Astrology

Astrology

Not to be confused with Astronomy, the scientic studyof celestial objects.

Astrology consists of several pseudoscientic systems ofdivination*[1] based on the premise that there is a rela-tionship between astronomical phenomena and events inthe human world. Many cultures have attached impor-tance to astronomical events, and the Indians, Chinese,and Mayans developed elaborate systems for predictingterrestrial events from celestial observations. In theWest,astrology most often consists of a system of horoscopespurporting to explain aspects of a person's personality andpredict future events in their life based on the positions ofthe sun, moon, and other celestial objects at the time oftheir birth. The majority of professional astrologers relyon such systems.*[2]*:83Throughout most of its history, astrology was consid-ered a scholarly tradition. It was accepted in polit-ical and academic contexts, and was connected withother studies, such as astronomy, alchemy, meteorology,and medicine.*[3] At the end of the 17th century, newscientic concepts in astronomy and physics (such asheliocentrism and Newtonian mechanics) called astrol-ogy into question. Astrology thus lost its academic andtheoretical standing, and common belief in astrology haslargely declined.*[4] Astrology has been rejected by thescientic community as a pseudoscience, having no va-lidity or explanatory power for describing the universe.Among other issues, there is no proposed mechanism ofaction by which the positions and motions of stars andplanets could aect people and events on Earth that doesnot contradict well understood basic aspects of biologyand physics.*[5]*:249*[6] Scientic testing of astrologyhas found no evidence to support any of the premises orpurported eects outlined in astrological traditions. Inone study, participating astrologers attempting to matchnatal charts with proles generated by a psychological in-ventory produced results not signicantly at variance withrandom chance.*[7]*:424Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millen-nium BCE, with roots in calendrical systems used to pre-dict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles assigns of divine communications.*[8] A form of astrol-ogy was practised in the rst dynasty of Mesopotamia(19501651 BCE). Chinese astrology was elaborated inthe Zhou dynasty (1046256 BCE). Hellenistic astrologyafter 332 BCE mixed Babylonian astrology with Egyp-tian Decanic astrology in Alexandria, creating horoscopicastrology. Alexander the Great's conquest of Asia al-

lowed astrology to spread to Ancient Greece and Rome.In Rome, astrology was associated with Chaldean wis-dom. After the conquest of Alexandria in the 7th cen-tury, astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars, and Hel-lenistic texts were translated into Arabic and Persian. Inthe 12th century, Arabic texts were imported to Europeand translated into Latin, helping to initiate the EuropeanRenaissance, when major astronomers including TychoBrahe, Johannes Kepler and Galileo practised as court as-trologers. Astrological references appear in literature inthe works of poets such as Dante Alighieri and GeoreyChaucer, and of playwrights such as Christopher Mar-lowe and William Shakespeare.

1 Etymology

Marcantonio Raimondi engraving, 15th century

The word astrology comes from the early Latinword astrologia,*[9] which derives from the Greekfrom astron (star) and --logia, (study of"account of the stars). As-

1

2 2 HISTORY

trologia later passed into meaning 'star-divination' withastronomia used for the scientic term.*[10]

2 HistoryMain article: History of astrology

Many cultures have attached importance to astronomi-cal events, and the Indians, Chinese, and Mayans devel-oped elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial eventsfrom celestial observations. In the West, astrology mostoften consists of a system of horoscopes purporting toexplain aspects of a person's personality and predict fu-ture events in their life based on the positions of the sun,moon, and other celestial objects at the time of their birth.The majority of professional astrologers rely on such sys-tems.*[2]*:83Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millen-nium BCE, with roots in calendrical systems used to pre-dict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles assigns of divine communications.*[8] A form of astrol-ogy was practised in the rst dynasty of Mesopotamia(19501651 BCE). Chinese astrology was elaborated inthe Zhou dynasty (1046256 BCE). Hellenistic astrologyafter 332 BCE mixed Babylonian astrology with Egyp-tian Decanic astrology in Alexandria, creating horoscopicastrology. Alexander the Great's conquest of Asia al-lowed astrology to spread to Ancient Greece and Rome.In Rome, astrology was associated with 'Chaldean wis-dom'. After the conquest of Alexandria in the 7th cen-tury, astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars, and Hel-lenistic texts were translated into Arabic and Persian. Inthe 12th century, Arabic texts were imported to Europeand translated into Latin, helping to initiate the EuropeanRenaissance, when major astronomers including TychoBrahe, Johannes Kepler and Galileo practised as court as-trologers. Astrological references appear in literature inthe works of poets such as Dante Alighieri and GeoreyChaucer, and of playwrights such as Christopher Mar-lowe and William Shakespeare.Throughout most of its history, astrology was consid-ered a scholarly tradition. It was accepted in polit-ical and academic contexts, and was connected withother studies, such as astronomy, alchemy, meteorology,and medicine.*[3] At the end of the 17th century, newscientic concepts in astronomy and physics (such asheliocentrism and Newtonian mechanics) called astrol-ogy into question. Astrology thus lost its academic andtheoretical standing, and common belief in astrology haslargely declined.*[4]

2.1 Ancient worldSee also: Babylonian astrology

Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaningin the sky.*[11]*:2,3 Early evidence for humans makingconscious attempts to measure, record, and predict sea-sonal changes by reference to astronomical cycles, ap-pears as markings on bones and cave walls, which showthat lunar cycles were being noted as early as 25,000years ago.*[12]*:81 This was a rst step towards record-ing the Moon's inuence upon tides and rivers, and to-wards organizing a communal calendar.*[12] Farmers ad-dressed agricultural needs with increasing knowledge ofthe constellations that appear in the dierent seasonsand used the rising of particular star-groups to herald an-nual oods or seasonal activities.*[13] By the 3rd millen-nium BCE, civilizations had sophisticated awareness ofcelestial cycles, and may have oriented temples in align-ment with heliacal risings of the stars.*[14]There is scattered evidence to suggest that the oldestknown astrological references are copies of texts madein the ancient world. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa(compiled in Babylon around 1700 BCE) is reported tohave beenmade during the reign of king Sargon of Akkad(23342279 BCE).*[15] A scroll documenting an earlyuse of electional astrology is doubtfully ascribed to thereign of the Sumerian ruler Gudea of Lagash (c. 2144 2124 BCE). This describes how the gods revealed tohim in a dream the constellations that would be mostfavourable for the planned construction of a temple.*[16]However, there is controversy about whether these weregenuinely recorded at the time or merely ascribed to an-cient rulers by posterity. The oldest undisputed evidenceof the use of astrology as an integrated system of knowl-edge is therefore attributed to the records of the rst dy-nasty of Mesopotamia (19501651 BCE). This astrologyhad some parallels with Hellenistic Greek (western) as-trology, including the zodiac, a norming point near 9 de-grees in Aries, the trine aspect, planetary exaltations, andthe dodekatemoria (the twelve divisions of 30 degreeseach).*[17] However, the Babylonians viewed celestialevents as possible signs rather than as causes of physicalevents.*[17]The system of Chinese astrology was elaborated duringthe Zhou dynasty (1046256 BCE) and ourished dur-ing the Han Dynasty (2nd century BCE to 2nd centuryCE), during which all the familiar elements of traditionalChinese culture the Yin-Yang philosophy, theory of theve elements, Heaven and Earth, Confucian morality were brought together to formalise the philosophical prin-ciples of Chinese medicine and divination, astrology andalchemy.*[18]*:3,4

