Authored by Lisa Johnson-Shull With citation support from ... · Lisa Johnson-Shull With citation support from Xyanthe Neider Ti Macklin. 1 Welcome to a conversation about teaching

Authoredby

LisaJohnson-Shull

Withcitationsupportfrom

XyantheNeider

TiMacklin

1

Welcometoaconversationaboutteachingwriting.

Thefollowinghandbookisdesignedasaguidetoassigning,respondingand

assessingwritinginyourcourse.Followingthecontext-settingintroduction,itis

arrangedbyscholarlysuggestionswearecalling“efficiencytips;”thesetipsare

designedtosupportyouinteachingthewritingconventionsofyourdiscipline.We

willusethesetipstoguidetheweeklydiscussions.

INTRODUCTION

When looking at the national picture of student writing, we know that college students’

writing competence does not meet the expectations of educators, and that many college

students enter higher education with only the most basic of writing skills (Patchan,

Charney, Schunn 2009). We also know that there is concern that student writing is not

significantly improving. Research compiled by the National Commission on Writing in

America’s Schools and Colleges, states that, “Recent analyses indicate that more than

50% of first-year college students are unable to produce papers relatively free of

language errors” (2003). The following excerpt from a 2011 Carnegie report on the

advantages of formative assessment asserts,

Although some progress has been made in improving the writing

achievement of students in American schools during the last twenty years

(Salahu-Din, Persky, and Miller, 2008), most students do not write well enough to

meet grade-level demands. The inability to effectively convey thoughts and ideas

through writing plays a role in why many of these students do not complete high

school. Among those who do graduate, many will not be ready for college or a

career where writing is required. These young people will be at a serious

disadvantage in successfully pursuing some form of higher education, securing a

job that pays a living wage, or participating in social and civic activities.

Finally, formative assessment and best practices in writing assessment

hold their greatest promise �for helping teachers and schools create students who

are skilled and confident writers if they are implemented as part of a

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comprehensive reform of writing instruction. To address the long-standing

concerns about students’ writing and the neglect of writing instruction in many

classrooms, schools, school districts, and states need to develop new and better

policies that establish unambiguous, challenging, and realistic plans for improving

writing instruction and students’ writing. These plans must establish clearly

specified methods and incentives to ensure that

Teachers are prepared to teach writing effectively;

The teaching of writing is the responsibility of all teachers;

Students write frequently;

Students use writing as a tool to support learning across the curriculum;

(Graham, Harris, Hebert 29).

�

The field of English Composition (Writing Studies) is not that old. It emerged in

response to two factors: the open admissions policies from the 1960’s and 1970’s

(Nystrand, Greene, & Wiemelt, 1993), and a need to break away from departments of

literature that were attempting to dictate the research agenda of scholarship about writing

instruction (Nystrand 2006; Silva and Leki, 2004).

We begin this conversation with the intention of accomplishing two major goals: 1.) to

share with teachers what we know that can help them be more efficient educators in a

classroom that teaches writing, and 2.) to gather data from faculty experience and

expertise to add to the research in Writing Studies.

EfficiencyTipforweek#1:Assigningwritingtogivestudentspractice

thinking,andassigningwritingtotestperformanceandproficiency,arevery

differentthings(Bean,2011;Stiggins,2012).Use writing for everything you

want to teach, but not for every thing you want to test. If pressed for time and

energy, consider not using writing to test things that can be tested in a more efficient

manner--like by a short answer quiz or a multiple choice exam (Stiggins, 2012).

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Writingassignmentscanallowstudentstoexperimentwithideasandwrestlewith

intellectualchallengesinawaythatmakesthoseideas,successes,andstruggles

obvioustoboththestudentandtheteacher(Bean,2011).Writingassignmentsalso

canrevealinformationaboutstudentlearningthatallowsteacherstotestthat

learningonmultiplelevels(Stiggins,2012).

Beforeassigninganessayorpieceofwriting,askyourselfifthegoalofthe

assignmentisa.)toencouragepracticeorb.)totestperformanceandproficiency.

Thisdiscernmentwilldictatehowyourespondtowhatthestudentswrite,and

determinehowyouweigh(ordon’tweigh)thequalityofwhattheywrite.

Beingclearaboutwhetheryouareassigningwritingtofosterpracticewithideasof

genrestylesortotestperformance(contentknowledge,skillswithgenreetc.)

enablesyoutodesignyourassessmentstrategyaccordingly.

Teachersassignwritingtoaccomplishavarietyofthings.Someteachersassign

writingtotest:

• understandingofthematerialwithinaspecificknowledgedomain

• proficiencywiththegenresofaspecificknowledgedomain

• abilitytomarshalevidenceinsupportofaclaim

• abilitytoarrangethatevidenceappropriatelyforaspecificaudience

• proficiencywithmanagingthegrammarofwrittenEnglish

Oftenteachersusewritingtodetermineproficiencywithallofthesethings,and

withhowthesecomponentscohere.Teachersalsousewritingtodetermine

whetherornotstudentsareabletoperformanarrayofcomplexandlayered

cognitivetasks(analysis,synthesis,prediction,evidenceevaluation,problem-

solvingetc.).

Becausewritingisamulti-facetedandcognitivelychallengingactivity,testing

studentsonthingstheyhavenothadachancetopracticereducesstudent

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engagement(Wiggins&McTighe,2005).Assigninglow-stakesassignmentsand

formativefeedbackthroughoutthewritingprocesscanprovidesupportforstudent

practiceandimprovemotivationforlearning(Bean,2011).Formativefeedback,or

formativeassessment,canbeprovidedintheformofconstructive,informative,non-

gradedfeedbacktostudentsabouttheirwriting(Adsanatham,2012).Such

assessment"treatsatextaspartofanongoingprocessofskillsacquisitionand

improvement,recognizingthatwhatisbeingrespondedtoisnotafixedbuta

developingentity”(Horvath,1984).

