Assessing the Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on ......Assessing the Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on Manasbal Lake in Kashmir Himalayas Irfan Rashid, Majid Farooq, Mohammad

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Volume 3, No 6, 2013

© Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.0

Research article ISSN 0976 – 4402

Received on March 2013 Published on June 2013 2036

Assessing the Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on Manasbal Lake in

Kashmir Himalayas Irfan Rashid

1, Majid Farooq

2, Mohammad Muslim

1, Shakil Ahmad Romshoo

1

1- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K, India - 190006

2- Department of Environment and Remote Sensing, Srinagar, J&K, India - 190018

[email protected]

doi: 10.6088/ijes.2013030600023

ABSTRACT

The present study was carried out to quantify various anthropogenic activities and their

impact on the environmental quality of Manasbal Lake and its catchment. The datasets used

in the study include IRS-LISS III bi-seasonal satellite data having a spatial resolution of 23.5

m, ground truth data, Digital Elevation Model (DEM). During the study, land use/ land cover

was mapped using on-screen image interpretation. A total of 12 land cover-land use classes

were delineated from the given satellite data. The land use land cover statistics reveal that

highest area is occupied by Barren Land (29.52%) followed by Agriculture (17.85%) and

Plantation (13.39%). Moreover data pertaining to limestone quarrying in the catchment of

Manasbal Lake was also analyzed and correlated with water quality. ASTER DEM with a

spatial resolution of 30 m was also used to study the elevation and slope profile of the lake

catchment. All the above parameters were incorporated into Leopold Matrix to predict the

impact of various anthropogenic activities on the Manasbal Lake. It is concluded that the

stone quarrying and subsequent land system changes observed in the catchment are the main

causes responsible for the deteriorating health of the lake by adversely influencing the

erosion and other land surface processes in its catchment.

Keywords: Land Cover, Remote Sensing, Leopold Matrix, Manasbal Lake, Digital Elevation

Model

1. Introduction

The picturesque valley of Kashmir, located in the foothills of the Himalaya, abounds in fresh

water natural lakes that have come into existence as a result of various geological changes

and also due to changes in the course of the Indus River. These lakes categorized into Glacial,

Alpine and Valley lakes based on their origin, altitude and nature of biota, provide an

excellent opportunity for studying the structure and functional process of an aquatic

ecosystem system (Kaul 1977; Kaul et al 1977; Trisal 1985; Zutshi et al 1972). However,

anthropogenic activities have resulted in heavy inflow of nutrients into these lakes from the

catchment areas (Romshoo et al 2011, Romshoo and Rashid 2012). These anthropogenic

influences not only deteriorate the water quality, but also affect the aquatic life in the lakes,

as a result of which the process of aging of these lakes is hastened (Odada et al 2004; Li et al

2007; Karakoc et al 2003 ). As a consequence, most of the lakes in the Kashmir valley are

exhibiting eutrophication (Kaul 1979; Khan 2008; Khan and Ansar 2005). It is now quite

common that the lakes of Kashmir valley are characterized by excessive growth of

macrophytic vegetation, anoxic deep water layers, and shallow marshy conditions along the

peripheral regions and have high loads of nutrients in their waters (Jeelani and Shah 2006;

Khan 2000; Koul et al 1990).

Assessing the Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on Manasbal Lake in Kashmir Himalayas

Irfan Rashid, Majid Farooq, Mohammad Muslim, Shakil Ahmad Romshoo

International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 3 No.6, 2012 2037

During recent years the rapid increase in population has resulted in establishment of new

human settlements in the catchment area of the lake. Also the vast areas of forest were

converted into agriculture and farmlands that resulted in opening up the terrestrial ecosystem,

with heavy loads of nutrients leaching into the lake from the fertile top soil of the catchment

area (Romshoo and Muslim 2011). In addition to sewage and domestic effluents from the

new and expanding human settlements the runoff from fertilized agricultural land and the

residual insecticides and pesticides from the arable lands and orchards plantations also drain

into the lake. These human activities not only deteriorate the water quality but also affected

the aquatic life in the lake, as a result of which the process of ageing of these water bodies is

hastened (Rashid and Romshoo 2012). This artificial or cultural eutrophication is exhibited

by a large number of Kashmir valley lakes (Garg and Garg 2002). It is common experience to

find that the rural lakes of Kashmir are characterized by excessive growth of macrophytic

vegetation, anoxic deep water layers, and shallow marshy conditions along the peripheral

regions and have high load of nutrients in their waters (Murtaza et al 2010; Jeelani and Shah

2006). Thus main impact of undesirable human activities is responsible for accelerated flow

of material from the terrestrial to aquatic portion of the watershed. In this context, the present

study has been undertaken to evolve conservation strategies based on present and future use

of the lake.

