MSc in Finance and International Business Author: Andrej Zgur Student Number: 272671 Academic Advisor: Mr. Kurt Pedersen December 2007 The economy of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries A.D. An examination of market capitalism in the Roman economy
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MSc in Finance and International Business
Author: Andrej Zgur Student Number: 272671
Academic Advisor: Mr. Kurt Pedersen
December 2007
The economy of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries A.D. An examination of market capitalism in the Roman economy
ROMAN MONEY ................................................................................................................................20
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................20 ROMAN CURRENCY & HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT ...............................................................................22
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................22 Historic Overview .........................................................................................................................24 Non-Roman Currency within the Roman Empire .........................................................................25
ROMAN MONEY SUPPLY.....................................................................................................................27 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................27 Availability of Metals....................................................................................................................27 Metals used as Currency...............................................................................................................29 Velocity of Circulation..................................................................................................................31
Conclusion for Roman Money Supply...........................................................................................36 THE RELATIVE VALUE OF ROMAN MONEY ........................................................................................37
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................37 Reasoning Behind Debasements ...................................................................................................38 Perception of Value.......................................................................................................................40
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 40 Counter-Example ..................................................................................................................................... 41 Exploration of Relative Value.................................................................................................................. 43 Exchange Rates Among Denominations .................................................................................................. 45
CURRENCY & MONETIZATION............................................................................................................47 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................47 Monetization in Cities ...................................................................................................................48 Monetization Theory Problems.....................................................................................................49 Monetization & Inflation...............................................................................................................51 Errors in Monetization Calculations ............................................................................................52 Monetization in Rural Areas .........................................................................................................55
ROMAN LABOUR ..............................................................................................................................57
3
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................57 ROMAN SLAVERY...............................................................................................................................58
Slavery & Capitalism....................................................................................................................58 Importance of Roman Slavery.......................................................................................................61
ROMAN LABOUR AND SHARES OF WORKFORCE .................................................................................70 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................70 Three Sector Hypothesis ...............................................................................................................71 Urbanization & Agricultural Sector Share ...................................................................................73
ROMAN LABOUR MARKET..................................................................................................................80 Definitions.....................................................................................................................................80 Wage Work....................................................................................................................................82 Labour Mobility ............................................................................................................................90 Further Info on Labour & Employment & Roman law.................................................................93
ROMAN PRIMARY SECTOR.........................................................................................................110
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................110 RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL LABOUR BACKGROUND ......................................................................110
Slavery from an agricultural perspective....................................................................................110 Agricultural Workforce...............................................................................................................115
ROMAN SECONDARY SECTOR...................................................................................................152
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................152 HIDDEN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION IN AGRICULTURE.......................................................................156 INDUSTRIAL SECTORS.......................................................................................................................158
Construction................................................................................................................................172 Roman Roads & Waterways .................................................................................................................. 173
Roman Roads.................................................................................................................................... 174 Roman Waterways............................................................................................................................ 178
‘Other’ Public Construction ................................................................................................................... 179 Aqeuducts & Sanitation .................................................................................................................... 180 Other ‘Public’ Construction & Manpower........................................................................................ 182
Roman Mining.............................................................................................................................187 Ownership, Financing & Labour............................................................................................................ 188 Mining Technology & Output................................................................................................................ 193 Output of precious metals in 2nd/3rd century A.D. .................................................................................. 195
ROMAN TERTIARY SECTOR .......................................................................................................199
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................199 STATE & MILITARY & BUREAUCRACY.............................................................................................199 ROMAN MILITARY............................................................................................................................199
Economy of the Military ........................................................................................................................ 200 Military Costs......................................................................................................................................... 206
Roman Emperor and State ..........................................................................................................207 The Emperor’s fiscus and the state’s aerarium ...................................................................................... 208
Roman State Income & Expenditure ...........................................................................................218 State Income........................................................................................................................................... 219 State Expenditure ................................................................................................................................... 222
TRADE ..............................................................................................................................................225 Overview of Roman Trade ..........................................................................................................227
Roman Shipping..................................................................................................................................... 228 Shipping Costs, Sizes, Capacities ..................................................................................................... 229 Structure of Roman Shipping & Associations .................................................................................. 232
Land Trade ............................................................................................................................................. 236 Roman Markets and Merchants ..................................................................................................239 Roman internal trade ..................................................................................................................241 Roman External Trade................................................................................................................243
Institutional Moneylenders & Public Banks........................................................................................... 272
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A possible Roman State Bank................................................................................................................ 278 Temples.................................................................................................................................................. 285 Roman Corporations (Societates Publicanorum).................................................................................... 286
Types of Loans & Interest Rate...................................................................................................296 Types & Purposes of loans..................................................................................................................... 297
Interest Rates.......................................................................................................................................... 307 Roman Debt & Bankruptcy.................................................................................................................... 312
Roman Accounting ......................................................................................................................316
INFLATION AND GDP ....................................................................................................................324
ROMAN INFLATION...........................................................................................................................324 ROMAN GDP....................................................................................................................................330
As is evident, there is a clear increase not only in denarii, but also in the total amount
of silver or gold the soldiers would be receiving if they could somehow directly
translate the denarii into either of the precious metals. Judging from this, it would
seem that the real worth of the pay was truly increasing, but it is hard to judge without
any additional numbers from a common basket of goods. Regarding this topic, an
interesting but also slightly confusing side-note, is observed by Reece who claims that
the “price of gold, as quoted in denarii, leads on to the purchasing power of gold
which seems to have stayed remarkably stable throughout the Roman inflation…the
cost of a soldier, or military pay, is likewise fairly stable if judged in terms of
gold.”1236 The quote is confusing, obviously from the fact that in terms of gold the
salary was actually increasing, which can be inferred from the larger amounts of gold
being received. Even if Reece’s method of comparing the number of denarii in terms
of 1 libra of gold is conducted, as depicted in the following table (Table 13), it
becomes clear that the soldiers were definitely getting more gold (except for the
period between 84 and 197 A.D.).
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Table 13
Date Silver/Gold Exchange
Ratio
# of denarii in terms of 1
libra of gold
Augustus 11.92 1001
84 A.D. 11.48 1125
197 A.D. 5.89 1124
212 A.D. 5.97 1250
As such, it is unclear what Reece is referring to, although he is most probably
focusing more on the 3rd century A.D.
The findings of the calculations have raised more questions than they have answered.
It seems that not only was the monetary inflation matched by an increase of
theoretical gold and silver which the money could be translated into, but both silver
and especially gold, show a clear increase beyond purely matching levels. The only
unsurprising aspect is the silver to gold exchange ratio which clearly shows the
appreciating value of silver in terms of gold, as mentioned in the money section. For
now the answer to the inflation question will be left open, as other examples of
inflation will be examined.
According to Temin and Kessler, citing Rickman, wheat “prices at Rome were subject
to slow inflation…a view that has been supported by Duncan-Jones.”1237 In more
detail: “Rickman argued that the price of wheat at Rome was between three and four
HS per modius in the late Republic, rising to five to six HS in the early Empire.
Duncan-Jones confirmed the general price level; Rathbone confirmed the inflation, at
least for Egypt”1238 The inflation of the wheat price from the Republic into the
Principate seems to have been also evident in the salaries as well, as mentioned by
Bartomsky: “If we suppose that he [an average labourer] was able to find employment
on 350 days of the year, his earnings would be 1,050 sesterces per annum at 3
sesterces a day. Similarly, Well’s supposition of a wage of 4 sesterces a day in the
first century A.D., would have meant an annual income of 1,400 sesterces for 350
days’ work.”1239 Not only Rome, but also Egypt seemed to have experienced
inflation, according to Zelener: “The rate of inflation that can be calculated primarily
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from Egyptian price data is between .5% and 1%, not incomparable to the .5% rate of
inflation during the medieval price revolution. However, inflationary tendencies seem
to intensify in the late second and for much of the third century, suggesting that the
demographic explanation is not applicable in this case [(in reference to the loss of life
from the plague)].”1240 Even more evidence is mentioned by Goldsmith (most
probably for Egypt, but not entirely clear): “The only price index that has been found
puts the increase between the reign of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, i.e. for a
period of about 25 years, at between seven and 13 percent…i.e. at between 0.3 and
0.5 percent per year. It is likely that the average for the 150 years before the reign of
Antoninus was considerably smaller. The sharp increase in prices started only, and
suddenly, at the close of the second century AD, but then may have tripled the price
level within 30 years.”1241
Even though these examples cannot be entirely relied upon for purposes of
discovering the truth behind inflation, they do at least show that there was some form
of inflation - even from the time of the Republic entering into the Principate - and that
it definitely increased at the end of the 2nd century A.D. The inflation and ensuing
debasements from the time of Marcus Aurelius are easier to understand because they
marked the beginning of a period of ‘constant’ external pressure from possible
barbarian incursions (and by the mid-end 3rd century internal battles were a factor
too), which meant that state expenditure would have raised significantly and trade
would have probably suffered due to the ‘warlike’ times. The only question of worth
relates to the time between 165 A.D. and the barbarian incursions, as it is the time
period of the plague. The fact that the plague killed so much of the population should
have caused an increase in prices, and yet Goldsmith claims that from the reign of
Antoninus Pius to Marcus Aurelius, which corresponds exactly to this time-period,
inflation was at 0.3 to 0.5% a year: this is actually not much more different from the
previous century and a half. Looking at the silver currency between 165 A.D. and
180 A.D. there is actually no change (in fact for a brief period from 168-170, the
purity was increased to 82% before dropping down again to 165 A.D. levels of 79%).
It seems as if the plague hardly affected the economy at all in terms of inflation and
debasements, and yet several million are supposed to have died (not to mention how
many must have been sick). The answer must probably lie in the cessation and drastic
decline of mining during that period. In essence, the sudden jump in supply of
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currency per capita due to the deaths of so many people was probably offset by the
equally sudden drop in mining. In the short term this seems to be what happened;
however, in the long term, especially once the barbarians started encroaching on
Roman soil, the economy found itself in trouble as it had effectively not only lost
taxpayers, (thereby a decrease in taxes) but it also experienced a significant decline in
the output of precious metals while state expenditure was about to increase as a result
of the extended defensive military campaigns. As such it is once more clear,
generally speaking for the time period in question, that there is little evidence of
inflation harming the economy and only ‘drastic’ events forced the economy to enter
into a heavy spiral downwards.
However, this is not to claim that all parts of the economy were running perfectly.
Irrespective of the fact that the vast majority of the provinces seemed to be
experiencing their economic peaks during the 2nd century A.D., Italy was having
problems during this period. Furthermore, as this paper has implied, there seems to
have been some ‘general’ economic problems towards the end of Hadrian’s reign;
however, due to the uncertainty of exact timing it could have corresponded to the
period as early as the time of the plague. The point to remember, however, especially
in light of what has been discovered in this section, is that even if there were some
economic problems before the plague struck then they could have resembled the
problems that occur in the cycles of any economic system – there could have even
been a momentary downward cycle - but to fully explore this issue would go beyond
the tenets of this paper.
As a side-note and as a reminder, the discussion here is purely an exercise, because
calculating inflation on the basis of military salaries is nigh to impossible which is
partially due to the ‘hidden’ subventions (and the lack of equivalent prices for a
‘basket of goods’), and partially due to the fact that if another table was to be
constructed to show how the debasement affected the amount of silver over a yearly
time-span and not only when the salaries were increased, it would show a different
pattern. For example, between Augustus and before Domitian increased the salary to
300 denarii, when the purity of silver was at 90% in the year 81 A.D., this would have
only corresponded to 680 grams of silver, which is some 200 grams less than what
was the case at the time of Augustus or when Domitian increased the salary. Even in
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terms of gold, as far back as from 64 A.D., the soldiers would have been receiving
some 10 grams of gold less. This aspect is interesting to note since according to
Goldsmith; “Given the political strength of the military it is most unlikely that they
would have stood for any noticeable reduction in their real pay and hence in their
standard of living.”1242 It is clear, however, that in terms of both gold and silver and
for a period of some 20 years (from Nero’s reform), the soldiers were receiving ‘less’:
why would they have accepted such an ‘obvious’ loss over such a long period? One
answer is naturally subventions; however, as the Roman military section shows, there
is little evidence of subventions between the period of Nero and Domitian. However,
during this period the sanitization efforts conducted by Vespasian lend credulity to the
whole issue since the real wages would have probably dropped as a result of all of the
damage to the economy which the civil war inflicted. In general, however, there was
probably no attempt to actually have the monetary salary completely correspond in a
constant manner to the theoretical amount of precious metals since the currency was
fiduciary to a certain extent - as explained in the ‘Money’ section. As long as there
was some sort of ‘relative’ attempt to keep the monetary salary connected to the
changes in precious metals, the system would have functioned. This aspect is easily
attested for since the population did not have any problems using the silver coins until
the 3rd century A.D.; however once again, it is hard to conclude anything from such
scant evidence.
Roman GDP In a similar regard to calculations of inflation, calculations of GDP or GNP are
virtually impossible to conduct with the scant evidence available. Attempts have
certainly been made, and they will also be made here; however, once again this will
serve more as an exercise which will try to clear up some confusion or to raise the
right questions, rather than an actual attempt to prove any specific value, because it
falls outside of the scope of this thesis to do so. For reference purposes, some
examples of attempts to calculate the GDP/GNP will be mentioned:
Goldsmith calculates that the total aggregate national product at the time of
Augustus’s death (14 A.D.) is 20 billion sestertii, which according to his population
count of 55 million, corresponds to approximately 400 sestertii per person, or 31g of
gold equivalent.1243 His calculations are based on an attempt to calculate the average
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income and expenditure of an average person. He lists these in the following table
(Table 14):1244
Table 14:
In a similar format, Hopkins also attempts to calculate the GDP for the first century
A.D., by first attempting a minimum GDP calculation in respect to what would be
considered a ‘subsistence’ minimum. Using the population of 54 million, Hopkins
comes to a minimum GDP of some 9 billion HS,1245 and “a guess of actual GDP in
the range of 12-14.5 billion HS.”1246 This corresponds to a minimum GDP per capita
of 166 HS and an actual of 222 to 267 HS.
