Australian Catholic University · Australian Catholic University A study of the effects of an intervention program incorporating aspects of Social Constructivist and Essentialist

Australian Catholic University

A study of the effects of an intervention program incorporating aspects of Social Constructivist and Essentialist models of pedagogy on educational experiences of boys in Preliminary Year English classes at a Senior College

Submitted by

ANNA HILL

Cert. Primary Tch. (Mount St. Catholic Teachers College) Dip.Tch. (Mount St. Catholic Teachers College) B.A. (University New England) B.A. (Macquarie University, School of Slavonic Studies) Grad. Dip. Arts (Newcastle University) M.Ed. Studies (Newcastle University, School of Education) M.Ed. (Australian Catholic University, School of Religious Studies)

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

Doctor of Education

School of Education Faculty of Education

Australian Catholic University

Research services Locked Bag 2002

Strathfield NSW 2135 2010

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Statement of Authorship and Sources This thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or have been awarded another degree or diploma. No parts of this thesis have been submitted towards the award of any other degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution. No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis. All research procedures reported in the thesis received the approval of the relevant Ethics Committees.

Anna Hill 10.3.10

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Acknowledgements

I want to place on record my gratitude and appreciation to the following who

have contributed to the successful completion of this research project:

Professor Marea Nicholson and Associate Professor Paul White, my

Supervisors, for their attention to detail and steadfast guidance securing a

successful conclusion. I am privileged to have had the benefit of their

knowledge, experience and expertise. I am grateful for their many

kindnesses to me, their perseverance and commitment, their availability

despite demanding administrative schedules spending many hours in

discussion and meetings, in editing and reviewing. For their direction and

encouragement, I thank them sincerely.

Dr. John Hill, my husband, whose doctoral accomplishment became the

inspiration for me to begin my own research. I am grateful for his unfailing

support and loving encouragement, trusting that it is possible to achieve a

dream.

Participants - my students and my English Coordinator at the research site.

I am grateful for their generosity of spirit in agreeing to be involved in the

project.

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I am dedicating this to my parents, Stefania Lotocka and Ivan Pipinic, European immigrants whose own formal education was interrupted and who longed for their daughter to experience its value.

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Abstract:

The study evolved from a professional interest in the difficulties faced by

boys in an academically challenging school context. Existing research

evidence suggests that there is a link between performance at school and

specific pedagogical styles used within the teaching environment. This study

builds on this evidence-base with the implementation of an intervention

program incorporating aspects of Social Constructivist and Essentialist

models of pedagogy. The study was designed to monitor this

implementation. Students’ academic performance, behaviour, motivation

and attitude were explored in the context of this pedagogical intervention

using the lens of a two-part research question.

The research is informed by a pragmatic understanding of the epistemology

of constructivism and the principles associated with the theoretical

framework of symbolic interactionism. It is a case study of an intervention

program, supported by a combination of quantitative and qualitative

research methods.

The context is a Senior Catholic College catering for the final two years of

high school with a student population exceeding 1100. The school is a

receiver school for associated junior schools and caters for both males and

females. Students remain with the College for 18 months, the duration of

their studies in preparation for the New South Wales Higher School

Certificate.

The researcher is a teacher in the English Department. The interest in boys’

education stems from a longstanding association with students from a broad

spectrum of academic abilities, particularly in remedial and low-ability

classes. A review of literature served to identify three main groups of

influence on the education of boys: school context; student social-emotional

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well-being; and learning theory models. The literature review helped situate

the problem of boys’ academic experiences of underachievement more

firmly within the theoretical perspectives of pedagogy. Two models were

examined more closely: the Essentialist and the Social Constructivist.

Data in response to the Research Questions identified that:

Positive experiences at school and the subsequent changes in the patterns

of behaviour, attitude and motivation were aligned to a number of factors

including experiences within an intervention program using information

technology and audio-visual stimulus. Other positive factors included the

trialing of single-sex groupings in mixed-ability co-educational settings.

Self-reported negative experiences at school were not confined to gender

but aligned to the complexity and demands of the senior school English

curriculum; its perceived irrelevance and mismatch with post-school needs.

Similarly, the reported discrepancies between student and teacher

perception of social-emotional well-being problems among students and a

lack of decision-making opportunities may have further contributed to the

sense of alienation, stress and frustration.

Implications were drawn from the research and the study concludes with

recommendations which focus on creating more positive school experiences

for academically less capable students. First, it recommends the

implementation of aspects of Social Constructivist and Essentialist models

of pedagogical structures using information technology and audio-visual

stimulus. Second, it recommends the organization of single-sex groupings in

mixed-ability co-educational settings to assist in improving academic

experiences of low-ability boys in Year 11 English classes - both aspects of

the intervention program central to this study.

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Table of Contents:

Abstract CHAPTER ONE The Research Defined

1.1 Identification of the Research Problem 1.2 Research Purpose 1.3 Research Process 1.4 The Researcher 1.5 The Research Context 1.6 Significance of the Research 1.7 Explanation of Terminology

1.8 Organization of the Thesis CHAPTER TWO Review of Literature

2.1 Rationale for the Selection of Literature 2.2 Conceptual Framework 2.3 Structure of Literature Review Chapter 2.4 Section 1: Learning Theory Models 2.5 Social Constructivist Model 2.6 The Essentialist Model

2.7 Summary of Section 1: Learning Theory Models 2.8 Section 2: School Context

2.9 Social-Emotional Well-Being 2.10 Adolescent Male Perceptions of School 2.11 Motivation and Self-Esteem 2.12 School/Class Size 2.13 Teachers 2.14 Single-Sex Classes in Co-Educational Settings 2.15 Information Technology 2.16 Conclusion 2.17 Refining the Research Question 2.18 Summary of Chapter 2

CHAPTER THREE Theoretical Perspectives on Research Design

3.1 Theoretical Framework 3.2 Research Paradigm: Pragmatic Constructivism 3.3 Epistemology 3.4 Theoretical Perspective 3.5 Research Methodology

3.5.1 Conducting the Research

5 18 20 20 20 21 22 22 22 30 33 35 36 36 39 40 43 47 48 48 50 51 55 56 57 60 61 62 64 66 66 67 68 68 71 71

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3.5.2 Research Design for the Study

3.6 Models for Intervention:

3.6.1 The NSW Model of Pedagogy 3.6.2 Moodle: Online Teaching and Learning Facility 3.6.3 Summary

3.7 Participant Selection 3.8 Data Gathering Strategies 3.9 Legitimization of Findings 3.10 Ethical Issues 3.11 Limitations and Delimitations 3.12 Summary of Chapter 3

CHAPTER FOUR Research Instrument Description

4.1 Data Collection Processes 4.2 Test of Reading Comprehension (TORCH Test) 4.3 ACER Social-Emotional Well-Being Surveys 4.4 Student Questionnaire 4.5 Evaluated Lessons 4.6 Focus Group Discussions

4.6.1 Discussion of Focus Group Interview Process

4.7 Student Focus Survey/Questionnaire on Reactions to Using Moodle Online Learning Program

4.8 Individual Student Interviews 4.9 Unit Summative Tasks

4.10 Summary of Chapter 4

CHAPTER FIVE Data Display

5.1 Test of Reading Comprehension (TORCH Test) Results 5.2 Australian Council for Educational Research

Social-Emotional Well-Being (ACER SEWB) Surveys 5.3 Social-Emotional Well-Being (a): Positive Statements