2.1.1 Ancient objections

Cicero stated the twins objection (that with close birthtimes, personal outcomes can be very dierent), later de-veloped by Saint Augustine.*[19] He argued that sincethe other planets are much more distant from the earththan the moon, they could have only very tiny inuence

2.2 Hellenistic Egypt 3

The Roman orator Cicero objected to astrology.

compared to the moon's.*[20] He also argued that if as-trology explains everything about a person's fate, then itwrongly ignores the visible eect of inherited ability andparenting, changes in health worked by medicine, or theeects of the weather on people.*[21]Plotinus argued that since the xed stars are much moredistant than the planets, it is laughable to imagine theplanets' eect on mankind should depend on their posi-tion with respect to the zodiac. He also argues that theinterpretation of the moon's conjunction with a planet asgood when the moon is full, but bad when the moon iswaning, is clearly wrong, as from the moon's point ofview, half of her surface is always in sunlight; and fromthe planet's point of view, waning should be better, asthen the planet sees some light from the moon, but whenthe moon is full to us, it is dark, and therefore bad, on theside facing the planet.*[22]Favorinus argued that it was absurd to imagine that starsand planets would aect human bodies in the same way asthey aect the tides,*[23] and equally absurd that smallmotions in the heavens cause large changes in people'sfates. Sextus Empiricus argued that it was absurd to linkhuman attributes with myths about the signs of the zo-diac.*[24] Carneades argued that belief in fate denies freewill and morality; that people born at dierent times canall die in the same accident or battle; and that contrary touniform inuences from the stars, tribes and cultures areall dierent.*[25]

2.2 Hellenistic Egypt

Main article: Hellenistic astrologyIn 525 BCE, Egypt was conquered by the Persians.

1484 copy of rst page of Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, translated intoLatin by Plato of Tivoli

The 1st century BCE Egyptian Dendera Zodiac sharestwo signs the Balance and the Scorpion withMesopotamian astrology.*[26]With the occupation by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE,Egypt became Hellenistic. The city of Alexandria wasfounded by Alexander after the conquest, becoming theplace where Babylonian astrology was mixed with Egyp-tian Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology.This contained the Babylonian zodiac with its system ofplanetary exaltations, the triplicities of the signs and theimportance of eclipses. It used the Egyptian concept ofdividing the zodiac into thirty-six decans of ten degreeseach, with an emphasis on the rising decan, and the Greeksystem of planetary Gods, sign rulership and four ele-ments.*[27] 2nd century BCE texts predict positions ofplanets in zodiac signs at the time of the rising of certaindecans, particularly Sothis.*[28] The astrologer and as-tronomer Ptolemy lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's workthe Tetrabiblos formed the basis of Western astrology,and, "...enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among theastrological writers of a thousand years or more.*[29]

2.3 Greece and Rome

The conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great exposedthe Greeks to ideas from Syria, Babylon, Persia and cen-tral Asia.*[30] Around 280 BCE, Berossus, a priest of

4 2 HISTORY

Bel from Babylon, moved to the Greek island of Kos,teaching astrology and Babylonian culture.*[31] By the1st century BCE, there were two varieties of astrology,one using horoscopes to describe the past, present andfuture; the other, theurgic, emphasising the soul's ascentto the stars.*[32] Greek inuence played a crucial role inthe transmission of astrological theory to Rome.*[33]The rst denite reference to astrology in Rome comesfrom the orator Cato, who in 160 BCE warned farm over-seers against consulting with Chaldeans,*[34] who weredescribed as Babylonian 'star-gazers'.*[35] Among bothGreeks and Romans, Babylonia (also known as Chaldea)became so identied with astrology that 'Chaldean wis-dom' became synonymous with divination using plan-ets and stars.*[36] The 2nd-century Roman poet andsatirist Juvenal complains about the pervasive inuenceof Chaldeans, saying, Still more trusted are the Chal-daeans; every word uttered by the astrologer they will be-lieve has come from Hammon's fountain.*[37]One of the rst astrologers to bring Hermetic astrol-ogy to Rome was Thrasyllus, astrologer to the emperorTiberius,*[33] the rst emperor to have had a court as-trologer,*[38] though his predecessor Augustus had usedastrology to help legitimise his Imperial rights.*[39]

2.4 Medival world

2.4.1 Hindu

The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology isbased are early medieval compilations, notably the BhatParara Horstra, and Srval by Kalyavarma.The Horshastra is a composite work of 71 chapters, ofwhich the rst part (chapters 151) dates to the 7th toearly 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 5271)to the later 8th century. The Srval likewise dates toaround 800 CE.*[40] English translations of these textswere published by N.N. Krishna Rau and V.B. Choud-hari in 1963 and 1961, respectively.

2.4.2 Islamic

Main article: Astrology in medieval IslamAstrology was taken up by Islamic scholars following thecollapse of Alexandria to the Arabs in the 7th century,and the founding of the Abbasid empire in the 8th. Thesecond Abbasid caliph, Al Mansur (754775) foundedthe city of Baghdad to act as a centre of learning, andincluded in its design a library-translation centre knownas Bayt al-Hikma 'House of Wisdom', which continuedto receive development from his heirs and was to providea major impetus for Arabic-Persian translations of Hel-lenistic astrological texts. The early translators includedMashallah, who helped to elect the time for the founda-tion of Baghdad,*[41] and Sahl ibn Bishr, (a.k.a. Zael),whose texts were directly inuential upon later European

Latin translation of Ab Mashar's De Magnis Coniunctionibus('Of the great conjunctions'), Venice, 1515.

astrologers such as Guido Bonatti in the 13th century,and William Lilly in the 17th century.*[42] Knowledgeof Arabic texts started to become imported into Europeduring the Latin translations of the 12th century, whichhelped initiate the European Renaissance.

2.4.3 Europe

Dante Alighieri meets the Emperor Justinian in the Sphere ofMercury, in Canto 5 of the Paradiso.

See also: Christian views on astrology

The rst astrological book published in Europe was theLiber Planetis et Mundi Climatibus (Book of the Plan-ets and Regions of the World), which appeared be-

2.5 Renaissance and Early Modern 5

tween 1010 and 1027 AD, and may have been authoredby Gerbert of Aurillac.*[43] Ptolemy's second centuryAD Tetrabiblos was translated into Latin by Plato ofTivoli in 1138.*[43] The Dominican theologian ThomasAquinas followed Aristotle in proposing that the starsruled the imperfect 'sublunary' body, while attempting toreconcile astrology with Christianity by stating that Godruled the soul.*[44] The thirteenth century mathemati-cian Campanus of Novara is said to have devised a sys-tem of astrological houses that divides the prime verticalinto 'houses' of equal 30 arcs,*[45] though the systemwas used earlier in the East.*[46] The thirteenth centuryastronomer Guido Bonatti wrote a textbook, the Liber As-tronomicus, a copy of which King Henry VII of Englandowned at the end of the fteenth century.*[45]In Paradiso, the nal part of the Divine Comedy, the Ital-ian poet Dante Alighieri referredin countless details*[47] to the astrological planets, though he adapted tradi-tional astrology to suit his Christian viewpoint,*[47] forexample using astrological thinking in his prophecies ofthe reform of Christendom.*[48]

2.4.4 Medival objections

The medieval theologian Isidore of Seville criticized the predictivepart of astrology.