Poorqualitystudentworkcancomeasaresultofstudentapathyasmuchasfroma

lackofproperlysupportedstudentpractice—andinmanycasesthesetwothings

arerelated.Thenegativeattitudesmanystudentshaveaboutwritingcanresult

fromwritingbeingusedtotestthemforproficiencymoreoftenthanforletting

thempracticeimprovingtheirwritingskills.Writingisadeliberatepracticeskill

(Ericsson&Krampe,1993;Kellogg&Whiteford,2009).Thismeansthatittakes

thousandsofhourstodevelopgoodwritingskills.Ifwewantstudentstobegood

writers,itisinourbestinterest(andtheirs)toinspirethemtopracticeandgive

themgoodguidanceastheypractice.

Giventheveryrealtimeconstraintswithinaneducationalenvironmentwhere

everyoneisexpectedtodomorewithless,itisnotefficienttousewritingasa

testingtoolunlessyouarewillingtospendthetimethatittakestoevaluateit

thoroughlyandfairly.

Putinitspropereducationalcontext,writingisagoodwaytodemonstratecomplex

cognition,butitisnotalwaysthebestwaytodemonstrateone’sabilitytomemorize

informationand/orregurgitatefacts.

Goodwritinginstructionrequiresteacherstogivefluentanddetailed

response/feedback/feedforwardthatfocusesonahierarchyofvaluesthatisrelated

totheover-archinglearninggoalsofeachassignment(Straub,1992;Angelo&Cross,

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1993;Rysdam&Johnson-Shull,2016).Ifateacherdoesnothavetimetoprovide

thiskindoffeedback/feedforward,andgivesabbreviated,cryptic,correction-happy

(orsometimesevencruel)commentary,moreharmthangoodcancomeofthisuse

ofteachertime(Batt,2015).

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EfficiencyTipforweek#2:Themorethingsyouuseonepieceofwritingto

test,theharderitwillbeforthestudenttoshowmasteryofallofthedomains

askedforbythe“testing”situation(Shepard2005;Stiggins,2012).Scaffolded

orsequencedassignmentscanhelpstudentsbuilduptoawritten

performance(orpresentation)thatrequirescohesionofmultipleelements.

Scaffoldedorsequencedassignmentsareeasiertogradebecausethe

evaluatorisnotlookingfortheintersectionsorinteractionsofmultipleskills,

butonlyforthedemonstrationofoneortwothings.

Writingagoodessayrequirestheabilitytointegrateseveralskillsandcognitive

processessimultaneously(Bean,2011;Stiggins,2012).Inorderforonetowritea

successfulessay(particularlyatthecollege-level),awriterneedsto:

• understandthegenreconventionsofthedisciplinetheyarewritingfor

• comprehendinformationaboutan(ideally)inspiringandchallengingtopic

• narrowthefocusofthetopicrelativetothelengthoftheessay

• grabthereader’sattention

• organizetheinformationinawaythatislogicalandcoherenttomost

educatedreaders

• wieldasubstantialandvaried(andproperlyspelled)vocabulary

• summarizeandsynthesizeinformationwithanawarenessofaudienceneeds

• recognizethekindsofevidencethatmustbebroughttobeartobe

convincing

• identifytheneedfor(andhavetheabilitytoapply)citationconventions

• constructsolid,sensibleandcorrectlypunctuatedsentences

Anyweaknessinanyoftheseareaswillresultinalessthanstellaressay.

Itisimportanttokeepinmindthelevelofintellectualsophisticationrequiredfor

thewritingtasksyouassigntoyourstudents(likethedifficultyofanOlympicdive),

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andtoacceptthefactthatmanystudentsmayhavenotachievedthedesiredlevelof

sophisticationintheirwritingbythetimetheytakeyourclass.

Dependingonthechallengesofcomprehendingparticularcoursecontent,andofthe

limitsorpossibilitiesforexpressingthatunderstandingindifferentformsorgenres,

writingalwayshasthepotentialtobeachallengeregardlessofhowexperienceda

writeris(Bereiter&Scardamalia,1987;Colyar,2009).Thisiswhyitisimportant

fortheteachertohavealistofprioritiesrelativetotheassignedessay--sothatthe

studentcanfocusonimprovingthemostimportantteacherprioritiesfirst(Angelo

&Cross,1993;Stiggins2012).

Expectingastudenttoimproveallaspectsofanessaywithinonlyoneortwocycles

offeedbackandrevisionisnotrealistic(Knoblauch&Brannon,2006).Itislike

expectingaballetstudenttomasterallofthephysicalcomplexitiesofapolished

danceperformanceateachpractice.Inthelearningprocess,skillsneedtobe

isolated,andworkedoninisolation,beforetheyareputtogetherinafunctioning

andaestheticcomposition.

Sincetheaccumulationanduseofknowledgeisaprocess,andeverystudentyou

havewillbeatadifferentdevelopmentalstageinthatprocess,itwillbeimportant

tothinkaheadabouthowtostructureassignmentssothattheybuildincomplexity

(Shepard,2005;Gronlund,&Brookhart,2009).Scaffoldedandsequenced

assignmentsareassignmentsthatbuilduponeachothertowardalargerandmore

cohesiveandcomplexgoal.If,forexample,mygoalisforstudentstowritean

evidence-based(researchbased)persuasivepaper,Imightbreakthatgoaldown

intoseveralsmallerpapers.Thefirstassignmentmightbefocusedontopic

generationandtopicnarrowing.Thesecondassignmentmightaskforoneortwo

summariesofarticlesrelatedtothechosentopic.Thethirdassignmentmightask

forathesistobegeneratedbasedontheinformationthestudenthasgatheredand

summarized.Thefourthassignmentmightaskfortheinformationtobeconverted

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toevidenceandcounter-evidenceforthethesisclaim.Thefifth(andperhapslast)

assignmentmightaskfortheevidencetobeorganizedintoapersuasiveargument.

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EfficiencyTipforweek#3:Evidencesuggeststhatdespite“bestpractice”in

theteachingofwriting,teacherstendnotonlytobearbitraryintheir

responsebehaviors,butarehabituatedtonegativityintheirresponse

behaviors(Durst).(Theyalsotendtocopyeditstudentworkwhenitisn’ta

productiveuseoftheirtime.)Thisarbitrary,negativepracticecanreduce

studentagencyandmotivation.Agencyandmotivationinwritingarecrucial

becausewritingisadeliberatepracticeskill(Ericsson,Krampe,Tesch-

Romer).Thismeansthatifstudentsarenotmotivatedtopracticeoverand

over,theywillnotimprove.