5.4 Social-Emotional Well-Being (b): Negative Statements

5.5 Part 11: Total Good Practices - Good Practices in Schools

5.6 Part 11 (b): Total Good School Practices

5.7 Part 111: Total Young People's Social-Emotional- Motivational Foundation

73 74 77 81 85 85 86 89 93 95 96 98 98 99 101 104 105 107

107

109 110 110 111 112 113 115 118 122 123 128

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5.8 Part 111: Total Positive Mindset (a): Positive Statements

5.9 Part 111: Total Positive Mindset (b): Negative Statements

5.10 Social-Emotional Well-Being (b): Problems Teacher/Student Surveys

5.10.1 Interpersonal Problems 5.10.2 Emotional Problems 5.10.3 Behavioural Problems 5.10.4 Educational Under-Achievement

5.11 Trends from ACER Social-Emotional Well-Being Surveys Results

5.12 Student Questionnaire based on Targeted Statements from ACER Survey

5.13 Focus Group Interviews: Results for Statements 5.14 Student Questionnaire on Reactions to Using the

Online Learning Program 5.15 Data Display for One-to-One Interview with Targeted

Students 5.16 Data Display for English Department Summative Tasks

5.17 Comments of Researcher as Teacher

5.17.1 Task 1: Film Study 5.17.2 Task 2: Novel 5.17.3 Task 3: Composing 5.17.4 Task 4: Area Of Study 5.17.5 Task 5: Drama


CHAPTER SIX Analysis of Data in Response to the Research

Questions


CHAPTER SEVEN Discussion of Findings


130

132 133 134 134 135 136 137 139 148 151 155 155 158 158 159 162 163 165 166 168 186 189 216

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CHAPTER EIGHT Review and Synthesis

8.1 Purpose of the Research 8.2 Contributions to Educational Theory and Practice

8.2.1 Documentation of Students’ Academic

Experiences in Senior High School Preliminary English classes

8.2.2 Documentation of Students’ Responses to an Online Teaching and Learning Facility

8.3 Recommendations for Improved Pedagogical Practice for Boys’ Education

8.3.1 Academic Performance 8.3.2 Motivation 8.3.3 Attitude 8.3.4 Behaviour

8.4 Implications for Further Research 8.5 Limitations of Study 8.6 Concluding Remarks

REFERENCES: Appendix 1 - Context Appendix 3 - Ethics Appendix 4 - Research Instrument Description and Display Appendix 5 - Data Display

219 219 220

221 222 222 224 228 230 231 231 233 233 235 260 262 276 303


LIST OF FIGURES:

Figure 2.3.1 Conceptual Framework of Literature Review Figure 2.4.1 Expanded Conceptual Framework of Literature

Review Including Research Questions

Figure 3.6.2.1 Overview of the Research Context and the QTM Implementation: Levels of Emphases

Figure 5.3.2 Boys & Girls “I get along with most of my

classmates” Figure 5.3.3 Boys & Girls “I get along with most of my

teachers” Figure 5.3.4 Boys & Girls “I feel like I belong in my school” Figure 5.3.5 Boys & Girls “I am doing well at school”

Figure 5.4.2 Boys & Girls “I worry too much about my

schoolwork or what others think of me”

Figure 5.4.3 Boys & Girls “I could do a lot better in my

schoolwork” Figure 5.4.4 Boys & Girls “I get into too much trouble” Figure 5.4.5 Boys & Girls “I drink alcohol a lot.”

Figure 5.4.6 Boys & Girls “I use drugs” Figure 5.4.7 Boys & Girls “I feel very stressed” Figure 5.4.8 Boys & Girls “I am sometimes quite mean to other

people” Figure 5.5.1 Good Practices at School: Percentage of Students

Who Agree or Strongly Agree that Practice Exists Figure 5.6.1 Boys & Girls “I have a teacher who cares for me”.

37 65 84 115 116 116 117 119

119 120 120 121 121 122

123

124


Figure 5.6.2 Boys & Girls “There are many activities to do at school that interest me”

Figure 5.6.3 Boys & Girls “There are many things that I study in

my classes that interest me” Figure 5.6.4 Boys & Girls “Most of my teachers help me believe

I can be successful” Figure 5.6.5 Boys & Girls “I have at least one teacher who

spends time talking with me about things other than schoolwork”

Figure 5.6.6 Boys & Girls “Most of my teachers say something

positive when I have done my very best”

Figure 5.6.7 Boys & Girls “My teachers try hard to help and be

nice to me” Figure 5.7.1 Boys & Girls “Academic confidence” Figure 5.7.2 Boys & Girls “Social Confidence” Figure 5.7.3 Boys & Girls “Friendship-making” Figure 5.8.1 Boys’ & Girls “I am confident when doing difficult

schoolwork” Figure 5.8.2 Boys & Girls “I am persistent and try very hard to

complete all my schoolwork” Figure 5.8.3 Boys’ & Girls “I want to do my very best in my

schoolwork” Figure 5.9.2 Boys’ & Girls “I am disorganized” Figure 5.9.3 Boys & Girls “I should not have to do schoolwork

that is boring” Figure 5.10.1.1 Representing graph of the percentage of students

reported to have high or very high levels of Interpersonal Problems

Figure 5.10.2.1 Percentage of Students Reported to Have High or

125 125 126 126 127 127 128 129 129 130 131 131 132 133 134


Very High Levels of Emotional Problems Figure 5.10.3.1 Percentage of Students Reported to Have High or

Very High Levels of Behavioural Problems Figure 5.10.4.1 Percentage of Students Reported to Have High or Very High Levels of Under-Achievement Figure 5.12.6 Boys and Girls: Question 2 Statement : “How do you know a teacher cares for you?” Figure 5.16.1 Summative Task Results: Final Report Mark

Comparisons Figure 5.16.2 Task 3: Composing: Summative Task: Showing

Comparative Group Performance Levels

135 135 136 143 156 157


LIST OF TABLES: Table 2.4.1 Clusters Identified in the Literature as Contributing

to Boys’ Academic Underachievement Table 2.5.1 Foundation Theorists Table 2.6.1 Constructivist Curriculum Theory - Tabular

Representation

Table 2.7 Essentialist Curriculum Theory Table 2.15.1 Researcher’s Comparative Summary Table: Boys’

and Girls’ Use of Computers in Education Table 3.1.1 Summary of Design Elements of Research Table 3.4.1 Current Research Design and Symbolic

Interactionist Framework Table 3.6.1.1 Essentialist and Social Constructivist Curriculum

Theory Model Comparisons Table 3.6.1.2 The Dimensions and Elements of the NSW Model

of Pedagogy

Table 3.6.1.3 Tabular Comparative Representation of Social Constructivist Curriculum Theory and

Quality Teaching Model

Table 3.8.1 Illustration of Alignment of Research Question with Quantitative and Qualitative Data Gathering Strategies

Table 3.9.1 Summary of Strategies for Establishing Rigour Table 4.1.1 Data Collecting Sequences Showing the

Pre-Intervention, Intervention and Post-Intervention Stages

Table 4.3.1 Positive and Negative Characteristics of

Social-Emotional Well-Being Table 4.3.2 Identification of Groupings for Survey Statements

38 39 43 46 61 67 70 76 78 80 88 91 99 102 103


Table 4.3.2.2 Identification of Teacher Survey Statement Groupings

Table 4.5.1 Syllabus Outline for Preliminary Year Standard

English Course Showing Sequences of Evaluated Lessons

Table 4.9.1 Teaching Program/Syllabus Outline for Preliminary

Year Standard English Course Summative Tasks Table 5.1.1 Summary of Pre-Intervention (Year 10) and Post

Intervention (Year 11) TORCH Test Results by Gender

Table 5.2.1 Student/Teacher Survey Details

Table 5.3.1 Statements and Calculated Percentages for Student Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Part 1 a): Positive Statements

Table 5.4.1 Statements and Calculated Percentages for Student

Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Part 1 (b): Negative Statements


Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Part 11 (b): Total Good School Practices


Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Total Positive Mindset (a): Positive Statements


Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Part 111 (b): Negative Statements

Table 5.12.1 Targeted Focus Group Statement 1: “In English what

particularly do you like doing?”