In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville argued in hisEtymologiae that astronomy described the movements ofthe heavens, while astrology had two parts: one was scien-tic, describing the movements of the sun, the moon andthe stars, while the other, making predictions, was the-ologically erroneous.*[49]*[50] In contrast, John Gowerin the fourteenth century dened astrology as essentiallylimited to the making of predictions.*[49]*[51] The in-

uence of the stars was in turn divided into natural as-trology, with for example eects on tides and the growthof plants, and judicial astrology, with supposedly pre-dictable eects on people.*[52]*[53] The fourteenth cen-tury skeptic Nicole Oresme however included astronomyas a part of astrology in his Livre de divinacions.*[54]Oresme argued that current approaches to prediction ofevents such as plagues, wars, and weather were inappro-priate, but that such prediction was a valid eld of inquiry.However, he attacked the use of astrology to choose thetiming of actions (so-called interrogation and election) aswholly false, and rejected the determination of humanaction by the stars on grounds of free will.*[54]*[55] Thefriar Laurens Pignon (c. 13681449)*[56] similarly re-jected all forms of divination and determinism, includingby the stars, in his 1411 Contre les Devineurs.*[57] Thiswas in opposition to the tradition carried by the Arab as-tronomer Albumasar (787-886) whose Introductorium inAstronomiam and De Magnis Coniunctionibus argued theview that both individual actions and larger scale historyare determined by the stars.*[58]

2.5 Renaissance and Early Modern

'An Astrologer Casting a Horoscope' from Robert Fludd'sUtriusque Cosmi Historia, 1617

Renaissance scholars often practised astrology to pay fortheir research into other subjects.*[59] Gerolamo Car-dano cast the horoscope of king Edward VI of Eng-land, while John Dee was the personal astrologer toqueen Elizabeth I of England.*[59] Catherine de Medicipaid Michael Nostradamus in 1566 to verify the pre-diction of the death of her husband, king Henry II ofFrance made by her astrologer Lucus Gauricus.*[59] Ma-jor astronomers who practised as court astrologers in-cluded Tycho Brahe in the royal court of Denmark,Johannes Kepler to the Habsburgs and Galileo Galilei tothe Medici.*[59] The astronomer and spiritual astrologer

6 3 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake for heresy in Romein 1600.*[59]Ephemerides with complex astrological calculations, andalmanacs interpreting celestial events for use in medicineand for choosing times to plant crops, were popu-lar in Elizabethan England.*[60] In 1597, the Englishmathematician and physician Thomas Hood made a setof paper instruments that used revolving overlays to helpstudents work out relationships between xed stars orconstellations, the midheaven, and the twelve astrologicalhouses.*[61] Hood's instruments also illustrated, for ped-agogical purposes, the supposed relationships betweenthe signs of the zodiac, the planets, and the parts of thehuman body adherents believed were governed by theplanets and signs.*[61]*[62] While Hood's presentationwas innovative, his astrological information was largelystandard and was taken from Gerard Mercator's astro-logical disc made in 1551, or a source used by Merca-tor.*[63]*[64]English astrology had reached its zenith by the 17th cen-tury.*[65] Astrologers were theorists, researchers, andsocial engineers, as well as providing individual adviceto everyone from monarchs downwards. Among otherthings, astrologers could advise on the best time to takea journey or harvest a crop, diagnose and prescribe forphysical or mental illnesses, and predict natural disasters.This underpinned a system in which everythingpeo-ple, the world, the universewas understood to be inter-connected, and astrology co-existed happily with religion,magic and science.*[66]

2.6 Enlightenment period and onwardsDuring The Enlightenment, intellectual sympathy for as-trology fell away, leaving only a popular following sup-ported by cheap almanacs.*[67] One English almanaccompiler, Richard Saunders, followed the spirit of theage by printing a derisive Discourse on the Invalidity ofAstrology, while in France Pierre Bayle's Dictionnaire of1697 stated that the subject was puerile.*[67] The Anglo-Irish satirist Jonathan Swift ridiculed the Whig politicalastrologer John Partridge.*[67]Astrology saw a popular revival starting in the 19th cen-tury, as part of a general revival of spiritualism andlater, New Age philosophy,*[68]*:239249 and throughthe inuence of mass media such as newspaper horo-scopes.*[68]*:259263 Early in the 20th century the psy-chiatrist Carl Jung developed some concepts concern-ing astrology,*[69] which led to the development ofpsychological astrology.*[68]*:251256*[70]*[71]

3 Principles and practiceAdvocates have dened astrology as a symbolic lan-guage, an art form, a science, and a method of divina-

tion.*[72]*[73] Though most cultural astrology systemsshare common roots in ancient philosophies that inu-enced each other, many use methods that dier fromthose in the West. These include Hindu astrology (alsoknown as Indian astrologyand in modern times re-ferred to asVedic astrology) and Chinese astrology,both of which have inuenced the world's cultural history.

3.1 Western

For more details on this topic, see Western astrology.

Western astrology is a form of divination based on theconstruction of a horoscope for an exact moment, such asa person's birth.*[74] It uses the tropical zodiac, which isaligned to the equinoctial points.*[75]Western astrology is founded on the movements andrelative positions of celestial bodies such as the Sun,Moon and planets, which are analyzed by their movementthrough signs of the zodiac (twelve spatial divisions ofthe ecliptic) and by their aspects (based on geometric an-gles) relative to one another. They are also considered bytheir placement in houses (twelve spatial divisions of thesky).*[76] Astrology's modern representation in westernpopular media is usually reduced to sun sign astrology,which considers only the zodiac sign of the Sun at an in-dividual's date of birth, and represents only 1/12 of thetotal chart.*[77]The horoscope visually expresses the set of relationshipsfor the time and place of the chosen event. These rela-tionships are between the seven 'planets', signifying ten-dencies such as war and love; the twelve signs of the zo-diac; and the twelve houses. Each planet is in a par-ticular sign and a particular house at the chosen time,when observed from the chosen place, creating two kindsof relationship.*[78] A third kind is the aspect of eachplanet to every other planet, where for example two plan-ets 120 apart (in 'trine') are in a harmonious relationship,but two planets 90 apart ('square') are in a conictedrelationship.*[79]*[80] Together these relationships andtheir interpretations supposedly form "...the language ofthe heavens speaking to learned men.*[78]Along with tarot divination, astrology is one of the corestudies ofWestern esotericism, and as such has inuencedsystems of magical belief not only among Western eso-tericists and Hermeticists, but also belief systems suchas Wicca that have borrowed from or been inuenced bythe Western esoteric tradition. Tanya Luhrmann has saidthat all magicians know something about astrology,and refers to a table of correspondences in Starhawk's TheSpiral Dance, organized by planet, as an example of theastrological lore studied by magicians.*[81]

7Page from an Indian astrological treatise, c. 1750

3.2 HinduMain article: Hindu astrology

The earliest Vedic text on astronomy is the Vedanga Jy-otisha; Vedic thought later came to include astrology aswell.*[82]Hindu natal astrology originated with Hellenistic astrol-ogy by the 3rd century BCE,*[83]*:361*[84] though in-corporating the Hindu lunar mansions.*[85] The namesof the signs (e.g. Greek 'Kpios' for Aries, Hindi 'Kriya'),the planets (e.g. Greek 'Helios' for Sun, astrologicalHindi 'Heli'), and astrological terms (e.g. Greek 'apok-lima' and 'sunaphe' for declination and planetary con-junction, Hindi 'apoklima' and 'sunapha' respectively) inVaraha Mihira's texts are considered conclusive evidenceof a Greek origin for Hindu astrology.*[86] The Indiantechniques may also have been augmented with some ofthe Babylonian techniques.*[87]*:231