Despite no real consensus on what teacher response practices are most

educational (Marzano, Haswell, Straub), the scholarship on writing response has tenets

that are basic to “best practice.” Richard Straub’s findings suggest that, “Students

preferred comments that offered some direction for improvement,” particularly those “in

the form of advice and explanations, since these comments typically are specific, offer

direction for revision, and come across as help” (1997). Straub summarizes that, “First

and foremost, these students wanted comments that are clear and understandable and that,

in their eyes, are valid and appropriate to their subject, point of view, and purpose”

(1997). Yetdespitethepleasinlate20thcenturycompositionscholarshiptopraise

andofferguidancetomotivatestudentimprovement(Daiker;Straub),aswellasto

moderatethecorrectionofgrammarasacentralemphasisintheteachingof

composition(Haswell1983;McCallister1982),evidencesuggeststhatcomposition

specialistshavenbeenrathertenaciouslyhabituatedtodefiningstudentslargelyin

termsofshortcomings(Durst2006).

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In her 1982 article “Responding to Student Writing,” Joyce MacAllister writes

about the common inconsistencies in written response practice:

The best way to begin improving student writing is to banish three popular beliefs

that frustrate students and teachers. One is the belief that instructors should write

a lot in the margins and between the lines. Another is that instructors ought to

know and use a lot of specific grammatical rules and grammatical terms if they

want to comment effectively. A third is that the most effective responses to

student writing are instructor-written comments on the final copy. All three

beliefs are false. (59)

The scholarship in English Composition that addresses writing response indicates that

good practice is praise-filled; aligned with assignment values and expectations;

dependent on a hierarchy of rhetorical concerns that values focused, organized, and

evidence-based critical thought over correct and conventional presentation; limited in the

amount of issues targeted for change; dialogic; and aware of patterns of both strength and

weakness. (See Daiker, Haswell, Straub, Speck)

.

Overtwentyyearsago,DonaldA.Daikerwrotewhatteachersofwritingshould

knowbynow,thatpraiseismoreeffectivethannegativityinrespondingtostudent

writing.Inhisarticle,“LearningtoPraise,”Daikerwrites“thatpraisedoesnotflow

readilyfromthemarkingpensofwritingteachers;itmustbelearned”(1989).He

citesseveralsourcesthatdemonstratejusthowfewmarksofpraiseteacherstend

towriteonstudentpapers.Onestudyshowsthatonly6%ofcommentswrittenby

teacherswerepraise“94%ofthecommentsfocusedonwhatstudentshaddone

poorlyorincorrectly,only6%onwhathadbeendonewell(Dragga1986)”.

Itissuggestedthatyounotwasteyourtimeeditingfororcommentingonstyle

unlessyouareteachingstyleasacomponentofthecourse(Medzerian,2010).If

youaregoingtoeditstudentpapersdoitforcorrectnessnotforstyle(Bean,2011).

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Toomanyteachersconfusestudentsaboutwhatiscorrectorincorrectintermsof

grammarandusagebecausetheyeditstudentworkbasedonstyleorconciseness.

Styleeditingisappropriatebeforeatextispublished,oriftheentireexercise(the

wholereasonforthewritingassignment)istomakeapointaboutstyle(Sommers,

1982).However,formostundergraduates,thefocusshouldbeonaccuracyof

content,thelogicoforganization,andcorrectnessofconvention.Afocusonstyle

(whichcanbehighlysubjective)canbeconfusingformoststudents(particularlyfor

internationalstudentsforwhomEnglishisnottheirnativelanguage).

Ifyouhave“petpeeves,”(asmanyteachersdo)aboutcertainthingsliketheuseof

contractionsinformalwriting,ortheuseof“I”inresearchpapers,informyour

studentsofthosepeevesaheadoftime.Teacherpetpeevesareoftendeliveredto

studentsas“Truths,”wheninfacttheyarejustpreferences.Peevescanbe

confusingtostudentsbecausetheyareasvariedasthepeoplewhohavethem.

Perhapstheareathatgeneratesthemostcontroversyintheteachingofwriting,or

intheusingofwritingtoteach,istheareaofEnglishgrammar(Hartwell,1985).

Manytimesteacherseditstudentpapersandre-writestudentsentencesbecause

theydonotliketoreadpapersthatareawkwardlyorincorrectlyconstructed.While

thiseditingorre-writingprocessmakesstudentworkmoreenjoyabletoread

(becauseitchangestheirworkfromstudentworktoteacherwork—andteachers

areusuallybetterwriters),itisnotaparticularlyinstructivepracticeforstudents,

anditisaformoftextappropriation.Editingstudentworktakestimeanditlets

studentsoffthehookforlearningproperconventions--sinceyoudidallofthework

(Haswell,1983).

Evidencesuggeststhatstudentsimprovemostintheirfacilitytomanagethe

conventionsofwrittenEnglishwhentheyarerequiredtoself-edit(Ferris2001).

Studentsshouldbeprovidedwithaself-editingstructurethattheycanworkwithin.

RichardHaswell,authorofthearticle“MinimalMarking,”suggeststhatteachersuse

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acodeinthemarginofthepaperthatindicatestothestudentwhetherthereare

spellingorgrammaticalerrorsinthatlineoftext(anxforeachspellingerroranda

checkmarkforeachpunctuationerror);thestudentisthenrequiredtofindthe

mistakesandfixthem.Noticingstudentspatternsoferror,andrelatingthoseinan

endcomment,willalsoprovideafocusingframeforstudentssotheycanmaketheir

owncorrections.(Makeacommentlike,“Youhaveseveralrun-onsentencesinthis

essay.Locateandpunctuatethemandre-submitthepapertome.”)