Table 5.12. 2 Summary of Order of Preference for Targeted Focus Group Statement 1: “In English, what particularly do you like doing?”

Table 5.12.5 Targeted Focus Group Statement 2: “How do you know a teacher cares for you?”

104 106 110 112 114 115 118 124 130 132 140

141 141


Table 5.12.7 Targeted Focus Group Statement 3: “I am doing well at school - What sort of things are you basing this decision on?”

Table 5.12.9 Targeted Focus Group Statement 4: “I am not doing as well as I think I can in my schoolwork”

Table 5.12.10 Targeted Focus Group Statement 4: “What happens in class for you to say that you get into too much trouble?”

Table 5.12.13 Targeted Focus Group Statement 6: “High expectations from school”

Table 5.13.1 Rank Order Listing of Boys’ Responses from Focus Group Discussions

Table 5.14.1 Questions for Online Learning Questionnaire Table 5.14.2 Summary of Boys’ & Girls’ Responses to Question 2 Table 5.14.3 Summary of Boys’ & Girls’ Responses to Question 3 Table 6.1 Research Question Part A : Academic Experiences:

Tabular Representation of Emerging Positive and Negative Thematic Trends Aligned to Research Instruments

Table 6.2 Research Question Part A: Academic Experiences:

Tabular Representation of Positive Trends with Reference to Gender

Table 6.3 Research Question Part A: Academic Experiences:

Tabular Representation of Negative Trends with Reference to Gender

Table 6.4 Research Question Part B: Behaviour, Motivation

and Attitude: Tabular Representation of Positive Trends with Reference to Gender

Table 6.5 Research Question Part B: Behaviour, Motivation

and Attitude: Tabular Representation of Negative Trends with Reference to Gender

143 144 145 146 149 151 152 153 170 171 173 177 179


Table 7.1 Gender Comparisons of Student Responses with

Theoretical Assumptions About Teaching and Learning Styles Suited for Boys.

191

CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 18

Chapter 1

THE RESEARCH DEFINED

Over thirty years as a professional educator have resulted in observations to

confirm many boys’ academic achievement as less than optimal and have

prompted this investigation into male students’ experiences of schooling,

particularly at the Senior School level.

Prominent educators and commentators have established that compared to

girls, many boys are not achieving at an optimum level either socially or

academically during their years at school. However, it should be noted that

not all boys are underachieving, and the underachievement of some boys is

not a new problem (Alloway & Gilbert, 1997; Lingard & Douglas, 1999).

Commentators agree that the situation with respect to boys and schooling

should not be presented in terms of a homogeneous gender category, but

should rather be put in terms of which boys (Teese et al. 1995; Gilbert

& Gilbert, 1998). Gill, (2004) as others, is in support of this viewpoint and

affirms with the question,

“Does ‘boys’ mean all boys, some boys, and a few boys - which

boys?” (Gill, 2004 p.70).

Nevertheless, persistent comparative differences remain in the levels of

achievement between boys and girls during their years at school (Younger

& Warrington, 2003; West, 1999, 2000, 2002; Lillico, 2001; Gilbert & Gilbert,

1998); boys’ failure in reading, (Flynn & Rahbar, 1994) and declining

retention rates in school, (Trent & Slade, 2001). Girls’ academic

out-performance of boys is well documented. Equally well documented, are

the complex factors influencing the integration of male students to school

(Browne & Fletcher, 1995); mixed gender classes, (Blair & Sanford, 1999);


the framing of attitudes to subject choices (Martino, 1995; Martin, 2002;

Biddulph, 1995); expressions of masculinity (Connell, 1989, 1997, 2000; Mac

an Ghail, 1996; Epstein, 1997, 1998; White, 2004); motivation and

behaviour (Rowe, 2000c; Carr-Gregg, 2004; Munns, 2006).

It becomes evident that the pedagogical discourse on boys’ academic

achievement articulates fundamental complexities from the standpoint of

gender equity and educational reforms. It is acknowledged that the most

debatable aspect of boys’ under-achievement is that of the cause of the

problem (Noble, Brown & Murphy, 2003). Prominent and equally significant

discourses support the possible impact of other influences on boys’

academic performance. These include such factors as socio-environmental

influences, biological makeup and psychological perspectives (James, 2007;

Fausto-Sterling, 1985; Carr-Gregg, 2004). Gilbert & Gilbert, (1998) add

geography, location, ethnicity and ‘race’ as critical in isolating the groups of

boys who are potentially more at risk of school failure,

“ … particularly in literacy results … gender remains a key predictor

of success” (Gilbert & Gilbert, 1998. p. 9).

This is supported by Gill, (2004),

“These boys correctly read the school situation as one in which they

are destined to be unsuccessful. Then disruptive behaviour and

refusal to conform to standard academic expectation can only be

seen as a product of the situation not a simple result of their being

male” (Gill, 2004, p. 71).

The issues being addressed as part of the current study move beyond boys’

difficulty with regulatory male behavior, uses of language skills and learning

progress to the gaining of a clearer understanding of the complexities that

play upon the male students’ experiences of school.


Three main influences - school context, student social-emotional well-being

and learning theory models, are established to investigate these

experiences.

1.1 Identification of the Research Problem

The research problem is the investigation of appropriate pedagogical

structures to facilitate boys’ learning experiences in Stage 6, (Year 11).

1.2 Research Purpose

The purpose of this study is threefold. It is to:

1 Analyze the literature on boys’ education relating to academic

performance and pedagogical structures.

2) Implement and monitor the effects of an intervention program on the

educational experiences of students in three Preliminary Year English

classes at senior school

3) Interpret the results and identify implications for the education of boys at

the senior level.

1.3 Research Process

This is a professional-based study within an educational context. The

research is a mixed method approach, a case study of an intervention

program supported by quantitative and qualitative data. Instruments of

measurement were implemented at the pre-intervention, the intervention and

the post-intervention stages. The study encompassed a cohort of 57

students (38 boys and 19 girls) from three targeted Year 11 English classes

for the duration of the nine months of the Preliminary Year.


1.4 The Researcher

The researcher is a teacher in the English Department of a Senior Catholic

College. The interest in boys’ education stems from a longstanding

association with students from a broad spectrum of academic abilities,

particularly in remedial and low-ability classes. The study evolved from a

professional interest to address, if only in part, the difficulties faced by boys

in an academically challenging and uncompromising school context.

Results of studies indicating differing boys’ and girls’ educational

achievements and the ensuing theories about this, reflect teaching

experiences of the researcher and have awakened an academic interest in

this field. From this area of interest and the debate on differing approaches

to learning, the research focus emerged to explore ways of addressing boys’

negative experiences of schooling.

The Doctor of Education Research Program provided the opportunity for the

researcher to combine teaching experience with educational research to

inform professional practice and respond to the following lacunae identified

in the field of boys’ education:

1. Research on boys’ educational experiences in Senior High School

Preliminary English classes.

2. Recommendations for changes to pedagogical practice in boys’

education.

3. Adaptation of an online teaching and learning facility to address boys’

educational needs in the classroom.


1.5 The Research Context

The research context is a Senior Catholic College catering for the final two

years of high school with a student population exceeding 1100 with more

than 600 Year 11 and 500 Year 12 students. There are 25 Year 11 English

classes - 13 Standard English and 12 Advanced English classes. The

school is a receiver school for associated junior schools and caters for both

males and females. Students remain with the College for 18 months, the

duration of their studies in preparation for the New South Wales Higher

School Certificate. Further details are outlined in Appendix 1: Context

Concept Maps.

