S1 Supplemental Material 1 Article title: Geohistorical records of the Anthropocene in Chile Eugenia M. Gayo 1,2,3* , Virginia B. McRostie 4 , Roberto Campbell 4 , Carola Flores 1,5 , Antonio Maldonado 5,6 , Mauricio Uribe-Rodriguez 7 , Patricio I. Moreno 1,8 , Calogero M. Santoro 9 , Duncan A. Christie 1,10 , Ariel A. Muñoz 1,11 , Laura Gallardo 1,12 1 Center for Climate and Resilience Research (CR2, FONDAP 15110009), Chile 2 Laboratory for Stable Isotope Biogeochemistry, Departamento de Oceanografía, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile 3 Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES) 4 Programa de Antropología, Instituto de Sociología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile 5 Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas (CEAZA), La Serena, Chile 6 Instituto de Investigación Multidisciplinario en Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile & Departamento de Biología Marina, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile 7 Departamento de Antropología, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile 8 Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile 9 Instituto de Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile 10 Instituto de Conservación Biodiversidad y Territorio, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile 11 Institute of Geography, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaiso, Chile 12 Departamento de Geofísica, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile Corresponding author: Eugenia M. Gayo ([email protected])
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Supplemental Material 1
Article title: Geohistorical records of the Anthropocene in Chile
Eugenia M. Gayo1,2,3*
, Virginia B. McRostie4, Roberto Campbell
4, Carola Flores
1,5, Antonio
Maldonado5,6
, Mauricio Uribe-Rodriguez7, Patricio I. Moreno
1,8, Calogero M. Santoro
9, Duncan A.
Christie1,10
, Ariel A. Muñoz1,11
, Laura Gallardo1,12
1 Center for Climate and Resilience Research (CR2, FONDAP 15110009), Chile
2 Laboratory
for Stable Isotope Biogeochemistry, Departamento de Oceanografía, Universidad de
Concepción, Concepción, Chile
3 Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES)
4 Programa de Antropología, Instituto de Sociología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile,
Santiago, Chile
5 Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas (CEAZA), La Serena, Chile
6 Instituto de Investigación Multidisciplinario en Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad de La Serena,
La Serena, Chile & Departamento de Biología Marina, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo,
Chile
7 Departamento de Antropología, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Chile, Santiago,
Chile
8 Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Universidad de
Chile, Santiago, Chile
9 Instituto de Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile
10 Instituto de Conservación Biodiversidad y Territorio, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia,
Chile
11 Institute of Geography, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaiso, Chile
12 Departamento de Geofísica, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
Table S1. Geohistorical records considered here for reconstructing human-driven transformations on Chilean
ecosystems over the past 3000 years. The “Biophysical pattern” column specifies anthropogenic
transformations in environmental patterns/processes that were informed by each geohistorical record. (*) and
(**) indicate proxy data available only for northern and central Chile, respectively.
Text S1. Paleodemographic reconstructions: datasets, procedures and methodological caveats.
Figure S1. Evaluation of research/sampling biases in the accumulation of chronometric data in the
regional datasets. Legend (A) SPDs obtained from resampled datasets. (B) Absolute frequency distributions per 100-year bin
for calibrated ages from full databases.
Figure S2. Evaluation of taphonomic bias for the Northern Chile dataset. Legend (A) Absolute frequency distributions for uncorrected (red bars) and corrected (blue bars) calibrated
ages. (B) Density plots for corrected (red curve) and uncorrected (blue curve) data.
Figure S3. Evaluation of taphonomic bias for the Central Chile database. Legend (A) Absolute frequency distributions for uncorrected (red bars) and corrected (blue bars) calibrated
ages. (B) Density plots for corrected (red curve) and uncorrected (blue curve) data.
Figure S4. Calibration effects on summed probability distributions (SPDs) over the past 3,500 years.
Legend A) Age-range bar analysis. Horizontal dashed line shows the 199.8 years threshold estimated at 2-
sigma calibration. B) Slope analysis for the SHCAL13 calibration curve. Dashed horizontal lines show upper
(2.7) and lower (-0.9) normalized thresholds.
Table S2. Range and duration for radiocarbon plateaus in SHCAL13 calibration curve. (*) indicates
discontinuous flattening intervals.
Table S3. Range and duration of steepening in the SHCAL13 calibration curve. (*) indicates discontinuous
steepening intervals.
Text S2. Detection of regime shifts in air quality and fire events
Table S4. Proxy records used to generate time-series for the detection of regime shifts in air quality and fire
activity in northern and central Chile, respectively.