The next step in GDP calculations is conducted by Zelener, who used Hopkins as the
basis of his calculations, but tries using the Quantity Theory of Money to do so. In
essence Zelenar writes: “Since the Roman economy had limited development in the
secondary and tertiary sectors, the substitution of Y for P and T poses less of a
methodological problem than for modern economies. Initially, this quantity can be set
equal to 12 billion HS, the lower estimate of actual GDP proposed by Hopkins.
Although reconstructions of the Roman coin supply remain problematic since there is
no consensus for the number of coins produced per die, the estimates of Duncan-Jones
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may be assumed to be reasonably close. These amount to 20 billion HS in the mid-
second century, consisting of about 60% in gold, 30% in silver and 10% in bronze.
Gold coins were probably used for transfer payments and large-scale transactions so
only the 8 billion HS in silver and bronze need concern us for the most everyday
transactions…we can designate the silver and bronze coinage as M1 and the
combination of all three types of coinage as M2. This division mirrors the emphasis
on differences in liquidity between the financial assets that constitute the equivalent
measures of money supply in the modern world.”1247 In essence, therefore, according
to the most basic principle of the quantity theory “both money supply and velocity of
circulation relate to nominal GDP [(M x V = nomGDP)]”1248 Zelener, estimates that
in around 160 A.D.(before the plague) in a population figure at around 80 million,1249
the nominal GDP could have been close to 40 billion HS while the real GDP (after
accounting for inflation between .5 and 1%) was around 15 billion HS as inferred
from the graph (Table 15): 1250
Table 15
This corresponds to a nominal GDP per capita of 500 HS and a real GDP per capita of
188 HS.
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The problem with all of these calculations is that they actually seem too low, in
particular both Hopkins and Zelener (not surprising since he used Hopkins as a base).
Goldsmith was probably much closer, and evidence for this arises out of the time of
Vespasian. As already mentioned in the ‘State and Economy’ section, Vespasian
needed some 40 billion HS to sanitize the economy after the civil war, and this figure
proves crucial in trying to calculate the GDP. In essence, Zelener cannot be correct
with his assessment as it is inconceivable that Vespasian required a sum of 40 billion
in 69 A.D just to sanitize the economy as a result of the duress of the civil war
(implying a GDP well in excess of 40 billion), while Zelenar calculates the entire
GDP in 160 A.D. to be 15 billion. Unless the GDP took a massive nosedive during
that period the answer must lie in a different direction. It is naturally possible that the
40 billion HS is a mistake; however, it is a genuine number from antiquity that we do
have and it would be hard to believe that Seuton, even if he chose an inflated number,
would chose a number that is so obviously inflated. More evidence that 40 billion
could be correct comes from the fact that both Sueton and Dio (as evidenced by
Scheidel) mention some 2.7 billion HS found in public (actually possibly imperial)
treasuries in 37 and 161 A.D. respectively.1251 If 2.7 billion HS could actually only
be the money that at some point found its way into a treasury, what does that speak of
the remainder of the economy? It becomes clear that Zelener’s estimate must be too
low, and that Goldmith’s is more likely, as he refers his number to the time of
Augustus (although it would still imply a large growth from a GDP of 20 billion to
Vespasian some 50 years later, requiring 40 billion to sanitize the economy).
It falls outside the scope of this paper to properly calculate the GDP; however, an
attempt to use historical velocity ratios can be made. As Zelenar explains, if the
whole Roman money supply is taken into account (M2) and the velocity if known, an
attempt at a calculation of GDP can occur. The actual velocity in the Roman Empire
is unknown, and it can probably not be calculated. However, in their paper titled:
“The Long-Run Behavior of the Income Velocity of Money in Spain, 1850-2000”,
Carreras and Garcia-Iglesias discover that in terms of V2 income, velocity is much
higher the less advanced and sophisticated the banking system is. For example, “there
is evidence of income velocity around 10-11 range for the United States in the early
1820s…For England the highest level recorded in literature – 9.3 – goes as far back in
the past as 1561…there is room to suggest that the Spanish levels could have also
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been in the range of 10 by the 1830s and the 1840s…The high US levels are related
with a period of acute scarcity of commercial banks – to be solved in the years
immediately afterwards.”1252 More evidence is mentions in that “on the very long
term, V2 declines. It is even possible to stylize the development of V2 as a ‘monetary
transition’, from a regime of high pressure – monetary scarcity – to a regime of low
pressure – monetary abundance. From this angle, the monetary transition could be
considered one more element in economic modernization. The earlier the monetary
transition, the most advanced a country is. To find early high levels for English
velocity is very sensible. They should also come out for eighteenth century France.
The likely Spanish maximum around 1840 is also very much in line with other
evidence pointing to an early start for Spanish economic modernization. The United
States have their maximum in the 1820s, just before the creation of the First and
Second Banks, and the banking boom they triggered.”1253 In essence, this means that
the country or countries closest to Roman sophistication in terms of financial and
banking structure should be examined to get a rough idea of the velocity. Since this
aspect falls outside the scope of this paper, it nonetheless becomes evident that
velocity was at minimum somewhere in the range of 3 to 4 as evidenced by: “Around
1870 the level of the Spanish velocity is between 3 and 4, very similar to some other
countries (Italy, Norway, Japan, and Australia). There are countries like the UK and
France with lower levels (Germany is in between these two groups). Other countries
show higher values: the US, Canada, Sweden, and Denmark. The Spanish series
starts in 1850 at higher levels - between 7 and 8”1254
Multiplying the total money supply of 20 billion HS in 160 A.D. by the velocity of 3
to 4 gives GDP values of 60 to 80 billion HS, which corresponds more closely with
evidence known directly from Roman sources. Naturally, it is not a perfect
calculation and there is a lot of chance for error; however, the method could prove to
be more plausible than previous attempts to calculate GDP. Ultimately, an in-depth
study of direct comparisons between financial structures of various countries are
needed in order to synthesize the correct velocity, and once this occurs it should be
easier to calculate a far better estimate of Roman GDP. One thing, however, is
certain: Roman GDP has been undervalued, and irrespective of the fact that no
conclusive figures have been brought forth, this fact should still be evident.
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Conclusion It should be evident from the research conducted here that during the Principate, the
Roman economy was a capitalistic market economy and that it reached its peak
roughly by the mid-2nd century A.D. A large variety of aspects pertaining to the
economy have been examined, contrasted, and ultimately found to definitely belong
not only to a capitalistic market system, but to one that is comparable with the arising
European capitalistic economic systems of the 17th-19th centuries. Exactly to which
country, and what period in those centuries the Roman economy is most comparable
to, is a question that goes beyond the tenets of this thesis; however, as a general rule it
would depend on the particular aspect of the economy in question: this paper has most
certainly tried to achieve this at various intervals. Furthermore, it is the firm belief
that it is no ‘accident’ that during the centuries after the decline and fall of the Roman
Empire, the regions that tended to exhibit any form of sophistication - be it during the
Renaissance (not named the‘re-birth’ no reason), or even those countries which
attained capitalism first - all of them were in truth former regions (or at least on the
borderlines) of the Roman Empire. In essence, in many regards these regions ‘owe’
their eventual economic sophistication in large part to the work of the Romans (and
the Romans owe it to the Greeks, etc.) irrespective if there was no ‘direct’ link. The
point is that capitalism and the market economy were not ‘discovered’ in the early
modern period: they were simply re-discovered. As such, it is finally time to lay
down the ghost of subsistence to rest and time to understand that from a literary
perspective the Roman economy has generally been undervalued in its sophistication,
and in relation to this, the economies of early modern times overvalued. This is not to
deny the great advances of the Industrial Revolution, but it is imperative to understand
that its arrival took much longer than perceived. Essentially, the Romans were very
possibly ‘flirting’ with industrialization for a while, as neither mechanization (water
power was used to great effect, both in mines and in mills) nor various technologies
(power of steam was known and experimented with) that are perceived crucial to an
industrial revolution, were unknown in the Roman world.
Why the Romans did not industrialize if they had such an economy and most of the
required technology, is a question best left for another research question. In fact, now
that it is clear that the Romans had a capitalistic market economy, far better
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calculations of inflation, GDP, sector share of labour, etc., than this paper has
suggested can be conducted, because the calculations that have until now been
performed by various other authors are usually based on ‘old’ and ‘unyielding’
notions of the inferiority of the Roman economy. Another example could be a full
and detailed examination of all of the market forces at work regarding the decline of
Italy. In relation to this, it is also evident that Rome and Italy were far kinder
‘masters’ than the colonial powers ever were, for no colonial master nation had its
colonies ever either catch up, or surpass, its developments while still being part of the
Empire. Unlike the European nations, the Romans exported both their knowledge and
their capital to the provinces, such that at a certain point a large part of Italian
production was being outcompeted by the provincial production. Perhaps the answer
pertaining to the inability to achieve industrialization lies down this avenue of
thinking, because at the very end of the Republic and during the early Principate, Italy
exhibited the most centralized and largest factories (especially for ceramics), and also
the largest corporations ever known in its history. Instead of ‘centralizing’ even more
and making the factories even bigger, the process of decentralization began and many
workshops came into existence in various places. In consideration of the fact that
there were no or very few barriers to technological, capital, and labour movement
between the Roman provinces, decentralization makes logical sense. It was probably
more profitable for the entrepreneur to open up a branch workshop in another
province with the purpose of either selling locally, or making production cheaper due
to lower standards of living, and send the produce back to Italy rather than to expand
large amounts of capital in the hope of achieving some technological breakthrough
which somebody could copy as result of lacking patent laws.
Yet another possibility for research, and incidentally a question which asks why all of
those researches who ever wondered about the positive and negative sides of a market
economy in contrast to a centrally planned economy, never examined Roman history,
for all the information is there. In essence, Roman history displays both extreme
capitalism and an extreme state planned economy. The formation of market
capitalism from the mid-Republic until the end of the Republic culminated into the
creation of the most rapacious form of capitalism, where society was truly ruled by
the rich senators and the mighty corporations. Then during the Principate, capitalism
is placed under more control, which at the onset definitely aided the economy and
336
allowed the common man and the middle classes to flourish. This control, however,
was generally increased over time, until the Emperor and the state became practically
one and the same. Under Diocletian in 301 A.D. the state began dictating prices for
all goods and services, and then further into the 4th century it even dictated who
worked at which job, as children were forced to work in the same jobs as their
parents. In essence, the Roman economic system displays a shift from one extreme to
the other, and the beautiful aspect about this is that it occurred within the same
country and relatively speaking within the same political system over a long period of
time, which allows for specific research to be conducted. It is not clear why scholars
who discuss the pros and cons of either system have never thought to look at this
unique opportunity.
As is evident, the opportunities for further research are plentiful, and one can always
wonder what would have happened if the Roman economy had not been hit with a
plague that wiped out a significant amount of people, and that possibly also caused the
ensuing incursions by the various tribes. Would the economy which seemed to have
encountered some problems during, or shortly after the reign of Hadrian, been able to
correct itself? Or had it finally reached the level of economic sophistication
insurmountable without an Industrial Revolution? Only time and further research can
tell.
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1 Morris, Ian and Saller, Richard, and Scheidel, Walter “The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World”, pg. 1. 2 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 19-20. 3 Rostovtseff, M (1930) “The Decay of Ancient World and Its Economic Explanations”, The Economic History Review, Vol. 2, No. 2. (Jan, 1930), pg 201 and Moss, H. St. L. B. (1937) “Revisions in Economic History: VI. The Economic Consequences of the Barbarian Invasions”, The Economic History Review, Vol. 7, No.2. (May, 1937), pg 214 arrive to the same conclusion regarding Bücher. 4 Schönberger, Otto and Pleticha, Heinrich (1977) “Die Römer: Geschichte und Kultur von A-Z”, München: Bertelsmann Verlag GmbH & Co, 1977. pg 41, 247. 5 Rostovtseff, M (1930) “The Decay of Ancient World and Its Economic Explanations”, The Economic History Review, Vol. 2, No. 2. (Jan, 1930), pg 201-202 6 I am most certainly aware that the past few decades have seen an unprecedented economic growth and change never before achieved, and that comparisons of this magnitude are actually not truly valid. It is only for the sake of argument that such an over-simplified example has been used. Before the industrial revolution and modern financial ‘revolutions’ the economy certainly didn’t change so rapidly, but to claim that there was no change at all is what I am strictly against, and why the comparison with Germany was made. 7 Answers, Capitalism [Online] Available at www.answers.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 8 Webster’s New Encyclopedic Dictionary “Capitalism”, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Inc., 1993. pg. 144. 9 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 21-24. 10 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 23. 11 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 23. 12 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 29. 13 See, Henri “Modern Capitalism: Its Origin and Evolution”, Batoche Books, Kitchener, 2004. 14 See, Henri “Modern Capitalism: Its Origin and Evolution”, Batoche Books, Kitchener, 2004, pp. 10-11. 15 See, Henri “Modern Capitalism: Its Origin and Evolution”, Batoche Books, Kitchener, 2004, pp. 11. 16 See, Henri “Modern Capitalism: Its Origin and Evolution”, Batoche Books, Kitchener, 2004, pp. 10. 17 In Finley’s defense, he certainly did not only focus on the industrial aspect, but this seemed one of his great points of why the Roman economy was not a capitalist system. 18 Hammond Mason (1946) “Economic Stagnation in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 6, Supplement: The Tasks of Economic History, (May, 1946), pg 69. 19 Hammond Mason (1946) “Economic Stagnation in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 6, Supplement: The Tasks of Economic History, (May, 1946), pg 69-70 20 Hammond Mason (1946) “Economic Stagnation in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 6, Supplement: The Tasks of Economic History, (May, 1946), pg 80. The financial system “was based primarily on hard cash, since the public was not conditioned to accept coinage at a token value, and it did not provide for any extensive system of credit, and particularly not for any long-term debt…so, in finance, expansion was restricted within the available supplies of precious metals.” 21 Wikipedia, Market Economy[Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 22 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 169. 23 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 170. 24 Ironmonger, Duncan “Household Production and the Household Economy”, University of Melbourne, Department of Economics, Research Paper, 2001, pg 3. 25 Ironmonger, Duncan “Household Production and the Household Economy”, University of Melbourne, Department of Economics, Research Paper, 2001, pg 5.