1.6 Significance of the Research

This study is important because it contributes to the body of knowledge

about how boys learn and, through its application, how boys’ experiences of

schooling can be made more positive. Of further significance is that there is

no current study being conducted using an online teaching and learning

facility with students in Stage 6 (Year 11).

1.7 Explanation of Terminology

Underachievement:

At the simplest level underachievement can be defined as unfulfilled

potential (Moltzen, 1998 p. 41).

“ … a discrepancy between the child’s school performance and some

index of his or her actual ability, such as intelligence, or creative

scores or observational data” (Davis & Rimm, 1998 p. 279).


Gifted underachiever:

“Someone who has shown exceptional performance on the measure

of intelligence and who, nevertheless, does not perform as well as

expected for students of the same age on school-related tasks”

(Davis & Rimm, 1998, p. 279).

Literacy: Literacy is measured on standardized tests in schools; applicable

in this context and defined by the Commonwealth Department of Education,

Training and Youth Affairs as the ability to,

“ … read, write and spell at the appropriate level.”

(Masters & Forster, 1997:3).

The definition of literacy has evolved past the dictionary definition of literacy

as the ability to read and write. The definition can be expanded to the ability

to locate, evaluate, manipulate and communicate using a wide range of

resources, apart from text, such as visual, audio and video sources.

“Traditionally literacy has been commonly defined as the ability to

read and write at an adequate level of proficiency that is necessary

for communication. More recently however, literacy has taken on

several meanings. Technological literacy, mathematical literacy, and

visual literacy are just a few examples. While it may be difficult to

gauge the degree to which literacy has an impact on an individual’s

overall happiness, one can easily infer that an increase in literacy will

lead to the improvement of an individual’s life and the development of

societies.”

http://issues.tigweb.org/literacy?gclid=CKbfoMrUx5oCFYItpAodL1uU2Q

http://issues.tigweb.org/literacy?gclid=CKbfoMrUx5oCFYItpAodL1uU2Q


The NSW Department of Education and Training defines literacy as,

“To be literate within contemporary society requires students to read,

write, talk, listen and think critically in order to understand written,

visual and technologically based information.”

http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/policies/litrracy/index.htm

Reading: Reading is seen by Masters & Forster (1997) as a person’s:

1. Ability to read and interpret a range of fiction and non-fiction texts with

a degree of critical awareness.

2. Ability to understand main themes, ideas and points of view.

3. Appreciation of the writer’s craft.

4. Awareness of the relationship between communication medium and

the message in the written texts.


Writing: Writing is characterised by:

1. Quality of thought (eg. Cohesiveness and creativity).

2. Language control (eg. Spelling and grammar).

3. Sense of purpose and audience.


The appropriate level of literacy demonstrated by students is determined

by the school year. The National School English Literacy Survey (NSELS) in

1996 assessed reading and writing by the following criteria:

English performance is understood as students’ results in either public or

school-assessed examinations of the high-school subject of English. The

curriculum of English is determined by the Boards of Studies in the relevant

States, and is generally a study of English Literature with the more recent

http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/policies/litrracy/index.htm


emphasis adopting a Modernist approach to interpretation and analysis,

specifically dealing with composer’s context, purpose, use of features and

the effects these have on the responder.

Higher School Certificate: The New South Wales Public Examination at the end of Year 12, the final

year at High School. The Higher School Certificate (HSC) is a locally,

nationally and internationally recognized qualification for students who

successfully complete secondary education in New South Wales.

The Preliminary (Year 11) and HSC (Year 12) are the two final years in high

school (Stage 6).

English Stage 6 Competencies:

“In Stage 6, as students explore more complex texts, as well as

simple texts in more complex ways, they refine their knowledge of

language forms, features and of the structure of texts” (NSW Board

of Studies English Syllabus Stage 6, 1999, p. 12).

“Students:

• engage in responding to and composing texts, and consider the

diverse processes involved in this through their wide reading, and

through close analysis of texts

• develop knowledge and understanding of the ways that the

linguistic, structural, contextual and thematic interrelationships

among texts shape meaning

• develop and apply a knowledge and understanding of the role and

function of literary conventions and devices

• analyse the relationships between texts and technologies of

production and evaluate the ways in which the medium itself


influences the shape and nature of meaning” (NSW Board of

Studies English Syllabus Stage 6, 1999, p. 12).

Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA):

is responsible for the development of Australia’s national curriculum from

Kindergarten to Year 12, starting with the learning areas of English,

Mathematics, the Sciences and History, for implementation from 2011. The

development of continua for literacy and numeracy skills and ICT will be the

foundation of the curriculum.

http://www/acara.edu.au/curriculum.html

ACARA Projections of Curriculum Framework: “Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) skills and understanding are required for

all learning areas. Some aspects of ICT competence are as much about

information management as about the use of technology, so an important

aspect of the competence is the ability to evaluate the source, reliability,

accuracy and validity of information that abounds in cyberspace. New digital

technologies are used in creative and artistic pursuits, and in civic and

political activities. These opportunities for private and public expression,

unimagined half a generation ago, will make up important elements of the

national curriculum.”

(National Curriculum Board, The Shape of the Australian Curriculum, May,

2009, p. 12).

M.O.O.D.L.E:

An acronym for Modular Object-Orientated Dynamic Learning Environment,

It is a course management system (CMS) – a software package designed to

help educators create online courses in the style of WebCT and Blackboard.

Martin Dougiamas, Western Australia, (2002), developed this system as a

free alternative, which people could use to help them move their teaching

http://www/acara.edu.au/curriculum.html


skills into the online environment. One of the main advantages of MOODLE

over other systems and consequently suitable for this study, is its strong

grounding in Social Constructivist Pedagogy.

Retrieved from http://docs.moodle.org/en/Background

The Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) defines

Social-Emotional Well-Being (SEWB) as:

“ … the general state of being happy, feeling safe, having positive

relationships with other, being interested in the welfare of others, and

being involved in the striving to do one’s best in a wide range of

activities (e.g., art, music, sport, exercise). Social-emotional

well-being also exists when there is an absence of extreme and

long-standing negative emotions (anger, anxiety, depression,

general stress) anti-social behaviors (e.g., bullying, isolation),

unhealthy behaviours (e.g., alcohol, drugs, poor diet) and

under-achievement/poor motivation in different areas” (Bernard,

2002, p. 8).

The definition includes both positive and negative dimensions of

Social-Emotional Well-Being.

The (TORCH) Test:

“The Australian Council for Educational Research Test of Reading

Comprehension (TORCH) are un-timed reading tests for use with

students in Years 3 to 11. They aim at assessing the extent to which

readers are able to obtain meaning from text. The location of

students’ scores on the TORCH scale will indicate those reading

tasks they are likely to be able to do and the tasks for which they will

require assistance. Such an analysis will have a direct bearing on

http://docs.moodle.org/en/Background


classroom teaching strategies” (Mossenson, Hill & Masters, 1996,

p. 2).

NSW Quality Teaching Model: The Model, based on Newmann’s Authentic Pedagogy, outlines three

dimensions that represent classroom practices that have been linked to

improved student outcomes. These three dimensions are:

1. intellectual quality

2. quality learning environment

3. significance

Dimensions of the NSW Model:

� Each dimension is described in terms of six elements.

� Elements draw from research that links quality pedagogy to

improved student outcomes.

� Elements are observable characteristics of pedagogy within

classroom practice and written tasks.