Table S5. Chile´s historical census data for the period 1865 AD- 1982 AD (Bravo et al., 2013; CELADE,
2005; McCaa, 1972). (*) and (**) indicate census data interpolated for northern and central Chile,
respectively.
Cited References
S3
Table S1. Geohistorical records considered here for reconstructing human-driven transformations
on Chilean ecosystems over the past 3000 years. The “Biophysical pattern” column specifies
anthropogenic transformations in environmental patterns/processes that were informed by each
geohistorical record. (*) and (**) indicate proxy data available only for northern and central Chile,
respectively.
Proxy data Type of geohistorical record Biophysical pattern
Archaeobotanical record Archeological Biotic-resources exploitation, biotic
2001; Evans, 2001; Koch et al., 2019) and/or loss of social resilience to abrupt climate changes
(Byers et al., 2018) may have contributed to this overall population crash after the 16th century.
Nevertheless, we suspect that research biases could partially explain the sharp reduction in the
accumulation of chronological entries in all regional datasets from 400 cal years BP onwards. It is
well-known that archaeologists traditionally disregard dating cultural remains from historical times
(Smith et al., 2008).
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Figure S1. Evaluation of research/sampling biases in the accumulation of chronometric data in the
regional datasets. Legend (A) SPDs obtained from resampled datasets. (B) Absolute frequency distributions per 100-year bin
for calibrated ages from full databases.
Stratigraphic incompleteness of archeological sequences and/or the expected loss of archeological
deposits over time could also exert significant influences on the temporal accumulation of
chronometric data (Peros et al., 2010; Surovell and Brantingham, 2007; Surovell et al., 2009;
Timpson et al., 2014; Williams, 2012). Because of the preferential preservation of more recent
records, the distribution of dates could adopt an exponential decay function (see Surovell et al.,
2009). The calibration process to obtain SPD of 14
C-dates is another source of uncertainty that is
brought about by changes in the slope of the calibration curve, ultimately related to fluctuations in
atmospheric radiocarbon levels (Bamforth and Grund, 2012; McFadgen et al., 1994; Reyes and
Cooke, 2011; Steele, 2010; Thorndycraft and Benito, 2006; Williams, 2012). Actually, during
periods in which 14
C varies highly (little), radiocarbon cliffs (plateaus) occur in the corresponding
section of the calibration curve, which can produce spurious peaks (troughs) in the SPD.
Several procedures, however, have been devised to overcome or minimize much of these biases,
which have opened new possibilities for reconstructing more reliable paleodemographic patterns
(Buchanan et al., 2008; Michczynski and Michczynski, 2006; Peros et al., 2010; Shennan et al.,
2013; Steele, 2010; Surovell and Brantingham, 2007; Surovell et al., 2009; Timpson et al., 2014;
Williams, 2012). Here, we followed the standard procedure introduced by Williams (2012) to
evaluate the contribution of taphonomic biases on reconstructed long-term paleodemography
dynamics. Specifically, each full database was corrected for taphonomic loss by applying a square
root non-linear model on the real frequency of calibrated ages per 250-year bin (Surovell and
Brantingham, 2007; Surovell et al., 2009; Williams, 2012).
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We restricted the evaluation of calibration effects to the SHCAL13. The NORMAL calibration
curve is exempt from wiggles with a slope of 1 for the past 50000 years (Parnell et al., 2008). The
impacts of the MARINE13 curve should be minimal due to the scarce and discontinuous
representation of marine materials in both regional datasets. To test the relationship between
radiocarbon plateaus and troughs in SPDs, we performed an age-range bar analysis at 2-sigma
calibration confidence interval (Guilderson et al., 2005; Williams, 2012), whereas the effects of
calendar age steps in the SHCAL13 curve were examined through the slope analysis discussed and
proposed by Williams (2012).
Our results indicate that taphonomic bias does not exert an important influence on reconstructed
regional-scale intensity of human activities. Distributions of corrected and uncorrected frequencies
of dates for each region through the past 3500 years are fundamentally similar (Fig. S2a-S3a).
Similarly, corrected and uncorrected frequency densities are in broad agreement (Fig. S2b-S3b).
These results suggest that long-term patterns in SPD plots reflect regional variations in
paleodemographic trends rather than changes in preservation or destruction of archaeological sites.