3.3 Chinese and East-AsianFor more details on this topic, see Chinese astrology andChinese zodiac.

Chinese astrology has a close relation with Chinese phi-losophy (theory of the three harmonies: heaven, earth andman) and uses concepts such as yin and yang, the Fivephases, the 10 Celestial stems, the 12 Earthly Branches,and shichen ( a form of timekeeping used for re-ligious purposes). The early use of Chinese astrologywas mainly conned to political astrology, the obser-vation of unusual phenomena, identication of portentsand the selection of auspicious days for events and deci-sions.*[18]*:22,85,176The constellations of the Zodiac of western Asia and Eu-rope were not used; instead the sky is divided into ThreeEnclosures ( sn yun), and Twenty-eight Mansions( rshb xi) in twelve Ci ().*[88] TheChinese zodiac of twelve animal signs is said to repre-sent twelve dierent types of personality. It is based oncycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods ofthe day (the shichen). The zodiac traditionally beginswith the sign of the Rat, and the cycle proceeds through11 other animals signs: the Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon,Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.*[89]Complex systems of predicting fate and destiny based onone's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, such as zip-ing and Zi Wei Dou Shu (simplied Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: zwidush)are still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology.They do not rely on direct observations of the stars.*[90]The Korean zodiac is identical to the Chinese one. TheVietnamese zodiac is almost identical to Chinese zodiacexcept the second animal is the Water Bualo instead ofthe Ox, and the fourth animal is the Cat instead of theRabbit. The Japanese have since 1873 celebrated the be-ginning of the new year on 1 January as per the GregorianCalendar. The Thai zodiac begins, not at Chinese NewYear, but either on the rst day of fth month in the Thailunar calendar, or during the Songkran festival (now cel-ebrated every 1315 April), depending on the purpose ofthe use.*[91]

4 Theological viewpointsSee also: Christian views on astrology, Jewish views onastrology and Muslim views on astrology

4.1 Ancient

St. Augustine (354-430) believed that the determinism ofastrology conicted with the Christian doctrines of man'sfree will and responsibility, and God not being the causeof evil,*[92] but he also grounded his opposition philo-sophically, citing the failure of astrology to explain twinswho behave dierently although conceived at the samemoment and born at approximately the same time.*[93]

8 5 SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS AND CRITICISM

4.2 Medieval

Some of the practices of astrology were contested on the-ological grounds by medieval Muslim astronomers suchas Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)and Avicenna. They said that the methods of astrologersconicted with orthodox religious views of Islamic schol-ars, by suggesting that the Will of God can be knownand predicted in advance.*[94] For example, Avicenna's'Refutation against astrology', Risla f ibl akm al-nojm, argues against the practice of astrology while sup-porting the principle that planets may act as agents of di-vine causation. Avicenna considered that the movementof the planets inuenced life on earth in a determinis-tic way, but argued against the possibility of determin-ing the exact inuence of the stars.*[95] Essentially, Avi-cenna did not deny the core dogma of astrology, but de-nied our ability to understand it to the extent that preciseand fatalistic predictions could be made from it.*[96] IbnQayyim Al-Jawziyya (12921350), in hisMiftah Dar al-SaCadah, also used physical arguments in astronomy toquestion the practice of judicial astrology.*[97] He rec-ognized that the stars are much larger than the planets,and argued:

And if you astrologers answer that it is pre-cisely because of this distance and smallnessthat their inuences are negligible, then whyis it that you claim a great inuence for thesmallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is itthat you have given an inuence to al-Ra's andal-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points[ascending and descending nodes]?Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya*[97]

4.3 Modern

TheCatechism of the Catholic Churchmaintains that div-ination, including predictive astrology, is incompatiblewith modern Catholic beliefs*[98] such as free will:*[93]

All forms of divination are to be rejected:recourse to Satan or demons, conjuring upthe dead or other practices falsely supposed tounveilthe future. Consulting horoscopes,astrology, palm reading, interpretation ofomens and lots, the phenomena of clairvoy-ance, and recourse to mediums all conceal adesire for power over time, history, and, inthe last analysis, other human beings, as wellas a wish to conciliate hidden powers. Theycontradict the honor, respect, and loving fearthat we owe to God alone.*[99]

Catechism of the Catholic Church

5 Scientic analysis and criticismMain article: Astrology and scienceThe scientic community rejects astrology as having

Popper proposed falsiability as something that distinguishes sci-ence from non-science, using astrology as the example of an ideathat has not dealt with falsication during experiment.

no explanatory power for describing the universe, andconsider it a pseudoscience.*[100]*[101]*[102]*:1350Scientic testing of astrology has been conducted, andno evidence has been found to support any of thepremises or purported eects outlined in astrological tra-ditions.*[7]*:424 There is no proposed mechanism of ac-tion by which the positions and motions of stars and plan-ets could aect people and events on Earth that does notcontradict well understood, basic aspects of biology andphysics.*[5]*:249*[6] Those who continue to have faith inastrology have been characterized as doing so "...in spiteof the fact that there is no veried scientic basis for theirbeliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to thecontrary.*[103]It has also been shown that conrmation bias is apsychological factor that contributes to belief in astrol-ogy.*[104]*:344*[105]*:180181*[106]*:4248 Conr-mation bias is a form of cognitive bias.*[lower-alpha1]*[107]*:553 According to available literature, astrol-ogy believers tend to selectively remember predictionsthat turn out to be true, and do not remember those thatturn out false. Another, separate, form of conrmationbias also plays a role, where believers often fail to distin-guish between messages that demonstrate special abilityand those that do not.*[105]*:180181 Thus there are two

5.2 Eectiveness 9

distinct forms of conrmation bias that are under studywith respect to astrological belief.*[105]*:180181

5.1 Demarcation

Under the criterion of falsiability, rst proposed byphilosopher of science Karl Popper, astrology is a pseu-doscience.*[108] Popper regarded astrology aspseudo-empiricalin that it appeals to observation and ex-periment,butnevertheless does not come up to sci-entic standards.*[109]*:44 In contrast to scienticdisciplines, astrology has not responded to falsicationthrough experiment.*[110]*:206 In contrast to Popper,the philosopher Thomas Kuhn argued that it was notlack of falsiability that makes astrology unscientic, butrather that the process and concepts of astrology are non-empirical.*[111]*:401Kuhn thought that, though astrologers had, historically,made predictions that categorically failed, this in itselfdoes not make it unscientic, nor do attempts by as-trologers to explain away failures by claiming that cre-ating a horoscope is very dicult. Rather, in Kuhn'seyes, astrology is not science because it was always moreakin to medieval medicine; they followed a sequence ofrules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary eld withknown shortcomings, but they did no research becausethe elds are not amenable to research,*[112]*:8 and sothey had no puzzles to solve and therefore no scienceto practise.*[111]*:401*[112]*:8 While an astronomercould correct for failure, an astrologer could not. An as-trologer could only explain away failure but could not re-vise the astrological hypothesis in a meaningful way. Assuch, to Kuhn, even if the stars could inuence the path ofhumans through life astrology is not scientic.*[112]*:8Philosopher Paul Thagard believed that astrology can-not be regarded as falsied in this sense until it hasbeen replaced with a successor. In the case of predict-ing behaviour, psychology is the alternative.*[113]*:228To Thagard a further criterion of demarcation of sci-ence from pseudoscience was that the state-of-the-artmust progress and that the community of researchersshould be attempting to compare the current theoryto alternatives, and not be selective in consideringconrmations and disconrmations.*[113]*:227228Progress is dened here as explaining new phenomenaand solving existing problems, yet astrology has failedto progress having only changed little in nearly 2000years.*[113]*:228*[114]*:549 To Thagard, astrologersare acting as though engaged in Normal science be-lieving that the foundations of astrology were well es-tablished despite the many unsolved problems,andin the face of better alternative theories (Psychology).For these reasons Thagard viewed astrology as pseudo-science.*[113]*[114]*:228For the philosopher Edward W. James, astrology is irra-tional not because of the numerous problems with mech-

anisms and falsication due to experiments, but becausean analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is in-fused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning.*[115]*:34

