Attitudes. The Nature of Attitudes Attitudes central topic of study in social psychology. 3 Approaches to Understanding Nature of Attitudes: –Attitudes.

Attitudes

The Nature of Attitudes

• Attitudes central topic of study in social psychology.

• 3 Approaches to Understanding Nature of Attitudes:– Attitudes as Evaluations– Attitudes as Memories– ABC Tripartite Model of Attitudes

Attitudes as Evaluations

• Learned predispositions to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner to a particular person, object or idea.

• Represent positive or negative evaluation of an individual, behavior, belief or thing.

+ Women have the right to choose

- Abortion is immoral

+ Abortion is permissible in the first trimester

- Abortion is an invasive medical procedure

+ Abortion solves societal problems

Abortion

Attitudes as Memories

• Some regard as a set of memories that link cognitions regarding the topic about which the attitude is held.

• An attitude is a set of inter-related memories about a particular person, object or idea.

Attitudes as Memories

• Memories about different types of information– Beliefs, feelings, & behavior concerning the target.

• When a stimulus triggers one of these memories, activates entire network of related memories having to do with the object of the attitude.

Abortion

Parents

Medical

Niece

Future

Religion

Friend

Fr. Mike

Tonsils

Children

College

ABC Tripartite Model of Attitudes

• Focuses on underlying structure of attitudes.

• 3 Components:– Affective component – encompasses emotional

reactions (negative and positive)• Strong positive or negative emotions associated with…

– Behavioral component – Predispositions or intention to act in a way that reflects the attitude

• Refers to your intention to participate in a pro-abortion or anti-abortion rally; or whether you will have one yourself.

ABC Tripartite Model of Attitudes

• Focuses on underlying structure of attitudes.– Cognitive component – Your beliefs or thoughts about

the object of the attitude• e.g., may hold a strong religious belief that may shape your

view of abortion as a legitimate procedure.

Affective Component

I have anxiety about the procedure

I am relieved not to have an out-of-wedlock child

Behavioral Component

I intend to seek an abortion if necessary

Cognitive Component

Abortion is a women’s right

Abortion is not morally wrong

Abortion

Formation & Maintenance of Attitudes: Affect-Based Explanations

• Mere Exposure Effect Tendency to develop more positive feelings toward objects/individuals the more we are exposed to them.– Does not require behavior nor formation of

beliefs

• Classical Conditioning

Formation & Maintenance of Attitudes:

Behavioral & Cognitive Explanations• Operant Conditioning

– Reinforcing behaviors congruent with attitude

• Social Learning– Reinforcement of imitative behavior– Vicarious reinforcement

Formation & Maintenance of Attitudes:

Somatokinesthesia• Facial expression, head movement & body

posture can affect attitude.– Pen in the mouth study– Facial Feedback Hypothesis

• Consistent w/ Self-Perception Theory

– Vascular Theory of Emotion• smiling causes air-cooled blood flow to brain

– Similar findings for posture

Formation & Maintenance of Attitudes:

Functional Approach• Develop & change attitude to satisfy psychological

need.

• Instrumental Attitude - based on cost/benefit of the attitude object.– e.g., positive attitudes for acceptance by others

• Symbolic Attitude - Object perceived not as it is, but as symbol of something else– e.g., environmentally conscious company

Psychological Function of Attitudes

Type of Attitude Function Served Perspective

Utilitarian Achieve rewards; gain approval Behaviorist

Knowledge Structure world; make sense Cognitive

Ego Defense Protect from self-truth Psychoanal

Value-Expressive Express self-concept Humanistic

Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?

• LaPiere (1934)

• Factors:– Level of attitude-behavior specificity

• e.g., Chinese in general v. specific couple

– Time factors• Greater the interval between measurement & behavior - the

higher the discrepancy

– Private v. Public Self-Awareness

Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?

• Factors:– Attitude strength

• Acquiring more information

• Personal involvement

• Direct experience

– Attitude accessibility• presidential election study

• Availability heuristic

IV = Self-Awareness

DV = Attitude Behavior Consistency

Mirror No Mirror

12% Took More Candy

34% Took More Candy

Beaman et al, 1979

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Mirror Condition

Control

Audience Condition

Froming et al, 1982

Attitudes Toward a Behavior

• Fishbein & Ajzen (1975)

• If goal is to predict specific behavior, measure of attitude should be compatible w/ measure of behavior.– Behaviors specified along 4 dimensions:

• Action

• Target

• Context

• Time

Element Specified Measured Attitude Correlation w/ behavior

None Birth Control .08

Target B.C. Pills .32

Target/Action Using B.C. Pills .53

Target/Action/Time Using B.C Pills next 2 years .57

Davidson & Jaccard, 1979

Subjective Norms

• Judgement about whether other people will approve of a particular behavior.

• 2 Factors– Perceived expectations of significant others– One’s motivation to conform to those

expectations

Attitude Toward a Behavior

Subjective Norm

Intention Behavior

Theory of Reasoned Action

Perceived Behavioral Control

• One’s perception of how easy/difficult to perform behavior– e.g., stopping smoking

Cognitive Consistency & Attitudes

• Cognitive Consistency– Introduced by Fritz Heider (1946)– has its roots in Gestalt Psychology

• Expect & prefer perceptions to be coherent & harmonious

– The tendency to seek consistency in one’s cognitions

Cognitive Dissonance

• Although appear to be logical in our thinking & behavior…– Engage in irrational & maladaptive behavior

behavior to maintain cognitive consistency

Cognitive Dissonance

• We all have cognitions (pieces of knowledge)– About attitudes, past behaviors, current states of the

world, etc.

• Dissonant w/ each other when 1 follows from the opposite of the other – “I believe in gun control & I own a gun”– “I believe in democracy & I don’t vote”

Cognitive Dissonance

• Dissonance can arise between…– Cognitive & affective component of an attitude– Affect felt toward a person & his/her behavior– Cognitions & behavior/behavioral intentions

Cognitive Dissonance

• Dissonant cognitions cause an aversive motivational state (tension, irritation)– We are motivated to reduce aversive state

• Change 1 cognition– “I smoke so little that it hardly counts as smoking”

• Add consonant cognitions– Nobody in my family has ever had cancer, and my other good health habits compensate for

the cigarettes I smoke

• Reduce importance of 1 cognition– “Although some do die…”

• Deny that cognitions are related – “I don’t believe that smoking causes lung cancer”

Insufficient Justification

• People perform, for a minimal inducement, a behavior that is discrepant with attitudes.

• Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)

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Rat

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No Initiation

Mild Initiation

Severe Initiation

Arousal or Attribution?

• Dissonance theory assumes physio. arousal as basis of attitude change– Evidence that attribution may also be involved

• Self-Perception Theory– We infer our attitudes from our behavior

• BEHAVIOR CAUSES ATTITUDES

– Placebo studies

Post-Decision Dissonance

• Arises because attributes of chosen alternative not all positive, unchosen not all negative.– Altered perceptions of options– Selective exposure

• Self-Justification– Maintenance of self-esteem– Escalation/Persistence of commitment