Attitudinal and behavioral consequences of work‐family conflict and family‐work conflict

Page 1

International Journal of Service Industry ManagementAttitudinal and behavioral consequences of work‐family conflict and family‐workconflict: Does gender matter?Ugur Yavas Emin Babakus Osman M. Karatepe

Article information:To cite this document:Ugur Yavas Emin Babakus Osman M. Karatepe, (2008),"Attitudinal and behavioral consequences ofwork#family conflict and family#work conflict", International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol.19 Iss 1 pp. 7 - 31Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09564230810855699

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Attitudinal and behavioralconsequences of work-family

conflict and family-work conflictDoes gender matter?

Ugur YavasDepartment of Management and Marketing,

College of Business and Technology, East Tennessee State University,Johnson City, Tennessee, USA

Emin BabakusDepartment of Marketing and Supply Chain Management,

Fogelman College of Business and Economics,The University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee, USA, and

Osman M. KaratepeSchool of Tourism and Hospitality Management,

Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazimagusa, Turkey

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop and test a conceptual model to examine the effectsof work-family conflict, family-work conflict, and emotional exhaustion on job performance andturnover intentions. The paper also aims to investigate the role of gender as a moderator of the positedrelationships.

Design/methodology/approach – A sample of frontline hotel employees in Turkey serves as thestudy setting. Data were collected via self-administered questionnaires. A total of 723 usable responseswere obtained.

Findings – The results show that employees facing conflicts originating from their work (family) andfamily (work) roles become emotionally exhausted. These two forms of interrole conflicts are alsosignificant predictors of frontline employees’ turnover intentions. Gender moderates several of therelationships proposed in this paper.

Practical implications – Turkish hotels will benefit from establishing a family-supportive workenvironment to lessen the detrimental impact of conflicts in the work-family interface on frontlineemployees’ emotional exhaustion and job outcomes. A dual (i.e. gender-specific) approach appears tohold promise in managing frontline employees.

Originality/value – When these results are compared to the results of studies conducted in westerncountries, a number of similarities become evident. These similarities broadly suggest that researchfindings derived from western countries are generalizable into a culturally different setting, andsupport the premise that as traditional gender roles continue to expand and change, a convergence offindings in work-family research takes place cross-culturally.

Keywords Family, Role conflicts, Employee attitudes, Gender, Hotels, Turkey

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionIn an era of intense competitive pressures, dwindling resources and discerningcustomers, service organizations including hotels, the setting of this study, realize that

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0956-4233.htm

Work-family andfamily-work

conflict

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Received 11 April 2006Revised 22 January 2007Accepted 20 March 2007

International Journal of ServiceIndustry Management

Vol. 19 No. 1, 2008pp. 7-31

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited0956-4233

DOI 10.1108/09564230810855699

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attaining customer satisfaction through delivery of quality services is a key to theirsurvival and success. Accordingly, hotel executives engage in multi-pronged actionsranging from innovative marketing and operational strategies to pointed competitiveanalyses to better serve their customers and improve their profitability (Kashyap andBojanic, 2000; Yasin and Yavas, 2001; Yavas and Babakus, 2005). Astute hotelexecutives also recognize that no strategy aimed at motivating, satisfying andretaining external customers can be considered complete unless it includes programsfor reaching and winning over internal customers. To such executives, retention ofmotivated, satisfied and committed frontline employees who can consistently deliverhigh-service quality is as important to business success as customer satisfaction andretention (Bowen and Ford, 2004; Kotler et al., 2006).

This is not surprising as frontline employees in service organizations, whetherthey actually render the service or simply interact with customers face-to-face orvoice-to-voice, are the main actors in the delivery of service quality (Bettencourt andBrown, 2003; Bettencourt and Gwinner, 1996). However, frontline employees areoften underpaid, typically work long hours, irregular schedules and carry heavyworkloads (Babin and Boles, 1998; Singh, 2000). These coupled with dramaticchanges in today’s social (e.g. entry of more women to the workforce and rise in thenumber of dual-career couples; increased responsibilities to care for older, infirmparents/relatives) and economic conditions (e.g. downsizing resulting in “lean andmean” organizations necessitating the surviving employees to work even longerhours) give rise to heightened conflicts between work and family roles (Halpern,2005; Posig and Kickul, 2004).

The difficulties frontline employees experience in balancing the demands of theirmultiple roles result in poor morale and can impact their performance andcommitment. Such employees can become emotionally exhausted and think of leavingtheir organization (Boles et al., 1997; Karatepe, 2006). These adverse consequences canindeed become quite costly. Emotional exhaustion undermines frontline employees’performance and hinders effective customer service (Babakus et al., 1999; Cropanzanoet al., 2003; Wright and Cropanzano, 1998). Employees with intentions to leave mayreduce their productivity prior to quitting (Halpern, 2005). Furthermore, the costs ofactual turnovers (e.g. recruitment and training of additional staff, overtime paymentsto existing staff to alleviate shortages, disrupted service, increased turnover amongremaining staff who feel pressured and overworked) can reach exorbitant proportions(Frank et al., 2004; Hendrie, 2004).

PurposeAgainst this backdrop, the purpose of the present study is twofold. First, itdevelops and tests a model of frontline employees’ interrole conflicts (i.e. work-familyconflict and family-work conflict) and their impacts on emotional exhaustion, jobperformance and turnover intentions, and between emotional exhaustion and jobperformance and turnover intentions. Second, it examines the potential moderatingrole of gender on these relationships. We test our model by using data collected fromfrontline hotel employees in Turkey.

A study addressing these issues is relevant and significant. First, despite therecognition that interrole conflicts can have detrimental effects on job outcomes,the bulk of prior studies examine the separate influences of work-family conflict

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(Babin and Boles, 1998; Boles et al., 1997; Carlson and Perrewe 1999; Parasuraman andSimmers, 2001) and to a lesser extent the impact of family-work conflict (Behson, 2002;Butler and Skattebo, 2004; Parker and Griffin, 2002) on job outcomes. Few studies(Netemeyer et al., 2004; Posig and Kickul, 2004) consider the effects of both work-familyconflict and family-work conflict simultaneously on emotional exhaustion and joboutcomes.