Researchindicatesthatnotallteachersagreeonwhatconstitutesseriouswriting

errors,thatteachersdonotmarkalloftheseriouserrorswhentheygradeessays,

andteachersarenotlikelytomarkaseriouserrorthatrequiresagooddealof

explanation(Connors&Lunsford,1988).Thislackofconsistencyinteacher

behaviorresultsinpoorknowledgetransferforstudents

Wedonotadvocatethatteachersignoreerror-filledwork.Wedoadvocatethat

readingpasterrorsinordertodiscernwhetherornotthestudentisgraspingthe

morecomplexmaterialpresentedinthecourse.Oncethedegreetowhichthe

studentunderstandsthecoursematerialhasbeendetermined,theteachercancome

backtoprovideinstructiononimprovingthepresentationofthatinformation.In

thecaseofteacherediting,lessismore.Savethetimeanduseittomakemore

substantivecommentary.

Ifyouwanttoprovideinstructionongrammar,startwithcommentsrelativeto

patternsoferror(“itlookslikeyouneedhelplearningtouseacomma”)and/oruse

arubricthatpointsoutthepatternoferrorbyevaluatingshort-comings.

Ifyouwanttoteachstudentssomethingaboutconventionsandcorrectness,you

mightconsiderusingarubricthatdeductspointsforlackoffacilitywithcertain

conventions(likepunctuationorspelling).Intheprocessofcreatingarubric,decide

(orhavethestudentsdecide)howmanypointstosubtractforhowmanymistakes,

andcommunicatethisclearly.Suchadecisionshouldberelatedbothtothenumber

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ofpointsavailablefortheentireassignment,andtothoughtsabouthowimportant

grammaticalcorrectnessiswithinthecoursecontextorwithinthecontextofa

particularassignment.Avoidofferingpointsforsatisfactoryperformanceof

fundamentalgrammarskills.Correctusageisnotan“additionalpoints”skill.

Notethatthatthisrubric(seebelow)hascorrectnessasaneutralvalue.Theneutral

valueconstructionisdesignedtoreinforcethepointthatknowingtheconventions

ofwrittenEnglishisnotworthextrapoints.Notknowingit,however,willsubtract

pointsbecauseitdetractsfromtheover-allcomposition,andcausesadistraction.

CorrectSentenceRubric

Points 0 -10 -20

Allofyoursentencesarecompletesentences.

Thereareafewproblemswithyoursentences.Someareeitherincomplete(called“fragments”)orrun-on(sentencesthatruntogetherandhavenotbeenseparatedwiththeproperpunctuation.)

Therearemanydistractingproblemswithyoursentences.Manyareeitherincomplete(called“fragments”)orrun-on(sentencesthatruntogetherandhavenotbeenseparatedwiththeproperpunctuation.)

Asimilarrubriccanbeconstructedforpunctuationandspelling.

Teacherscommonlyleavemarksonstudentpaperwhentheyreadandrespond.

PoetWilliamStaffordcalledthis“leavingtracks.”Unfortunately,thesemarkings

oftenmeanmoretotheteacherthanthestudent.Thefewerthemarkingsona

student’spaper,theeasieritwillbeforthestudenttodecipherandprioritizethe

teachercommentary.Onewaytohelpstudentsdecipherteachercommentaryisto

makesurethatallteachercommentsarelegibleandallsymbolmarkingsarecoded

toalegendthattranslatesthemeaningofthesymbol.Symbolsshouldbeused

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consistently.Inotherwords,ifyouaregoingtocirclewordsinthestudent’stextsto

indicatemisspellings,donotusecirclesaroundwordstoindicatetheyareover-

used.Letstudentsknowthatwhenyoucirclewords,itindicatesmisspellings--and

thattheyareexpectedtofixthosemistakes.Ifatallpossible,respondtostudentsin

completesentences.Thismodelsthecompletesentenceasavalueforteacherswho

assignwriting.

Whilemostpost-secondaryeducatorsexpectstudentstoknowhowtoconstruct

completesentences,spellandusepunctuationaccurately,anddemonstrate

proficiencywithcitationconventions,thefactisthatmanycollegestudentsdonot

knowhowtodothis(ortheyhaveforgotten).Themainthingistoacknowledgethis

factanddeviseawaytodealwithit.Onewayistosimplytellyourstudentsthey

mustfindaplacetolearnandpracticethisskillbecauseitispre-requisitetosuccess

inyourcourse.

Anotherefficientwaytogetstudentstopayattentiontoaspectsofgrammar,

punctuationorconventionistocreatehome-workassignmentsthatdovetail

content-basedcourseworkwithattentionpaidtothewrittenconventionsinthe

readingandwritingsforthecourse.Forexample,studentsmightbegivena

handoutonsentencetypesandaskedtore-readwhattheywroteforashortclass

assignment(oraskedtore-readacertain#ofpagesfromtheassignedchapter),

identifyingwhatsentencetypeshavebeenused(outofthe6mainsentencetypes).

Theycouldalsobeaskedtoattendtoandimitatethecitationconventionsused.For

additionalexamples,investigatetheonlinewritinglabatPurdue:

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

Thereare6typesofsentences:

• thesimplesentence

• thecompoundsentence

• thecomplexsentence

• thecompound-complexsentence

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• thequestion(interrogative)

• theexclamatorysentence

Ifyouusepeerassessmenttodeterminestudentsuccesswiththeseexercises,you

willreinforcethelessonwithouthavingtodoanyoftheextraworkyourself.Be

awarethatnon-nativespeakersofEnglishwillneedmoretimeandsupportwith

thisskill(andanyskillrelatedtowrittenEnglish).Whendealingwithnon-native

speakersandwritersofEnglish,remindyourselfofyourownstruggleswith

learningtoread,write,speakandlisteninanotherlanguage.

Ifyoudonotwanttobebotheredwithhavinganexerciseinyourclassthatteaches

orremindsstudentsaboutsentences,thenconsiderusingarubricthatholds

studentsaccountableforthatconvention(Stevens&Levi,2005).Betteryet,let

studentsbeapartofcreatingthisrubric.Instructiveassessment“requiresthatwe

involvethestudentinallphasesoftheassessmentofherwork”(Huot,2002).