Retrieved from http://www.curriculumsupport.nsw.edu.au/qualityteaching/

MySpace:

An international site that offers email, a forum, communities, videos and

weblog space.

http://www.curriculumsupport.nsw.edu.au/qualityteaching/


Social Constructivist Curriculum Theory:

(Student-centred learning with emphasis on its collaborative nature: Refer to

Table 2.4.2.1).

Social Constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in

understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on

this understanding. This perspective is closely associated with many

contemporary theories, most notably the developmental theories of Vygotsky

and Bruner, and Bandura's social cognitive theory (Shunk, 2000). The

fundamental challenge of Constructivism is in its repositioning of control over

learning from teacher to student.

Essentialist Curriculum Theory:

(Teacher-centred learning with emphasis on the basics: Refer to Table

2.5.1).

Education Essentialism is a theory that states that children should learn the

traditional basic subjects - the essentials of academic knowledge - and that

these should be learnt thoroughly and rigorously (Bagley, 1941).

Essentialism is a practical, factual approach to education which includes

methods such as drill and practice, study, books, texts and memorization.

An Essentialist program normally teaches children progressively, from less

complex skills to more complex.


1.8 Organization of the Thesis

Chapter 1:

In its introduction to the study, Chapter One provides a FRAMEWORK for

the choice of topic and situates it in the concerns of educators and

commentators on boys’ education. The chapter describes the purpose of the

study and outlines the research process. This first chapter continues with a

description of the research context and some details about the researcher’s

motivations for pursuing the study. The final section of this first chapter,

traces the thesis structure by outlining the proposed content of each chapter.

Chapter 2:

Presents a REVIEW OF LITERATURE to help position the research problem

and identify the research questions directing the study. The conceptual

framework of the literature review is framed in the light of cognitive gains and

affective gains. The overview helps to identify three main groups of influence

on the education of boys: school context, student social-emotional well-being

and learning theory models. The literature review situates the problem of

boys’ academic experiences of underachievement more firmly within the

theoretical perspectives of pedagogy. Two models are examined more

closely: the Essentialist and the Social Constructivist. This chapter

concludes by defining the research questions which guide the study and its

design.

Chapter 3:

This chapter details the RESEARCH DESIGN and provides the rationale for

grounding this study within the research paradigm of Pragmatic


Constructivism. The study is largely informed by the theoretical perspective

of Symbolic Interactionism. The study is identified as having a

phenomenological approach within a Social/Constructivist framework. The

research project employs mixed methods of research. It is a case study of an

intervention program, supported by quantitative and qualitative research

methods. The chapter presents an overview of the three divisions within the

research design. The choice to highlight the information in separate

sections, attests to the complexity of the data collection process with the

ensuing treatment of both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis.

The chapter also includes an overview of the data collection and analysis

strategies, participant selection, strategies for establishing rigour and validity,

details of ethics procedures, limitations, delimitations and an outline

proposing procedures for overcoming limitations of the study.

Chapter 4:

The chapter presents a description of the full range of RESEARCH

INSTRUMENTS used in the three levels of investigation: Pre-Intervention,

Intervention and Post-Intervention stages.

Chapter 5:

The chapter presents a DATA REPORT with a data display for each

research instrument used in the experiment. The outline follows a similar

format to that used in the previous chapter with reference to the three levels

of investigation within the chronological listing of research instrument

administration.


Chapter 6:

The chapter presents an ANALYSIS OF DATA IN RESPONSE TO THE

RESEARCH QUESTIONS.

Chapter 7:

The DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS in the chapter concentrates on the

thematic concerns arising from the research questions. Data in response to

the research questions explored how students articulate their academic

experiences. The chapter describes the regimes put in place at the College

to address these needs. Also identified, are areas where it has been

possible to facilitate changes in academic performance, attitude, behaviour

and motivation of boys in the Preliminary Year English classes through the

implementation of teaching and learning processes based on aspects of the

Social Constructivist and Essentialist Models.

Chapter 8:

REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS. The final chapter presents the conclusions

and recommendations. The aim of the recommendations is to provide

direction for the implementation of more effective learning and teaching

strategies at the College to cater for boys’ educational needs.

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 33

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The purpose of this chapter is to present a review of literature on boys’

education relating to academic performance and pedagogical structures.

Literature on boys’ education is both extensive and diverse. Reasons for the

decline in boys’ academic results and ways to address this decline have

been a strong feature of public debate. The 1994 O’Doherty Report was in

response to early concerns about boys’ performance; followed by

Parliamentary Inquiries, Submissions, Australian Bureau of Statistics Public

examination comparative results and a series of case studies of boys’

education strategies. The main contributors responding to these early

concerns were educationalists and commentators such as Creswell, Rowe

& Withers, (2002); West, (2002); Martino, (1995); Hawkes, (2001); Lillico,

(2001); Gurian, (1999); and Biddulph, (1997). Pedagogical, environmental,

social, biological and psychological influences have been cited as

contributing to boys’ academic underachievement. The following discussion

provides a summary of these perspectives within the present school context

of the researcher.

Educationalists and practitioners such as Martino, (1995, 2004, 2005); Flynn

& Rahbar, (1994); West, (2002); Lillico, (2001); Gurian, (2001); Hawkes,

(2001); Biddulph, (1997); Pitman & Gray, (1997); Clay, (2008); Hartman,

(2006); Blair & Sandford, (2003); and Moss, (2000) support pedagogical

foundations for boys’ academic underachievement relating to a mismatch

between teaching styles and boys’ learning needs. Lillico (2001); West

(2002); and Biddulph, (1997) emphasize the negative impact of a

compulsory English course taught from a post-modernist perspective.


Environmentally and socially determined factors such as socio-economic

position, geographic location and ethnicity have their advocates in Nielsen

(1991); Wood, (1994); Connell, (1995); Davies, (1997); and Cole, (1996)

who identify that social constructs ascribe specific ways of behaving to each

social position or group. Martino, (1995); Phillips, (1993); Biddulph, (1997);

and Wood, (1994) elaborate on how socially encouraged patterns of

behaviour can result in ‘scripted behaviour’ for men to follow. Brown &

Fletcher, (1995); Martino, (1995); and Flynn & Rahbar, (1994) attribute some

influence on boys’ underachievement to boys self-handicapping their

academic progress to gain acceptance. Other influences have been

identified, such as the feminisation of schooling; primary schools and single

parent families dominated by females (Gurian, 1999; Biddulph, 1995;

Fletcher, 1997). Given the allocation of public funding along gender lines,

and, demands for equal opportunity for girls and women, education interest

centred on girls and neglect of boys has remained disputed by the

anti-feminist movement (Gurian, 1999).

Suggestions for redress concentrate on the establishment of male role

models for boys (Biddulph, 1997; Fletcher, 1997), tapping into male energy

to ensure a male self-image (Gurian, 1999) and channelling aggressive

behaviour in positive ways (Ykema, 2000; Carr-Gregg, 2004).

Biologically determined advocates such as Moir and Jessel, (1989) identify

genetic influences in determining styles of learning and subject preferences.

Gardner, (1983); and Moir & Jessel, (1989) acknowledge that gender

responses are predetermined. Biddulph, (1997); Gurian, (1999); Neilsen,

(1991); and Carr-Gregg, (2007) cite the impact of sex hormone activity on

behaviour, particularly in boys with reference to aggression control and

emotional response.

Advocates of psychologically determined influences on academic progress,

such as Haralambos et al. (1996); and Fast, (1993) identify the impact of


childhood experiences in determining levels of progress and coping

strategies. Fletcher, (2000); Erikson, (1968) and again, Fast, (1993) with

Marcia, (1980) stress the importance of relationships in creating individual

and masculine identity and the impact of the mother, father and siblings,

Christenson et al. (1992).