Second, despite the evidence that interrole conflicts may vary by gender (Boles et al.,2003; Peeters et al., 2005), empirical research on the moderating role of gender on therelationships between conflicts in the work-family interface and emotional exhaustionand job outcomes is very sparse (Eby et al., 2005; Poelmans et al., 2005). Third, thepreponderance of empirical research on the issues surrounding work-family conflictand family-work conflict has been conducted in such developed countries as the USA(Boles et al., 2003; Frone et al., 1997; Netemeyer et al., 2005), Finland (Kinnunen andMauno, 1998; Mauno and Kinnunen, 1999), and Australia (Elloy and Smith, 2003).In fact, as Barnett and Hyde (2001) forcefully state, much of what we know on the topicis based on studies of white, middle-class, urban Americans. Since, issues of work andfamily are closely associated with a society’s culture and gender roles (Aryee et al.,1999; Aycan and Eskin, 2005), extension of the research stream to other societies isimperative for richer insights (Netemeyer et al., 2004) and to allow for informedjudgments regarding the generalizability of western findings.

Besides filling in these informational voids and serving as a frame of referencefor future research, the findings of the study may prove useful to managers.An understanding of presence (or absence) of male-female differences in therelationships between interrole conflicts, emotional exhaustion, job performance andturnover intentions is crucial for managers in determining if an undifferentiated ordual (i.e. gender-specific) approach is warranted in managing frontline employees(Moncrief et al., 2000).

In the next section, we present our conceptual model and the relevant literatureleading to our specific research hypotheses. This is followed by discussions of themethod and results of the empirical study we conducted in Turkey, which bridges eastand west geographically and culturally. We conclude the paper with the implications ofthe results and avenues for future research.

Conceptual framework and hypothesesFigure 1 shows the conceptual model guiding our study. Based on extant literature, wecontend that interrole conflicts emanating from the demands of the two universaldomains of adult life, work and family, lead to emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, weposit that employees experiencing work-family and family-work conflicts become poorperformers and think of leaving their organization. Our model also proposes thatemotional exhaustion results in poor job performance and a higher propensity to leavethe organization. Hence, the key underlying premise of our model is that work-familyconflict and family-work conflict impact the two critical job outcomes of performanceand turnover intentions both directly as well as indirectly through the mediating role ofemotional exhaustion.

In addition, we contend that there may be gender-based differences in therelationships depicted in our model. Thus, we examine the moderating role of genderon the relationships between work-family conflict and family-work conflict, and

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emotional exhaustion and job outcomes. We also examine the role of gender as amoderator of the relationships between emotional exhaustion and job outcomes. Asshown in Figure 1, we include age, education, tenure, marital status, and the number ofchildren as control variables in our conceptual model since they may influence the keyconstructs and confound the relationships posited in the model.

Consequences of work-family conflict and family-work conflictWork-family conflict and family-work conflict are distinct, but conceptually relatedforms of interrole conflict (Frone et al., 1992; Netemeyer et al., 1996). Work-familyconflict refers to “a form of interrole conflict in which the general demands of, timedevoted to, and strain created by the job interfere with performing family-relatedresponsibilities” and family-work conflict refers to “a form of interrole conflict in whichthe general demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the family interfere withperforming work-related responsibilities” (Netemeyer et al., 1996, p. 401).

Both forms of conflict basically result from an individual’s attempts to meet anoverabundance of demands emanating from the home/family and work domains inwhich the individual operates (Boles et al., 2001). The demands coming fromone domain make performance of roles in the other domain more difficult. In our model,we contend that three consequences of work-family and family-work conflicts areemotional exhaustion, poor job performance and higher turnover intentions.

Emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion is the first stage of the burnoutsyndrome (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993; Maslach and Jackson, 1981) and it occurswhen an individual faces seemingly overwhelming demands on his/her time andenergy. Depletion of emotional resources and a lack of energy characterize emotionalexhaustion (Gaines and Jermier, 1983). Precepts of three well-endorsed theoreticalframeworks (interrole conflict theory, identity theory, and conservation of resources –COR theory) suggest that work-family and family-work conflicts can lead to emotionalexhaustion.

Figure 1.Research model

Work-familyconflict (WFC)

Emotionalexhaustion(EE)

Job performance(JP)

Family-workconflict (FWC)

Turnover intentions(TI)

Moderator:Gender (H6a – H6h)

H1a (+)

H1b (+)

H3a (+)

H2b (–)

H3b (+)

H4 (–)

H5 (+)

H2a (–)

Control variables:Age, education, marital status,the number of children, andtenure

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First, according to the interrole conflict theory, since work-family and family-workconflicts arise from opposing pressures due to participation in different roles(Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985), individuals are likely to experience emotionalexhaustion when they try to meet the demands of work and family roles. Second, theidentity theory suggests that individuals hold multiple role identities and investthemselves in maintaining the identities that are salient to them (Thoits, 1991). Underthese circumstances, work-family conflict or family-work conflict prevents individualsfrom fulfilling the demands of their work or family role, and lead to heightenedemotional exhaustion. Third, the COR theory suggests that individuals seek to acquire,maintain and preserve certain resources (e.g. time, energy) (Hobfoll, 1989). Since,individuals are likely to lose such resources while juggling both work (family) andfamily (work) roles, the COR theory leads to the conclusion that conflicts arising fromwork (family) interfaces should result in emotional exhaustion.

Emotional exhaustion appears to be prevalent among employees in people-orientedjobs (Babakus et al., 1999; Karatepe, 2006) such as our study setting, and prior empiricalresearch indicates that employees who experience elevated levels of work-familyconflict are more likely to be emotionally exhausted (Bacharach et al., 1991; Boles et al.,1997; Mauno and Kinnunen, 1999). Likewise, in a recent study, Posig and Kickul (2004)report that family-work conflict as well leads to emotional exhaustion. Based on thepreceding discussion and findings, we propose the following hypotheses:

H1a. Work-family conflict is positively related to frontline employees’ emotionalexhaustion.

