuss the type of nutrition and the nutritional
requirements of angiosperms and
vertebrates.
b. Describe 2 structural adaptations in angiosperms for
obtaining nutrients from the
environment. Relate structure to function.
c. Interdependence in nature is evident in symbiosis. Explain
two symbiotic relationships that aid in nutrient
uptake, using examples from angiosperms and/or vertebrates.
(Both examples may be angiosperms, both may
be vertebrates, or one may be from each group.)
(1996) Structure and function are related in the various organ
systems of animals.
Select two of the following four organ systems in
vertebrates:
respiratory
digestive
excretory
nervous
For each of the two systems you choose, discuss the structure
and function of two adaptations that aid in the transport or
exchange of molecules (or ions). Be sure to relate structure to
function in each example.
(2000) Feedback mechanisms are used by organisms to maintain the
steady-state physiological condition known as homeostasis.
Choose three of the following and for each explain how feedback
mechanisms maintain homeostasis.
a) blood glucose concentrationd) osmolarity of the blood
b) calcium ion concentration in bloode) pulse rate in
mammals
c) body temperature in mammals
(2001) In biological systems, structure and function are
related. Choose three of the following components of organ
systems.
alveolusvillusnephron
sarcomerecapillaryneuron
a. For each component, describe the structure of the component
and explain how that structure is responsible for the function of
that component.
b. For the three components that you chose in part a, explain
how the structure of the component contributes to the functioning
of the organ system to which it belongs.
(2002) The complexity of structure and function varies widely
across the animal kingdom. Despite this variation, animals exhibit
common processes. These include the following.
Transport of materials
Response to stimuli
Gas exchange
Locomotion
(a) Choose two of the processes above and for each, describe the
relevant structures and how they function to accomplish the process
in the following phyla.
Cnidaria (e.g., hydra, jellyfish)
Annelida (e.g., earthworm)
Chordata (e.g., mouse) (b) Explain the adaptive (evolutionary)
value(s) of the structural examples you described in part a.
(2005)An important defense against diseases in vertebrate
animals is the ability to eliminate, inactivate, or destroy foreign
substances and organisms. Explain how the immune system achieves
three of the following:
Provides an immediate nonspecific immune response
Activates T and B cells in response to an infection
Responds to a later exposure to the same infectious agent
Distinguishes self from nonself
(2006) The evolution of circulatory systems allowed larger and
more-complex animals to arise.
a. Describe the respiratory and digestive systems' specialized
structures that facilitate the movement of oxygen and glucose into
the circulatory system of mammals.
b. Explain how oxygen and glucose are transported within the
circulatory system of mammals.
c. Explain the transfer of oxygen and glucose from the blood and
into the active cells of mammals.
A.P. OUTLINE: REPRODUCTION
(1962)
A. Name and describe the origin, function, and mechanism of
operation of the four extra-embryonic membranes of a bird. (Labeled
diagrams may be used as aids in explanation).
B. For three of these membranes of a bird briefly describe one
variation in either development or function in a mammal, such as a
human.
(1966)In vertebrates, changes in the mechanisms of fertilization
and embryonic development have been of adaptive value. Compare
these mechanisms and indicate their contribution to the
evolutionary success of the following animals:
A. FishB. AmphibianC. BirdD. Mammal
(1974)Compare and contrast the origin and maturation of the male
and female gametes in a flowering plant and in a mammal.
(1976)During development in multicellular organisms, the cells
become different from one another, even though they possess a
common genetic heritage. Describe experiments in several organisms
which explore the problem of differentiation at the gene level, the
cell level, or the tissue level, and discuss how these experiments
have aided our understanding of development.
(1979)Describe the role of the hypothalamus, the pituitary
hormones, and the ovarian hormones in the regulation of the human
menstrual cycle. Include in your discussion the concept of feedback
control and the way in which fertilization of the egg alters the
menstrual cycle.
(1988)Discuss the processes of cleavage, gastrulation, and
neurulation in the frog embryo; tell what each process
accomplishes. Describe an experiment that illustrates the
importance of induction in
Development
AP OUTLINE: ECOLOGY
Population dynamics
Communities and ecosystems
Global Issues
(1959)Starting with an open pond of water or with a bare sand
beach, discuss the natural succession from a pioneer community to a
climax community with respect to 1) physiographic factors, 2)
biotic factors, and 3) the order of some of the successional stages
which might be expected to occur.
(1961)Describe the complete cyclic movement of nitrogen within a
balanced biotic community.
(1963)From an ecological standpoint, discuss briefly the
interaction of organisms in: a) the carbon-oxygen cycleb) a
specific food chain.
(1966)The retreat of a glacier leaves barren rock and soil that
may be low or lacking in organic material. Characterize the changes
that might occur over a long period of time following the retreat
of the glacier. Your answer should include a) physical and chemical
changes b) changes in flora, and c) changes in fauna.
(1966)A small, upland, temperate-zone lake of 200 acres surface
area and a maximum depth of 10 meters at the middle is created
behind an earthfill dam. High land surrounding the lake is covered
with deciduous forest. Springs and a permanent stream, flowing into
the lake from pasture grassland provide a constant supply of water.
For the next five years, the lake and stream remain undisturbed. At
the end of the five-year period:
a)what organism could be expected in samples taken from the
middle of the lake?
b)what organisms could be collected from shallow water at the
end of the stream entrance?
c)how, during the five-year period, did the organisms come to
the lake, and why did they thrive there?
(1971)A mature forest community is completely destroyed by fire.
Describe the stages of succession by
which this community is restored.