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EfficiencyTipforweek#4:Thelensyoulookthroughdeterminestheview

thatyousee.Rubricsarethelensesweusetolookatstudentworkto

determinewhetherornotitismeetingtheexpectationoftheassignment.

Makesuretherubricisproperlyalignedwithcoursegoalsandteachervalues

ifyouwantstudentstomeetthosegoalsandvalues.

Thebestwaytosetyourselfupforsuccesswithgrading/assessmentofwritingisto

knowaheadoftimewhatoftheskillsthatyouareteachinginyourcoursearethe

mostimportantfortoseedemonstratedatthatparticulartimeinthesemester

(Wiggins&McTighe,2005).Thosearethethingsthatshouldappearinyourcriteria

forevaluation(oryourrubric);thosearethethingsthatwillmaketheevaluation

youdelivermoreefficientforyouandmorecomprehensibleforyourstudents.

Whileitisnotalwaysnecessarytousearubric,itisnecessarytohavea“framework

fornoticing.”Aframeworkfornoticingissimplyaschemeofvaluesthatprioritizes

certainaspectsofapieceofwriting.WSU’sGuidetoCriticalThinkingisanexample

ofbotharubricandaframeworkfornoticing,anditssolepurposeistoshedlighton

thedimensionsofcriticalthinkingthataredemonstratedbyapieceofwriting.The

guidetocriticalthinkingdoesnothaveacategoryforgrammarandpunctuation,or

acategoryfororganization.IfyouareusingtheCriticalThinkingGuideasthe“lens”

tolookatstudentwriting,youwouldnotbelookingatorlookingforissuesof

grammarandpunctuation(soifyouweregoingtoevaluatethosethings,thatwould

requireanadditionalrubric).TheWritingCenterusesaframeworkcalledAFOSP.

ItisanacronymforAssignment,Focus,Organization,SupportandProofreading.

Thislensallowstotutorstohoneinonthose5mainaspectsofapieceofstudent

writing.TheWashingtonSixTraitslenscategorizesthecomponentsinapieceof

writingusingContent/Ideas,Voice,WordChoice,Organization,SentenceFluency

andConventionastheavailablelenses.Aswithanylensyoulookthrough(social,

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cultural,political)therearethingsitwillbringtotheforeandthingsthatitwill

relegatetothebackground.

Differentassignmentswillhavedifferentrubrics,becausedifferentassignmentsare

likelytohavedifferentgoals.Themorecomplextherubric,theharderitwillbeto

use.Seethebelowrubricforanexample(fromadifferentsituationotherthan

school).

Whilethismockrubricissilly(itisaboutsandwichmaking),intheteachingof

writingoursquaresmightincludelanguagesuchasAssignmentAdherence;Ability

toFocusonaMainPoint;SuccesswithOrganization;AbilitytoSupportanArgument

withAdequateEvidence.

RUBRICOFASANDWICHContributedBy:KelseyPhilips

Thissandwichreceiveda4(aboveaveragegrade)basedontheiraveragedscore

TASTE APPEARANCE

12345 12345

5.Tastebudsarestraightupraginginyourmouth;

dancinglikethere’snotomorrow

4.Yourtastebudsmingleandgettheirgrooveonin

yourmouth

3.Thesetastebudsaretheawkwardkidsattheparty;

notmakingmuchofaruckusbutatleasttheyshowed

up

2.Thesmelly-kidoftastebudsshoweduptothe

“tasteparty”andisstartingtorunhisB.O.alloverthe

mouth

1.Thissandwichtasteslikeithasbeenatahot,

sweatyparty…foraweek…thenthesmelly-kidoftaste

budsrolledaroundonit

5.Thisthingwassculptedbythegods;ithasperfectly

layeredingredientswithbeautifulproportions

4.Thelayeringofingredientsonthissandwichlooks

prettytasty;didyourmommakeitforyou?

3.Asliceofcheddarisfallingoutofthesidebutthe

generalstructureofthesandwichisstillsound

2.Thetoppieceofbreadhascompletelyfallenoffthe

product;didyourlittlesistermakeitforyou?

1.Thissandwichhasbeensittinginabackpackall

day—it’sallsmashed,disorganizedandsad

SMELL TEXTURE

12345 12345

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5.Thefresharomacomingoffofthissandwichis

unlikeanyother;it’slikethebestsmellingperfumein

theworld…andyougettoeatit

4.Thesandwichissendingsweetscentsoutofthe

kitchen

3.Thesmellofday-oldbreadispresentonthe

sandwichandthescentofmeatisslightlytoostrong

2.Aftersmellingthissandwich,IfeellikeIjustwalked

pastadumpsteronthestreet

1.Aftersmellingthissandwich,IfeellikeIjustfeel

intoadumpsteronthestreet—andlivedtherefor

threedays

5.IfYingandYangwereeverrepresentedinanedible

form,itwouldbethissandwich.Itistheperfect

combinationoftoastybread,moist,mouthwatering

meatsandmeltedcheese

4.Texture-wisethissandwichlooksprettyawesome,

thebreadmaybealittlecrumblybutitwon’tstopyou

fromdiggingin!Meatandcheesearegood.

3.Themeatisfeelingalittlemorelikejerkythan

turkey,butthecheeseisstillsatisfactory.Breadistoo

dry.

2.Wastheresupposedtobesomethingfuzzyinthe

middleofthatbite?Meatisdryandcheeseismoldy;

breadisburnt.

1.Thisthingiseitherhardasarock,ormushyasa

bowlofgrits,buteitherwayI’velostmyappetite.

Neithermeat,norcheese,norbreadisup-to-par.

5=A;Excellent4=B;AboveAverage3=C;Average2=D;BelowAverage1=F;Unacceptable

Eachofthefourcategorieswillbescoredonasystembrokendowninto5requirements;thesewill

beaveragedintoafinalscore(1-5).

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EfficiencyTipforweek#5:Don’taskstudentstowashrentalcars.Inother

words,createauthenticassignmentsratherthanassignmentsthatdon’tserve

ameaningfulpurposerelativetocoursegoals.