H1b. Family-work conflict is positively related to frontline employees’ emotionalexhaustion.

Job performance. In this study, job performance is defined as “the level of productivityof an individual employee, relative to his or her peers, on several job-related behaviorsand outcomes” (Babin and Boles, 1998, p. 82). Work and family are the two importantdomains of adult life. Problems associated with one domain (e.g. work) spillover to theother domain (e.g. family) (Williams and Alliger, 1994), and detract from the limitedresources (e.g. time, energy) people have in fulfilling their multiple roles (Hobfoll, 1989).Empirical research reveals that work-family conflict has a detrimental impact onperformance (Aryee, 1992; Frone et al., 1997; Netemeyer et al., 2004). Anecdotal evidenceby the Family and Work Institute as well indicates that employees who cannotbalance their work demands with home and family responsibilities experience negativespillovers resulting in decreased job performance (Netemeyer et al., 2003). There is alsoevidence indicating that family-work conflict decreases employees’ work-relatedperformance (Frone et al., 1997; Netemeyer et al., 2004). Accordingly, we propose thefollowing hypotheses:

H2a. Work-family conflict is negatively related to frontline employees’ jobperformance.

H2b. Family-work conflict is negatively related to frontline employees’ jobperformance.

Turnover intentions. The COR theory contends that once employees recognize thatthey may not be able to cope with difficulties arising from work-family conflict, they

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attempt to preserve their scarce resources by thinking about leaving their currentorganization (Grandey and Cropanzano, 1999). Indeed, Allen et al.’s (2000)meta-analytic inquiry suggests that turnover intentions is the job outcome mostclosely associated with work-family conflict. This is a conclusion supported by morerecent research (Anderson et al., 2002; Boyar et al., 2003). Although limited in number,there is also empirical support that family-work conflict and turnover intentions arerelated (Boyar et al., 2003). It appears that individuals who are more sensitive to familylife may be willing to meet their family demands at the expense of losing their role inthe workplace (Armour, 2002). In light of the aforementioned findings and discussion,we propose the following hypotheses:

H3a. Work-family conflict is positively related to frontline employees’ turnoverintentions.

H3b. Family-work conflict is positively related to frontline employees’ turnoverintentions.

Consequences of emotional exhaustionEmotional exhaustion is not only a serious outcome in itself resulting in depletion ofone’s valuable resources as discussed in the COR theory, but it is also a significantdeterminant of such job outcomes as job performance and turnover intentions.Individuals who no longer possess the adequate resources to cope with emotionalexhaustion display decreased job performance and a higher propensity to leave theorganization. For instance, Babakus et al. (1999) reported that salespeople experiencinghigher emotional exhaustion demonstrated lower job performance. This finding is alsosupported by the results of Cropanzano et al.’s (2003) and Wright and Hobfoll’s (2004)recent studies.

Extant research also shows that emotional exhaustion is a critical determinant ofturnover intentions (Boles et al., 1997; Cropanzano et al., 2003). A more recent Turkishstudy reached the same conclusion and indicated that emotional exhaustion exerts astrong positive impact on frontline employees’ intentions to leave their banks(Karatepe, 2006). Thus, we posit that:

H4. Emotional exhaustion is negatively related to frontline employees’ jobperformance.

H5. Emotional exhaustion is positively related to frontline employees’ turnoverintentions.

Gender-based differencesWork-family conflict and family-work conflict – emotional exhaustion relationships.Owing to their role as primary caretaker of their households and the nearly universaldemands of motherhood (Wood and Eagly, 2002), women value more and assign ahigher priority to their family roles than their work roles. On the other hand, menattach higher priorities to their job-related responsibilities (Martins et al., 2002). In anera of excessive job demands, irregular and incompatible schedules, and long workhours (Spinks, 2004), because of the higher priority they place on family roles, womenemployees experience greater family-work conflict (Wayne et al., 2004). Alsoexperiencing greater difficulty in coping with conflicts emanating from work and

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non-work domains, women are more likely to suffer from emotional exhaustion. Thereis some empirical evidence to support this premise. For instance, Posig and Kickul(2004) found that the relationship between family-work conflict and emotionalexhaustion was stronger among female employees compared with male employees.Demerouti et al. (2005) demonstrated that the relationship between partners’ ratings ofwork-family conflict and exhaustion was higher among women than men. Thus, wehypothesize that:

H6a. The positive relationship between work-family conflict and emotionalexhaustion is stronger among female frontline employees than male frontlineemployees.

H6b. The positive relationship between family-work conflict and emotionalexhaustion is stronger among female frontline employees than male frontlineemployees.

Work-family conflict and family-work conflict – job outcome relationships. A generalobservation surfacing from studies examining the role of gender in managerial andmarketing contexts (Babin and Boles, 1998; Eagly et al., 1995; Iacobucci and Ostrom,1993; Martins et al., 2002) is that men are more task- or goal-oriented (agentic) andwomen are more relationship-oriented (communal). This distinction between the twosexes impacts the types of things each gender values in various aspects of their livesincluding their jobs. Accordingly, one would expect interrole conflicts to affect the jobperformances of relationship-valuing female employees more negatively ininteraction-oriented frontline jobs where employees are expected to deal withcustomer requests and complaints through long work hours. Demands placed on theirtime and energy from opposing domains are more likely to prevent women employeesfrom meeting management’s performance expectations (Scott, 1997).

In today’s global work environment, there is an increasing involvement of women inthe workforce (McElwain et al., 2005). However, working wives and husbands donot equally share home and/or family responsibilities. Working wives are not onlyexpected to shoulder a greater portion of family responsibilities but they are alsoexpected to be supportive of their husbands’ job activities (Bedeian et al., 1988; Noor,2003). Facing higher levels of family demands, women are susceptible to higher levelsof family-work conflict (Aryee et al., 1999; Boles et al., 2003). Not surprisingly, anumber of working wives prefer to quit their jobs in corporate life to start their ownsmall businesses where control over their working hours allows them to spend moretime in fulfilling family responsibilities (Eagle et al., 1997). The above discussion leadsto the following hypotheses:

H6c. The negative relationship between work-family conflict and job performanceis stronger among female frontline employees than male frontline employees.