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26 Ironmonger, Duncan “Household Production and the Household Economy”, University of Melbourne, Department of Economics, Research Paper, 2001, pg 11. “A number of scholars have suggested that national accounts needed extending to cover missing non-market household production. Essentially they viewed household production as a missing part of the estimates, not a separate economy. Robert Eisner and colleagues at Northwestern University conducted the most extensive work on these lines in the 1980s. Their research culminated in the book The Total Incomes System of Accounts (1989). Eisner’s estimates for the United States make clear the greatly expanded role, in total economic production, of households. United States GHP in 1981 was put a $1,709 billion, 37.5 per cent of the extended GNP of $4,560 billion.” 27 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 180. Temin concurs with Ironmonger and writes “Eisner calculated that one-third of economic activity in the United States today takes place within households, that is, in householding or reciprocal activity. Taxes also are large in modern societies, typically reaching one-third of marketed output in advanced industrial societies. Yet these clearly are market economies” 28 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 180. “In modern, industrial economies almost no one produces the food that he or she eats or the clothes that he or she wears. In an agricultural economy far more than one-third of economic activity would be carried on within households. If about seventy-five per cent of the population of the Roman Empire was engaged in farming, then it is not unreasonable to suppose that over half of production was carried on by householding, rather than by market exchanges. This does not mean that almost all farmers were autarchic and isolated from market forces, while the surplus to feed urban dwellers was produced by a minority of farms. It means that most of each farm’s activities were devoted to maintaining its workforce. The historical question is how many of these farms were engaged in buying and selling produce, even if these exchanges provided only a small part of the farm’s income” 29 Investodictionary, Closed Household Economy [Online] Available at www.investodictionary.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 30 Rostovtseff, M (1930) “The Decay of Ancient World and Its Economic Explanations”, The Economic History Review, Vol. 2, No. 2. (Jan, 1930), pg 205-206 31 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 104. 32 Babylon, Subsistence Economy [Online] Available at www.babylon.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 33 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 104. 34 Webster’s New Encyclopedic Dictionary “Substistence”, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Inc., 1993. pg. 1031. 35 I honestly have no clue at what multiple of subsistence we exist in nowadays, the number was taken arbitrarily. 36 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 107. 37 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 180. 38 Antonio, Robert J. (1979) “The Contradiction of Domination and Production in Bureaucracy: The Contribution of Organizational Efficiency to the Decline of the Roman Empire”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 44, No. 6. (Dec, 1979), pp. 898. 39 United States Census, Population and Housing Unit Counts Table 4 [Online] Available at www.census.gov/population/censusdata [Accessed 19 December 2007] 40 Krugman, Paul and Obstfeld, Maurice “International Economics: Theory and Policy, 6th ed.” Paul R. Krugman and Maurice Obstfeld, 2003. pp. 358. 41 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 810. 42 Lo Cascio, E. (1981) “State and Coinage in the Late Republic and Early Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71. (1981), pp. 76. 43 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 37. With the empire-wide establishment of a monetary system under Augustus, it commenced a 250 year stretch of remarkable monetary stability.
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44 Lo Cascio, E. (1981) “State and Coinage in the Late Republic and Early Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71. (1981), pp. 77. 45 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 40. 46 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 821. 47 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 42. 48 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 37. Even though most initial research believed that only the cities, larger towns and military locations were monetized, it is increasingly becoming obvious that the rural areas were monetized as well. The question of how monetized the rural areas were, is naturally difficult to answer. 49 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 2. 50 Roman Currency of the Principate, Tulane University [Online] Available at www.tulane.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007] and agreed upon in Jones, A.H.M. (1953) “Inflation under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 5, No. 3. (1953), pp. 294. “Under Augustus the standard silver coin, the denarius, was struck at 84 to the pound, the standard gold coin, the aureus, at 40-42 to the pound, and 25 denarii went into one aureus.” And Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 41. “With the end of the Republic the regular production of a gold piece, the aureus worth 25 denarii, began. The silver fractions of the denarius, which had filled the gap between the denarius and the as, were largely replaced under Augustus by orichalcum multiples of the as, the sestertii and dupondii, which are among the most familiar components of the Roman Imperial coinage.” And Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 36-37. “ During the principate the coins had the relative value of: 1 gold aureus = 25 silver denarius = 100 brass sesterces = 400 copper ass. This was radically changed later in the Principate, especially after Severus Alexander.” 51 Jones, A.H.M. (1953) “Inflation under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 5, No. 3. (1953), pp. 294. and Reece, Richard (1975) “Roman Currency: New Thoughts and Problems”, World Archaeology, Vol. 6, No. 3, Currency. (Feb, 1975), pp. 299. “After the sestertius, the denarius was used when writers quoted sums of money; the sestertius seems to have anticipated its use as a common coin and it seems nearly certain that the denarius continued in accounts long after it had disappeared from the purse. The denarius came to a fairly swift end, as a commonly used coin, after A.D. 200. Inflation, linked with the debasement of the silver, made the denarius of 238 a poor relation, and the denarius of 273 a coppery little coin with perhaps 1% silver.” 52 Roman Currency of the Principate, Tulane University [Online] Available at www.tulane.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007] and Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 25. “Under Sulla, the respective ratio hovered around 9.6-11.7 to 1 (at 28-34 denarii per aureus…3,108-3,774g silver = 323g gold). By 50 BCE, Caesar’s conquest in Gaul had lowered the market price of gold to 750 denarii per pound, for a 8.6 to 1 ratio. The nominal standard for gold and silver coins set in 46 BCE was 1 aureus = 25 denarii, or 1 pound of gold = 1,000 denarii, for a gold/silver ratio of 11.5 to 1. Under Augustus, the aureus was issued in virtually pure gold at 40 to the pound, whereas the denarius continued to be struck at 1/84 pound, its silver content restored to 97.5-98%. Pent-up demand for fractional coinage was met by the brass sestertius (valued at 0.25 denarius or 4 asses). Made of brass (orichalcum) compromised of 75-80% copper and 20-25% zinc, the sestertius weighed 25g (with the 12.5 dupondius as half-piece). The as, at 11g, was struck of pure copper, as was the quadrans (3g). This system suggests a silver/copper ratio of 47 to 1 (176g copper = 3.76g silver). As 77.5g of copper and 22.5g of zinc equaled 3.76g of silver, silver out to have been valued at 10-11 times the price of zinc. Actual base metal market values must have been somewhat lower, to cover production costs and perhaps also to allow for some limited degree of seigniorage.” 53 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 26. 54 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 26. 55 Jones, A.H.M. (1953) “Inflation under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 5, No. 3. (1953), pp. 294.
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56 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 40. Biegel mentions that naturally the other coins also had to keep their relative ratios intact. For example, the copper coins were often changed, partially to correspond to their metallic value, and to keep their value relative to the silver coin, and to keep their nominal worth so that some money could be made from this business. 57 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 26. 58 Roman Currency of the Principate, Tulane University [Online] Available at www.tulane.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007] 59 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 26. 60 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 26. Disagrees on the fiduciary aspect of it. 61 Roman Currency of the Principate, Tulane University [Online] Available at www.tulane.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007] 62 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 11. 63 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 4. 64 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 4. 65 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 8. 66 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 5. 67 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 5. 68 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 5. 69 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 6. and Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 241. mentions that the coinage was highly dependent on reserves of gold and silver. These reserves could decline, or leave beyond the borders. So that through export of capital a certain negative trade balance was achieved 70 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 7. 71 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 8. 72 This is exactly what was inferred initially in the paper, in the sense that the 3rd century had obvious problems and that most scholars agree upon the nature of those, but these problems do not occur magically, they originate from somewhere and obviously the 3rd century is already too late for their origins. 73 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 8. 74 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 8. 75 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 8-9. 76 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 30-31. 77 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 30-31. 78 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 30. 79 Scheidel, Walter “The monetary systems of the Han and Roman Empires”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 30. 80 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 11. “The challenge is to delineate the role of
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the new gold coinage in the economy. It is obvious that gold was suitable for larger transactions and unsuitable for small. Tacitus says that the Germans living nearest the Roman Empire used silver coin because it was more useful for small transactions. The implied contrast is with the use of gold within the Empire for larger transactions.” 81 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 8. 82 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 8-9. 83 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 12. 84 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 9. 85 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 10. 86 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 10. 87 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 241. 88 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 11. 89 Speidel, Alexander M. (1992) “Roman Army Pay Scales”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 88 90 United for a Fair Economy, [Online] Available at www.faireconomy.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 91 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 13. 92 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 14. 93 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 14. 94 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 14. 95 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 15. 96 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 16. 97 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 29 98 Lo Cascio, E. (1981) “State and Coinage in the Late Republic and Early Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71. (1981), pp. 78. 99 Lo Cascio, E. (1981) “State and Coinage in the Late Republic and Early Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71. (1981), pp. 78. 100 Lo Cascio, E. (1981) “State and Coinage in the Late Republic and Early Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71. (1981), pp. 78-79. 101 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 811. 102 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 46. It is important to note that according to Footnote 56 this seems to mainly apply to Republican coins. 103 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 816. 104 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 70. 105 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 109. 106 Lo Cascio, E. (1981) “State and Coinage in the Late Republic and Early Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71. (1981), pp. 79.
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107 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 820. 108 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 43. 109 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 43. writes “Not only were bankers entitled to charge commission for changing bronze for silver, but the exchange-rate varied quite markedly from place to place and time to time.” 110 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 820. 111 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 820-821. 112 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 45. 113 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 45. 114 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 22. writes “No one is likely to assume that the level of coin use was as high in the villages and countryside as it was in the towns. Barter and other forms of redistribution of goods will have had a place alongside monetary exchanges…it was only the remoter areas outside the towns and villages and areas of settled agriculture to which the normal use of coinage as a means of exchange never penetrated.” 115 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 21. 116 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 42-43. 117 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 44. 118 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 17. Also agrees that Pompeii was monetized. 119 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 819. 120 Reece, Richard (1975) “Roman Currency: New Thoughts and Problems”, World Archaeology, Vol. 6, No. 3, Currency. (Feb, 1975), pp. 302. 121 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 44-45. 122 Reece, Richard (1975) “Roman Currency: New Thoughts and Problems”, World Archaeology, Vol. 6, No. 3, Currency. (Feb, 1975), pp. 302-303. 123 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 19. 124 Wikipedia, Semis [Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 125 No real statistics on this phenomenon have been found, but having lived through this time, eyewitness accounts should suffice. 126 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 20. 127 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 20. 128 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 43. 129 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 43-44. 130 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 44. 131 Wikipedia, De Agri Cultura [Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 132 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 16.
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133 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 819. 134 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 20. 135 Reece, Richard (1975) “Roman Currency: New Thoughts and Problems”, World Archaeology, Vol. 6, No. 3, Currency. (Feb, 1975), pp. 302-303. 136 In Reece’s defence, he wrote during the same time as Crawford, but Howgego wrote some 20 years later, by when more archaeological discoveries had been made. This does not however imply that later scholars automatically do a better job, one still has to examine and explain the findings correctly. For example, Reece and Crawford, who wrote during the same time, most probably could have had access to similar findings, and yet Reece was far more careful about passing any judgement on the findings, especially in those areas where little was found. 137 No source has been found that focuses on Rhaetia, and even though its not very scientific, no mention of any ‘monetization’ problems in Rhaetia, it will be assumed that due to its proximity to Italy, it was sufficiently monetized. 138 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 19. 139 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 19. 140 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 7. 141 Von Mises, Ludwig (1979) “Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow”, pp. 105. 142 Wikipedia, Division of Labour [Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 143 Scheidel, Walter “The comparative economics of slavery in the Greco-Roman world”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 2-3. 144 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 13. 145 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 70-71, and agreed upon in De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 304. 146 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 13. In more detail Scheidel, Walter “The comparative economics of slavery in the Greco-Roman world”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 2-3. writes; “The only usable quantitative evidence, gleaned from the census returns of Roman Egypt in the first three centuries AD, yields different percentages for different parts of the country, from 7% in one city in Upper Egypt to 14.7% in the cities of Middle Egypt. None of this can be taken to be representative of conditions in Greece or Italy.” 147 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 270-271. 148 Antonio, Robert J. (1979) “The Contradiction of Domination and Production in Bureaucracy: The Contribution of Organizational Efficiency to the Decline of the Roman Empire”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 44, No. 6. (Dec, 1979), pp. 900. 149 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 271. Taken from footnote 39. 150 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 71. 151 U.S. 1860 census, found on United States Census. 1860 Census: Table 1 [Online] Available at www.census.gov/population/censusdata [Accessed 19 December 2007] 152 Most probably this is no accident, and it could mean that the one-eighth for the entire Roman Empire was estimated by using the U.S. census as a reference. 153 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 179-180. 154 Scheidel, Walter “The comparative economics of slavery in the Greco-Roman world”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 8.
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155 Scheidel, Walter “The comparative economics of slavery in the Greco-Roman world”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 8-9. 156 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 2-3. 157 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 23-24. 158 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 295. De Martino, who was using Alföldy’s work, does however mention that the age of 30 should be taken as a general note, not as exact fact. 159 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 23. 160 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 24. 161 For example; Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 76. 162 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 3. 163 Christain Think Tank, Slavery, under point 8 [Online] Available at www.christian-thinktank.com/qnoslavent [Accessed 19 December 2007] 164 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 3. 165 Christain Think Tank, Slavery, under point 12 [Online] Available at www.christian-thinktank.com/qnoslavent [Accessed 19 December 2007] 166 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 13-14. 167 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 3. 168 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 304. 169 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 13. 170 No real data for Egypt has been found to cement this fact, but general information from all sources for Egypt tends to often mentions urban or household slaves, but almost never rural slaves. Any comments about Egpytian rural areas often tend to mention free farmers/peasants and no slaves. 171 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 13. 172 25% of 75% is equal to 18.75%. 18.75% + 25% = 43.75% 173 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 9. 174 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 208-209. 175 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 198. 176 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 10-12. 177 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 197.