The research literature demonstrates, therefore, that boys’ academic

performance needs to be viewed in concert with a range of factors

interacting in complex ways to contribute to boys’ experiences at school and

their learning processes.

2.1 Rationale for the Selection of Literature

Given the complexities inherent within the research context of issues

relating to the problem of boys’ academic underachievement and the

ensuing considerations, it becomes essential to narrow the focus. The

present study has sought to develop some perspective on this expanse of

literature by identifying pedagogical foundations for boys’ academic

underachievement as influential and convincing. In addition, since the

researcher is positioned within a school, it is also natural to assume that this

context will be the choice of lens for review.

While acknowledging the contributions to educational reform in areas such

as vocational policies, gender equity and the emphases on social and

cultural inclusiveness within an evolving education system, the philosophical

perspectives of theorists such as post-modernists, Stronach & MacLure,

(1997) and the post-structural advocate, Scheurich, (1997), move beyond

the scope of the present study.

For the purposes of this research, one specific section concentrating on

pedagogical theoretical foundations indicating that boys respond to different

teaching styles and adopt equally different strategies for learning, compared

to girls, is examined more closely. The study aims to move beyond boys’


difficulty with regulatory behaviour and uses of language skills, to a better

understanding of the complexities that play on the male students’

experiences of school as well as their academic performance (Martin, 2002;

2003). Both of these are seen as ultimately affecting how boys feel about

themselves and how they react to the world around them.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The research literature demonstrates that influences relating to boys’

academic performance are complex and remain open to debate. None the

less, pedagogical foundations for boys’ academic achievement remain

influential and convincing. The contribution of the pedagogical discourse lies

not only in the analysis it offers for why boys are having difficulties but also

the practical responses offered for teachers and school leaders. Effective

pedagogies improve the educational environment of all students, both boys

and girls.

The expanded Conceptual Framework of the Literature Review situates the

problem of boys’ academic experiences of underachievement more firmly

within the theoretical foundations of pedagogy. Two models are examined

more closely - the Social Constructivist and the Essentialist.

2.3 Structure of Literature Review Chapter Using the structure composed by the researcher in Figure 2.3.1 Conceptual

Framework: Theoretical Foundations of Pedagogy to Boys’ Academic

Performance, cognitive and effective gains are examined with reference to

two clusters identified in the literature as contributing to boys’ academic

performance.


# Intervention model and Intervention tool are discussed in Chapter 3.

Figure 2.3.1 Conceptual Framework of Literature Review

Current Research Literature

Cognitive gains THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY

SCHOOL CONTEXT

LEARNING THEORY MODELS

Social Constructivist Essentialist

Academic Performance

Affective gains

Self-worth and Social Interaction

Research Question s

Intervention model: Quality Learning Environment Dimension from NSW QTM #

Intervention tool: Moodle - School-Based On-Line Teaching and Learning Facility #

STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING

Intervention program incorporated into existing formal school classroom structures

TEACHER-CENTRED LEARNING

Intervention program incorporated into existing traditional teaching structures dictated by syllabus rubric and HSC preparation

Recommendations for pedagogical practice for boys’ education


Table 2.4.1 Clusters Identified in the Literature a s Contributing to Boys’ Academic Underachievement.

Section 1:

Section 2:

Learning Theory Models: I Social Constructivist ii Essentialist

School Context:

i. School/class size ii. Teachers

iii. Single-sex classes in co-educational settings

iv. Information technology

Perspectives of boys on learning and school experiences:

i. Social-Emotional Well-Being ii. Adolescent male perceptions of school iii. Motivation and self-esteem


2.4 Section 1: Learning Theory Models

i. Social Constructivist Curriculum Theory

ii. Essentialist Curriculum Theory Table 2.5.1 Foundational Theorists: Social Constructivist Theorists

Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Von Glasserfeld, Bloom

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books.

Piaget, J. (1953). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. London: Harvard University Press.

Von Glasserfeld, E. (1993). Questions and answers about radical constructivism. In K. Tobin (Ed.), The practice of constructivism in science education (pp. 23-38). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bloom, B. (1977). Human Characteristics and School Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Essentialist Theorists Bagley, Aitken

Bagley, W.C. (1941). The Case for Essentialism in Education. NEA Journal, 30, No. 7,

(p. 201-202) Aitken, J. (1999.) The Achievement of Boys.

Education Review Office, No. 3.

It is acknowledged that the establishment of a binary framework in the

targeted selection of only two models for consideration and analysis limits

the scope for comparison. Nevertheless, literature supports that the Social

Constructivist and Essentialist theories emerge as significant discourses

relevant to boys’ education and underachievement. These theories frame


this exploration of gender differences in academic performance in the face of

social and pedagogical influences. Social constructivist theory suggests that

knowledge is socially constructed through reflection on students’ own ideas

and other learners’ ideas (Von Glasserfeld, 1990).

Social Constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in

understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on

this understanding. This perspective is closely associated with many

contemporary theories, most notably the developmental theories of Vygotsky

(1978) and Bruner (1990) and the social cognitive theory of Bandura (1965).

The fundamental challenge of Constructivism is in its repositioning of control

over learning from teacher to student (Shunk, 1996).

Education Essentialism first emerged in the 1940s with a prescriptive that

children should be taught the traditional basic subjects and that these should

be learnt thoroughly and rigorously (Bagley, 1941). An Essentialist program

normally teaches children progressively, from less complex skills to more

complex. Control over learning remains with the teacher.

Theories identifying reasons for boys’ underachievement being

pedagogically determined concentrate on meaningful learning and practical

strategies for teaching and curricula planning. One response to boys’

underachievement is the application of Social Constructivist pedagogy i.e.

student-centred learning processes in the classroom (Hawkes, 2001; Lillico,

2001; Rowe, 2000a, 2000c). Yet opinion remains divided as to the most

appropriate styles of teaching for boys. We need to examine why.

2.5 Social Constructivist Model

The important epistemological assumption of constructivism is that

knowledge is a function of how the individual creates meaning from their

experiences. Learning is an internal process, rather than something that a


teacher can impose on students. Constructivist learning theory places

importance on the learners’ point of view. Illustration of the individual

components is presented in Table 2.4.2.1. Crotty, (1998) provides further

clarification,

“Constructivist educators strive to create environments where learners

are required to examine thinking and learning processes, collect,

record and analyze data, formulate and test hypotheses - reflect on

previous understandings: and construct their own meaning” (p. 31).

Social Constructivist teaching and learning processes to address boys’

learning difficulties at school have their advocates in Lillico, (2001); Hawkes,

(2001); Gurian, (1999); Hartman, (2006); West, (2002); Biddulph, (1997);

and Clay, (2008). The strategies include development of opportunities for

boys’ involvement in negotiating their learning environment and remain a

significant part of the solution to the problem (West, 2002; Martin, 2002;

Carr-Gregg, 2004). The aim is to teach students to think constructively

rather than analytically, focusing on depth and perception, organization of

thinking, interaction, creativity, information, feeling and action (De Bono,

1996).

Killen, (2003) on the other hand, is more cautious, suggesting that this

approach to teaching and learning relies on the learners being able to think

for themselves and to solve problems - both academic problems and

interpersonal problems – something we can’t assume will happen. Bidduph,

(1997); and West, (2000) concur with the constructivist premise that

masculinity is a natural reality and that boys will be helped to overcome their

difficulties with learning if they are provided with opportunities allowing them

to exercise that masculinity. Kenway & Fitzclarence, (1997) emphasise

strong discipline, competition, sport and cultural pursuits. Pitman & Gray,

(1997); Blair & Sandford, (2003) suggest literature with appropriate male

themes of adventure and action.