“Authentic”assignmentsarethosethataskstudentstoengageinarealrhetorical

taskorinamock-upofarealrhetoricaltask.Arealrhetoricaltaskisonethata

personislikelytoencounterinpotentialpersonalorprofessionalinteractions.

Authenticassignments,ormock-upassignments,usuallyframethewritingtask

withinthecontextofarealaudience/realwriterinteraction.Arealwriterroleisa

perspectivefromwhichawriterpositionshimorherselfrelativetoanaudience.

Forexample,ifagoalinachemistryclassisforstudentstounderstandconceptsof

chemicalflammability,anassignmentmightaskstudentstopretendtheyhavebeen

hiredtotalktoaclassofstructuralfire-fighters(intraining)aboutthecombustion

hazardsofcertainchemicals.Anauthenticassignmentisoneinwhichthe

demonstrationofknowledgeiscontextualizedbyarealworldscenario.Itis

importantwhenusingauthenticassignmentstorecognizethatstudentscannot

pretendtobeexpertsinafieldiftheyarestillstudentsinthatfield(sotherolethey

playaswritermightneedtobemodifiedtoacknowledgetheirlimitations).

Authenticassignmentsdiscourageplagiarismbecausetheuniquenessofthe

audience/roleofwriterframelimitsthepossibilitythatthispaperhasalreadybeen

writtenbysomeoneelse(and,asaresult,availabletoeasydownload).

BasicAssignmentDesignGuidance:

Usually,acoursebeginswithteachingavocabularyforthatparticulardiscipline(or

levelofthediscipline)andmovestowardaskingstudentstoexercisethat

vocabularywithinasetofmorecomplexcognitivetasks(application,synthesis,

analysis).

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Writingisbestusedwhenyouaredeterminingtheabilityofstudentsto

contextualizeacertainvocabularywithincomplexcognitivetasks(comprehension,

application,synthesis,analysis,evaluation,creation).Usingwritingtotest

vocabularyortotestthefactsofaparticularfieldofstudyisnotwrongorharmful,

butitistimeconsumingtorespondto.

Whenyoubegindesigningawritingassignment:

1.)Beclearaboutwhetheryouareusingyourassignmentprimarilytogivestudents

practiceorprimarilytotestperformance.

2)Knowtheskillsorgroupofskillsyouareteachingthroughpracticeoraretesting

forthroughperformance.

3.)Knowyourvaluesrelativetothethingsyouareteachingand/ortesting.

• Ifyouareusingwritingtogivestudentspractice,Whatis/arethemost

importantconcept(s)youaretryingtoteachbyusingwritingasthevehicle

forpractice?

• Ifyouareusingwritingtogivestudentspractice,Doyouhavearesponse

strategythatisconsistentwiththegoalsofyourteachingandthatclearly

considersthedifferencebetweennoticingstudentprogressthroughpractice

andevaluatingthatprogressorproficiencywithscoresorgrades?

• Ifyouareusingwritingtotest,Whatskillsarethemostimportantfor

studentstodemonstratetheyhavelearned?

• Ifyouareusingwritingtotest,Isthereahierarchyofvaluesrelativetothe

skillsyouaretestingfor?

• Ifyouareusingwritingtotest,Areyoutestingonlyforskillsthatyouare

teachingorhavetaught,orareyoualsotestingforskillsstudentsare

expectedtoalreadyknow?(Forexample,foundationalprinciplesfrom

previousorpre-requisitecoursesorgrammaticalandlanguageconventions

learned(ideally)inpriorschooling.)

Efficiencytipforweek#6:Peerreviewcanwork,butonlyifitisscaffolded

withinstructionsthatservetodeveloptheskillsover-time.

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Peerreviewcanwork.Itusuallydoesn’t,however.Thereasonpeerreviewdoesn’t

workisthatstudentsareaskedtocompleteanevaluativetaskonapeer’spaper

beforetheyfullyunderstandwhatconstitutesgoodwriting.

ThefollowingguideshowsthepeerreviewprocessthroughthelensofBloom’s

Taxonomy.

Whileusingthetaxonomytostructurepeerreviewisbeingproposedasbest

practice,noneofthesuggestedverb-drivendirectivesareofferedas“bestpractice;”

theyareofferedasrandomexamplesofhowtheverbsinthetaxonomycanmake

useofthelevelsofcognitivecomplexityinthepeerreviewprocess.

Level1isthelevelatwhichbeginnerscouldbeintroducedtothisprocess.

Level6isthelevelofexpertsandthereforeisnolongerinthearenaofpeerreview,

asitsevaluativefunctionindicatesauthoritative,ratherthanpeer,review.

Step#1:Havestudentsexchangepapers(eitherinpersonoronline)Step#2:Decidewhetherornotyouwantyourpeerreviewprocesstomoveupthelevelsofcognitivecomplexityovertime(witheachpeerreviewsessiondealingwithonlyoneortwocategoriesfromthehierarchy),orifyouwanttomoveupthehierarchyinonesessionbyhavingeachdirectivefortheprocessdealingwithaspectsofeachcategory.Step#3:Fromthefollowinglistofverbs,chooseactionsforstudentstoengageinthatbringtotheattentionoftheirpeersaspectsoftheirpaperstheymightnototherwisenotice.PeerReviewatLevel1ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingknowledge)IdentifyIndicateLabelListSelectUnderlineLocate

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CircleHighlightExamples:

• IdentifyandList:o Thethesisstatemento Thecalltoactionintheconclusiono Thecatchylead

• Locateandunderline:o Sentenceswherethewriterusespassivevoiceo Sentenceswherethewriterusesactivevoiceo Alltheverbsthatareusedonlyonetimeonthefirstpage

• Locateandcircle:o Anywordsyounoticethataremisspelled.

• Selectandhighlight(inblue,ingreenetc.):o Anycompoundorcomplexsentencesthatre-statethethesis.o Anywordsthatareusedmorethan5timesinonepage.

PeerReviewatLevel2ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingcomprehension)ClassifyDescribeDiscussExplainParaphraseRecognizeRestateSummarizeTellRecordExamples:

• Paraphraseandrecord(writedown)thewriter’sthesisasitiscurrentlystated.