H6d. The negative relationship between family-work conflict and job performanceis stronger among female frontline employees than male frontline employees.

H6e. The positive relationship between work-family conflict and turnoverintentions is stronger among female frontline employees than male frontlineemployees.

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H6f. The positive relationship between family-work conflict and turnoverintentions is stronger among female frontline employees than male frontlineemployees.

Emotional exhaustion – job outcome relationships. The COR theory suggests thatdepletion of emotional and other resources is a characteristic of emotional exhaustion(Hobfoll, 1989; Wright and Hobfoll, 2004), and research shows that womenexperience higher levels of emotional exhaustion than men (Gaines and Jermier,1983). Once individuals do not have the necessary resources to perform their roles inmultiple domains, they are forced to make tough choices. Women have a more difficulttime in trading off work for family and easing off their family responsibilities at theexpense of work (Posig and Kickul, 2004). Thus, less time devoted to work activitiesadversely impacts women’s performance in the workplace (Noor, 2003). Also to regainthe resources (primarily time) lost to work responsibilities, women are more likely toexhibit turnover intentions by thinking of altogether quitting their jobs or by seekingnew jobs that would better fit their expectations (Eagle et al., 1997). The abovediscussion prompts our final set of hypotheses:

H6g. The negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and job performanceis stronger among female frontline employees than male frontline employees.

H6h. The positive relationship between emotional exhaustion and turnoverintentions is stronger among female frontline employees than male frontlineemployees.

Control variablesWhile their findings are mixed, several studies suggest that various demographiccharacteristics can impact the key constructs in our study and may confound therelationships depicted in Figure 1 (Allen, 2001; Bekker et al., 2005; Noor, 2003; Stoevaet al., 2002; van Vegchel et al., 2004; Wayne et al., 2004). Hence, to allow for betterdelineation of the relationships proposed in our model and to provide a more rigoroustest of the theoretical linkages, in our study we included several control variables.These were age, education, tenure, marital status, and the number of children.

MethodologySampleData for the study were collected from the frontline employees (e.g. food servers, frontdesk agents, concierges, and bartenders) of three-, four-, and five-star hotels in Ankara,Turkey’s capital. Information we received from the Governorship of the City and theDirectorate of Tourism indicated that, at the time of the study, 5 five-star hotels,10 four-star hotels, and 27 three-star hotels were operating in Ankara. Managements ofall these hotels were contacted prior to data collection and permission was granted byall the five-star hotels, 9 four-star hotels and 23 three-star hotels. According to themanagements of the hotels, these hotels collectively employed 1,316 frontlineemployees. Questionnaires were then distributed to all of these employees bythe research team. Employees were given assurance of confidentiality (that only theaggregate results would be shared with the managements of hotels) and wererequested to fill out the questionnaires in a self-administered manner. By the cut-off

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date for data collection, a total of 723 usable questionnaires were retrieved by theresearch team, yielding a response rate of 54.9 percent.

About 46 percent of the respondents were between the ages of 18-27, 40 percentbetween the ages of 28-37 and the rest were older than 37. The sample was fairlybalanced in gender (53 percent male and 47 percent female) and marital status(52 percent married and 48 percent single/divorced). About 31 percent of therespondents had graduated from two-year colleges and about 32 percent fromfour-year colleges. Almost 2 percent of the respondents had graduate degrees.Approximately, 30 percent of the respondents had secondary and high schooleducation. The rest had primary school education. Three-fourths of the respondentshad tenures of five years or less and the rest had been with their hotel for six or moreyears. While 59 percent of the respondents had no children, 19 percent had one child, 17percent two, 4 percent three and the rest more than three children.

MeasurementMultiple-item scales obtained from the relevant literature were used to operationalizethe study constructs. Specifically, five items each from Netemeyer et al. (1996) andBoles et al. (2001) were employed to measure work-family conflict and family-workconflict. Emotional exhaustion was operationalized via eight items from Maslach andJackson (1981). Five items were adapted from Babin and Boles (1998) to measure jobperformance. And three items were adapted from Boshoff and Allen (2000) to measureturnover intentions. Responses to each of these items were elicited on five-point scalesranging from 5 ¼ strongly agree to 1 ¼ strongly disagree. Higher scores indicatedhigher work-family conflict, family-work conflict, emotional exhaustion, jobperformance, and turnover intentions.

Age, education, tenure and the number of children were measured via five-pointscales. Higher scores indicated older age, better education, longer tenure, and morechildren. Marital status was coded as a dichotomous variable (0 ¼ single/divorcedand 1 ¼ married).

The survey instrument was initially prepared in English and then translated intoTurkish via the back-translation method (McGorry, 2000). To ensure that the itemcontents were cross-linguistically comparable and generated the same meaning, twofaculty members of a Turkish university fluent in both languages further checked thequestionnaire. Prior to administering in the field, the questionnaire was pre-tested witha pilot sample of 30 frontline employees and no changes in the wording of the questionswere deemed necessary.

ResultsMeasurement resultsThe measures were initially subjected to exploratory factor analysis (principalcomponents with oblique rotation) and reliability assessment using the entire sample aswell as the female and male sample data separately. In each case, five-factor solutionswith eigenvalues greater than 1.0 emerged and accounted for 60, 63 and 59 percent of thevariance in the combined, female and male sample data. The overwhelming majority ofthe items loaded heavily on their respective underlying factors in all three factoranalyses. Coefficient a ranged from 0.74 to 0.88 for the combined sample, 0.68-0.89 for

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the female sample, and 0.71-0.87 for the male sample. The list of items, sources of thescales, and scale reliabilities are presented in the Appendix.