Boys’ academic underachievement compared to girls can be attributed to

mechanistic tendencies which preclude their capacities in emotive subjects

such as English (Logan, 2001, Hawkes, 2001). This view is supported by

Biddulph, (1997) and Gurian, (1999) who attribute biological reasons for

boys’ preference for analytical subjects such as Science and Mathematics,

rather than the demands of the post modernist approach to synthesis and

interpretive work required in the English curriculum. Work by Fletcher,

(1995); and Carr-Gregg, (2004), also attribute the specific needs in boys to

their biological makeup which they claim, along with others such as, Barash,

(1979) and much more recently Ykema, (2000), that boys’ biological makeup

makes them more aggressive and in need of physical activity. Specific

programmes targeting boys’ coping strategies for non-aggressive conflict

resolution have been trialled with reported success (Ykema, 2000; Fletcher,

2000).

An overview of the Constructivist teaching and learning processes can be

identified in the individual components of the Social Constructivist

Curriculum Theory represented in Table 2.6.1

As can be gleaned from the individual characteristics outlined in the Social

Constructivist Curriculum Theory model, the emphasis remains with the

learner in a student-centred learning environment with opportunities for

physical interaction outside classroom restrictions as well as cognitive

flexibility and active involvement with feedback opportunities; features which

remain central to teaching and learning styles advocated in serving to

address boys’ learning needs.


Table 2.6.1 Tabular Representation of Constructivis t Curriculum Theory

�

Authentic, relevant contexts are important

� Knowledge needs to be relevant and meaningful

� Processes need to be more analytical and less reflective

� Learner control of problem solving

� Learner manipulation of information

� Problem-solving opportunities

� Information organization

� Tapping into prior knowledge base

� Utilizing space outside classroom restrictions

� Learning to transfer knowledge in different contexts

� Social negotiation

� Collaborative work

� Learning which promotes physical interaction

� Practice and feedback opportunities

� Cognitive flexibility

� Building on past experiences

�

Active involvement

2.6 The Essentialist Model

The teacher-centred, Essentialist model of teaching and learning with

advocates such as Bagley, (1941) was made popular by trends for greater

adaptability to more rational approaches to learning. A ‘back to basics’

approach, which requires, as Arnot, David & Weiner, (1996) indicate,


“… memorizing abstract, unambiguous facts and rules that have to be

acquired quickly” (p. 7).

The Essentialist discourse elaborates on boys’ disadvantaged position

within an unsuitable and uncompromising school curriculum (Biddulph, 1997;

Lillico, 2001; Beatson, 2003). The Essentialist response to the problem of

boys’ underachievement is a call to the return to traditional educational

practices, which some argue caters more for the needs of boys (Aitken,

1999). There is, for example, some evidence that a more structured

approach to literacy teaching has beneficial effects on boys’ performance

(West, 1999).

Aitken, (1999) states that,

“Girls tend to prefer narrative reading, while boys prefer non-fiction.

Given a writing task girls tend to be better able to produce what the

teacher had in mind, while the boys tend to need more help with

structuring and they benefit from more short term goals” (p. 7).

The gender considerations in educational discourse assert that ‘teacher

effects’ are more important than gender (Rowe and Rowe, 2000a; Noble &

Bradford, 2000). The importance of classroom interaction, teacher/student

relationship and in particular, constructivist teaching and learning practices

need to be addressed in order to improve the education of boys (Rowe &

Rowe, 1999; Martin, 2002; Carr-Gregg, 2004).

Arnot, David & Weiner, (1996) in their review on gender research, offered

the following summaries of research findings:

“Girls are more attentive in class and more willing to learn. They do

better on sustained tasks that are open-ended, process-based,

related to realistic situations, and require thinking for oneself. Many


girls overrate the difficulty of particular subjects” (Arnot, David &

Weiner, 1996, p.7).

“Boys show greater adaptability to traditional approaches which

require memorizing abstract, unambiguous facts which have to be

acquired quickly. They are willing to sacrifice deep understanding of

correct answers achieved at speed. Boys do better at multiple choice

papers, whatever the subject” (Arnot, David & Weiner, 1996, p. 7).

The Essentialist discourse would agree with the premise by West, (1999);

Carr-Gregg, (2004) and the findings of the Boys: Getting it right. Report on

the inquiry into the education of boys House of Representatives Standing

Committee on Education and Training, Canberra, (2002), that boys perform

better in literacy when their instruction and assessment is more highly

structured - being told what is expected and how their work will be assessed

creates safe parameters for effective learning. Boys’ writing style in general

is more economical and less flamboyant (West, 1999b). It is unclear

whether this is due to innate biological gender differences, or is a result of

their preference for reading material of the same nature (West, 1999b).

Boys do not view reading as masculine and opt for physical activities and

prefer magazines and manuals. The emotional element of English at school

is viewed as being in direct conflict with masculinity, and is therefore,

regarded as unacceptable to most boys (Martino, 1995; Blair & Sandford,

2003; Clay, 2008).

Specific features of the teacher-centred model of learning highlights the

emphasis on teacher control and the assimilation of prescribed subject

matter. A number of studies have revealed that successful teachers maintain

a strong academic focus and spend less time in non-academic activities

(Gibson & Dembo, 1984, p. 577).


Details of the Essentialist teaching and learning processes are identified in

the Essentialist Curriculum Theory represented in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7 Essentialist Curriculum Theory Model

� Traditional classroom formation

� Cloze passages and paragraphs used for consolidation

� Scaffolds provided by teacher

� The school retains traditional methods of mental discipline

� Model answers and work samples used as exemplars

� Rote learning and repetition is used

� The initiative in education lies with the teacher rather than with the pupil

� Learning, of its very nature, involves hard work and often-unwilling application

� Teacher-centred learning

� The core of the learning process is the assimilation of prescribed subject matter

� Teacher presents background knowledge structures

�

The initiative in education lies with the teacher rather than with the pupil

As a theory, education Essentialism states that children should learn the

traditional basic subjects - the essentials of academic knowledge - and that

these should be learnt thoroughly and rigorously. Evaluation is framed by

performance-based competency tests. Essentialism is a practical, factual

approach to education, which includes methods such as drill and practice,

study, books, texts and memorization and where the emphasis in classroom

management is on regularity and order. An Essentialist program normally

teaches children progressively, from less complex skills to more complex.


2.7 Summary of Section 1: Learning Theory Models

The review of relevant literature so far illustrates perspectives of the

Essentialist and Social Constructivist curriculum theories with reference to

boys’ problematic academic performance. Each of these theories operates

on the premise that boys will be helped, in part, to overcome their difficulties

with learning if they are provided with opportunities to learn in environments

which are framed by dimensions of the theory in question.

The debate is divided between those promoting the Social Constructivist

Model and those whose preference is for aspects of the Essentialist Model.

While there is a danger of being too simplistic in this categorization, the

discussion so far, lends itself to the following grouping with regard to

addressing the issue of boys’ academic underachievement.

Support for Social Constructivist learning processes is provided by

researchers and commentators including Lillico, (2001); Hawkes, (2001);

Rowe, (2000c); Biddulph, (1997); Fletcher, (2000); Gardner, (1983); Bloom

& Krathworhl, (1956); Gore & Ladwig, (2003).

Other researchers and commentators including, West, (2000; 2002);

Beatson, (2003); Buckingham, (1975; 2000); O’Doherty, (2002) provide

support for Essentialist learning processes.

Therefore, in addressing boys’ educational needs, incorporating aspects

from both models makes sense and has support from literature.


2.8 Section 2: School Context

Having discussed the Social Constructivist and Essentialist Learning Theory

Models, the focus of the review moves to the second of the two specific

clusters identified as contributing to boys’ academic achievement.