The age-range bar analysis for the SHCAL13 curve reveals a 199.8-year threshold (= x̄+) at 2-
sigma calibrated age range (x̄= 132.4, = 67.3). Hence, age bars that exceed this threshold represent
periods affected by radiocarbon plateaus in the calibration curve. Only five sections in the
calibration curve resulted problematic (Fig. S4a, Table S2), but most of them are discontinuous
and/or short-lived (100 years). In the northern reconstruction, neither the protracted radiocarbon
plateau at 2680-2400 cal yrs BP nor the one detected by 2200-2100 cal yrs BP produces minor
troughs that alter the general trend inferred for the intensity of human activities (Fig. S1A, Fig. 2
and Fig 3 in the main text). None of the radiocarbon plateaus detected for SHCAL13 results in
artificial flattening in the central Chile SPD curves (Fig. S1A, Fig. 3 main text). This is an expected
result as >67% for the regional dataset is composed by thermoluminescence dates.
We identified 47 transient sections (<100 years) of the SHCAL13 curve in which estimated slope
values exceed normalized upper and lower thresholds (Fig. S4b, Table S3). Overall, these
radiocarbon cliffs produce negligible spikes in SPDs from full (Fig. 2 and Fig 3, main text) and
resampled (Fig. S1A) datasets, which in turn suggests that major increasing trends in regional
curves represent genuine increments in past human activities. For instance, throughout the event of
increased paleodemographic levels detected over both regions by 500-700 cal yrs BP, brief and
low-amplitude peaks appear at about 605-545 cal yrs BP (Fig 2-3 main text).
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Figure S2. Evaluation of taphonomic bias for the Northern Chile dataset. Legend (A) Absolute frequency distributions for uncorrected (red bars) and corrected (blue bars) calibrated
ages. (B) Density plots for corrected (red curve) and uncorrected (blue curve) data.
Figure S3. Evaluation of taphonomic bias for the Central Chile database. Legend (A) Absolute frequency distributions for uncorrected (red bars) and corrected (blue bars) calibrated
ages. (B) Density plots for corrected (red curve) and uncorrected (blue curve) data.
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Figure S4. Calibration effects on summed probability distributions (SPDs) over the past 3,500 years.
Legend A) Age-range bar analysis. Horizontal dashed line shows the 199.8 years threshold estimated at 2-
sigma calibration. B) Slope analysis for the SHCAL13 calibration curve. Dashed horizontal lines show upper
(2.7) and lower (-0.9) normalized thresholds.
Table S2. Range and duration for radiocarbon plateaus in SHCAL13 calibration curve. (*) indicates
discontinuous flattening intervals
Lower range limit (Calibrated Age BP) Upper range limit (Calibrated Age BP) Duration (years)
100 215 115 *
2100 2200 100
2405 2740 335 3000 3040 40 *
3110 3220 110 *
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Table S3. Range and duration of steepening in the SHCAL13 calibration curve. (*) indicates
discontinuous steepening intervals
Lower range limit (Calibrated Age BP) Upper range limit (Calibrated Age BP) Duration (years)
15 25 10 *
70 90 20 *
110 170 60 200 230 30
270 365 95 *
400 405 5 440 445 5
490 505 15 *
545 605 60 625 630 5
650 680 30
725 730 5 790 800 10
860 870 10
915 930 15
955 960 5
1010 1025 15
1055 1070 15 1130 1135 5
1175 1215 40
1265 1270 5 1295 1305 10
1385 1390 5
1530 1535 5 1645 1660 15
1695 1705 10 *
1745 1770 25 * 1825 1850 25
1925 1930 5
1965 1970 5 1995 2005 10
2025 2030 5
2125 2130 5
2145 2180 35
2220 2245 25 2265 2270 5
2295 2310 15
2340 2360 20 2485 2490 5
2555 2560 5
2585 2640 55 2735 2755 20 *
2900 2920 20
3075 3095 20 * 3280 3305 25 *
3420 3450 30 *
3475 3500 25
Text S2. Detection of regime shifts in air quality and fire events
We generated time-series for heavy metal paleopollution and past fire activity (Table S4) by
selecting published proxy records that met the criteria described in the main text. These data were
obtained either from the principal author of the primary source, online databases (NOAA, Global
Charcoal Database, Mendeley), or supplementary materials. The time-series for paleopollution in
northern Chile aggregates sequential trace-element characterizations of stratified sedimentary
records (peat-bogs, lakes) and ice-cores from the western Andean slope (12°-20°S; Cooke et al.,
2007; 2009; 2011; 2013; Eichler et al., 2017; 2015; Uglietti et al., 2015) and Patagonia (De
Vleeschouwer et al., 2014). Because we are interested in the contribution of anthropogenic
S13
emissions to the inventory of metalloids derived from traditional metallurgical activities (Cu, Ag,
Pb, Hg), only data reported as crustal-normalized concentrations (Enrichment Factors or EFs) or
background flux-ratios were considered (Table S4). An independent time-series for air-quality
changes in the Santiago basin for the period 1852 AD – 2002 AD was constructed by gathering
influxes of spheroidal carbonaceous particles (SCPs) in four lakes located close to El Teniente
mining operation (33°S) (von Gunten et al., 2009). The time-series for past fire activity is based on
influxes of micro-charcoal particles (<120 μm) in closed lacustrine basins (Heusser, 1990; Martel-
Cea et al., 2016; Villa-Martínez et al., 2003), which collectively inform on “regional” fires
(Whitlock and Larsen, 2001) occurring along Mediterranean central Chile between 33° and 34°S.