For a more rigorous psychometric assessment and to address measurementinvariance across genders, we used LISREL 8.51 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1993) toconduct two-group simultaneous confirmatory factor analyses following Fornell andLarcker (1981) and Hair et al. (2006). An initial five-factor base model, which allowed allmodel parameters to be estimated freely in both groups, failed to provide a propersolution due to negative error variance estimates for two indicators. As a remedy, wepartially aggregated scale items by randomly splitting items in each scale into two setsand used the average of each set as a composite indicator of its underlying construct(Bagozzi and Heatherton, 1994). Since, turnover intentions scale had only three items,they were kept intact. The five-factor base model using the composite indicatorsconverged with a proper solution and showed a good fit to the data across groups(x2

69 ¼ 211.44, RMSEA ¼ 0.076, NFI ¼ 0.95, NNFI ¼ 0.95, CFI ¼ 0.97).Next, by constraining factor loadings to be equal across groups, we tested for full

metric invariance and obtained a x275 value of 231.72, which indicates that full metric

invariance is untenable due to significant deterioration in model fit at the 0.05 level.However, following Hair et al. (2006) we were able to establish partial metricinvariance. This required freeing only one item in the turnover scale (It would not takemuch to make me leave this hotel) and constraining all other indicator loadings to beequal across groups. The resulting x2

74 value of 224.08 (compared to the base modelx2

69 ¼ 211.44) showed that model deterioration was not significant, suggesting that themeasures exhibited partial metric invariance. Finally, when we imposed an additionalconstraint, the equivalence of covariances of the underlying constructs, the resultingx2

89 value was 259.87. The difference between this test statistic and the result from thepartial metric invariance test (x2

74 ¼ 224.08) showed a significant deterioration in themodel fit, and suggested a moderator role for gender.

After establishing partial metric invariance, we examined the average varianceextracted (AVE) and shared variance (F2) values for each underlying construct acrossgroups to assess convergent and discriminant validities of the measures (Fornell andLarcker, 1981). The AVEs ranged from 0.59 (turnover intentions) to 0.79 (emotionalexhaustion), and the shared variances (F2) ranged from a low of 0.001 (between jobperformance and turnover intentions) to a high of 0.58 (between work-family andfamily-work conflict). These results collectively provide evidence of convergent anddiscriminant validity. Table I provides correlations, means and standard deviations ofthe composite indicators of the model constructs and control variables for female andmale respondents.

Tests of the model and research hypothesesOverall research mode. We first examined model fit and tested the overall researchhypotheses (H1 through H5) using the combined sample covariance matrix as input toLISREL 8.51 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1993). The results in Table II indicate that themodel fits the data well (x2

64 ¼ 172.77, RMSEA ¼ 0.049, NFI ¼ 0.97, NNFI ¼ 0.96,CFI ¼ 0.98) and accounts for 23 percent of the variance in emotional exhaustion, 22percent in job performance, and 49 percent in turnover intentions.

A closer examination of the results for the combined sample in Table II reveals thatwork-family conflict and family-work conflict both have significant ( p , 0.05) positive

IJSIM19,1

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Fem

ale

(n¼

342)

12

34

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910

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0.69

0.46

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1.04

0.81

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1.08

0.68

Notes:

Cor

rela

tion

sb

elow

the

dia

gon

alre

pre

sen

tth

em

ale

and

abov

eth

ed

iag

onal

rep

rese

nt

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fem

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sam

ple

dat

a;la

ten

tv

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ind

icat

ors,

age,

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and

the

nu

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ased

on5-

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nt

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mar

ital

stat

us

was

reco

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ced

(0)

orm

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);co

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are

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tat

the

0.05

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el

Table I.Correlations, means and

standard deviations oflatent variable indicators

and control variables

Work-family andfamily-work

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Com

bin

edsa

mp

lere

sult

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wo-

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up

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s(m

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71

(continued

)

Table II.Tests of the researchmodel and hypotheses

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Page 14

Com

bin

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0.98

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0.95

,N

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0.97

Notes:

*In

dic

ates

par

amet

ers

are

sig

nifi

can

tly

dif

fere

nt

acro

ssg

end

ers

atth

e.0

5le

vel

;aco

mp

lete

lyst

and

ard

ized

esti

mat

esfo

rth

eco

mb

ined

dat

a;co

mm

onm

etri

cco

mp

lete

lyst

and

ard

ized

esti

mat

esfo

rth

etw

o-g

rou

pan

aly

sis

(fem

ale

and

mal

eg

rou

ps)

;re

sult

sfo

rfe

mal

esar

ep

rese

nte

dfi

rst

un

der

two-

gro

up

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s;blo

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0;c lo

adin

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asn

otin

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ross

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der

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ing

sw

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inv

aria

nt

Table II.

Work-family andfamily-work

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impacts on emotional exhaustion, supporting H1a and H1b. The impact ofwork-family conflict on job performance is significant. But, the influence is positive(opposite to the expected sign). Therefore, H2a is not supported by the data. On theother hand, family-work conflict has a significant negative impact on job performance.This is consistent with H2b. Both work-family conflict and family-work conflict, aspredicted, have significant positive impacts on turnover intentions. Thus, H3a andH3b are supported. While emotional exhaustion has a negative impact on performanceas predicted by H4, this effect is not significant at the 0.05 level. Hence, H4 is notsupported. The effect of emotional exhaustion on turnover intentions is positive andsignificant, which provides support for H5. In terms of the control variables, thecombined sample results show that married frontline employees report better jobperformance and education has a negative effect on turnover intentions. The controlvariables collectively explain only 1 percent of the variance in work-family and1 percent in family-work conflict.

Gender as a moderator. Next, we tested the moderating effects of gender on thetheoretical linkages in Figure 1 by performing a two-group simultaneous analysisusing the sample covariance matrices as input to LISREL 8.51 (Joreskog and Sorbom,1993). Initially, with the exception of measurement invariance constraints, no equalityconstraint was imposed on the corresponding structural model parameters acrossfemale and male samples. This “base” model generated a x 2 value of 281.43(df ¼ 134), and served as benchmark for testing the moderator hypotheses.Parameters estimates, t-values and model fit statistics for the two-group base modelare presented in Table II under the “two-group analysis” columns.