What if throughout astrological writingswe meet little appreciation of coherence,blatant insensitivity to evidence, no sense ofa hierarchy of reasons, slight command overthe contextual force of critieria, stubbornunwillingless to pursue an argument where itleads, stark naivete concerning the eacacyof explanation and so on? In that case, I think,we are perfectly justied in rejecting astrologyas irrational. ... Astrology simply fails tomeet the multifarious demands of legitimatereasoning.Edward W. James*[115]*:34

5.2 EectivenessAstrology has not demonstrated its eectivenessin controlled studies and has no scientic valid-ity.*[2]*:85*[7] Where it has made falsiable predictionsunder controlled conditions, they have been falsi-ed.*[7]*:424 One famous experiment included 28astrologers who were asked to match over a hundrednatal charts to psychological proles generated bythe California Psychological Inventory (CPI) ques-tionnaire.*[116]*[117] The double-blind experimentalprotocol used in this study was agreed upon by a group ofphysicists and a group of astrologers*[7] nominated bythe National Council for Geocosmic Research, who ad-vised the experimenters, helped ensure that the test wasfair*[117]*:117*[118]*:420 and helped draw the centralproposition of natal astrology to be tested.*[118]*:419They also chose 26 out of the 28 eight astrologers forthe tests (two more volunteered afterwards).*[118]*:420The study, published in Nature in 1985, found thatpredictions based on natal astrology were no betterthan chance, and that the testing "...clearly refutes theastrological hypothesis.*[118]In 1955, astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelinstated that though he had failed to nd evidence that sup-ported indicators like zodiacal signs and planetary as-pects in astrology, he did nd positive correlations be-tween the diurnal positions of some planets and suc-cess in professions that astrology traditionally asso-ciates with those planets.*[119]*[120] The best-known ofGauquelin's ndings is based on the positions of Mars inthe natal charts of successful athletes and became knownas the Mars eect.*[121]*:213 A study conducted byseven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim,but found no statistical evidence.*[121]*:213214 Theyattributed the eect to selective bias on Gauquelin's part,accusing him of attempting to persuade them to add ordelete names from their study.*[122]

10 6 CULTURAL IMPACT

Georey Dean has suggested that the eect may becaused by self-reporting of birth dates by parents ratherthan any issue with the study by Gauquelin. The sug-gestion is that a small subset of the parents may havehad changed birth times to be consistent with better as-trological charts for a related profession. The samplegroup was taken from a time where belief in astrology wasmore common. Gauquelin had failed to nd the Mars ef-fect in more recent populations, where a nurse or doctorrecorded the birth information. The number of births un-der astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower,indicating more evidence that parents choose dates andtimes to suit their beliefs.*[117]*:116Dean, a scientist and former astrologer, and psycholo-gist Ivan Kelly conducted a large scale scientic test thatinvolved more than one hundred cognitive, behavioural,physical, and other variablesbut found no supportfor astrology.*[123]*[124] Furthermore, a meta-analysispooled 40 studies that involved 700 astrologers and over1,000 birth charts. Ten of the testswhich involved 300participantshad the astrologers pick the correct chartinterpretation out of a number of others that were not theastrologically correct chart interpretation (usually threeto ve others). When date and other obvious clues wereremoved, no signicant results suggested there was anypreferred chart.*[124]*:190

5.3 Lack of mechanisms and consistency

Testing the validity of astrology can be dicult, becausethere is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what as-trology is or what it can predict.*[2]*:83 Most profes-sional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describea person's personality and life, but most horoscopes onlymake vague untestable statements that can apply to almostanyone.*[2]*[106]*:83Many astrologers claim that astrology is scientic,*[125]while some have proposed conventional causal agentssuch as electromagnetism and gravity.*[125]*[126] Sci-entists reject these mechanisms as implausible*[125]since, for example, the magnetic eld, when measuredfrom earth, of a large but distant planet such as Jupiteris far smaller than that produced by ordinary householdappliances.*[126]*[127]Western astrology has taken the earth's axial precession(also called precession of the equinoxes) into accountsince Ptolemy's Almagest, so the 'rst point of Aries', thestart of the astrological year, continually moves againstthe background of the stars.*[128] The tropical zodiachas no connection to the stars, and as long as no claimsare made that the constellations themselves are in the as-sociated sign, astrologers avoid the concept that preces-sion seemingly moves the constellations.*[129] Charpakand Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on thetropical zodiac as being "...empty boxes that have noth-ing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency

or correspondence with the stars.*[129] Sole use of thetropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made, bythe same astrologers, to the Age of Aquarius, which de-pends on when the vernal point enters the constellation ofAquarius.*[7]Astrologers usually have only a small knowledge ofastronomy, and often do not take into account basicprinciplessuch as the precession of the equinoxes,which changes the position of the sun with time. Theycommented on the example of Elizabeth Teissier, whoclaimed that,The sun ends up in the same place in thesky on the same date each year,as the basis for claimsthat two people with the same birthday, but a number ofyears apart, should be under the same planetary inuence.Charpak and Broch noted that,There is a dierence ofabout twenty-two thousand miles between Earth's loca-tion on any specic date in two successive years,andthat thus they should not be under the same inuence ac-cording to astrology. Over a 40 years period there wouldbe a dierence greater than 780,000 miles.*[129]*:67

6 Cultural impact

6.1 Western politics and societyIn the West, political leaders have sometimes consultedastrologers. Louis de Wohl worked as an astrologer forthe British intelligence agency MI5, after claims surfacedthat Adolf Hitler used astrology to time his actions. TheWar Oce was "...interested to know what Hitler's ownastrologers would be telling him from week to week.*[130] In fact, de Wohl's predictions were so inaccuratethat he was soon labelled a complete charlatan,andlater evidence showed that Hitler considered astrologycomplete nonsense.*[131] After John Hinckley's at-tempted assassination of U.S. President Ronald Reagan,rst lady Nancy Reagan commissioned astrologer JoanQuigley to act as the secretWhite House astrologer. How-ever, Quigley's role ended in 1988 when it became publicthrough the memoirs of former chief of sta, Donald Re-gan.*[132]There was a boom in interest in astrology in the late1960s. The sociologist Marcello Truzzi described threelevels of involvement ofAstrology-believersto accountfor its revived popularity in the face of scientic discredit-ing. He found that most astrology-believers did not claimit was a scientic explanation with predictive power. In-stead, those supercially involved, knowing next tonothingabout astrology's 'mechanics', read newspaperastrology columns, and could benet from tension-management of anxietiesanda cognitive belief-systemthat transcends science.*[133] Those at the second levelusually had their horoscopes cast and sought advice andpredictions. They were much younger than those at therst level, and could benet from knowledge of the lan-guage of astrology and the resulting ability to belong