This section, Section 2, reviews literature that investigates perspectives of

boys on learning and school experiences in senior school and includes the

following considerations:

Social-Emotional Well-Being

Adolescent male perceptions of school

Motivation and self-esteem

School/class size

Teachers

Single-sex classes in co-educational settings

Information technology

2. 9 Social-Emotional Well-Being

The Australian Scholarships Group funded a recent report recording the

emotional and social well-being of students from pre-school to Year 12. Key

findings from the Student Social and Emotional Health Report, Bernard et al.

(2008), conclude that a large percentage of students experience social and

emotional difficulties. The report indicates that girls display significantly

higher levels of social and emotional health than boys do, and significantly,

two-thirds of the students, both boys and girls, believe they are not doing as

well in their schoolwork as they could.

Additional findings from Bernard et al. (2008) reflect the importance of

teachers in children’s development and the differences in well-being


between boys and girls. The findings identify that teachers and parents have

a major impact on student social and emotional health of students, that

teachers perceive student social and emotional health differently from the

way students perceive it and that teachers’ behaviours have a direct

correlation to student social and emotional well-being. Students with low

levels of well-being feel their teachers do not demonstrate many of the

positive actions that the research shows as contributing to student success

and well-being (Bernard et al. 2008). Martin, (2002), in the Final Report to

ACT Department of Education, Youth and Family Services, concluded that

educational outcomes would be enhanced for boys and girls with increased

opportunities to gain control, choice and input into the decisions that effect

them and their school as well as by striving for relevance, purpose and

meaning in the curriculum (p. 18).

Other studies, such as that of Nelson, (2002) Boys: Getting it Right.

Report on inquiry into the education of boys have isolated assessment as a

key issue in boys’ education with reference to methods of assessment and

accuracy in measuring student achievement.

“The changing assessment methods … boys with relatively poor

literary skills are disadvantaged across most of the curriculum”

(Nelson, p. xix).

Practitioners who support these assertions add that the alignment of high

quality teaching practices with assessment practices and curriculum

purposes is crucial to the achievement of the best outcomes for both boys

and girls (Lingard, Martino, Mills & Bahr, 2002; McGaw, 2002). However,

schools often do not suit boys.

“What we didn’t realize until recently was that school also is a bad

place for boys” (Biddulph, 1995, p.142).


Martin, (2002) reports that,

“… the five most frequently reported difficulties boys experienced at

school were repetitive work that leads to boredom, competing

demands in their life … difficult schoolwork, and the perceptions of

poor teaching and poor relationships with teachers ” (p.12).

When boys were asked what they would change about school if they had the

chance, the dominant response centred on opportunities for choice and a

greater sense of control (Martin, 2002; 2003 Martin et al. 2005; 2008).

Recommendations are to both ‘guyify’ schools (Pollack, 1998) and to make

them more ‘boy-friendly’ (Fletcher, 1995) by ensuring that pedagogical

practices are not only intellectually demanding but also connected to

students’ real world experiences (Lingard et al. 2002).

2.10 Adolescent Male Perceptions of School

A major determinant in the educational experiences of students relates to the

quality of pedagogies experienced (Lingard, Martino, Mills & Bahr, 2002;

Buckingham, 2000). Boys report significantly less positive experiences of

schooling in terms of enjoyment of school, perceived curriculum usefulness

and teacher responsiveness (Rowe, 2000) and are more likely to respond

negatively or overtly to irrelevant curriculum and poor teaching (Nelson,

2002; Martin, 2002; Bernard et al. 2008; Younger & Warrington, 2003).

Boys are significantly more disengaged with schooling and more likely to be

at risk of academic underachievement - especially in literacy (Browne &

Fletcher, 1995; West, 1999b in Creswell, Rowe & Withers, 2002).

Buckingham, (2000) and Rowe & Rowe, (1999) identify that traditional

schooling tends to favour passive learning to the detriment of those students

who prefer interactive and experimental learning styles. Further, evidence is


provided for a large percentage of students (both genders included),

experiencing social emotional difficulties (Bernard et al. 2008), with

examples of socially inappropriate classroom behaviour by boys (MCEETYA,

1994). Two-thirds believe they are not doing as well in their schoolwork as

they could (Bernard et al. 2008). The gap continues to widen between girls

and boys’ academic results (Rowe, 2000a, 2000c; Australian Bureau of

Statistics 2000; 2004).

“Homework is neglected or rejected because it is too intrusive.

Negative attitudes are created by an excessive Year 11 workload at a

time when the demands of life beyond school are increasing and

becoming more important, rewarding and fulfilling, for example,

part-time work, sport and social life” (Trent & Slade, 2001, p.7).

An unsuitable environment framed by a boring, repetitive and irrelevant

curriculum, (Trent & Slade, 2001; Martin, 2002; McGraw, 2008), dominates

emerging issues for adolescent male perceptions of school.

2.11 Motivation and Self-Esteem

Martin, (2003), defines motivation as,

“… students’ energy and drive to learn, work effectively and to

achieve to their potential at school, and the behaviours that follow

from this energy and drive” (p. 44).

Motivation and self-esteem are significantly influenced by gender issues in

the classroom according to Cavanagh and Dellar, (2001); Martin, (2003);

Martin et al. (2008), with reference to appropriate behaviour, (Gilbert &

Gilbert, 1998; Lillico, 2001) and the decline in achievement (Younger et al.

2003; 2005).


Quantitative and qualitative findings of Jakobsdottir, (1996); Martin, (2003);

and Martin et al. (2008) on the other hand, did not reveal significant

differences in student perceptions of their educational outcomes due to

gender, but to class grouping (Jakobsdottir, 1996; Martin, 2003; Martin et al.

2008).

Confirmatory evidence suggests that boys have less positive experiences of

school (Rowe & Rowe, 1999; Martin et al. 2005; Carr-Gregg, 2004) with

more boys than girls admitted to bullying other students, although the

differences were small (Lingard et al. 2002). Girls are more likely to be

supported in their academic work by their peers and reported more interest

in reading books than boys (Gurian, 1999).

“Our society values the female model of nurturing, which includes

compassionate conversation, shared thoughts and feelings” (Lingard,

Martino, Mills & Bahr, 2002, p.3).

Warrington & Younger, (1999) identify that boys heavily influence ambience

of the classroom where many of the behaviours exhibited by boys are

socially inappropriate and disruptive not only to themselves but to others.

Girls complained about the negative effects on their work caused by boys'

disruptive behaviour (Warrington & Younger, 1999). The MCEETYA Report,

(1994) also confirms that dominant masculine practices taken up by groups

of boys severely limit the options of girls.

"Constant displays of physical power and aggression, the deliberately

crude and offensive behaviours, and the disparaging comments about

girls and their bodies, have the effect of placing girls in the position of

being dominated, controlled, disparaged, powerless and silent"

(MCEETYA, 1994, p.25).


Boys were identified by their teachers a being more disruptive than girls;

exhibit greater behaviour problems in the classroom (Barkley, 1996; Rowe,

1988) and treated more harshly than girls for the same offence (Lingard

et.al. 2002, p. 3). In addition, boys were identified as being in trouble

because of a lack of basic impulse control (Gurian, 1999; Carr-Gregg,

2004); in others a lack of the ability to articulate right from wrong or express

empathy (Gurian, 1999). The Rock and Water, Ykema, (2000), a Dutch

education program made popular in recent years, particularly in Holland and

Australia, operates to counteract these tendencies by teaching social skills

so that boys make changes on the inside; building a sense of purpose in

boys.

Boys record lower literacy levels than girls (Cre

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