(1972)A very long-term trip into deep space, lasting at least a
decade, is being planned. You have been
assigned the responsibility of designing a balanced ecosystem
that will meet the needs of you and several others in the
spaceship. Cite the specific types of organisms that you would take
and include the role that each would play in the ecosystem. (Assume
that the problem of temperature control in the spaceship has been
solved.)
(1976)Discuss the web of life in a biological community. Your
essay would focus on energy flow, conversion, and loss in food
chains, including the concepts of trophic levels and pyramids.
(1978)Human beings have altered the environment in a variety of
ways. Discuss the beneficial and
harmful modifications of the environment brought about by the
use of the following:
a)Nuclear energy
b)Fertilizers and pesticides
c)Fossil fuels and metals
(1979)Explain and illustrate with one specific example each of
the following concepts:
a)competitive exclusion (Gauses principle)
b)ecological succession
c)nutrient (biogeochemical) cycles
(1980)Many areas of North America that were once covered with
many small lakes and ponds have undergone succession and are now
continuously covered with forests. Give a detailed description of
the events (biotic and abiotic factors) that lead to the
establishment of a climax forest.
(1981)Define, discuss, and give an example of each of the
following close interactions of species.
a)Predator-prey relationships
b)Commensalism
c)Mutualism
d)Parasitism
(1983)Describe the trophic levels in a typical ecosystem.
Discuss the flow of energy through the
ecosystem, the relationship between the different trophic
levels, and the factors that limit the number
of trophic levels.
(1985)Describe the process of ecological succession from a
pioneer community to a climax community.
Include in your answer a discussion of species diversity and
interactions, accumulation of biomass, and energy flow.
(1986)Describe the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nitrogen.
Trace these elements from the point
of their release from a decaying animal to their incorporation
into a living animal.
(1989)Using an example for each, discuss the following
ecological concepts.
a)Succession
b)Energy flow between trophic levels
c)Limiting factors
d)Carrying capacity
(1993)Living organisms play an important role in the recycling
of many elements within an ecosystem. Discuss how various types of
organisms and their biochemical reactions contribute to the
recycling of either carbon or nitrogen in an ecosystem. Include in
your answer one way in which human activity has an impact on the
nutrient cycle you have chosen.
(1998) Interdependence in nature is illustrated by the transfer
of energy through trophic levels. The diagram below depicts the
transfer of energy in a food web of an Arctic lake located in
Alaska.
a. Choosing organisms from four different trophic levels of this
food web as examples, explain how energy is obtained at each
trophic level.
b. Describe the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic
levels and discuss how the amount of energy available at each
trophic level affects the structure of the ecosystem.
c. If the cells in the dead terrestrial plant material that
washed into to the lake contained a commercially produced toxin,
what would be the likely effects of this toxin on this food web?
Explain.
(2003) Many populations exhibit the following growth curve:
(a) Describe what is occurring in the population during phase
A.
(b) Discuss THREE factors that might cause the fluctuations
shown in phase B.
(c) Organisms demonstrate exponential (r) or logistic (K)
reproductive strategies. Explain these two strategies and
discuss
how they affect population size over time.
(2004)Organisms rarely exist alone in the natural environment.
The following are five examples of symbiotic relationships.
Plant root nodules
Digestion of cellulose
Epiphytic plants
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
Anthrax
Choose four of the above and for each example chosen,
(a) identify the participants involved in the symbiosis and
describe the symbiotic relationship, and
(b)discuss the specific benefit or detriment, if any, that each
participant receives from the relationship.
(2005)Survival of organisms depends on adaptive behavior and
species interactions.
(a)Behaviors of organisms may be influenced by environmental
factors. Select two of the following types of behavior. For each
type, explain
(i)how the environment affects the behavior, and
(ii)why this behavior increases the survivorship of individuals
of a species.
Taxis/Kinesis
Migration
Courtship
(b)Interactions among populations may have an effect on
densities of the species that interact. Predation represents an
important interaction among populations. The curves below depict
the population densities of three species: a small herbivore, a
larger herbivore, and a carnivore.
Identify which curve represents which of the species listed, and
justify your answer by describing the changes in the population
densities of these three species over time.
(2006) According to fossil records and recent published
observations, two species of leaf-eating beetles (species A and B)
have existed on an isolated island in the Pacific Ocean for over
100,000 years. In 1964 a third species of leaf-eating beetle
(species C) was accidentally introduced on the island. The
population size of each species has been regularly monitored as
shown in the graph above.
a. Propose an explanation for the pattern of population density
observed in species C.
b. Describe the effect that the introduction of beetle species C
has had on the population density of species A and species B.
Propose an explanation for the patterns of population density
observed in species A and in species B.
c. Predict the population density of species C in 2014. Provide
a biological explanation for your prediction.
d. Explain why invasive species are often successful in
colonizing new habitats.
(2006) In many ways, all organisms in a food web can be said to
be solar-powered. The producer level of the food web is responsible
for the transformation of the solar energy into a form that can be
used by other living organisms.
a. Discuss the role of green plants in transforming the Sun's
energy into a form that can ultimately be used by
heterotrophs.
b. Discuss the flow of energy from producers through top
carnivores in a food web in terms of the laws of
thermodynamics.
(2007) Compared with other terrestrial biomes, deserts have
extremely low productivity.
(a) Discuss how temperature, soil composition, and annual
precipitation limit productivity in deserts.
(b) Describe a four-organism food chain that might characterize
a desert community, and identify the trophic level of each
organism.
(c) Describe the results depicted in the graph. Explain one
anatomical difference and one physiological difference between
species A and B that account for the CO2 uptake patt