• Restateandrecordthewriter’sthesisinyourownwords.

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• Summarize(writedown)yoursenseofwhatthispaperisaboutintwotothreesentences.

• Classifythepaper’s“genre”type(isitpersuasive,orinformative,orboth?)

andexplainthischoice.

• Tellwhatyoulearnedfromreadingthispaperthatyoudidn’talreadyknow.

• Describetheevidenceyouseebeingusedtosupporttheideasinthepaper.PeerReviewatLevel3ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingapplication)ConstructInterpretOrganizePredictTraceExamples:

• Constructacounterthesistowhatyouseeasthewriter’sthesis.• Interpretwhoanaudiencemightbeforthisinformationorargument• Predicthowtheintendedaudiencemightreceivethisinformationor

argument.• Organizeandtellthewriteryourthoughts(inaparagraph)aboutwhyyou

thinktheaudiencemightreceivethisinformationthisway.• Tracethelogicorprogressionoftheargumentthroughareverseoutline

PeerReviewatLevel4ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showinganalysis)CompareContrastCategorizeInventoryInspectQuestionExamples:

• Compareyourpeer’sresponsetotheassignmentwiththedirectionsfortheassignment.

• Contrastyourpeer’sresponsetotheassignmentwiththedirectionsfortheassignment.

• Inventorythesentencesinthepaperandcategorizethemaccordingtothe6sentencetypesavailableintheEnglishlanguage.

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• Inspectthepaperforpossiblegrammaticalorcitationmistakes.• Questionthewriteraboutaspectsofthepaperthatyoudonotunderstand.

PeerReviewatLevel5ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingsynthesis)

FormulateComposeArrangeProposePreparePlanExamples:• Formulateaplanofactionthatyourpeermightundertaketoaddressnext

stepsinhisorpaper.• Composethatplanintoalistofbulletedsuggestions.• Arrangethatlistinahierarchyofhardesttoeasiestormostimportantto

least.

ReviewatLevel6ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingevaluation).Noticethatevaluationatthislevelisnotanactivityforpeers.Thereasonforthisisthatwhatseparatespeersfromsubordinatesandauthoritiesispowertojudge,rank,scoreorgrade.

AppraiseAssessDecideEstimateEvaluateJudgeRankGradeMeasureScoreExamples:

• Estimatetheamountofworkthatthepapermightneedinordertogetan

improvedscore.

• Decideifthisdraftisbetterthanthelastdraft,andifso,evaluatethedegreetowhichitisimproved.

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• Compareyourpeer’spapertoanotherpaperofapeer(evenyourownperhaps)andjudgewhichisbetter.

• Select3papersfromthepeerreviewprocessandranktheminorderof

ascending(ordescending)quality.

• Appraisethequalityofyourpeer’sworkaccordingtothestandardsyouthinkitwillbemeasuredby,andthenassesstheworkwithahypotheticalgrade.

• ExampleofPeerReviewthatmovesupthehierarchyisonesession:

• IdentifyandListthethesisstatement(showingknowledgeofwhatathesisstatementis)

• Restatethethesisinyourownwords(showingcomprehensionofthethesisstatementusedinthepaper)

• Constructacounter-thesis(showingapplicationofone’scomprehensiontoadifferentproblem)

• Inventorythepointsthatsupportthethesisandinspectforsupportthatmightbemissing(showingtheabilitytoanalyze)

• Proposefurtherevidencethatmightneedtobegatheredtosupportthethesis(showingtheabilitytosynthesizetheinformation).

Efficiencytipforweek#7:Ateacherisnotthesameasapublicaudience.A

teacheristheonewhopreparesthestudenttointeractwithapublicaudience

byprovidingopportunitiesforpractice.Theteachercanguidethestudent

throughthepolishingforpublicationstage,andtheteachercanactas

“authenticaudience”forapublishedpiece(orapieceturnedinforagrade),

butthegoaloftheteacher(ascomparedtothegoalofapublicaudience)isto

assistintheimprovementofthepresentationratherthanmerelyjudgethe

qualityofthatpresentation.

Noticeyourownbehaviorandexpectationsrelativetoanypublicpracticethatyou

engagein(exercise,dance,music,art,sports):Howmanyoftheseinstancesare

instancesofpracticeratherthanofperformance?Whatkindsofcommentsdoyou

26

findhelpfulwhenyouarepracticing?Howisthatdifferentfromthecommentsyou

findhelpfulwhenyouareperforming?Theanswerstothesequestionswillhelpyou

decidesomeimportantthingsaboutyourvaluesrelativetothedifferencebetween

practiceandtesting.

Writing,whenusedasavehicletogivestudentspracticewithideageneration

and/orexploration,usestheblankpageasanintellectualspaceforexperimentation

andfortheevolutionandrevolutionofthinking.Aswithanyspaceandtimeused

predominatelyfordiscoveryandexperimentation(ascomparedtoformal

presentationandproduction),freedomandcreativityisencouragedover

conformitytoconvention.

Ifyouareusingwritingtogivestudentspracticewithformandconvention,keepin

mindthedifferencebetweenpracticeandperformance.Writingthatisusedtogive

studentspractice—evenifitispracticewithformandconvention--mustbe

revisablebasedonteacherandpeercommentary;itistheprocessofpracticing

multipleiterationsofsomething(draftsthatreceiveformativeresponse)that

ideallyimprovesstudentperformance(Kellogg&Whiteford,2009;Stiggins,2012).

Teacher(and/orpeer)feedbackonwritingthatisusedtogivestudentspractice

shouldbeformative(instructional),andfocusonhowthethinkingand/or

discoveriesdemonstratedwithinstudents’writingcanbechallenged,changed,

furtheredorimproved(Angelo&Cross,1993;Bean,2011;Stiggins,2012).Good

feedbackonstudents’practicewritingcontainsquestionsrelevanttothetopic

underconsideration,givesguidanceformakingmorelogicalintellectual

connections,andmightprovidecommentaryonthequalityofevidenceusedto

defendtheassertionsmadeintheexploration.Goodresponsefocusesona

hierarchyofassignmentvalues,“Toputresponsesinsequenceaccordingtoa

hierarchyofconcernsreducesthelikelihoodthatastudentwillconfuserevising

witheditingorproofreading,andallowshertoworktowardbetterproseviaa

seriesofmanageabletasks,attainablegoals”(Horvath,1984).