1.1 Study Area

The study area, Manasbal Lake, a marl lake, is located district Ganderbal in the State of

Jammu and Kashmir, India (Fig-1). The actual location of the Manasbal catchment is defined

by latitudes 34014' - 34

016' N and longitude 74

040' - 74

043' E, and has altitude position of

about 1551m a.s.l. The lake catchment covers an area of about 22 km2. According to

Bagnoulus and Meher-Homji, (1959) the climate of Kashmir falls under Sub-Mediterranean

type with four seasons based on mean temperature and precipitation. The study area receives

an average annual rainfall of about 650 mm. The topography of the study area is hilly with

flat areas at lower elevations. The highest point in catchment is north eastern part where the

land rises to an elevation of about 3107m a.s.l. The topography gently drops in west and

south west direction with lowest point being at about 1551m around Manasbal Lake. Fig-2

shows the elevation profile of Manasbal Lake catchment. Most of the area falls in the slope

ranging from 0-45 degrees but settlements and allied anthropogenic activities like agriculture,

stone quarrying is done in the slopes ranging from 15-30 degrees.

The lake is surrounded by many villages among which Kondabal is very important as far as

health and vigor of the lake is concerned. Kondabal (Kond means Kiln and bal means place)

as the name suggests is the place of kilns, quarries and mines is significant as far as the

calcium intrusion into the lake is concerned. Kondabal village is situated on Kondabal hill on

the banks of Manasbal Lake. Kondabal hill contains huge proportion of limestone and the

run-off from this hill directly pours huge quantities of calcium into the Manasbal Lake.

Kondabal is a small village having population of not more than six hundred people. The most

common occupation of the people in the Kondabal is working in the limestone quarries/ kilns

of the region. Most of the families are below poverty line as far as their socio-economic

status is concerned. Due to the hilly topography of the region the soil is unfit for agriculture

and hence less important. Manasbal Lake is stated to be the deepest lake (at 13 m depth) in

the Kashmir valley. The large growth of lotus at the periphery of the lake (blooms during July

and August) adds to the beauty of the clear waters of the lake. The climate of the study area is

characterized by warm summers and cold winters. Most of the streams are seasonal. However,

Laar Kul-a meager water channel, is perennial. It is the main stream draining the catchment




and discharges into the Manasbal Lake. The lake catchment has predominantly rural

surrounding.

Fig-1: Location of the study area

Manasbal, a marl lake, has predominantly rural surrounding. The lake harbors rich

biodiversity and is among the largest habitat for aquatic birds of the region. The lake is of

high economic importance to the area as it provides water for irrigation and domestic use to

Yangoora and Safapora towns. Currently, one of the visible problems within the lake

reservoir is eutrophication. With regard to eutrophication, it is often suspected that the

principal culprit contributing to the problem is upstream agricultural activity, limestone kilns

and stone quarrying. However, in order to verify this hypothesis, an assessment of upland

areas lying in the catchment of lake is needed.




Fig-2: Elevation profile of Manasbal Lake catchment

2. Material and methods

In order to map Land Use Land Cover (LULC), multispectral bi-seasonal satellite data (IRS

P6 LISS III) of October 2005 and May 2006 was visually interpreted using on-screen

digitization technique at 1:50,000 scale. Bi-seasonal satellite data was used so as to

discriminate deciduous and evergreen vegetation. This was followed by extensive ground

validation in order to obtain a final and accurate land use land cover map. The accuracy

estimation is considered to be one of the most important aspects to assess reliability of the

generated dataset. The quantitative approach is one such method through which the overall

classification accuracy can be assessed. It is given by

c/n)x100(

where, ‘ρ’ is Overall Classification Accuracy

‘c’ is number of correctly classified points

‘n’ is the number of points checked in the field

Ten water quality parameters were also analyzed which include pH, Secchi Depth (m), Water