Additionally, we aggregated the absolute frequency of fire events per 100 years inferred from the
Austrocedrus chilensis tree-ring series from the Cachapoal basin (34°S, Bustos-Schindler et al.,
2010).
To produce equally spaced data, heavy-metal pollution proxy records were matched to the
chronology of the Illimani ice-core (Eichler et al., 2017) through linear interpolation between two
adjacently measured geochemical samples. The Illimani record provides Cu EFs at 50-yr intervals
from the onset of the Pre-Columbian metallurgy (3125 cal yrs BP) to the Industrial period (2005
AD). Nevertheless, most of geochemical data could not be interpolated up to 3125 cal yrs BP due to
their limited temporal extent (Table S4). Flux-ratios and EFs were then min-max normalized (1-0),
and all of these proxy records were merged into a single time-series by averaging normalized values
for each 50-year interval. Therefore, we obtained a time-series for a paleopollution index that
describes concurrently the trajectory for anthropogenic emissions of Hg, Pb, Cu and Ag in northern
Chile from 2005 AD to 3125 cal yrs BP (Dataset 3, Supplemental Data 1). SCP and paleofire time-
series for central Chile were generated following these same procedures. However, because of the
sparse temporal-resolution of lacustrine records, data were spaced at 100-year and 5-year intervals
for paleofire and SCPs time-series, respectively (Table S4, Datasets 4-5).
We used the sequential t-test algorithm proposed by Rodionov (2004) to detect statistically
significant changes in the mean of our paleopollution and paleofire time-series. A cutoff length of 3
intervals (i.e. 150 years) and a significance p-value of 0.05 were defined to identify long-term
regime shifts in metal air pollution over the past 3125 cal yrs BP. The probability level was
maintained when analyzing long-term changes in the fire activity and SCPs pollution, but we
applied cutoff lengths of 5 (500 years) and 3 (15 years) intervals, respectively. For comparative
purposes, we also looked into regime shift in fire activity during the past 7000 cal yrs BP (cutoff
window= 1000 years, p-value= 0.05) by considering the Tagua Tagua micro-charcoal record (Fig.
5a in main text; Heusser, 1990), which represents the largest charcoal time-series available for
S14
central Chile. All regime shift analyses were implemented using the SRSD v.3.2 package for Excel
(Rodionov, 2004; 2006).
Table S4. Proxy records used to generate time-series for the detection of regime shifts in air quality
and fire activity in northern and central Chile, respectively.
A- Northern Chile: Paleopollution time-series
Record Metal Unit Temporal coverage Reference Access
Laguna Lobato Pb, Ag Enrichment factor 1995 AD - 1225 cal yrs BP Cooke et al. (2011) Provided by Colin Cooke
Karukinka peat-bog
Cu Crustal-normalized Cu/La
2005 AD - 3125 cal yrs BP De Vleeschouwer
et al. (2014) Provided by Anja Eichler
Laguna
Pirhuacocha Cu Flux ratios 2005 AD - 1375 cal yrs BP Cooke et al. (2007) Provided by Colin Cooke
Illimani ice-core Cu Enrichment factor 1975 AD - 3125 cal yrs BP Eichler et al.
(2017) Provided by Anja Eichler
Illimani ice-core Pb Enrichment factor 1975 AD - 1875 cal yrs BP Eichler et al.