27

Goodresponsetopracticeisalsocarefulnottodrawprematureconclusionsorlevel

evaluativespeculationsonwhathasnotyetenteredthearenaof“polishingfor

publication.”

Polishingforpublicationmeansthatthepieceofstudentwritingisnolongerinthe

expressivestagebuthasenteredastagewhereitbeginstostandonitsownasa

performance.Itisinthisstagethatthefeedbackreceivedbyexternalaudiences

focusesonpresentationandnotonexploration.Itisatthestageoftheperformance

whereitcanbeassumedthatthethinkingprocessisover(ifsuchathingever

happens),andthattheeffectivepresentationofthethoughtbecomesthepriority.It

isatthisstagethatthestudentmustbecomeawareofthepublic-nessofthe

performance.

Onceapieceofwritinghasbeenpolishedforpublication(thisincludesgivingittoa

teacherforagrade),theresponsestrategychangesfromformativetosummative.

Summativewritingassessmentispresentedintheformofagradedfinalassignment

andin-classgrades;itishighlyevaluativeandfocusesalmostentirelyonthe

demonstrationofskillacquisition.Summativewritingassessmentexists“outsideof

acontextinwhichastudentmightimprovehisorherwork”becauseassessors

“considerastudenttextfinishedanditsvaluefixed”(Huot,2002,p.167).

Intermsofassigninggradesandvaluestostudentwork,wediscourageteachers

fromusinga100pointscaletoevaluatestudentwriting.Theevaluationofwriting

isalwayssomewhatsubjective,nomatterhowhardwetrytomakeitotherwise,

anda100-pointscaleimpliesafinelytunedquantification.Ifyoucannoteasily

explaintoastudentthedifferencebetweenand85andan87onapieceofwriting,

youarebetteroffusingamoregrossmotorscale.Thefive-pointscale(A-F)ora10

pointscaleismorereflectiveofthegrossmotorrealityofevaluatingwriting.

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Efficiencytipforweek#8:Functionandformarerelated,butfunctionismore

importantifyouhavetoprioritizeoneofthem.Thismeansthatifyouare

pressedfortimeandresourcesinevaluatingwriting,prioritizethefunction

overtheform(unlessthefunctionistheform).

Ideally,functionandformworktogethertocreatenotonlyaworkingsystem,butan

elegantone.However,insituationsoflimitedtimeandresources,wesometimes

havetochoosetoprioritizeoneovertheother.Anexampleofthismightbeusing

anadult-sizedwoolgloveasababyhatifcaughtinsnowandwindwithouttheright

wintergearforyourkid.Thebabywill,ofcourse,lookridiculouswiththeglove-

fingerssproutingaboveitsheadlikeacock’scomb,butitsheadandearswillbe

covered.Anotherexampleofthisismydriveway.Itissosteepthatwhencovered

withsnowandiceitisonlypassableonfootifyouhavecrampons,Yak-Traxoran

ice-pick--unlessitismodifiedwithsaltandsand.Assomeonewhoappreciates

beingabletogettomyhouseinthewinterwithoutmountainclimbinggear,Iprefer

thesandandsaltstrategy.Myspousecomplainsthatsaltandsandwrecktheform

ofourdrive-way(andourentryway)bycreatingpock-marksandscratches.I,of

course,amrightthatgettingtothehousemakesmoresense(evenifitmeansour

drivewayerodesintoanuglypittedconcretesurface)thanfreezingtodeath

admiringthe“like-new”lookofslickcement.

Writingisthesameway.Themostimportantthingwithwritingisthatitservesthe

functionitisbeingcreatedfor.Ifitisbeingusedtoshowmasteryofthecontentof

thediscipline,orifitisbeingusedprimarilytoposeandsolvenewproblems,the

effectivenessofthosefunctionsareworthmorethantheelegance,oreventhe

correctness,oftheprose.However,ifitsfunctionistodelightwithitsaesthetic

integrity(asinpoetryorliterature),theneleganceandcorrectnessarethefunction

andmustbethepriority.

Efficiencytipforweek#9:Beself-reflectiveaboutyourpedagogyand

29

bewillingtomakesomeminortweaks(slow,smallsolutions)inyourpractice.

Consideriftherearemoresubstantialchangesyoumightmakeforyour

futureteaching.

Usethisspacetobrainstormtake-awaysfromtheconversationsinthebrownbag

series.Whataresmallthingsyoumightchangeinyourcurrentteaching?Whatare

somebiggerchangesyoumightbewillingtotacklenextsemester?

FinalThoughts:

Thereareresourcestosupportyouinteachingwriting(andinusingwritingto

teach).However,atthecollegelevel,noaccesssiteorinstructionalagencycan

improveincomprehensiblewritingskillsinasemester.Writingisaprocess,andit

takesyearsofpractice.

Inthecaseofnon-nativespeakers,somestudentsmightneedsupplemental

instructionintheformofanadditionalcourse,orasetofcourses,thatfocus

specificallyonlanguageimprovement.Whileitisnotyourresponsibilitytoensure

studentstakethesecourses,itisimportanttobeawareofwhatservicesorcourses

areavailabletohelpyourstudents.

TheAccessCenter:

InthecaseofstudentswithlearningdifferencesordisabilitiesWSUhasanAccess

Center.TheAccessCenterwillsetstudentsupwithAccessAdvisorstoassistthem.

http://accesscenter.wsu.edu/

TheWSUWritingCenter:

TheWritingCenterisavaluableresourceforsupportingstudentswithwriting

skills.TheWritingCenteremployspara-professionalpeertutorstoworkwith

nativeandnon-nativespeakersateveryphaseofthewritingprocess(pre-writing,

drafting,re-writing).TheWritingCenterisawalk-inserviceopentoallWSU

students.

30

http://universitycollege.wsu.edu/units/writingprogram/units/writingcenter/unde

rgrad/

31

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