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178 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 10-12. 179 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 177-179. 180 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 17. 181 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 12. 182 All examples,except the last two quotes, come from: http://www.christian-thinktank.com/qnoslavent.html; under points 5 & 6. 183 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 16. 184 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 21. 185 Christain Think Tank, Slavery, under point 6 [Online] Available at www.christian-thinktank.com/qnoslavent [Accessed 19 December 2007] 186 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 72-73. 187 Christain Think Tank, Slavery [Online] Available at www.christian-thinktank.com/qnoslavent [Accessed 19 December 2007] 188 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 72-73. 189 Scheidel, Walter “The comparative economics of slavery in the Greco-Roman world”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 3. 190 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 79. 191 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 197. 192 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 197. 193 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 64. Agreed upon in Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 13-14. 194 Christain Think Tank, Slavery, under point 10 [Online] Available at www.christian-thinktank.com/qnoslavent [Accessed 19 December 2007] 195 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 197. 196 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 65. 197 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 32. 198 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 22. Agreed upon (the freedmen aspect) in Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pp. 88 199 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 9. 200 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 67.
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201 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 18. 202 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 2. 203 For example, De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 189. 204 Von Mises, Ludwig (1979) “Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow”, pp. 105. 205 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 32. 206 Aiginger, Karl “Speed of Change and Growth of Manufacturing”, in Peneder, M., (Coordinator), Aiginger, K., Hutschenreiter, G., Marterbauer, M., Structural Change and Economic Growth, WIFO, Study commissioned by Ministry of Economic and Labour, Wien, 2001.pg 2. 207 Schettkat, Ronald and Yocarini, Lara “A Shift to Services: A Review of the Literature”, Discussion Paper No. 964, December 2003. pg 7. 208 Aiginger, Karl “Speed of Change and Growth of Manufacturing”, in Peneder, M., (Coordinator), Aiginger, K., Hutschenreiter, G., Marterbauer, M., Structural Change and Economic Growth, WIFO, Study commissioned by Ministry of Economic and Labour, Wien, 2001.pg 2. 209 Aiginger, Karl “Speed of Change and Growth of Manufacturing”, in Peneder, M., (Coordinator), Aiginger, K., Hutschenreiter, G., Marterbauer, M., Structural Change and Economic Growth, WIFO, Study commissioned by Ministry of Economic and Labour, Wien, 2001.pg 2. 210 The table was taken from: Maddison, Angus “The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective”, Development centre of the organisation for economic co-operation and development, OECD, 2001, pp. 95. 211 Schettkat, Ronald and Yocarini, Lara “A Shift to Services: A Review of the Literature”, Discussion Paper No. 964, December 2003. pg 14. 212 Maddison, Angus “The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective”, Development centre of the organisation for economic co-operation and development, OECD, 2001, pp. 95. Found below table 2-24, under source. 213 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 282. 214 Maddison, Angus “The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective”, Development centre of the organisation for economic co-operation and development, OECD, 2001, pp. 95. Found below table 2-24, under source. The industry aspect, except for mining, is also corroborated in Aiginger, Karl “Speed of Change and Growth of Manufacturing”, in Peneder, M., (Coordinator), Aiginger, K., Hutschenreiter, G., Marterbauer, M., Structural Change and Economic Growth, WIFO, Study commissioned by Ministry of Economic and Labour, Wien, 2001.pg 2. 215 Schettkat, Ronald and Yocarini, Lara “A Shift to Services: A Review of the Literature”, Discussion Paper No. 964, December 2003. pg 14. The example of Schetkatt and Yocarini were used, as Maddison, while going into some detail, actually does not mention where ‘manufactured’ food goes, but as manufacture generally falls under industry, it will be accepted as such. 216 Morris, Ian and Saller, Richard, and Scheidel, Walter “The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World”, pg. 6. 217 Morris, Ian and Saller, Richard, and Scheidel, Walter “The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World”, pg. 6. 218 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 104. 219 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 556-557. 220 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 282. 221 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 180. 222 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 272. 223 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 271-272.
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224 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 272. Taken from footnote 47. 225 United States Census, Population and Housing Unit Counts Table 4 [Online] Available at www.census.gov/population/censusdata [Accessed 19 December 2007] 226 Duncan-Jones, R.P. “City Population in Roman Africa”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp. 87. 227 Duncan-Jones, R.P. “City Population in Roman Africa”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp. 90. 228 Duncan-Jones, R.P. “City Population in Roman Africa”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp. 89. 229 Duncan-Jones, R.P. “City Population in Roman Africa”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp. 90. 230 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 79. 231 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 272 232 3,000 x 14,000 = 42,000,000 233 United States Census, Population and Housing Unit Counts Table 4 [Online] Available at www.census.gov/population/censusdata [Accessed 19 December 2007] 234 Duncan-Jones, R.P. “City Population in Roman Africa”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp. 85-86. 235 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 272. Taken from footnote 46. 236 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 73. 237 United States Census, Population and Housing Unit Counts Table 4 [Online] Available at www.census.gov/population/censusdata [Accessed 19 December 2007] 238 Once again it is important to note that perhaps this is not the best method of comparison, but no other 19th century nation had such a similar geographic size, population, ‘general’ structure, etc., as the U.S. in comparison to the Roman Empire. For example, comparing the entire Roman Empire to only Holland (as some authors have done; which shall be shown later) is not entirely ‘fair’ for various reasons. 239 United States Census, Population and Housing Unit Counts Table 4 [Online] Available at www.census.gov/population/censusdata [Accessed 19 December 2007] 240 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 138-139. 241 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 272. Taken from footnote 49. 242 Morris, Ian and Saller, Richard, and Scheidel, Walter “The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World”, pg. 6. 243 Italy and Egypt, together, have roughly some 14-15 million inhabitants, and if 20-25% of those are urban, that means approximately 3.2 million people. If the remainder of the 40 million, attest a 10% urban ratio, it would correspond to 4 million. 7.2 million urban dwellers in 55 million corresponds approximately to 13%. 244 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 282. 245 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 282. 246 The 70% in agriculture is also attested in: Maddison, Angus “The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective”, Development centre of the organisation for economic co-operation and development, OECD, 2001, pp. 95. 247 United States Census, Population and Housing Unit Counts Table 4 [Online] Available at www.census.gov/population/censusdata [Accessed 19 December 2007] 248 The urban ratios were taken from: http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/table-4.pdf, while the agriculture ratios for 1820 and 1890 were taken from: Maddison, Angus “The World Economy: A
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Millennial Perspective”, Development centre of the organisation for economic co-operation and development, OECD, 2001, pp. 95. The remaining agricultural ratios were visual estimates derived from Figure 7 in: Ngai, Rachel L. and Pissarides, Christoper A. “Trends in Labour Supply and Economic Growth”, 2005, pp. 31. 249 (22.8 + 26.9 + 23.4 + 24.4 + 23.8 + 24.9 + 25.5 + 24.0 + 23.1 + 22.3 + 23.3 + 21.8)/12 = 23.85. 250 The two tables used for the calculations are found in Maddison, Angus “The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective”, Development centre of the organisation for economic co-operation and development, OECD, 2001, pp. 95 & 248. 251 The differences for the years 1700, 1820 (actually 1800 for urban ratio), 1890 for the U.K and Netherlands, respectively, were: (30.7, 42.7, 22.1) and (26.4, 28.2, 30.6). 252 Goldsmith’s urban ratios of 9-13, correspond to 91-87 rural ratio. 91-80=11, and 87-75=12. 253 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 4. 254 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 6. 255 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 6. 256 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 7. 257 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 7. 258 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 7-8. 259 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 3. 260 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 8. 261 “Slavery was the only formal, legally enforceable long-term labor contract in the early Roman Empire, as Hicks (1969) noted” quoted from: Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 26-27 262 Advice Guide, Contracts of Employment [Online] Available at www.adviceguide.org.uk [Accessed 19 December 2007] and International Labour Organisation, Tokyo Today 1999 Vol. 6 [Online] Available at http://www-ilo-mirror.cornell.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007] 263 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 90-91. 264 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 8. 265 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 38 266 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 93. 267 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 84-85. 268 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 245-246. 269 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 248-249. 270 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 46-47.
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271 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 88-89. 272 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 112-113. 273 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 65. 274 A good quote regarding the aspect of loaning out slaves comes from Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 94. “In fact, for what this is worth, there is no specific evidence that there were masters who simply kept slaves for hiring out, and if any did so in hope of making handsome profits in such a boom, they were likely to go bankrupt in times like the reign of Tiberius, when there was little public construction. Hiring was simply a matter of mutual convenience to owner and employer, when the owner had no use for a slave, perhaps a skilled man, for a particular period, but was unwilling to dispose of him permanently, and the employer had a temporary use for him, or alternatively could not find a suitable slave to buy or lacked the capital for purchase. Arrangements of this kind do not imply that the entrepreneur would not wish to own slaves he could employ continuously, or that he was able to hire slaves in large numbers for casual and unskilled work.” 275 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 197. 276 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 237-238. 277 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 88-89. 278 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 197. 279 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 112-113. 280 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 66-67. 281 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 31. 282 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 31-32. 283 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 7-8. 284 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 28-29. 285 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 28-29. 286 Hatzis, Aristides N. “The Anti-Theoretical Nature of Civil Law Contract Scholarship and the Need for an Economic Theory”, Commentaries on Law & Economics, Vol. 2 (2002), pp. 11. 287 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 90. 288 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 81. 289 WOODIWISS, ANTHONY, “Economic Citizenship: Variations and the Threat of Globalisation”, SAGE [Online] Available at www.sagepub.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 290 Tavits, Gaabriel “The Position of Labour Law in the Private Law System. The Past, Present and Future of Estonian Labour Law”, Juridica International V, 2000, pp. 124. 291 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 141. 292 No specific legal source actually claims that women were not allowed to be workers. Therefore by default they must have been allowed to work in nearly any type of job (except military and political offices), which is evidenced by a multitude sources.
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293 The earlier mentioned slave girl apprentice weaver. 294 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 224. 295 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 241. 296TREGGAIRI, SUSAN, “Lower Class Women in the Roman Economy”, Florilegium, Vol. 1, University of West Ontario [Online] Available at www.uwo.ca [Accessed 19 December 2007] 297 University of Wales, Lampeter, Women in the Roman World: 13. Women at Work [Online] Available at www.lamp.ac.uk [Accessed 19 December 2007] 298 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 456-457. 299 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 241. 300 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 223-224. 301 Scheidel, Walter “The Most Silent Women of Greece and Rome: Rural Labour and Women’s Life in the Ancient World (I)”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 42, No. 2. (Oct, 1995), pp. 207. 302 U.S. Census Bureau, The Statistics of Mining and of the Fisheries: Remarks on the Statistics of Mining, [Online] Available at http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial [Accessed 19 December 2007] Found on page 832, when there were 12,505,923 workers above the age of 10, of which there were 1,836,288 females. 303 Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. pp. 102. 304 Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. pp. 102. 305 In essence they had, in German: Geschäftsunfähigkeit. Which roughly means: incapable of conducting business. 306 BONIN, DURI, Romisches Privatrecht: Tafeln, [Online] Available at www.duribonin.ch [Accessed 19 December 2007] 307 University of Western Sydney Law Review, The Early History of the Law of Guardianship of Children: from Rome to the Tenures Abolition Act 1660, 2003, Rev. 5 [Online] Available at http://search.austlii.edu.au [Accessed 19 December 2007] 308 BONIN, DURI, Romisches Privatrecht: Tafeln, [Online] Available at www.duribonin.ch [Accessed 19 December 2007] At age 12/14 they become Geschäftsfähig. 309 BONIN, DURI, Romisches Privatrecht: Tafeln, [Online] Available at www.duribonin.ch [Accessed 19 December 2007] 310 KRAUS, CHRISTINA S., book review of BRADLEY, K. R., “Discovering the Roman Family: Studies in Roman Social History” for Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2 May 2003 [Online] Available at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr [Accessed 19 December 2007] on the number of contracts and their dates, and Smolders, Ruben “Het Archief van Lucius Pompeius Niger”, Faculteit Letteren, Departement Klassieke Studies, Afdeling Geschiedenis van de oudheid, 2003, pg. 74, for the minimum age. 311 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 31. 312 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 225-226. The girls actually might have been joint-managers, but Aubert is not entirely sure. 313 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 56. Taken from Footnote 63. Boys=Pueros, Girls=Puellasque which tends to imply ‘youths’, i.e. those already puberes. 314Wikipedia Legal Working Age [Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 315 University of Wales, Lampeter, Women in the Roman World: 13. Women at Work [Online] Available at www.lamp.ac.uk [Accessed 19 December 2007] 316 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Child Labour Laws and Enforcement [Online] Available at www.bls.gov [Accessed 19 December 2007]
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317 Galbi, Douglas A. “Child Labor and the Division of Labor in the Early English Cotton Mills”, Centre for History of Economics, King’s College, Cambridge CB2 1ST, 13th June 1994. pp. 11. 318 Galbi, Douglas A. “Child Labor and the Division of Labor in the Early English Cotton Mills”, Centre for History of Economics, King’s College, Cambridge CB2 1ST, 13th June 1994. pp. 13. Taken from Figure 3. 319 International Labour Organisation, Digging for Survival: The Child Miners, First Run Features [Online] Available at http://firstrunfeatures.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 320 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 353. 321 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 95. 322 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 353. 323 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 133-134. On the inheritance and Brunt’s figures and explanations thereof. 324 298,000/15 = 19,867 (since 62,000 is using 15 per iugerum) and 278,000/20 = 13,900 (since 82,000 is using 20 per iugerum) 325 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 75-76. 326 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 76. 327 Lowry, S. Todd and Gordon, Barry (1998) “Ancient and Medieval Economic Ideas and Concepts of Social Justice”, Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill, 1998. pp. 278. 328 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 21. 329 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 17. 330 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 21-22. 331 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 58. 332 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 27-28. 333 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 26. Temin mentions Alan Watson as one of those. 334 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 26-27 335 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 7. 336 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 5. Taken from Footnote 19. 337 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 9. 338 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 13-14. 339 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 13. 340 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 14. In actuality the slave manager’s owner ended up being sued on the grounds that the slave manager had been conducting the barley business regularly for a longer period of time, irrespective that the slave manager had only been appointed to take care of the moneylending business. In essence, the owner was found liable since he should have been ‘aware’ of what his slave was doing, and to that effect this example is one of those ‘special’ cases where the general rule doesn’t apply.