Using the x 2 value of 281.43 (df ¼ 134) generated by the base model as benchmark,we examined each moderator hypothesis by removing the equality constraint for aparticular path across genders and conducting a x 2 difference test with 1 df. Amoderator hypothesis would be supported if the resulting x 2 suggested a significantmodel fit deterioration over the base result. For instance, to test H6a, the path fromwork-family conflict to emotional exhaustion was constrained to be equal acrossgenders. The resulting x 2 value of 282.55 (df ¼ 135) indicates that model fit does notdeteriorate significantly. Thus, gender does not moderate the relationship betweenwork-family conflict and emotional exhaustion, and H6a is not supported. Likewise, totest H6d, we constrained the effect of family-work conflict on job performance to beequal across genders. The x 2 value of 287.02 (df ¼ 135) we obtained indicates asignificant difference in the magnitude of this path across genders. Thus, H6d issupported. Gender moderates the relationship between family-work conflict and jobperformance and, as hypothesized, the relationship is stronger among femaleemployees.

Following the preceding approach, we tested each of the remaining moderatorhypotheses. We found that, as in the case of work-family conflict, gender did notmoderate the relationships between family-work conflict and emotional exhaustion.Thus, H6b cannot be supported. The same is true for H6g, which posited that therelationship between emotional exhaustion and job performance would be strongeramong female employees. Our results show that gender does not moderate theemotional exhaustion – job performance relationship. Thus, H6g is not tenable. Whilegender moderates the relationships between work-family conflict and job performance(H6c), the effect of work-family conflict on job performance is positive and contrary to

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the expected sign. A similar situation exists with respect to the relationship positedbetween family-work conflict and turnover intentions (H6f ). Gender moderatesthe relationship between family-work conflict and turnover intentions. However, therelationship is significantly stronger for males than females. On the bases of theseresults H6c and H6f are not supported by the data.

Of the remaining hypotheses, our results support that the relationships betweenwork-family conflict and turnover intentions (H6e) and between emotional exhaustionand turnover intentions (H6h) are, as predicted, stronger among female employees.Thus, in addition to H6d, H6e and H6h receive support from the data. A closerinspection of the results presented in Table II shows that gender also moderates theeffects of some control variables on the two job outcomes included in our model.Education has a significant positive effect on male employees’ job performance, but itseffect is not significant for female employees. Married female frontline employeesreport significantly better job performance, while marital status does not have asignificant impact on male frontline employees’ job performance. Finally, the numberof children has a significant positive impact on male frontline employees’ turnoverintentions, but its effect on females is not significant. A summary of the study’s overalland moderator hypotheses test results are presented in Table III.

Finally, while our focus in this study was on gender’s moderating role on therelationships shown in Figure 1, we also examined its potential direct effects on thestudy constructs (work-family conflict, family-work conflict, emotional exhaustion,job performance, and turnover intentions). As the results of multivariate analysis ofvariance (MANOVA) summarized in Table IV indicate, female frontline employeesexperience significantly higher levels of work-family and family-work conflicts thantheir male counterparts at 0.05 or better level of significance. However, there are no

Consequences of work-family conflict and family-work conflictH1a Work-family conflict ! emotional exhaustion (þ ) SupportedH1b Family-work conflict ! emotional exhaustion (þ ) SupportedH2a Work-family conflict ! job performance (2 ) Not supportedH2b Family-work conflict ! job performance (2 ) SupportedH3a Work-family conflict ! Turnover intentions (þ ) SupportedH3b Family-work conflict ! turnover intentions (þ ) SupportedConsequences of emotional exhaustionH4 Emotional exhaustion ! job performance (2 ) Not supportedH5 Emotional exhaustion ! turnover intentions (þ ) SupportedGender-based hypothesesH6a Work-family conflict ! emotional exhaustion (þ ) Not supported (no gender effect)H6b Family-work conflict ! emotional exhaustion (þ ) Not supported (no gender effect)H6c Work-family conflict ! job performance (2 ) Not supported (stronger among males)H6d Family-work conflict ! job performance (2 ) Supported (stronger among females)H6e Work-family conflict ! turnover intentions (þ ) Supported (stronger among females)H6f Family-work conflict ! turnover intentions (þ ) Not supported (stronger among males)H6g Emotional exhaustion ! job performance (2 ) Not supported (no gender effect)H6h Emotional exhaustion ! turnover intentions (þ ) Supported (stronger among females)

Note: The sign in parentheses for each hypothesis indicates the direction of the linkage between thevariables

Table III.Summary of hypothesis

test results

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significant differences between male and female frontline employees with respect toemotional exhaustion, job performance and turnover intentions.

DiscussionBy using a sample of frontline hotel employees in Turkey as its setting, this studydeveloped and tested a model to investigate the effects of work-family conflict andfamily-work conflict, and emotional exhaustion on two organizationally valued joboutcomes, job performance and turnover intentions. Also examined in the study wasthe role of gender as a moderator of the relationships in the model. Severalobservations emerge from our findings.

First, the results clearly suggest that our overall model is viable. Indeed, of the eightoverall hypotheses we tested, six received support from the data. Consonant with theresults reported in other studies (Bacharach et al., 1991; Boles et al., 1997; Mauno andKinnunen, 1999), our study shows that employees facing conflicts originating fromtheir work (family) and family (work) roles become emotionally exhausted. Likewise,similar to the results reported by Boyar et al. (2003), our results demonstrate that bothwork-family conflict and family-work conflict are significant predictors of frontlineemployees’ turnover intentions. Our results also mirror image Karatepe’s (2006)findings and show that emotional exhaustion is at the root of frontline employees’turnover intentions.