6.3 Literature and music 11

to a coherent and exclusive group. Those at the thirdlevel were highly involved and usually cast horoscopesfor themselves. Astrology provided this small minorityof astrology-believers with a "meaningful view of theiruniverse and [gave] them an understanding of their placein it.*[lower-alpha 2] This third group took astrologyseriously, possibly as a sacred canopy, whereas the othertwo groups took it playfully and irreverently.*[133]In 1953, sociologist Theodor W. Adorno conducted astudy of the astrology column of a Los Angeles news-paper as part of a project examining mass culture incapitalist society.*[134]*:326 Adorno believed that pop-ular astrology, as a device, invariably leads to state-ments that encouraged conformityand that astrologerswho go against conformity, by discouraging performanceat work etc., risk losing their jobs.*[134]*:327 Adornoconcluded that astrology was a large-scale manifestationof systematic irrationalism, where individuals are subtlyledthrough attery and vague generalisationsto be-lieve that the author of the column is addressing themdirectly.*[135] Adorno drew a parallel with the phraseopium of the people, by Karl Marx, by commenting,oc-cultism is the metaphysic of the dopes.*[134]*:329A 2005 Gallup poll and a 2009 survey by the Pew Re-search Center reported that 25% of U.S. adults believein astrology.*[136]*[137] According to data released inthe National Science Foundation's 2014 Science and En-gineering Indicators study, Fewer Americans rejectedastrology in 2012 than in recent years.*[138] The NSFstudy noted that in 2012, slightly more than half ofAmericans said that astrology was 'not at all scientic,'whereas nearly two-thirds gave this response in 2010.The comparable percentage has not been this low since1983.*[138]

6.2 India and Japan

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

20081950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Rate

s pe

r tho

usan

d

Births Deaths

Birth (in blue) and death (in red) rates of Japan since 1950, withthe sudden drop in births during hinoeuma year (1966)

In India, there is a long-established and widespread be-lief in astrology. It is commonly used for daily life, par-ticularly in matters concerning marriage and career, andmakes extensive use of electional, horary and karmic as-

trology.*[139]*[140] Indian politics have also been inu-enced by astrology.*[141] It is still considered a branchof the Vedanga.*[142]*[143] In 2001, Indian scientistsand politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to usestate money to fund research into astrology,*[144] result-ing in permission for Indian universities to oer coursesin Vedic astrology.*[145]On February 2011, the Bombay High Court rearmedastrology's standing in India when it dismissed a case thatchallenged its status as a science.*[146]In Japan, strong belief in astrology has led to dramaticchanges in the fertility rate and the number of abortionsin the years of Fire Horse. Adherents believe that womenborn in hinoeuma years are unmarriageable and bring badluck to their father or husband. In 1966, the number ofbabies born in Japan dropped by over 25% as parentstried to avoid the stigma of having a daughter born in thehinoeuma year.*[147]*[148]

6.3 Literature and music

Title page of John Lyly's astrological play, The Woman in theMoon, 1597

The fourteenth-century English poets John Gowerand Georey Chaucer both referred to astrology intheir works, including Gower's Confessio Amantis and

12 9 REFERENCES

Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales.*[149] Chaucer com-mented explicitly on astrology in his Treatise on the As-trolabe, demonstrating personal knowledge of one area,judicial astrology, with an account of how to nd the as-cendant or rising sign.*[150]In the fteenth century, references to astrology, such aswith similes, became a matter of coursein Englishliterature.*[149]In the sixteenth century, John Lyly's 1597 play, TheWoman in the Moon, is wholly motivated by astrol-ogy,*[151] while Christopher Marlowe makes astro-logical references in his plays Doctor Faustus andTamburlaine (both c. 1590),*[151] and Sir Philip Sid-ney refers to astrology at least four times in his romanceThe Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (c. 1580).*[151]Edmund Spenser uses astrology both decoratively andcausally in his poetry, revealing "...unmistakably an abid-ing interest in the art, an interest shared by a large numberof his contemporaries.*[151] George Chapman's play,Byron's Conspiracy (1608), similarly uses astrology as acausal mechanism in the drama.*[152] William Shake-speare's attitude towards astrology is unclear, with con-tradictory references in plays includingKing Lear, Antonyand Cleopatra, and Richard II.*[152] Shakespeare was fa-miliar with astrology and made use of his knowledge ofastrology in nearly every play he wrote,*[152] assuminga basic familiarity with the subject in his commercial au-dience.*[152] Outside theatre, the physician and mysticRobert Fludd practised astrology, as did the quack doc-tor Simon Forman.*[152] In Elizabethan England,Theusual feeling about astrology ... [was] that it is the mostuseful of the sciences.*[152]The most famous piece of music inuenced by astrologyis the orchestral suite The Planets. Written by the Britishcomposer GustavHolst (18741934), and rst performedin 1918, the framework of The Planets is based uponthe astrological symbolism of the planets.*[153] Each ofthe seven movements of the suite is based upon a dif-ferent planet, though the movements are not in the or-der of the planets from the Sun. The composer ColinMatthews wrote an eighth movement entitled Pluto, theRenewer, rst performed in 2000.*[154] In 1937, anotherBritish composer, Constant Lambert, wrote a ballet on as-trological themes, called Horoscope.*[155] In 1974, theNew Zealand composer Edwin Carr wrote The TwelveSigns: An Astrological Entertainment for orchestra with-out strings.*[156]

7 See also Cultural inuence of astrology Forer eect List of astrological traditions, types, and systems List of topics characterized as pseudoscience

8 Notes[1] see Heuristics in judgement and decision making

[2] Italics in original.

9 References[1] Astrology. Encyclopdia Britannica.

[2] Jerey Bennett, Megan Donohue, Nicholas Schneider,Mark Voit (2007). The cosmic perspective (4th ed.). SanFrancisco, CA: Pearson/Addison-Wesley. pp. 8284.ISBN 0-8053-9283-1.

[3] Kassell, Lauren (5 May 2010). Stars, spirits, signs: to-wards a history of astrology 11001800. Studies in His-tory and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in Historyand Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 41(2): 6769. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2010.04.001.

[4] David E. Pingree, Robert Andrew Gilbert. Astrology -Astrology in modern times. Encyclopdia Britannica.Retrieved 7 October 2012.

[5] Vishveshwara, edited by S.K. Biswas, D.C.V. Mallik,C.V. (1989). Cosmic Perspectives: Essays Dedicated tothe Memory of M.K.V. Bappu (1. publ. ed.). Cam-bridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34354-2.

[6] Peter D. Asquith, ed. (1978). Proceedings of the BiennialMeeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol. 1.Dordrecht u.a.: Reidel u.a. ISBN 978-0-917586-05-7.

Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public At-titudes and Understanding. science and engineer-ing indicators 2006. National Science Foundation.Retrieved 28 July 2012. About three-fourths ofAmericans hold at least one pseudoscientic be-lief; i.e., they believed in at least 1 of the 10 sur-vey items[29]"... " Those 10 items were extrasen-sory perception (ESP), that houses can be haunted,ghosts/that spirits of dead people can come back incertain places/situations, telepathy/communicationbetween minds without using traditional senses,clairvoyance/the power of the mind to know thepast and predict the future, astrology/that the po-sition of the stars and planets can aect people'slives, that people can communicate mentally withsomeone who has died, witches, reincarnation/therebirth of the soul in a new body after death, andchanneling/allowing aspirit-beingto temporar-ily assume control of a body.

[7] Zarka, Philippe (2011). Astronomy and astrology. Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 5(S260): 420425. doi:10.1017/S1743921311002602.

[8] Koch-Westenholz, Ulla (1995). Mesopotamian astrology:an introduction to Babylonian and Assyrian celestial div-ination. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. pp.Foreword, 11. ISBN 978-87-7289-287-0.

13

[9] Harper, Douglas. astrology. Online Etymology Dic-tionary. Retrieved 6 December 2011. Dierentiation be-tween astrology and astronomy began late 1400s and by17c. this word was limited toreading inuences of thestars and their eects on human destiny.

[10] astrology, n.. Oxford English Dictionary (Second ed.).Oxford University Press. 1989; online version Septem-ber 2011. In Old French and Middle English astronomieseems to be the earlier and general word, astrologie havingbeen subseq. introduced for the 'art' or practical applica-tion of astronomy to mundane aairs, and thus graduallylimited by 17th cent. to the reputed inuences of the stars,unknown to science. Not in Shakespeare. Check date val-ues in: |date= (help)

[11] Campion, Nicholas (2009). History of western astrology.Volume II, The medieval and modern worlds. (rst ed.).Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-8129-9.

[12] Marshack, Alexander (1991). The roots of civilization :the cognitive beginnings of man's rst art, symbol and no-tation (Rev. and expanded. ed.). Moyer Bell. ISBN 978-1-55921-041-6.

[13] Evelyn-White, Hesiod ; with an English translation byHugh G. (1977). The Homeric hymns and Homerica(Reprinted. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UniversityPress. pp. 663677. ISBN 978-0-674-99063-0. Fiftydays after the solstice, when the season of wearisome heatis come to an end, is the right time to go sailing. Thenyou will not wreck your ship, nor will the sea destroy thesailors, unless Poseidon the Earth-Shaker be set upon it,or Zeus, the king of the deathless gods

[14] Aveni, David H. Kelley, Eugene F. Milone (2005). Ex-ploring ancient skies an encyclopedic survey of archaeoas-tronomy (Online ed.). NewYork: Springer. p. 268. ISBN978-0-387-95310-6.

[15] Two texts that refer to the 'omens of Sargon' are reportedin E. F. Weidner, 'Historiches Material in der Babyonis-chen Omina-Literatur' Altorientalische Studien, ed. BrunoMeissner, (Leipzig, 1928-9), v. 231 and 236.

[16] From scroll A of the ruler Gudea of Lagash, I 17 VI13. O. Kaiser, Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments,Bd. 2, 13. Gtersloh, 19861991. Also quoted in A.Falkenstein, 'Wahrsagung in der sumerischen berliefer-ung', La divination en Msopotamie ancienne et dans lesrgions voisines. Paris, 1966.

[17] Rochberg-Halton, F. (1988). Elements of the Babylo-nian Contribution to Hellenistic Astrology. Journal ofthe American Oriental Society 108 (1): 5162. JSTOR603245.

[18] Kistemaker, Jacob, Sun, Xiaochun (1997). The Chinesesky during the Han: constellating stars and society. Leiden:Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

[19] Long, 2005. p. 173.

[20] Long, 2005. pp. 173174.

[21] Long, 2005. p. 177.

[22] Long, 2005. p. 174.

[23] Long, 2005. p. 184.

[24] Long, 2005. p. 186.

[25] Hughes, Richard (2004). Lament, Death, and Destiny.Peter Lang. p. 87.

[26] Barton, 1994. p. 24.

[27] Holden, 1996. pp. 1113.

[28] Barton, 1994. p. 20.

[29] Robbins, 1940. 'Introduction' p. xii.

[30] Campion, 2008. p. 173.

[31] Campion, 2008. p. 84.

[32] Campion, 2008. pp. 173174.

[33] Barton, 1994. p. 32.

[34] Barton, 1994. p. 3233.

[35] Campion, 2008. pp. 227228.

[36] Parker, 1983. p. 16.

[37] Juvenal, Satire 6: The Ways of Women (translated by G.G. Ramsay, 1918, retrieved 5 July 2012).

[38] Barton, 1994. p. 43.

[39] Barton, 1994. p. 63.

[40] David Pingree, Jyotistra (J. Gonda (Ed.) A History ofIndian Literature, Vol VI Fasc 4), p.81

[41] Brn, Muammad ibn Amad (1879). VIII. Thechronology of ancient nations. London, Pub. for the Ori-ental translations fund of Great Britain & Ireland by W.H. Allen and co. LCCN 01006783.

[42] Houlding, Deborah (2010). 6: Historical sources andtraditional approaches. Essays on the History of WesternAstrology. STA. pp. 27.

[43] Campion, 1982. p. 44.

[44] Campion, 1982. p. 45.

[45] Campion, 1982. p. 46.

[46] North, John David (1986). The eastern origins of theCampanus (Prime Vertical) method. Evidence from al-Brn". Horoscopes and history. Warburg Institute. pp.175176.

[47] Durling, Robert M. (January 1997). Dante's ChristianAstrology. by Richard Kay. Review. Speculum 72 (1):185187. JSTOR 2865916. Dante's interest in astrologyhas only slowly been gaining the attention it deserves. In1940 Rudolf Palgen published his pioneering eighty-pageDantes Sternglaube: Beitrge zur Erklrung des Paradiso,which concisely surveyed Dante's treatment of the planetsand of the sphere of xed stars; he demonstrated that it isgoverned by the astrological concept of thechildren ofthe planets(in each sphere the pilgrimmeets souls whose

14 9 REFERENCES

lives reected the dominant inuence of that planet) andthat in countless details the imagery of the Paradiso is de-rived from the astrological tradition. ... Like Palgen, he[Kay] argues (again, in more detail) that Dante adaptedtraditional astrological views to his own Christian ones;he nds this process intensied in the upper heavens.

[48] Woody, Kennerly M. (1977). Dante and the Doc-trine of the Great Conjunctions. Dante Studies, withthe Annual Report of the Dante Society 95: 119134.JSTOR 40166243. It can hardly be doubted, I think, thatDante was thinking in astrological terms when he madehis prophecies. [The attached footnote cites Inferno. I,lOO.; Purgatorio. xx, 13-15 and xxxiii, 41; Paradiso.xxii, 13-15 and xxvii, 142-148.]

[49] Wood, 1970. p. 5

[50] Isidore of Seville (c. 600). Etymologiae. pp. L, 82, col.170.

[51] Gower, John (1390). Confessio Amantis. pp. VII, 67084. Assembled with Astronomie / Is ek that ilke Astrolo-gie / The which in juggementz acompteth / Theect, whatevery sterre amonteth, / And hou thei causen many a won-der / To tho climatz that stonde hem under.

[52] Wood, 1970. p. 6

[53] Allen, Don Cameron (1941). Star-crossed Renaissance.Duke University Press. p. 148.

[54] Wood, 1970. pp. 811

[55] Coopland, G. W. (1952). Nicole Oresme and the As-trologers: A Study of his Livre de Divinacions. HarvardUniversity Press; Liverpool University Press.