Temperature (0C), Electrical Conductivity (µScm

-1), Calcium (mg/L), Dissolved Oxygen

(mg/L), ortho-phosphate Phosphorous (µgL-1

), Total Phosphorous (µgL-1

), Ammonical

Nitrogen (µgL-1

) and Nitrate Nitrogen (µgL-1

) during the month of August. Before collecting

the water samples, all the samples bottles were washed and rinsed with distilled water. Water




sampling was done in the morning hours from 10:30 to 11:00. The samples were collected in

air-tight opaque jars of 3 liter capacity. Separate samples were collected in 250 mL glass

bottles for the estimation of dissolved oxygen (DO). All the eight water quality parameters

were measured at the centre of the lake. pH, Conductivity and temperature of water were

measured on-site while as rest of the parameters were analyzed in the lab within 48 hours.

The physico-chemical parameters were analyzed as per standard methods (APHA, 1998).

Dissolved Oxygen was estimated by Winkler’s method (1888).

Another aspect of the study was the use of Leopold matrix. Leopold et al. (1971) designed a

matrix with a hundred specified actions and 88 environmental components. Each action and

its potential for impacting each environmental item could be considered. The matrix approach

is reasonably flexible and the total number of specified actions and environmental items may

increase or decrease depending on the nature and scope of the study. The magnitude of the

interaction (extensiveness or scale) is described by assigning a value ranging from 1 (for

small magnitudes) to 10 (for large magnitudes). The assignment of numerical values is based

on an evaluation of available facts and data. Similarly, the scale of importance also ranges

from 1 (very low interaction) to 10 (very important interaction). Assignment of numerical

values for importance is based on the subjective judgment of the interdisciplinary team

working on the EIA study. This is one of the attractive features of the Leopold Matrix.

Technically, the Leopold Matrix approach is a gross screening technique to identify impacts.

It is a valuable tool for explaining impacts by presenting a visual display of the impacted

items and their causes.

The main objectives of the present research were to identify the critical source areas causing

nutrient pollution and quantifying the impacts of stone quarrying resulting in calcium

intrusion into the lake. Based on this, the study aims to devise a probable solution for

reduction of nutrient contamination and silt load in the lake catchment, so as to ensure

sustainability and management of Manasbal Lake. All this was accompolished using an

integrated approach of Remote Sensing data analysis, field work and lab analysis.

3. Result and Discussion

Land use land cover and vegetation:

Using On-Screen Digitization a total of twelve Land Use Land Cover classes were delineated

(Fig-3, Table-1). The most dominant land cover type is Barren Land (29.52%) followed by

Agriculture (17.85%), Plantation (13.35%), Waterbody (7.61%) while as the least dominant

land cover type is Bare rock occupying 0.42% of the catchment area. A considerable area is

under Built Up (6.76%). The overall accuracy of the land use land cover was 94%. As we can

see from Table-1 that more than 31% area is without any vegetation comprising of Barren

Land, Bare Rock and Stone Quarrying sites, which bring in tremendous amount limestone

sediments into the lake system. The high sediment load comprising mostly of limestone

particles is responsible for the lake being categorized as marl. Plantation comprised of Salix

alba, Juglans regia, Populus nigra and Robinia pseudoacacia. Scrub was dominated by

Indogofera heterantha, Viburnum grandiflorum and Daphne mucronete. Agriculture was

dominated by Rice (Oryza sativa). Orchards were dominated by Apple (Malus pumila) and

Almond (Prunus amygdalus). Pasture was dominated by Cynodon dactylon and Trifolium sp.

Aquatic vegetation comprised of Ceratophyllum demersum, Potamogeton crispus, P.

leuscens, Potamogeton pectinatus, Azolla sp. and Salvinia sp.