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341 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 114. 342 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 9-10. 343 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 44-45. 344 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 101. 345 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 101. 346 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 45. 347 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 45. 348 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 50. 349 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 52-53. 350 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 58-59. 351 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 64. 352 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 65-66. 353 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 42-43. 354 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 46-47. 355 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 15-16. 356 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 55. 357 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 21. 358 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 95. 359 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 98. 360 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 99. 361 Wikipedia Roman Empire; Roman Republic [Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 362 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 294. 363 Wikipedia Servile Wars [Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 364 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 171-172 365 Scheidel, Walter “A model of real income growth in Roman Italy”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2 (Feb, 2007), pp. 2. 366 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 294. 367 Corroborated by Westermann, where he writes that agriculture was still primarily conducted by free individuals in: Westermann, W. L. (1915) “The Economic Basis of the Decline of Ancient Culture”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 20, No.4. (Jul, 1915), pg 730-731. 368 Hammond Mason (1946) “Economic Stagnation in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 6, Supplement: The Tasks of Economic History, (May, 1946), 65-67 369 Even if this were the case, it is still highly questionable if the slave workforce ever accounted for more than 50% of the total workforce.
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370 Corroborated by Temin: “By the time of the Principate it is likely that most slaves were slaves from infancy, either children of slaves or unwanted children of free parents, since there were fewer new captives” – taken from Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 21. 371 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 294. Agreed upon in: Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 208-210. 372 Taken from the slavery section, where Roman manumission rates were 10% in a 5-year period and U.S rates were 0.2% in a 5-year period. 373 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 208-209. 374 Mentioned in Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 157. Rostovtzeff however points out that while wages might have been low they were still sufficient enough to pay for living costs and collegia costs. 375 Scheidel, Walter “The comparative economics of slavery in the Greco-Roman world”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 9. Corroborated in 376 Scheidel, Walter “The comparative economics of slavery in the Greco-Roman world”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 2. 377 Scheidel, Walter “A model of real income growth in Roman Italy”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2 (Feb, 2007), pp. 2. 378 Heitland, W. E. “A great agricultural emigration from Italy?”, The journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 8, (1918), pp. 45. 379 Scheidel, Walter “A model of real income growth in Roman Italy”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2 (Feb, 2007), pp. 6. 380 Scheidel, Walter “A model of real income growth in Roman Italy”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2 (Feb, 2007), pp. 5. 381 Scheidel, Walter “A model of real income growth in Roman Italy”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2 (Feb, 2007), pp. 2. 382 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 80. 383 Heitland, W. E. “A great agricultural emigration from Italy?”, The journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 8, (1918), pp. 50. 384 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 165. 385 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 205. 386 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 145. 387 Scheidel, Walter “A model of real income growth in Roman Italy”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2 (Feb, 2007), pp. 14. 388 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 269. 389 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 269-270. 390 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 276-277. 391 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 268. 392 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 118, 126-127. 393 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 561. 394 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 118-121. 395 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 205.
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396 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 205. 397 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 269-270. 398 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 562. 399 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 143. 400 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 107. 401 Heitland, W. E. “A great agricultural emigration from Italy?”, The journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 8, (1918), pp. 46. 402 Viswanath, P.V. “Agricultural contracting in Roman Palestine: Risk sharing or Moral Hazard?”, Lubin School of Business, 1998, pp. 20-22. 403 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 566-567. 404 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 563. 405 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 558. 406 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 564. 407 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 572. 408 Scheidel, Walter “Roman population size: the logic of debate”, Princeford/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2, (July, 2007), pp. 5-10. 409 Scheidel, Walter “Roman population size: the logic of debate”, Princeford/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2, (July, 2007), pp. 33. 410 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 30. That this also applies to the Provinces, is for example, attested for Palestine by Viswanath, P.V. “Agricultural contracting in Roman Palestine: Risk sharing or Moral Hazard?”, Lubin School of Business, 1998, pp. 4-5. 411 Viswanath, P.V. “Agricultural contracting in Roman Palestine: Risk sharing or Moral Hazard?”, Lubin School of Business, 1998, pp. 25. 412 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 46. 413 On land rental contracts being paid with money: Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. pp. 354. On land rental contracts being paid in kind after the 2nd century A.D.: ibid, pg. 355. 414 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 254. 415 Heitland, W. E. “A great agricultural emigration from Italy?”, The journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 8, (1918), pp. 45. 416 Heitland, W. E. “A great agricultural emigration from Italy?”, The journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 8, (1918), pp. 38. 417 Foxhall, Lin “The Dependent Tenant: Land Leasing and Labour in Italy and Greece”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80. (1990), pp. 104-111. 418 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 129. 419 Heitland, W. E. “A great agricultural emigration from Italy?”, The journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 8, (1918), pp. 44-45. 420 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 129. 421 Aubert explores the vilici extensively in his book: Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994.
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422 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 133. 423 Regarding hiring, or owning slaves as tenants: De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 144. 424 Foxhall, Lin “The Dependent Tenant: Land Leasing and Labour in Italy and Greece”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80. (1990), pp. 105. 425 Foxhall, Lin “The Dependent Tenant: Land Leasing and Labour in Italy and Greece”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80. (1990), pp. 97. 426 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 561. 427 Foxhall, Lin “The Dependent Tenant: Land Leasing and Labour in Italy and Greece”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80. (1990), pp. 113. 428 Foxhall, Lin “The Dependent Tenant: Land Leasing and Labour in Italy and Greece”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80. (1990), pp. 113. 429 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 276-277. 430 Heitland, W. E. “A great agricultural emigration from Italy?”, The journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 8, (1918), pp. 44-45. 431 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 276-277. 432 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 278-279. 433 All information on the lex Manciana: De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 278-279. 434 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 30. 435 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 279-280. 436 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 279. 437 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 283. 438 Randsborg, Klavs (1989) “The Demise of Antiquity: Europe and the Mediterranean in the First Millennium A.D.”, Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 18. (1989), pp. 240. 439 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 278-283. 440 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 281. 441 Temin, Peter (2001) “The Labor Supply of the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 01-45 (Nov., 2001), pp. 28-29. 442 Scheidel, Walter “The comparative economics of slavery in the Greco-Roman world”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 1 (Nov, 2005), pp. 5. 443 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 40-41. 444 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 569. 445 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 569. 446 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 80. 447 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 123-125. 448 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 127. 449 COLUMELLA, “Extant Works: De Re Rustica and De Arboribus”, Bill Thayer’s Web Site [Online] Available at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/ [Accessed 19 December 2007]
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450 Wikipedia De Agri Cultura [Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 451 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 110. 452 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 110-111. 453 Lowry, S. Todd and Gordon, Barry (1998) “Ancient and Medieval Economic Ideas and Concepts of Social Justice”, Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill, 1998. pp. 280. 454 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 40-41. 455 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 107. 456 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 107-108. 457 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 111. 458 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 112. 459 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 109-111. 460 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 109-110. 461 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 41-42. 462 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 44. 463 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 113. 464 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 41-42. Also found in: De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 114-115. 465 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 114-115. 466 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 41-42. 467 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 114. 468 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 114. 469 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 119. 470 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 113. 471 Lowry, S. Todd and Gordon, Barry (1998) “Ancient and Medieval Economic Ideas and Concepts of Social Justice”, Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill, 1998. pp. 281. 472 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 262. 473 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 259. 474 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 257. 475 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 19-20. 476 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 265.
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477 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 260. 478 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 257-258. 479 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 117. 480 COLUMELLA, “Extant Works: De Re Rustica and De Arboribus”, Bill Thayer’s Web Site [Online] Available at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/ [Accessed 19 December 2007] 481 Lowry, S. Todd and Gordon, Barry (1998) “Ancient and Medieval Economic Ideas and Concepts of Social Justice”, Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill, 1998. pp. 281. 482 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 263. 483 Greene, Kevin (2000) “Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M. I. Finely Re-Considered”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb, 2000), pp. 42. 484 Foxhall, Lin “The Dependent Tenant: Land Leasing and Labour in Italy and Greece”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80. (1990), pp. 105. 485 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 176-177. On taxes being paid through monetary means. 486 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 123, for 3rd century taxes in kind, and pp. 101 for in money. 487 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 103 488 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 117. 489 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 113. 490 PLINY THE YOUNGER, “(61/62-113 CE): Selected Letters, c 100 CE”, Translated by Melmoth, William (in Harvard Classics series), Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham University [Online] Available at www.fordham.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007], pp. 257-258. 491 PLINY THE YOUNGER, “(61/62-113 CE): Selected Letters, c 100 CE”, Translated by Melmoth, William (in Harvard Classics series), Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham University [Online] Available at www.fordham.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007], pp. 257. 492 PLINY THE YOUNGER, “(61/62-113 CE): Selected Letters, c 100 CE”, Translated by Melmoth, William (in Harvard Classics series), Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham University [Online] Available at www.fordham.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007], pp. 332-333. 493 PLINY THE YOUNGER, “(61/62-113 CE): Selected Letters, c 100 CE”, Translated by Melmoth, William (in Harvard Classics series), Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham University [Online] Available at www.fordham.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007], pp. 258. 494 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 273. 495 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 83. 496 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 47. 497 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 264. 498 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 265. 499 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 62. 500 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 63. 501 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 63-64. 502 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 65. 503 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 63-64.
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504 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 63. 505 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 65. 506 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 65. 507 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 64. 508 White, Kenneth D. “The Efficiency of Roman Farming under the Empire”, Agricultural History, Vol. 30, No. 2. (Apr., 1956), pp. 85. 509 White, Kenneth D. “The Efficiency of Roman Farming under the Empire”, Agricultural History, Vol. 30, No. 2. (Apr., 1956), pp. 85. 510 White, Kenneth D. “The Efficiency of Roman Farming under the Empire”, Agricultural History, Vol. 30, No. 2. (Apr., 1956), pp. 87. 511 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 61. 512 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 68. 513 White, Kenneth D. “The Efficiency of Roman Farming under the Empire”, Agricultural History, Vol. 30, No. 2. (Apr., 1956), pp. 88. 514 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 66-67. 515 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 115-116. 516 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 67. 517 White, Kenneth D. “The Efficiency of Roman Farming under the Empire”, Agricultural History, Vol. 30, No. 2. (Apr., 1956), pp. 88. 518 Fox, H.S.A. “The Alleged Transformation from Two-Field to Three-Field Systems in Medieval England”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 39, No. 4. (Nov., 1986), pp. 547. 519 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 62. 520 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 112-113. 521 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 185. 522 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 188. 523 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 165. 524 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 145-146 525 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 178. 526 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 190-191. 527 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 50. 528 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 181-182. 529 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 215-216. 530 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 50. 531 Von Mises, Ludwig (1979) “Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow”, pp. 105. 532 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 49-50. This refers to all 7 points. 533 Hopkins, Keith “On The Political Economy of the Roman Empire”, pp. 12.
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534 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 214. 535 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 213-214. 536 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 217-218. 537 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 218. 538 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 62 539 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 146 540 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 216. 541 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 183. 542 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 211-244. 543 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 104. 544 HOPKINS, KEITH, “On The Political Economy of the Roman Empire”, Stanford University [Online] Available at www.stanfod.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007] 545 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 104, and www.stanford.edu/group/sshi/empires/hopkins.pdf 546 Schettkat, Ronald and Yocarini, Lara “A Shift to Services: A Review of the Literature”, Discussion Paper No. 964, December 2003. pg 14. 547 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 126. 548 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 126. 549 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 184. 550 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 184. 551 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 184. 552 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 248-249. 553 Smolders, Ruben “Het Archief van Lucius Pompeius Niger”, Faculteit Letteren, Departement Klassieke Studies, Afdeling Geschiedenis van de oudheid, 2003, pg. 173-174. For the hire of male/female slaves and free males. 554 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 188. 555 Van Minnen, Peter “Did Ancient Women Learn a Trade Outside their Home?”, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 123, (1998), pp. 203. For the hire of free female labour. 556 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 571. 557 Hudson, Pat “Proto-Industrialisation”, Refresh 10, Spring 1990, pg. 1. 558 Viswanath, P.V. “Agricultural contracting in Roman Palestine: Risk sharing or Moral Hazard?”, Lubin School of Business, 1998, pp. 20-22. 559 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 184. 560 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 570. 561 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 570. 562 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 189. In reference to both Egypt and Tarsus.
563 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 61-62 564 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 63 565 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 63 566 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 189. 567 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 186. 568 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 186. 569 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 442-443. 570 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 442-443. 571 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 458. 572 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 443. 573 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 479. 574 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 469-470. 575 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 444. 576 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 454. 577 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 454. 578 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 443. 579 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 442-443. 580 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 443-444. 581 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 445-446. 582 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 451-452. 583 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 442-443. 584 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 478. 585 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 469-470. 586 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 454. 587 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 455. 588 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 457-458. 589 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 459. 590 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 467. 591 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 471.
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592 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 455. 593 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 480-481. 594 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 474. 595 West, Louis C. (1924) “Commercial Syria under the Roman Empire”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 55. (1924), pp. 174. 596 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 480-481. 597 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 470. 598 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 481. 599 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 476. 600 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 477. 601 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 478. 602 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 477. 603 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 139. 604 Westermann, William L. (1928) “On Inland Transportation and Communication in Antiquity”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 3. (Sep, 1928), pp. 385. 605 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 28. 606 Wells, Benjamin W. “Trade and Travel in the Roman Empire”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Oct., 1923), pp.11. 607 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 50. 608 Wells, Benjamin W. “Trade and Travel in the Roman Empire”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Oct., 1923), pp.11. 609 The German word used is: Straßentrasse, which most probably means a Roman road without its top layer. 610 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 28. 611 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 28. Only really mention one example, but it was before Hadrian’s time which is of import when examining the next quote. 612 Van Sickle, C. E. (1929) “The Repair of Roads in Spain under the Roman Empire”, Classical Philology, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Jan, 1929), pp. 85-86. Though dealing only with Spain, it is still interesting to note a regularity of repairs until Hadrian and then nothing, on any road until the 3rd century. Though dangerous to use only Spain as an example, it could still be relevant. 613 Van Sickle, C. E. (1929) “The Repair of Roads in Spain under the Roman Empire”, Classical Philology, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Jan, 1929), pp. 87. 614 Van Sickle, C. E. (1929) “The Repair of Roads in Spain under the Roman Empire”, Classical Philology, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Jan, 1929), pp. 78-82. 615 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 48. 616 Wells, Benjamin W. “Trade and Travel in the Roman Empire”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Oct., 1923), pp.10-11. 617 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 127. 618 Lopez, R.S. “The Evolution of Land Transport in the Middle Ages”, Past and Present, No. 9. (Apr., 1956), pp. 17.