(2015) NOAA paleoclimate database
Laguna Negrita Hg Flux ratios 2005 AD - 3075 cal yrs BP Cooke et al. (2013) Supplementary material in the
original article
Laguna Yanacocha core
1
Hg Flux ratios 2005 AD - 3075 cal yrs BP Cooke et al. (2009) Provided by Colin Cooke
Laguna Yanacocha core
2
Hg Flux ratios 2005 AD - 3125 cal yrs BP Cooke et al. (2009) Provided by Colin Cooke
Chungara Lake Hg Flux ratios 2005 AD – 2675 cal yrs BP Guedron et al.
(2019) data.mendely.com/datasets
Quelccaya ice-
core
Cu, Ag,
Pb Enrichment factor 1985 AD - 1225 cal yrs BP
Uglietti et al.
(2015) NOAA paleoclimate database
B- Central Chile: Paleofire time-series
Record Proxy
record Unit Temporal coverage Reference Access
Lagunas Aculeo, El Ocho,
Ensueño, Del
Inca, Negra
Spheriodal
carbon particles
Influx
(particles/ cm2/yr) 1852 AD – 2002 AD
von Gunten et al.
(2009) Provided by Lucien Von Gunten
Laguna Tagua Tagua
Charcoal Influx (mm2/cm2/yr)
1710 AD – 2400 cal yrs BP Heusser (1990) Global Charcoal Database
Laguna Aculeo Charcoal Influx (particles/cm2/yr)
1950 AD - 3500 cal yrs BP Villa-Martínez et
al. (2003) Global Charcoal Database
Laguna Chepical Charcoal Influx
(particles/cm2/yr) 1950 AD – 3000 cal yrs BP
Martel-Cea et al.
(2016) Provided by Alejandra Martel-Cea
Austrocedrus
chilensis stands Tree-rings
Absolute frequency
of fires 1950 AD – 1450 AD
Bustos-Schindler et
al. (2010) Extracted from the original article
To perform statistical correlations with heavy-metal paleopollution or fire activity,
paleodemographic time-series for the northern and central regions were resampled by estimating
median values of obtained SPDs at 50-yr and 100-yr intervals, respectively. Specifically, we
evaluated the relationship between these patterns and population levels during Pre-Columbian (425
– 3500 cal yrs BP) and historical (1575 AD – 2005 AD) times. Because the metallurgy production
in northern Chile was likely driven by economic pressures of centralized states since the Inca period
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(Armesto et al., 2010; Zori, 2019), regional population levels considered for the period 1450 AD -
2005 AD derive from a national-scale reconstruction. This reconstruction partly emerges from the
SPDs of chronometric data from central and northern regions that cover the period 1425 AD - 1825
AD. The SPDs of these calibrated data was constructed according to the procedure described in the
Text S1. The resulting time-series for northern Chile was then complemented with official census
data for the period 1865 AD - 2005 AD (Table S5) so that trends in heavy metal pollution for
historical times could be correlated with reliable estimations for population levels. The years
between censuses were linearly interpolated. The SPDs time-series for central Chile was
complemented with the interpolated census data for the year 1950 AD (Table S5). To aggregate
SPDs and census data, Pre-Columbian and historical demographic estimates were min-max
normalized, and then merged additively into an index of demographic levels. All Spearman´s
correlations analyses were performed using the ggpubr v. 0.2 for R (R-Development-Core-Team,
2016).
Table S5. Chile´s historical census data for the period 1865 AD- 1982 AD (Bravo et al., 2013;
CELADE, 2005; McCaa, 1972). (*) and (**) indicate census data interpolated for northern and
central Chile, respectively.
Year AD Northern (# inhabitants) Central (#inhabitants) National total (# inhabitants)
2012 806,438 14,224,031 15,030,469
2005 (*) 719,982 13,856,653 14,576,635
2002 682,930 13,699,205 14,382,135
1995 (*) 604,195 12,611,624 13,215,820
1992 570,452 12,145,518 12,715,970
1985 (*) 492,121 10,876,888 11,369,010
1982 458,551 10,333,190 10,791,741
1975 (*) 382,161 9,070,707 9,452,868
1970 327,597 8,168,934 8,496,531
1960 239,305 6,810,423 7,049,728
1952 182,902 5,485,753 5,668,655
1950 (**) 249,269 5,284,091 5,533,360
1940 581,105 4,275,781 4,856,886
1930 553,460 3,598,373 4,151,833
1925 (*) 534,700 3,338,617 3,873,317
1920 515,940 3,078,861 3,594,801
1907 491,066 2,540,158 3,031,224
1895 378,805 2,238,357 2,617,162
1885 142,865 2,091,136 2,497,797
1875 71,489 1,662,516 2,075,971
1865 78,895 1,681,111 1,760,006
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