Fig-3: Land Use Land Cover Map of Manasbal catchment

Table-1: Land Use Land Cover distribution of Manasbal Catchment

Class Name Area (km2) %age

Agriculture 4.01 17.85

Aquatic Vegetation 1.08 4.83

Bare Rock 0.09 0.42

Barren Land 6.62 29.52

Built Up 1.52 6.76

Orchard 1.46 6.51

Park 0.28 1.25

Pasture 1.18 5.25

Plantation 3.01 13.39

Scrub 1.17 5.23

Stone Quarry 0.31 1.39

Waterbody 1.71 7.60

Total Catchment Area 22.44 100.00

Water Quality:

As per the trophic status Manasbal lake falls under mesotrophic category (Carlson and

Simpson, 1996). pH of water is slightly basic but high calcium content (32.8 mgL-1

) has been




found in its waters mainly because the lithology of the lake catchment is dominated by

bedded limestone (Fig-4). Hence the lake is typically a marl lake (Sarah et al, 2011). The

dissolved oxygen content of 8.6 depicts that lake waters have good oxygen content enough to

sustain fish and other aquatic biodiversity therein. Higher levels of Phosphorous and Nitrogen

Content can be attributed to the direct sewage ingress into the lake from the surrounding

settlements. The results of physico-chemical analysis water quality are tabulated in Table-2.

Fig-4: Various lithologies in the catchment of Manasbal Lake

Table-2: Results of physico-chemical analysis of water

S. No. Parameter Value

1 Water Temperature(⁰C) 26

2 pH 7.4

3 Secchi depth 2.5

4 Conductivity (µScm-1

) 332

5 Dissolved Oxygen (mgL-1

) 8.6

6 Calcium (mgL-1

) 32.8

7 Nitrate (µgL-1

) 198

8 Ammonical nitrogen (µgL-1

) 106

9 Ortho-phosphate Phosphorous (µgL-1

) 46

10 Total Phosphorous (µgL-1

) 74




Impact of Stone quarrying and Kiln work on environment:

Kondabal is known for rock mines and kilns are related to the production of Gypsum.

Gypsum is produced by heating the limestone for four days continuously in the fire kiln with

the temperature above 9000C. Cold water is then added to red hot limestone which gets

pulverized into powder. The raw material for producing gypsum is obtained from hills nearby,

although stone extraction/quarrying is banned by Department of Tourism and Department of

Ecology and Environment. Presently there are almost 16 gypsum manufacturing kilns in the

area but only two out of sixteen are operational. The kilns are filled with limestone rocks and

heated for four days continuously with coal or wood, whichever is available. Almost four

quintals of fuel are consumed for four days and the gypsum thus produced in the kiln costs

about Rs 50/kg.

Quarrying and kiln work in the area has direct impact on almost all components of physical

as well as socio-economic environment like topography, air quality, water quality, soil, noise,

health, economic status, etc (Naja et al, 2010, Iwanoff, 1998, Chauhan, 2010; Reza and Singh,

2010). The effects of quarrying and kilns are varied and quite significant. Kondabal is a hilly

area on relatively steeper slope and because of quarrying slopes of surrounding hills are

destabilized. Moreover, quarrying is modifying the topography the area from hilly to plain

(Langer, 2001). Because of quarrying and kiln work, ambient air quality is getting affected

(Langer, 2001). The effects can be visualized during various phases viz; Quarrying phase,

Transportation phase, Operational phase of kilns. During quarrying there is use of blasting

material which increases SPM concentration in the air besides the release of SOx and NOx

and other obnoxious gases. Transportation also increases the SPM concentration as well as

the concentration of oxides of Sulphur and Nitrogen. Moreover, operational phase of kilns

also causes increase in the concentration of air pollutants.

Due to quarrying, scrub and other vegetation of the hills of the area is removed, hence

loosening the underlying soil and rocks resulting in small tremors or jerks (White and White,

1995; Darwish et al, 2010). Also the removal of vegetal cover can lead to habitat

fragmentation (Rashid et al 2010). These factors are also responsible for soil erosion and loss

of nutrients from the soil. Location of Kondabal is such that any activity of the people in the

area directly influences Manasbal Lake. Quarrying and kiln work in the area have direct

bearing on the water quality of Manasbal Lake. Direct effects include increased silt load into

the lake because of erosion and increased nutrient levels (Urich 2002). The indirect effects

include less light penetration (Nwanebu et al, 2011) into the lake strata which causes decrease

in primary productivity, increase in Biological Oxygen Demand and decrease of Dissolved

Oxygen. During quarrying and transportation of gypsum there is a considerable increase in

the noise levels which may prove deleterious for the biodiversity in the area including

humans (Fletcher and Busnel, 1978). Population of the Kondabal area is affected both

positively and negatively, though negative effects are substantially at large. Because of

quarrying and kiln work there is environmental degradation which has negative implications

on human health. Most of the diseases are related to respiratory tract. Men in the age group of

25-50 years (working class) are affected the most. Moreover, the only source of water is

Manasbal Lake, whose water quality is poor because of accelerated cultural eutrophication

over the years. However, the only source of income for most of the families in the area is

related to quarrying and kiln work.