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619 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 86. 620 MacMullen, Ramsay “Roman Imperial Building in the Provinces”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 64. (1959), pp. 210. 621 Van Sickle, C. E. (1929) “The Repair of Roads in Spain under the Roman Empire”, Classical Philology, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Jan, 1929), pp. 78-86. 622 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 28. 623 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 68 624 MacMullen, Ramsay “Roman Imperial Building in the Provinces”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 64. (1959), pp. 214. 625 MacMullen, Ramsay “Roman Imperial Building in the Provinces”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 64. (1959), pp. 216-217. 626 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 34-35. Regarding clearance. 627 MacMullen, Ramsay “Roman Imperial Building in the Provinces”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 64. (1959), pp. 225. Taken from Footnote 24. 628 Mitchell, Stephen “Imperial Building in the Eastern Roman Provinces”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 91. (1987), pp. 336-337. Even though Mitchell didn’t believe that local communities could foot the entire bill, as the earlier example of Beneventum shows, they wouldn’t have needed to, only a part of it. 629 Mitchell, Stephen “Imperial Building in the Eastern Roman Provinces”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 91. (1987), pp. 337. 630 Westermann, William L. (1928) “On Inland Transportation and Communication in Antiquity”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 3. (Sep, 1928), pp. 385. 631 Wells, Benjamin W. “Trade and Travel in the Roman Empire”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Oct., 1923), pp.14-15. 632 Wehle, Louis B. “International Administration of European Inland Waterways”, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 40, No.1. (Jan., 1946), pp. 100. 633 Chanson, H. “Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: Steep Chutes, Cascades, and Dropshafts”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 104, No.1. (Jan., 2000), pp. 52. 634 Stephens, G. R. “Civic Aqueducts in Britian”, Britannia, Vol. 16. (1985), pp. 201. 635 Owens, E. J. “The Kremna Aqueduct and Water Supply in Roman Cities”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 38, No. 1. (Apr., 1991), pp. 41. 636 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 18-19. 637 Scheidel, Walter “A model of real income growth in Roman Italy”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2 (Feb, 2007), pp. 9. Taken from Footnote 30. 638 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 31-32. 639SCHEIDEL, WALTER, “Foodstuffs and Meals”, Stanford University, Department of Classics [Online] Available at www.stanfod.edu/~scheidel/ [Accessed 19 December 2007] 640 Stephens, G. R. “Civic Aqueducts in Britian”, Britannia, Vol. 16. (1985), pp. 198-199, 204. The Lyon costs might in large part only be attributed to its lead piping. The aqueduct of Troas is also referenced by Owens, E. J. “The Kremna Aqueduct and Water Supply in Roman Cities”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 38, No. 1. (Apr., 1991), pp. 41-42. 641 Stephens, G. R. “Civic Aqueducts in Britian”, Britannia, Vol. 16. (1985), pp. 197-208. 642 Stephens, G. R. “Civic Aqueducts in Britian”, Britannia, Vol. 16. (1985), pp. 198. 643 Bromehead, C. E. N. “The Early History of Water-Supply (Continued)”, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 99, No. 4 (Apr., 1942), pp. 191. 644 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 18-19. 645 Smith, Alva J. “Progress in Sanitary Engineering Practice”, Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science (1903-), Vol. 26. (Dec. 23-24, 1913), pp. 24-25. 646 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 84-85.
647 Mitchell, Stephen “Imperial Building in the Eastern Roman Provinces”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 91. (1987), pp. 338. 648 Mitchell, Stephen “Imperial Building in the Eastern Roman Provinces”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 91. (1987), pp. 338. 649 Stephens, G. R. “Civic Aqueducts in Britian”, Britannia, Vol. 16. (1985), pp. 205. 650 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 85. 651 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 93. 652 Thornton, M. K. and Thornton, R. L. “Manpower Needs for the Public Works Programs of he Julio-Claudian Emperors”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 43, No. 2. (Jun., 1983), pp. 378. 653 Thornton, M. K. and Thornton, R. L. “Manpower Needs for the Public Works Programs of he Julio-Claudian Emperors”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 43, No. 2. (Jun., 1983), pp. 375. “We base the work unit on the amount of work believed to be needed to build anew the well-preserved and wholly typical (though small) temple of Maison Carree at Nimes (16 B.C.), taken to be 60 work units.” 654 Thornton, M. K. and Thornton, R. L. “Manpower Needs for the Public Works Programs of he Julio-Claudian Emperors”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 43, No. 2. (Jun., 1983), pp. 376, and Figure 1 is also from this page. 655 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 92. 656 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 32. 657 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 96-97. 658 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 97. 659 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 74. 660 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 93. 661 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 73. 662 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 85. 663 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 86-87. 664 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 92. 665 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 164. 666 Frier, Bruce Woodward “The Rental Market in the Early Imperial Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 67. (1977), pp. 34-35. 667 Frier, Bruce Woodward “The Rental Market in the Early Imperial Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 67. (1977), pp. 35-37. Profit margin found on pp. 35 Footnote 43. 668 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 187. 669 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 176 670 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 95. 671 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 98. 672 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 97-98. 673 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 46-47. 674 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 215-216.
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675 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 186. 676 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 98. 677 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 46-47. 678 Millar, Fergus “The Fiscus in the First Two Centuries”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp.31. 679 Boulakia, Jean David C. (1972) “Lead in the Roman World”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 76, No. 2. (Apr, 1972), pp. 142. 680 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 96. 681 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 25. 682 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 95. 683 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 18-19. 684 Boulakia, Jean David C. (1972) “Lead in the Roman World”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 76, No. 2. (Apr, 1972), pp. 142-143. 685 Boulakia, Jean David C. (1972) “Lead in the Roman World”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 76, No. 2. (Apr, 1972), pp. 140. 686 Boulakia, Jean David C. (1972) “Lead in the Roman World”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 76, No. 2. (Apr, 1972), pp. 140. 687 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 17. 688 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 17. 689 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 24. 690 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 87. 691 Greene, Kevin (2000) “Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M. I. Finely Re-Considered”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb, 2000), pp. 38. 692 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 83. 693 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 25. 694 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 26-27. The footnote also corresponds to the evidence for the 1st and 2nd century output. 695 Michell, H. (1947) “The Edict of Diocletian: A study of Price Fixing in the Roman Empire”, The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Vol. 13, No. 1. (Feb, 1947), pp.12. 696 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 91. 697 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 92. 698 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 28. 699 Edmondson, J.C. (1989) “Mining in Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption?”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 79. (1989), pp. 95-96. 700 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 28. 701 Wilson, Andrew “Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 29. 702 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003). Taken from the abstract. 703 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 37
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704 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 38 705 Scheidel, Walter “A model of real income growth in Roman Italy”, Princeton/Stanford Working Paper in Classics, Version 2 (Feb, 2007), pp. 5. 706 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 195. 707 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 236. 708 Speidel, Alexander M. (1992) “Roman Army Pay Scales”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 106. 709 Speidel, Alexander M. (1992) “Roman Army Pay Scales”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 93 for the first two columns and pp. 101 for the remainder. 710 Speidel, Alexander M. (1992) “Roman Army Pay Scales”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 100. 711 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 215. 712 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 195. 713 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 195. 714 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 193. 715 Speidel, Alexander M. (1992) “Roman Army Pay Scales”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 93-94. 716 Speidel, Alexander M. (1992) “Roman Army Pay Scales”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 96. 717 Crystal Links, Ancient Roman Navy [Online] Available www.crystalinks.com/romenavy.html [Accessed 19 December 2007] and partially corroborated by the fact that during the 1st Punic War, for some 120 ships, 44,000 free rowers were needed: Nofi, Albert A. “Recent Trends in Thinking about Warfare”, The CNA Corporation, 2006, pp. 28-31. Even though later imperial ships might have been generally smaller, the number was much higher, and as such the range of 50,000-100.000 does not sounds implausible. 718 Strayer, Joseph R. “Empires – Some Reflections on Roman and Modern Imperialism”, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 9, No. 1. (Oct., 1966), pp. 102. 719 Speidel, Alexander M. (1992) “Roman Army Pay Scales”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 97-98. 720 Speidel, Alexander M. (1992) “Roman Army Pay Scales”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 105. 721 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 125. 722 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 51-52. 723 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 52. 724 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 50-51. 725 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 116-117. 726 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 116-117. 727 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 119. 728 Open Encyclopedia, Palace Economy [Online] Available at http://open-encyclopedia.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 729 Alpers, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 21. 730 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 27-29.
731 Alpers, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 21. 732 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 36-37. 733 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 38-41. 734 Millar, Fergus “The Fiscus in the First Two Centuries”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp.41. 735 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 278-281. 736 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 282-284. 737 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 253-254. 738 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 289-290. 739 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 261-263. 740 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 261-263. 741 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 43-44. 742 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 73. Taken from Footnote 237. 743 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 70. 744 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 115-116. 745 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 107-108. 746 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 99-100. 747 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 132-133. 748 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 136. 749 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 136-137. 750 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 141. 751 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 162-163. 752 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 164. 753 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 165. 754 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 199-200. 755 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 200-201. 756 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 208-209. 757 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 206. 758 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 225. Taken from Footnote 756. 759 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 247.
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760 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 236-237. 761 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 208-209. 762 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 240-241. 763 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 243. 764 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 134-135. 765 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 47. 766 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 229. 767 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 54. 768 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 45-47. 769 Millar, Fergus “The Fiscus in the First Two Centuries”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp.33. 770 Millar, Fergus “The Fiscus in the First Two Centuries”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp.37. 771 Millar, Fergus “The Fiscus in the First Two Centuries”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp.37. 772 Millar, Fergus “The Fiscus in the First Two Centuries”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp.34-35. 773 Millar, Fergus “The Fiscus in the First Two Centuries”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, Parts 1 and 2, (1963), pp.37-38. 774 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 236. 775 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 237. 776 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 42. 777 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 228. 778 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 228-229. 779 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 228-229. 780 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 115-116. 781 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 116. 782 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 43-44. 783 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 44. 784 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 117. 785 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 115-116. 786 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 44. 787 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 117-118.
384
788 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 44. 789 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 117-118. 790 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 45. 791 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 119. 792 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 117-118. 793 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 228. 794 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 117-118. 795 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 159. 796 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 123-124. 797 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 123-124. All 7 points. 798 Westermann, William L. (1928) “On Inland Transportation and Communication in Antiquity”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 3. (Sep, 1928), pp. 380. 799 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 52-53. 800 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 53. 801 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 205. 802 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 120, 120-124. 803 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 55-55. 804 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 231. 805 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 53. 806 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 54. 807 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 123-124. All 7 points. 808 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 56. 809 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 56-57. 810 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 57. 811 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 117. 812 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 106. 813 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 104. 814 Hoffman, Richard C. “Economic Development and Aquatic Ecosystems in Medieval Europe”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 101, No. 3, (Jun., 1996), pp. 638 in particular. Cipolla, C. M. “Revisions in Economic History: XII. The Trends in Italian Economic History in the Later Middle Ages”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 2, No. 2, (1949), pp. 181-182. Mazzaoui, Maureen Fennell “The Cotton Industry of Northern Italy in the Late Middle Ages: 1150-1450”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 32, No. 1, The Tasks of Economic History. (Mar., 1972), pp 263-264 in particular. Stuard, Susan Mosher “Medieval Workshop: Toward a Theory of Consumption and
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Economic Change”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 2, The Tasks of Economic History. (Jun., 1985), pp. 447-448. Coles, Paul “A Note on the Arrest of Pre-Capitalism in Italy”, Past and Present, No. 2. (Nov., 1952), pp. 51-52. Lewis, Archibald R. “The Closing of the Mediaeval Frontier 1250-1350”, Speculum, Vol. 33, No. 4. (Oct., 1958), pp. 479 in particular. 815 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 56 & 134 816 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 134 817 Johnston, David “Roman Law in Context”, Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 110-111. 818 Register, Layton B. “Notes on the History of Commerce and Commercial Law.1.Antiquity”, University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register, Vol. 61, No. 7. (May, 1913), pp. 439. 819 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 5. 820 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 565. 821 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 565-566. 822 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 67-68. 823 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 565-566. 824 Parkins, Helen and Smith, Christopher “Trade, Traders and the Ancient City”, Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 1998, pp. 131-132. 825 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 155. 826 Yeo, Cedric A. “Land and Sea Transportation in Imperial Italy”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 77. (1946), pp. 231. 827 Yeo, Cedric A. “Land and Sea Transportation in Imperial Italy”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 77. (1946), pp. 231. Taken from Footnote 37. 828 Yeo, Cedric A. “Land and Sea Transportation in Imperial Italy”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 77. (1946), pp. 232. 829 Hirschfeld, Nicolle “The Ship of Saint Paul: Historical Background”, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 53, No. 1, An Underwater View of the Ancient World. (Mar., 1990), pp. 27. 830 Collins, Steven “As it was in the days of Noah”, pp. 14. 831 Hirschfeld, Nicolle “The Ship of Saint Paul: Historical Background”, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 53, No. 1, An Underwater View of the Ancient World. (Mar., 1990), pp. 28. 832 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 155. 833 Collins, Steven “As it was in the days of Noah”, pp. 15. 834 Hirschfeld, Nicolle “The Ship of Saint Paul: Historical Background”, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 53, No. 1, An Underwater View of the Ancient World. (Mar., 1990), pp. 27-28. 835 “Sunken Pleasure Boats Reveal Mechanical Skill of Romans”, The Science News-Letter, Vol. 21, No. 561. (Jan. 9, 1932), p. 29. 836 “Sunken Pleasure Boats Reveal Mechanical Skill of Romans”, The Science News-Letter, Vol. 21, No. 561. (Jan. 9, 1932), p. 29. 837 Collins, Steven “As it was in the days of Noah”, pp. 14. 838 Houston, George W. “Ports in Perspective: Some Comparative Materials on Roman Merchant Ships and Ports”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 92, No. 4. (Oct., 1988), pp. 554. Taken from Footnote 6. 839 Houston, George W. “Ports in Perspective: Some Comparative Materials on Roman Merchant Ships and Ports”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 92, No. 4. (Oct., 1988), pp. 553. 840 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 155. 841 Houston, George W. “Ports in Perspective: Some Comparative Materials on Roman Merchant Ships and Ports”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 92, No. 4. (Oct., 1988), pp. 558-559. 842 Charles, Michael and Ryan, Neal “The Roman Empire and the Grain Fleets: Contracting out public services in antiquity”, Queensland University of Technology, 2006, pp. 17.