One unexpected result in our study pertains to the relationship betweenwork-family conflict and job performance. Contrary to our predictions, work-familyconflict seems to trigger frontline employees’ job performance. One plausibleexplanation for this unexpected finding may be based on van Dyne et al.’s (2002)argument that people who experience interpersonal conflict and tension at work tend tofocus on their work activities more to shield themselves from further tension and to beable to reach higher levels of performance. An alternative explanation to thisunexpected finding can be offered in light of the insignificant role of emotionalexhaustion in mediating the relationship between work-family conflict and jobperformance. Two types of countervailing effects may be operating on work-familyconflict – job performance relationship at the same time. These are a eustress-type(positive/functional) effect and a distress-type (negative/dysfunctional) effect

Gender n Mean p-value

WFC Male 381 3.53Female 342 3.81 0.000

FWC Male 381 2.80Female 342 2.93 0.008

EE Male 381 2.53Female 342 2.56 0.551

JP Male 381 3.89Female 342 3.91 0.478

TI Male 381 2.44Female 342 2.55 0.052

Note: The overall multivariate test result is significant: Wilks’ L ¼ 0.97 ( p ¼ 0.001)Table IV.Results of MANOVA

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(Singh et al., 1994). These opposite effects may act simultaneously to reduce the totaleffect of work-family conflict on job performance. Conceivably, here the eustress-type(positive/functional) may be the more dominant component in affecting jobperformance. It is possible that the distress-type (negative/dysfunctional) effect ofwork-family conflict on job performance does not kick in until emotional exhaustionexperienced by frontline employees exceeds a certain threshold. Whatever theexplanation may be, certainly the relationship between work-family conflict and jobperformance is more complicated than expected and deserves further attention.

Second, when the results are viewed from the perspective of the simultaneouseffects of the two forms of interrole conflict, it appears that both work-family conflictand family-work conflict have detrimental impacts on emotional exhaustion andturnover intentions. However, the effects of work-family conflict and family-workconflict on job performance are different. As noted before, while work-family conflictdepicts a positive relationship with job performance, family-work conflict has adetrimental impact on job performance. These results corroborate that work-familyand family-work conflicts are distinct but conceptually related concepts (Netemeyeret al., 1996). In many cases, not being mutually exclusive, they have spillover effectsand exert the same type of impact on an outcome. Yet, in other cases, as demonstratedin a study of interrelationships of work-family conflict and family-work conflict withwork satisfaction (Boles et al., 2001), work-family conflict and family-work conflict donot necessarily yield the same impact on the outcome measure (i.e. work satisfaction).

An explanation for such a differential impact comes from Netemeyer et al. (2005)who argue that when employees are cognizant of the potential for a particular form ofconflict to affect the outcome (e.g. job performance), they may engage in processes andbehaviors that partially compensate for the effect. Given this explanation, it may besurmised that employees surveyed here are more cognizant of the potential impact ofwork-family conflict on their job performance. But not being equally cognizant of thepotential for family-work conflict to affect their job performance, they may not engagein cognitive processes or behaviors that could reduce the effect.

Third, unlike the bulk of the studies which examined interrole conflicts and relatedissues in developed countries, our study was conducted in Turkey. When our resultsare compared to the results of studies conducted in the North American – Europeanaxis, a number of similarities are apparent. For example, our results pertaining to thepositive relationship between work-family conflict and emotional exhaustion arecongruent with Boles et al.’s (1997) research in the USA, and Mauno and Kinnunen’s(1999) study in Finland. Likewise, our findings concerning the effect of family-workconflict on emotional exhaustion parallels the results reported in Posig and Kickul’s(2004) US-based study. Similarly, our results pertaining to the impact of family-workconflict on job performance is consonant with Frone et al.’s (1997) study in the USA.Also our findings regarding the effects of work-family conflict and family-workconflict on turnover intentions are consistent with those of Boyar et al. (2003) whoconducted their study in the USA. These results, on one hand, suggest that researchfindings derived from western countries are generalizable into a different culturalsetting and, on the other hand, lend credence to Aycan and Eskin’s (2005) observation(based on Barnett and Hyde’s (2001) expansionist theory) that as traditional genderroles continue to expand and change globally, a convergence of findings inwork-family research takes place cross-culturally.

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Fourth, on the basis of our results, the answer to the fundamental question weasked, “Does gender matter?” appears to be yes. Indeed, of the eight gender-relatedlinkages we proposed in our study, five proved to be significant. Thus, at the aggregatelevel, gender does moderate a majority of the relationships in our model. However, intwo cases, the differences between male and female employees are contrary to ourpredictions. Hence, three of our hypotheses receive support from our data while theother two are not tenable.

We offer a speculative explanation as to why the positive relationships betweenwork-family conflict and job performance and between family-work conflict andturnover intentions are weaker among female employees. These may be rooted in thefast pace of change in the work and family roles of men and especially women inTurkey. As Yavas et al. (1999) write, while the Turkish society is male-dominated andmales are the primary breadwinners, changes enacted in the Turkish Civil Law in the1990s have accelerated the transition in the status of Turkish women from that oftraditional housewife to equal partner. The changes on the legislative front have pickedup momentum in the last couple of years as Turkey enters formal negotiations with theEuropean Union to be a full-fledged member and makes its laws compatible with thoseof member European countries.

Perhaps, even more important is the fact that these days Turkish women areeconomically active. Many are no longer “stay-at-home” moms waiting for theirhusbands to return to the nest. As Aycan and Eskin (2005) discuss, Turkish womenespecially in urban metropolitan areas (such as Ankara, the location of our study)join the workforce in increasing numbers. With the increasing involvement ofwomen in the workforce, cultural values and norms with respect to gender roles areundergoing a rapid change in Turkey. Recently, women are more involved in workoutside the home and men, slowly but surely, assume more of the householdresponsibilities and tasks that were traditionally considered as women’s. In such amilieu, Turkish men and women alike are trying to adapt to the modern gender rolenorms (Aycan and Eskin, 2005) and a “blurring” of traditional gender roledistinctions is taking place.