[56] Vanderjagt, A.J. (1985). Laurens Pignon, O.P.: Confessorof Philip the Good. Venlo, The Netherlands: Jean Mielot.

[57] Veenstra, 1997. pp. 5, 32, passim

[58] Veenstra, 1997. p. 184

[59] Campion, 1982. p. 47.

[60] Harkness, Deborah E. (2007). The Jewel House. Eliza-bethan London and the Scientic Revolution. Yale Univer-sity Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-300-14316-4.

[61] Harkness, Deborah E. (2007). The Jewel House. Eliza-bethan London and the Scientic Revolution. Yale Univer-sity Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-300-14316-4.

[62] Astronomical diagrams by Thomas Hood, Mathematician(Vellum, in oaken cases). British Library (Add. MSS.71494, 71495): British Library. c. 1597.

[63] Johnston, Stephen (July 1998).The astrological instru-ments of Thomas Hood. XVII International ScienticInstrument Symposium. Soro. Retrieved 12 June 2013.

[64] Vanden Broeke, Steven (2001). Dee, Mercator, andLouvain Instrument Making: An Undescribed Astrologi-cal Disc by Gerard Mercator (1551)". Annals of Science58: 219240. doi:10.1080/00033790016703.

[65] Cummins A (2012) The Starry Rubric: Seventeenth-Century English Astrology and Magic, p. 3. France:Hadean Press

[66] Cummins A (2012) The Starry Rubric: Seventeenth-Century English Astrology and Magic, p. 4345. France:Hadean Press

[67] Porter, Roy (2001). Enlightenment: Britain and the Cre-ation of the Modern World. Penguin. pp. 151152. ISBN0-14-025028-X. he did not even trouble readers with for-mal disproofs!

[68] Campion, Nicholas (2009). History of western astrology.Volume II, The medieval and modern worlds. (rst ed.).London: Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-8129-9. At thesame time, in Switzerland, the psychologist Carl GustavJung (18751961) was developing sophisticated theoriesconcerning astrology ...

[69] Jung, C.G.; Hull, edited by Gerhard Adler, in collabora-tion with Aniela Ja; translations from the German byR.F.C. (19uu). C.G. Jung Letters: 19061950. Princeton,NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09895-1. Letter from Jung to Freud, 12 June 1911I made horo-scopic calculations in order to nd a clue to the core ofpsychological truth.Check date values in: |date= (help)

[70] Gieser, Suzanne. The Innermost Kernel, Depth Psychol-ogy and Quantum Physics. Wolfgang Pauli's Dialogue withC.G.Jung, (Springer, Berlin, 2005) p. 21 ISBN 3-540-20856-9

[71] Campion, Nicholas. "Prophecy, Cosmology and the NewAge Movement. The Extent and Nature of Contempo-rary Belief in Astrology."(Bath Spa University College,2003) via Campion, Nicholas, History of Western Astrol-ogy, (Continuum Books, London & New York, 2009) pp.248, 256, ISBN 978-1-84725-224-1

[72] The New Encyclopdia Britannica, Encyclopdia Britan-nica,' v.5, 1974, p. 916

[73] Dietrich, Thomas: 'The Origin of Culture and Civiliza-tion, Phenix & Phenix Literary Publicists, 2005, p. 305

[74] Philip P. Wiener, ed. in chief (1974). Dictionary ofthe history of ideas. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-13293-1.

[75] James R. Lewis, 2003. The Astrology Book: the Encyclo-pedia of Heavenly Inuences. Visible Ink Press. Onlineat Google Books.

[76] Hone, Margaret (1978). The Modern Text-Book of Astrol-ogy. Romford: L. N. Fowler. pp. 2189. ISBN 0-85243-357-3.

[77] Riske, Kris (2007). Llewellyn's Complete Book of Astrol-ogy. Minnesota, USA: Llewellyn Publications. pp. 56;27. ISBN 978-0-7387-1071-6.

[78] Kremer, Richard (1990). Horoscopes and History. byJ. D. North; A History of Western Astrology. by S. J.Tester. Speculum 65 (1): 206209. JSTOR 2864524.

[79] Pelletier, Robert; Cataldo, Leonard (1984). Be Your OwnAstrologer. Pan. pp. 5760.

15

[80] Fenton, Sasha (1991). Rising Signs. Aquarian Press. pp.1379.

[81] Luhrmann, Tanya (1991). Persuasions of the witch's craft:ritual magic in contemporary England. Harvard UniversityPress. pp. 147151. ISBN 0-674-66324-1.

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[150] Wood, 1970. pp.1221

[151] De Lacy, Hugh (October 1934). Astrology in the Po-etry of Edmund Spenser. The Journal of English andGermanic Philology 33 (4): 520543. JSTOR 27703949.

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[153] Campion, Nicholas.:A History of Western Astrology: Vol-ume II: The Medieval and Modern Worlds. (ContinuumBooks, 2009) pp. 244245 ISBN 978-1-84725-224-1

[154] Adams, Noah (10 September 2006). "'Pluto the Renewer'is no swan song. National Public Radio (NPR). Re-trieved 13 June 2013.

18 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

[155] Vaughan, David (2004).Frederick Ashton and His Bal-lets 1938. Ashton Archive. Retrieved 13 June 2013.

[156] The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment.Centre for New Zealand Music. Retrieved 13 June 2013.

10 Sources Barton, Tamsyn (1994). Ancient Astrology. Rout-

ledge. ISBN 0-415-11029-7.

Campion, Nicholas (1982). An Introduction to theHistory of Astrology. ISCWA.

Holden, James Herschel (2006). A History of Horo-scopic Astrology (2nd ed.). AFA. ISBN 0-86690-463-8.

Kay, Richard (1994). Dante's Christian Astrology.Middle Ages Series. University of PennsylvaniaPress.

Long, A.A. (2005). 6: Astrology: arguments proand contra. In Barnes, Jonathan; Brunschwig,J. Science and Speculation. Cambridge UniversityPress. pp. 165191.

Parker, Derek; Parker, Julia (1983). A history ofastrology. Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-97576-4.

Robbins, Frank E., ed. (1940). Ptolemy Tetrabiblos.Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library).ISBN 0-674-99479-5.

Tester, S. J. (1999). A History of Western Astrology.Boydell & Brewer.

Veenstra, J.R. (1997). Magic and Divination at theCourts of Burgundy and France: Text and Contextof Laurens Pignon'sContre les Devineurs(1411).Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10925-4.

Wedel, Theodore Otto (1920). The Medival At-titude Toward Astrology: Particularly in England.Yale University Press.

Wood, Chauncey (1970). Chaucer and the Countryof the Stars: Poetical Uses of Astrological Imagery.Princeton University Press.

11 Further reading Forer, Bertram R. (January 1949).The Fallacy of

Personal Validation: AClassroomDemonstration ofGullibility. The Journal of Abnormal and SocialPsychology 44 (1). doi:10.1037/h0059240.

Osborn, M. (2002). Time and the Astrolabe in TheCanterbury Tales. University of Oklahoma Press.

Thorndike, Lynn (1955). The True Place of As-trology in the History of Science. Isis 46 (3).doi:10.1086/348412.

12 External links Astrology at DMOZ Digital International Astrology Library at Interna-

tional Astrology Research Center

19

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses13.1 Text

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20 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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