386
843 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 224. 844 Houston, George W. “Ports in Perspective: Some Comparative Materials on Roman Merchant Ships and Ports”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 92, No. 4. (Oct., 1988), pp. 554. 845 Morley, Neville “Trajan’s Engines”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser, Vol. 47, No. 2. (Oct. 2000), pp. 199. 846 Eubanks, J.E. “Navigation on the Tiber”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 25, No. 9. (Jun., 1930), pp. 692 847 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 155. 848 Hansmann, Henry and Kraakman, Reinier, and Squire, Richard “Law and the Rise of the Firm”, Harvard Law Review, Vol. 119, 2006, pp. 1356. 849 Hardy, E. G. “Review: Liebenam on the History and Organization of the Roman Collegia”, The Classical Review, Vol. 5, No. 9. (Nov., 1891), pp. 420-422. 850 Verboven, Koenraad “The associative order: status and ethos among Roman businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire”, Athaneum:studi periodici di letteratura e storia dell’antichita 95, 2007, pp. 13-14. 851 O’Donnell Cyril “Origins of the Corporate Executive”, Bulletin of the Business Historical Society, Vol. 26, No.2. (Apr., 1952), pp. 56-57. 852 Stern, Marianne E. (1999) “Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context”, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 473. 853 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 385. 854 La Piana, George “Foreign Groups in Rome during the First Centuries of the Empire”, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 20, No. 4. (Oct., 1927), pp. 203, 245. 855 La Piana, George “Foreign Groups in Rome during the First Centuries of the Empire”, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 20, No. 4. (Oct., 1927), pp. 255-258. 856 Verboven, Koenraad “The associative order: status and ethos among Roman businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire”, Athaneum:studi periodici di letteratura e storia dell’antichita 95, 2007, pp. 13. 857 Verboven, Koenraad “The associative order: status and ethos among Roman businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire”, Athaneum:studi periodici di letteratura e storia dell’antichita 95, 2007, pp. 15-20. 858 Verboven, Koenraad “The associative order: status and ethos among Roman businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire”, Athaneum:studi periodici di letteratura e storia dell’antichita 95, 2007, pp. 12. 859 Verboven, Koenraad “The associative order: status and ethos among Roman businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire”, Athaneum:studi periodici di letteratura e storia dell’antichita 95, 2007, pp. 13. 860 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 81. Another examples is: “Not only were there no Guildhalls in antiquity, there were no guilds, no matter how often the Roman collegia and their differently named Greek and Hellenistic counterparts are this mistranslated. The collegia played an important part in the social and religious life of the lower classes, both free and slaves; they sometimes performed benevolent functions, as in financing burials; they never became regulatory or protective agencies in their respective trade, and that, of course, was the raison d’etre of the genuine guilds, medieval and modern” found in: Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 138. 861 Verboven, Koenraad “The associative order: status and ethos among Roman businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire”, Athaneum:studi periodici di letteratura e storia dell’antichita 95, 2007, pp. 15. 862 Ogilvie, Sheilagh C. “Institutions and Economic Development in Early Modern Central Europe”, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th Ser., Vol. 5. (1995), pp. 221-250. 863 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 92. 864 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 224-225. 865 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 566. 866 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 81.
387
867 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 566-567. 868 Erdkamp, Paul (1999) “Agriculture, Underemployment, and the Cost of Rural Labour in the Roman World”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 49, No. 2. (1999), pp. 567. 869 Viswanath, P.V. “Agricultural contracting in Roman Palestine: Risk sharing or Moral Hazard?”, Lubin School of Business, 1998, pp. 19. 870 Brunt, P.A. “Free Labour and Public Works at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 93. 871 Wells, Benjamin W. “Trade and Travel in the Roman Empire”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Oct., 1923), pp.10. 872 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 75. 873 Illustrated History of the Roman Empire, Trajan’s Market, [Online] Available at www.roman-empire.net [Accessed 19 December 2007] 874 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 6-7. 875 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 156. 876 Epistles, LXXXVII to Calvisius. 877 Jones, A.H.M. (1960) “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2. (1960), pp. 192. 878 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 138 879 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 138 880 Wikipedia Roman Carthage [Online] Available at http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 19 December 2007] 881 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 140 882 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 56 883 Schoff, Wilfred H. (1917) “Navigation to the Far East under the Roman Empire”, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 37. (1917), pp. 240. 884 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 57 885 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 130 886 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 57 887 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 130 888 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 130 889 Dobson, Dina P. (1936) “Roman Influence in the North”, Greece & Rome, Vol. 5, No. 14. (Feb 1936), pp. 75. 890 Dobson, Dina P. (1936) “Roman Influence in the North”, Greece & Rome, Vol. 5, No. 14. (Feb 1936), pp. 79. 891 Dobson, Dina P. (1936) “Roman Influence in the North”, Greece & Rome, Vol. 5, No. 14. (Feb 1936), pp. 80. 892 Dobson, Dina P. (1936) “Roman Influence in the North”, Greece & Rome, Vol. 5, No. 14. (Feb 1936), pp. 80. 893 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 57 894 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 11. 895 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 57
896 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 129 897 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 130 898 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 131 899 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 57 900 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 11. 901 SCHMITTHENNER, WALTER “Rome and India: Aspects of Universal History during the Principate”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 69, pp. 95-96, 1979. 902 http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html the example is found under number 49. 903 Hammond Mason (1946) “Economic Stagnation in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 6, Supplement: The Tasks of Economic History, (May, 1946), pg 80 904 SCHMITTHENNER, WALTER “Rome and India: Aspects of Universal History during the Principate”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 69, pp. 100, 1979. 905 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 57 906 SCHMITTHENNER, WALTER “Rome and India: Aspects of Universal History during the Principate”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 69, pp. 95, 1979. 907 SCHMITTHENNER, WALTER “Rome and India: Aspects of Universal History during the Principate”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 69, pp. 98, 1979. 908 SCHMITTHENNER, WALTER “Rome and India: Aspects of Universal History during the Principate”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 69, pp. 101-102, 1979. 909 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 131-132 910 SCHMITTHENNER, WALTER “Rome and India: Aspects of Universal History during the Principate”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 69, pp. 103, 1979. 911 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 5-6. 912 Hammond Mason (1946) “Economic Stagnation in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 6, Supplement: The Tasks of Economic History, (May, 1946), pg 79-80 913 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 11. Additional info taken from Footnote 3. 914 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 3 915 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 30. The table itself is on page 30, but the explanations of all the items within the table are on pages 6-11. 916 De Cecco, Marcello (1985) “Monetary Theory and Roman History”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 822. 917 That the Roman Empire had Capitalism will be proven in a later section. 918 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 148 919 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 1. 920 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 18. 921 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 174. 922 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 41. 923 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 161. 924 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 27-28.
925 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 118. 926 PLINY THE YOUNGER, “(61/62-113 CE): Selected Letters, c 100 CE”, Translated by Melmoth, William (in Harvard Classics series), Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham University [Online] Available at www.fordham.edu [Accessed 19 December 2007] Part VII, LXIII. Also mentioned in the Project Gutenberg translation of Pliny’s epistles; letter: LXIII. 927 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 26-27 Temin also in the footnote quotes from “Finley (1973, 118), argued that, “neither the city nor the emperor saw anything improper in allowing the money to lie idle.” This inference flies in the face of the obvious effort by both Pliny and Trajan to find a productive use for the accumulated tax revenues.” 928 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 27-28 929 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 183. Quote for all 5 classes. 930 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 183. Ten Brink uses the term oligarchy, and the usage of this word can be debated, but in essence, this applies generally to the senators and the equestrians. 931 Christain Think Tank, Slavery [Online] Available at www.christian-thinktank.com/qnoslavent [Accessed 19 December 2007] 932 Most probably due to various ancient sources which complain about various faeneratores being usurers; however, this does not necessarily imply that all faeneratores are usurers. 933 There are various aspects of ‘banking’, but the private individuals were primarily involved in the moneylending business. 934 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 196. 935 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 20 936 Much the same as today, it still often possible to find loans taking place between family members and friends in modern western capitalistic nations.. 937 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 241-242. 938 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 285. 939 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 191. 940 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 29. 941 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 194. 942 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 194. 943 Lowry, S. Todd and Gordon, Barry (1998) “Ancient and Medieval Economic Ideas and Concepts of Social Justice”, Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill, 1998. pp. 290. 944 Lowry, S. Todd and Gordon, Barry (1998) “Ancient and Medieval Economic Ideas and Concepts of Social Justice”, Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill, 1998. pp. 290. Taken from Footnote 35. 945 DUFF, A.M., “Freedmen in the Early Roman Empire”, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1928. Notes the 3 financial secretaries. 946 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 89. 947 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 29.
948 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 208-209. 949 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 15. 950 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 187. 951 Crawford, Michael (1970) “Money and Exchange in the Roman World”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60. (1970), pp. 45. 952 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 208-209. 953 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 208-209. 954 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 190. 955 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 187. 956 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 209-210. 957 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 187. 958 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 190. 959 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 183. 960 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 175-176. 961 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 217. This page is where points 2 to 10 are listed. 962 SMITH, WILLIAM ed. “Argentarii”, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, pp. 131, 1870, The Ancient Library [Online] Available at www.ancientlibrary.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] and agreed upon in: Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 210. 963 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 184. 964 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 184. 965 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 209-210. 966 Agreed upon also in: ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 184. 967 Agreed upon in: ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 184. ten Brink mentions argentarii being used as ’paying agents’. 968 SMITH, WILLIAM ed. “Argentarii”, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, pp. 131, 1870, The Ancient Library [Online] Available at www.ancientlibrary.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] and agreed upon in: Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 210. 969 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 211-212. 970 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 216-217. 971 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 175. 972 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 141. 973 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 185.
974 Quote taken from and SMITH, WILLIAM ed. “Argentarii”, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, pp. 131, 1870, The Ancient Library [Online] Available at www.ancientlibrary.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] agreement found in: Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 210. and also agreed upon in: SMITH, WILLIAM, “A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities”, John Murray, London 1875, Bill Thayer’s Web Site [Online] Available at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/ [Accessed 19 December 2007] The “is likewise called permutatio” refers to the fact that exchange of foreign coins was also called permutatio. 975 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 175. 976 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 185-186. 977 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 182. 978 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 213-214. 979 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 28. 980 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 213-214. 981 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 28. 982 Ingles No Exterior, Dictionary, Cheque, [Online] Available at www.inglesnoexterior.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 983 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 28. “In the Roman world the possibility of moving funds without the physical transfer of coin was thus largely confined to the elite, who could rely in friends with widespread interests, or to those who, like governors under the Republic, could make private use of the system for the transfer of tax revenues through publicani. Under the Principate there appears to be no evidence of private individuals taking advantage of the government’s mechanism for the transfer of revenues either through provincial treasuries (fisci) or through publicani.”. Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 141. mentions, in terms of the publicani; “Payments were in coin, only under special conditions by a transfer within a particular bank or within the coffers of a Roman tax-farming corporation.”. 984 Not calculating per capita, as the numbers would be heavily skewed. 985 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 186. 986 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 186. 987 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 209-210. 988 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 190. 989 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 185. 990 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 36. This chapter on Roman shares was actually written by Ulrike Malmendier. 991 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 36. Quote from Ulpian. 992 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 217. 993 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 186. 994 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 210.
995 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 215-216. 996 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 238. 997 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 215. 998 Learned Counsel, The Notary: A Short History [Online] Available at www.learnedcounsel.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 999 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 209-210. 1000 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 190. 1001 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 184. 1002 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 209-210. 1003 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 215. 1004 FOWLER, W. WARDE, “Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero: Part 5/6”, Produced by Garvin, Ted; Hayes, Nicolas; and PG Distributed Proofreaders, Fullbooks [Online] Available at www.fullbooks.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] and SUETONIUS, “The Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Augustus”, History in Film [Online] Available at www.historyinfilm.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] It is not clear, however, how much this is true for Augustus’ grandfather, but, generally it must have been possible. 1005 SMITH, WILLIAM, “A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities”, John Murray, Lonon 1875, Bill Thayer’s Web Site [Online] Available at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/ [Accessed 19 December 2007] 1006 ibid. 1007 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 185-186. 1008 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 207. 1009 Lowry, S. Todd and Gordon, Barry (1998) “Ancient and Medieval Economic Ideas and Concepts of Social Justice”, Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill, 1998. pp. 294. 1010 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 154-155. 1011 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 142-143. 1012 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 111. 1013 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 241-242. 1014 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 195. 1015 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 142-143. 1016 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 144. 1017 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 144-145. 1018 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 145. 1019 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 146.