It appears that this trend toward the “blurring” of traditional gender roles and theTurkish women’s desire to succeed in the full-time workforce, despite experiencingsignificantly higher conflict between work and family roles, may have caused theunexpected findings. It is also likely that, as discussed in the gender role theory,despite being more prone to the dysfunctional effects of work-family conflictthan men (Grandey et al., 2005), women expect such an interference betweenwork and family domains more so than men. It should also be remembered thatfrontline service jobs, as interaction-oriented positions, fit better the relationship-valuing and nurturing nature of the female gender (Putrevu, 2001). Furthermore, as atestament to the context-specific changes taking place in role expectations for menand women, women nowadays value certain masculine-stereotyped job attributes ashighly or more highly than men (Konrad et al., 2000). In addition, in today’suncertain work environment, women may be more likely than men to seek jobsecurity (Konrad et al., 2000). Consequently, compared with men, women may be in abetter position to cope with and control the dysfunctional effects of conflictsemanating from work and family domains on their job performance and turnoverintentions.

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ImplicationsBased on our overall results, it appears that Turkish hotels will benefit fromestablishing a family-supportive work environment for their employees to lessen (andhopefully eliminate) the negative impact of conflicts emanating from the work-familyinterface on their emotional exhaustion and job outcomes. In this context, on-sitechildcare services for employees with younger children, after-school programs forthose with older children, for instance, can pay dividends.

However, it should be pointed out that given the gender-specific findings of thisstudy, “one-size fits all” approach may be problematic. For example, our resultsdemonstrate that the impact of work-family conflict on turnover intentions is strongeramong female employees, while the effect of family-work conflict on turnoverintentions is higher for male employees. Thus, management can organizegender-specific small-group meetings and sessions to identify, for instance, the mainsources of work-family conflict among female and family-work conflict among maleemployees. In a same-gender environment, employees can freely voice their concernsand openly discuss the drivers of their interrole conflicts.

Once the root causes of conflicts are identified, then management can take thenecessary actions. For instance, gender-specific programs may be offered to educateemployees on changing cultural norms, gender roles, job sharing responsibilities athome, etc. Given that gender consciousness at home is the final frontier in the quest forgender equality in work-family relationships, programs/presentations to promote andreinforce this idea in Turkey that is in a period of transformation is particularlyimportant (Aycan and Eskin, 2005). Likewise, employees can be educated on the crucialrole of spousal and family support in alleviating interrole conflicts and coping withemotional exhaustion. Management can complement such actions by also training theemployees in supervisory roles and educating them in actions that would be helpful indealing effectively with the interrole conflicts that female and male employeesexperience.

Limitations and future research directionsAlthough this study expands our knowledge base, viable prospects for furtherresearch remain. First, the cross-sectional design of our study does not permit us tomake causal inferences. Future studies employing longitudinal designs would behelpful in establishing causal relationships. Concurrently, some unexpected findingsin our study underscore the need for qualitative studies to gain deeper and richerinsights into how women and men experience and cope with conflicts in thework-family interface. Second, in this study, data from single-informants (self-reportdata from employees) were used to measure all the variables. Such data are prone tocommon-method variance (Doty and Glick, 1998). To minimize commonmethod-variance, future studies should use multiple-informants, and for instance,should measure frontline employees’ job performance on the basis of theirsupervisors’ assessment. Third, to cross-validate our results and broaden thedatabase for further generalizations, replication studies among other samples offrontline employees in Turkey are needed. Fourth, inclusion of other easily obtainablevariables such as the work status of each spouse in a married couple(dual-earner/dual-career vs single-earner/single-career) and availability of varioustypes of support (e.g. extended family support, spousal support) as control factors

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might lead to finer insights as such characteristics may affect various relationshipsposited in our model (Aycan and Eskin, 2005; Elloy and Smith, 2003).

In conclusion, interrole conflicts experienced by frontline employees havesignificant consequences. At a time of a changing work environment where genderroles all over the world continuously evolve, the management of frontline employees toattain positive job outcomes will be a challenge. Hence, the issues we addressed in ourstudy should remain as a research priority.

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Appendix. Scale items, sources and scale reliabilitiesa

Work-family conflict (Netemeyer et al., 1996; Boles et al., 2001) (a ¼ 0.88, 0.89, 0.87)1. The demands of my work interfere with home, family, and social life.2. Because of my job, I cannot involve myself as much as I would like in maintaining close

relations with my family, spouse/partner, or friends.3. Things I want to do at home do not get done because of the demands my job puts on me.4. I often have to miss important family and social activities because of my job.5. There is a conflict between my job and the commitments and responsibilities I have to my

family, spouse/partner, or friends.

Family-work conflict (Netemeyer et al., 1996; Boles et al., 2001) (a ¼ 0.75, 0.68, 0.80)1. The demands of my family, spouse/partner, or friends interfere with work-related activities.2. I sometimes have to miss work so that family and social responsibilities are met.3. Things I want to do at work do not get done because of the demands of my family,

spouse/partner, or friends.4. My home and social life interfere with my responsibilities at work such as getting to work on

time, accomplishing daily tasks, and working overtime.5. My co-workers and peers at work dislike how often I am preoccupied with my family and

social life.

Emotional exhaustion (Maslach and Jackson, 1981) (a ¼ 0.85, 0.85, 0.85)1. I feel emotionally drained from my work.2. I feel used up at the end of the workday.3. I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job.4. Working with people all day is really a strain for me.5. I feel burned out from my work.6. I feel frustrated by my job.7. I feel I am working too hard on my job.8. I feel like I am at the end of my rope.

Job performance (Babin and Boles, 1998) (a ¼ 0.74, 0.78, 0.71)1. I am a top performer.2. I am in the top 10 percent of frontline employees here.3. I get along better with customers than do others.4. I know more about services delivered to customers than others.5. I know what my customers expect better than others.

Turnover Intentions (Boshoff and Allen, 2000) (a ¼ 0.83, 0.84, 0.82)1. I will probably be looking for another job soon.2. It would not take much to make me leave this hotel.3. I often think about leaving this hotel.

Notes: aReliability coefficients are for the combined, female and male samples

Corresponding authorOsman M. Karatepe can be contacted at: [email protected]

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