The fauna recorded in the lake are the Zooplankton, Benthos and Fish. The economically

important fishes reported are Schizothorax niger, S. esocinus, Cyprinus carpio specularis, C.

carpio communis and Neomacheilus latius. Pollutants released from quarrying and kiln work

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthos

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish




affect biodiversity particularly fish species (Vermeulen and Whitten, 1999, Lameed and

Ayodele, 2010) in the Manasbal Lake. A species of fish, Ram Gurun (Bortia birdi) which

was found in abundance just a decade ago is now extinct from the lake. Leopold matrix

(Table-3) was also constructed for quantifying the actions causing the impacts versus the

respective environmental components. As is evident from Table-3, limestone excavation

causes deleterious effects on flora, water and soil. Similarly Blasting affects the quality of

soil, distribution of flora and fauna. Processing and Transportation of material has serious

implications on air quality, fauna, soil besides posing danger for spread of respiratory

diseases like sore throat, cough, sneezing, and allergic bronchitis. Deforestation or

denudation of vegetated areas has implications on water quality (Neal 2002) because it causes

accelerated flow of sediments from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystem of Manasbal Lake.

Table-3: Leopold matrix showing impacts of stone quarrying/kiln work on bio-physical

settings in Manasbal catchment

EN

VIR

ON

ME

NT

AL

CO

MP

ON

EN

T

ACTIONS CAUSING IMPACT

Excavation Blasting Processing Transportation Deforestation

Biological Flora -9

1

-4

3

-3

2

-6

1

-7

3

Fauna -5

3

-7

2

-7

3

-8

1

-7

4

Physical / Chemical Atmosphere -7

4

-5

2

-7

4

-8

4

-7

2

Water -9

9

-6

3

-7

1

-6

2

-4

2

Soil -8

2

-9

4

-5

2

-5

3

-4

3

Socio-economic Household -6

5

-5

5

-4

8

-3

8

-3

5

Communities -7

5

-3

4

-7

6

-2

9

-4

4

Economy -2

8

-2

8

-3

7

-1

5

-5

6

4. Conclusion

Various anthropogenic activities in the catchment of Manasbal have tremendous ecological

and socio-economic importance, and it aptly depicts the way people are treating the lake

ecosystems in the mountainous Himalayan region. The water quality of the wetland is

deteriorating and changes in the distribution of flora and fauna have been very significantly

affecting the trophic status of the lake. The degradation has serious implications on livelihood

of the people dependent on the service and goods provided by the lake. High sediment and

nutrient loads have a direct bearing on the distribution of flora and fauna. This has caused

extinction of a fish species (Bortia birdi) and an aquatic plant (Eurayle ferox) from the lake

waters. Land use land cover results indicate that about 31.28% of the lake catchment is




devoid of vegetation and only 23.88% is covered by vegetation which comprises of willow

plantation, scrub and pastures. Hence proper efforts of should be put in place to afforest the

barren areas with local coniferous forest species like Pinus wallichiana and so as to reduce

the silt load on the lake body. Also a proper land suitability plan should be carved out so that

damage on the Manasbal is minimised.

From the analysis and discussion of the results, it is thus concluded that the main reasons for

the deterioration of the Manasbal Lake are increase in the nutrient and silt load from the

catchment due to stone quarrying and unplanned urbanization in the vicinity of the wetland.

The damage each human activity causes on respective components of bio-physical and socio-

economic environment of Manasbal catchment have a direct bearing on the trophic status and

life of Manasbal Lake. It is suggested that an appropriate mechanism be established for

continuous monitoring of the wetland, its immediate surrounding and the catchment for land

system changes, hydrochemistry, biodiversity and lake hydrology so that a robust strategy

and action plan is developed for the conservation and restoration of this important lake in

Kashmir Himalayas.

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