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1020 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 151. 1021 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 241-242. 1022 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 154-155. 1023 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 143. 1024 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 201-202. 1025 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 150-151 1026 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 45 1027 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 237-238. 1028 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 25-26 1029 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 13. 1030 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 203. 1031 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 122. Taken from Footnote 65. 1032 SMITH, WILLIAM, “A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities”, John Murray, London 1875, Bill Thayer’s Web Site [Online] Available at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/ [Accessed 19 December 2007] 1033 Alpers, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 21. 1034 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 27-29. 1035 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 38. 1036 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 39. 1037 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 51-52. 1038 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 55. 1039 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 56-57. 1040 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 68 1041 Answers, Central Bank [Online] Available at www.answers.com [Accessed 19 December 2007] 1042 Fischer, Stanley and Sahay, Ratna and Vegh, Carlos A. (2002) “Modern Hyper- and High Inflations”, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 40, No. 3. (Sep. 2002), pp. 837. Taken from Footnote 3. 1043 Thornton, M.K. and Thornton, R.L. (1990) “The Financial Crisis of A.D. 33; A Keynesian Depression?”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 50, No. 3. (Sep, 1990), pg 661. 1044 Antonio, Robert J. (1979) “The Contradiction of Domination and Production in Bureaucracy: The Contribution of Organizational Efficiency to the Decline of the Roman Empire”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 44, No. 6. (Dec, 1979), pp. 902. 1045 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 50 1046 Alpe, Michael “Das nachrepublikanische Finanzsystem: Fiscus und Fisci in der früheren Kaiserzeit”, Berlin; New York; de Gruyter, 1995. pp. 261-263.
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1047 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 241-242. 1048 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 27. 1049 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 155. 1050 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 21 1051 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 1-2. 1052 Blazquez, J. M. (1992) “The Latest Work on the Export of Baetican Olive Oil to Rome and the Army”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 39, No. 2. (Oct, 1992), pp. 177-178. 1053 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 9. 1054 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 232-233. 1055 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 9. 1056 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 233. ten Brink numbers all the aspects, which are also agreed upon in Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 10. 1057 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 235. Even though the examples come from the time of the Republic, it is still useful in order to be able to explain that two types of societates publicanorum existed. 1058 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 12-13. 1059 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 10. 1060 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 106-107. 1061 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 236. and agreed upon in Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 36. 1062 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 15. 1063 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 106-107. 1064 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 11-12. 1065 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 106-107. 1066 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 272. 1067 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 236. 1068 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 236. 1069 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 106-107.
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1070 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 237. 1071 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 106-107. 1072 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 237. 1073 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 236. 1074 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 15. 1075 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 236. 1076 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 14-15. 1077 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 236. 1078 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 37. 1079 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 236. 1080 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 160. 1081 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 106-107. 1082 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 38. 1083 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 38. 1084 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 38. 1085 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 236. 1086 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 234. 1087 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 38. 1088 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 38. 1089 Malmendier, Ulrike “Law and Finance ‘at the Origin’”, Prepared for the Journal of Economic Literature, 2006. pp. 15. 1090 In the first instance it may seem that what various primitivists have been accused off initially in this paper, of too often using examples from the Republic and applying it to the Principate to disprove any economic sophistication, is now being done vice versa, is not the case. Generally the early Principate is seen as an economic improvement from the Republic, and this paper in itself has displayed this at various times, so it would be more logical to assume that conditions improved from the Republic into the early Principate and not vice versa. In essence, unlike some authors, this paper does not claim that there was no change and that conditions were always static. It is clearly the intention here to show that conditions improved during the early Principate, and what will eventually be shown, that by the end of the 2nd century A.D. there most certainly was a reversal. As such, the usage of examples from the Republic to prove a point during the Principate, in this section, is not an attempt to hold various authors to different standards. The standards apply to all equally.
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1091 Goetzmann, G. and Rouwenhorst, G. (eds.), “The Origins of Value. The Financial Innovations that Created Modern Capital Markets”, Oxford University Press, Aug. 2005, pp. 38. 1092 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 218. 1093 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 195. 1094 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 237. 1095 Antonio, Robert J. (1979) “The Contradiction of Domination and Production in Bureaucracy: The Contribution of Organizational Efficiency to the Decline of the Roman Empire”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 44, No. 6. (Dec, 1979), pp. 902. and generally agreed upon in De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 159-160. 1096 Rostovtzeff, Michael (1930) “Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich: Erster Band“, Leipzig: Quelle & Mayer, pg 44 1097 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 142. 1098 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 242-243. 1099 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 142. 1100 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 198. 1101 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 243. 1102 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 155. 1103 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 194. 1104 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 242-243. 1105 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 152. 1106 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 195. 1107 The ensuing loan is taken from: De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 153-154. 1108 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 19. The example of one these “master contracts” loaned out 6,926,852 sesterces, which was 20 times Columella’s investment into land. 1109 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 19. 1110 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 106. 1111 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 155. 1112 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 242-243. 1113 Aubert, Jean-Jacques (1994) “Business Managers in Ancient Rome: A social and Economic study of institores, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250”, New York: The Trustees of Columbia University, 1994. pp. 204. 1114 Verboven, Koenraad, “Status for sale. How Roman aristocrats (should have) stopped worrying and learn(ed) to love (the) market. (1st c. BCE – 3rd c. CE)”, working paper, pp. 22.
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1115 Kloft, Hans “Die Wirtschaft der Griechisch-Römischen Welt ”, Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992. pp. 242-243. 1116 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 193. 1117 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 146. 1118 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 276. 1119 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 57. 1120 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 18-19 1121 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 14-15. 1122 Epistles, LXXXVII to Calvisius. 1123 In truth Pliny ended up remitting some money back to the merchants, but not because they couldn’t pay or didn’t want to. He did it because of his ‘nature’ and according to his own business sense, in that he wished to continue a fruitful business with the same merchants in the future, and in fact the same merchants according to Pliny felt ‘obliged’ towards him for it. 1124 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 27. 1125 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 167-168. 1126 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 27. 1127 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 174. 1128 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 174. 1129 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 204. 1130 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 20-21 1131 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 20 1132 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 20 1133 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 21. 1134 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 21. Taken from footnote 196. 1135 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 213. This limit is certainly attested towards the end of the Republic, during Cicero’s time. There is some debate however if this limit persisted constantly throughout the decades. 1136 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 54. Brutus’s loan is also attested in: De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 218. 1137 Another case is Verres and the 24% he had demanded from a corporation. This is mentioned in De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 172-173.
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1138 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 27. 1139 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 115-116. 1140 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 152. 1141 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 178. 1142 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 152. 1143 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 27. 1144 ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 198-199. 1145 Agreed upon in: De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 172-173. and ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 198-199. and Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 174. 1146 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 174. 1147 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 174. 1148 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 20 1149 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 175. 1150 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 175. 1151 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 172-173. and agreed upon in ten Brink, Candida “Die Begründung der Marktwirtschaft in der Römischen Republik”, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 5, Volks- und Betreibswirtschaft; Bd. 1686, Peter Lang AG, 1994, pp. 198-199. 1152 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 20 1153 Termin, Peter (2002) “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 02-39 (Nov, 2002), pg 20 1154 Howgego, Christopher (1992) “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82. (1992), pp. 27. 1155 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 153-154. 1156 PURPURA, GIANFRANCO, “Tabulae Pompeianae 13 E 34: de documenti relative al prestito marittimo” [Online] Universita di Palermo Available at www.unipa.it [Accessed 19 December 2007] Taken from Atti della Accademia di Scienze Lettere e Arti di Palermo, ser. V, II, II, pp. 449 – 474, 1981 -82 and Atti del XVII Congresso Intern. di Papirologia, Napoli, pp. 1245 – 1266, 1984 The actual quote can be found in the section in the writing between ‘footnotes’ 20 and 21. 1157 Drexhage, Hans-Joachim and Konen, Heinrich and Ruffing, Kai “Die Wirtschaft des Römischen Reiches (1.-3.Jahrhundert): Eine Einführung”, Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 2002. pp. 263. 1158 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 174. 1159 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 175. 1160 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 23.
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1161 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 23. 1162 Kilborn, Jason J. “Mercy, Rehabilitation, and Quid Pro Quo: A Radical Reassessment of Individual Bankruptcy”, Ohio State Law Journal, Vol. 64:855 (2003), pp. 870-871. 1163 Kilborn, Jason J. “Mercy, Rehabilitation, and Quid Pro Quo: A Radical Reassessment of Individual Bankruptcy”, Ohio State Law Journal, Vol. 64:855 (2003), pp. 871-876. 1164 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 141. 1165 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 140-141. 1166 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 135. 1167 Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. pp. 305. 1168 Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. pp. 438. 1169 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 68-69. 1170 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 75-75. 1171 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 136. 1172 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 68-69. 1173 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 136. 1174 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 40. 1175 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 301-302. 1176 Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. There is no mention in any part of the book, that cessio bonorum is only granted to status equals of the upper classes. 1177 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 136. 1178 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 129. Taken from Footnote 11. 1179 Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. pp 163-164. 1180 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 301-302. 1181 Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. pp 469. 1182 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 129. Taken from Footnote 11. On granting addictio. 1183 Gaius “Institutes of Roman Law by Gaius”, translation and commentary by Edward Poste, 4th edition revised and enlarged by E.A. Whittuck, Oxford, 1904. pp 438. 1184 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 135. 1185 De Martino, Francesco “Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Rom”, translated by Brigitte Galsterer, München, Beck, 1991. pp. 302. 1186 Kilborn, Jason J. “Mercy, Rehabilitation, and Quid Pro Quo: A Radical Reassessment of Individual Bankruptcy”, Ohio State Law Journal, Vol. 64:855 (2003), pp. 858. 1187 Kilborn, Jason J. “Mercy, Rehabilitation, and Quid Pro Quo: A Radical Reassessment of Individual Bankruptcy”, Ohio State Law Journal, Vol. 64:855 (2003), pp. 875. 1188 Kilborn, Jason J. “Mercy, Rehabilitation, and Quid Pro Quo: A Radical Reassessment of Individual Bankruptcy”, Ohio State Law Journal, Vol. 64:855 (2003), pp. 872. 1189 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 129. Taken from Footnote 11.
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1190 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 129. Taken from Footnote 13. 1191 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 69-70. 1192 Frederiksen, M.W. “Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 56, Parts 1 and 2, (1966), pp. 128-130. 1193 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 35. 1194 Finley, M. I. “The Ancient Economy”, New York: The Trustees of Darwin College, Cambridge University, (1985). pp. 181. 1195 Temin, Peter (2001) “A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 91. (2001), pp. 177. 1196 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 1-2. 1197 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 72-74. 1198 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 78-79. 1199 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 78. 1200 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 28. This is done when calculating annuities, where interest rates are calculated at the beginning of the period, not the end. So in effect if you wish to calculate how much money you have after ‘n’ amount of years with an ‘i’ interest rate it would be for normal purposes (where Kn=end result, and K0 = initial value): Kn=K0 x (1+i)ˆn. In anticipative calculations the formula would be: Kn=(K0)/((1-i)ˆn). 1201 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 28. and furthermore from E Insured, Life insurance, so much part of our everyday lives, has a longer history than most would image [Online] Available at www.einsured.co.uk [Accessed 19 December 2007] “However, Roman insurance was not limited to such simple contracts. The Romans are known to have had a table of annuity values founded on mortality data known as Ulpian's Table, which was in use in parts of Italy until two centuries ago”. 1202 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 94. 1203 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 66. 1204 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 70. 1205 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 72. 1206 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 254. 1207 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 168. 1208 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 70. 1209 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 198. 1210 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 96. 1211 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 167. 1212 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 173. 1213 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 67-68. 1214 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 141.
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1215 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 176. 1216 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 181. 1217 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 183. 1218 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 167. 1219 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 183. 1220 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 71. 1221 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 174. 1222 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 176. 1223 http://assets.cambridge.org/97805214/83131/excerpt/9780521483131_excerpt.pdf 1224 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 180. 1225 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 218. 1226 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 230. 1227 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 220. 1228 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 230. 1229 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 254. 1230 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 145-146. 1231 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 106. 1232 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 112-113. 1233 Beigel, R “Rechnungswesen und Buchführung der Römer“, Karlsruhe; G. Braunschen Hofbuchdruckerei, 1904. pp. 186-187. 1234 Reece, Richard (1975) “Roman Currency: New Thoughts and Problems”, World Archaeology, Vol. 6, No. 3, Currency. (Feb, 1975), pp. 300. 1235 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 122-123. 1236 REECE, RICHARD “Roman Currency: New Thoughts and Problems”, World Archaeology, Vol. 6, No. 3, Currency, pp. 300, Feb 1975 1237 Temin, Peter and Kessler David (2005) “Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 05-11 (April, 2005), pp. 4. 1238 Temin, Peter and Kessler David (2005) “Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics Working Paper Series, Working paper 05-11 (April, 2005), pp. 6-7. 1239 Bastomsky, S. J. (1990) “Rich and Poor: The Great Divide in Ancient Rome and Victorian England”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser, Vol. 37, No. 1. (Apr, 1990), pp. 38. 1240 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 194-195. 1241 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 265. Taken from Footnote 8. 1242 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 265. Taken from Footnote 8.
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1243 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 263. 1244 Goldsmith, Raymond W. “An estimate of the size and structure of the national product of the early Roman Empire”, Review of Income & Wealth, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Sep, 1984), pp. 273. 1245 Hopkins, Keith (1980) “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200B.C.-A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70. (1980), pp. 119. 1246 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 147. 1247 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 184-185. 1248 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 196, and 195 for the graph. 1249 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 189. 1250 Zelener, Yan “Smallpox and the Disintegration of the Roman Economy after 165 AD”, Columbia University, (2003), pp. 195. 1251 SCHEIDEL, WALTER “Finances, Figures and Fiction”, The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 46, No. 1, pp. 232, 1996 1252 Carreras, Albert and Garcia-Iglesias, Concepcion “The Long-Run Behavior of the Income Velocity of Money in Spain, 1850-2000”, Instituto de Ciencieas Sociais, Lisbon, 21-22 March 2003, pp. 7. 1253 Carreras, Albert and Garcia-Iglesias, Concepcion “The Long-Run Behavior of the Income Velocity of Money in Spain, 1850-2000”, Instituto de Ciencieas Sociais, Lisbon, 21-22 March 2003, pp. 8. 1254 Carreras, Albert and Garcia-Iglesias, Concepcion “The Long-Run Behavior of the Income Velocity of Money in Spain, 1850-2000”, Instituto de Ciencieas Sociais, Lisbon, 21-22 March 2003, pp. 6.