Article 3

Journal of Research on Christian Education, 18: 36-55, 2009 RoutledgeCopyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC and Andrews University Taylor Urancis Group

ISSN: 1065-6219 print/193 4 -4945 online

DOI: 10.1080/10656210902751826

THE DAYTON AGENDA

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIBLICAL

LITERACY, ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT, AND

SCHOOL BEHAVIOR AMONG CHRISTIAN- AND

PUBLIC-SCHOOL STUDENTS

WILLIAM H. JEYNES

Department of Teacher Education, California State University-Long Beach, Long

Beach, California, USA

This study assessed the relationship between Bible literacy among secondary

school students and their academic achievement and school behavior. A total of

160 students who attended either Christian or public schools in the 7th to

12th grade were randomly selected for the study sample. Three measures of Bible

knowledge were combined to obtain an overall measure of Bible literacy. The

results indicate that students with the highest level of Bible literacy also had

the highest average grade point average (GPA) and the highest ranking in test

and grade results. In contrast, those with the lowest level of Bible literacy also

had the lowest average GPA and the lowest ranking in test and grade results.

This trend held for students attending both Christian schools and public schools.

Christian school students were also rated higher than public school students in

school behavior.

For the past 40 years, social scientists have demonstrated a growing

interest in examining the effects of religion on school achievement

and behavior (Coleman, Hoffer, & Kilgore, 1982; Jeynes, 2002;

Bryk, Lee, & Holland, 1993). Almost all of these studies deter-

mined that student religiosity had a positive influence on educa-

tional outcomes and that Christian (Catholic and Evangelical)

schools also influenced the academic outcomes of these students

in a positive way UJeynes, 1999, 2003a, 2003b; Sanders Herting,

2000; Shoknaii, Olson, & Youssef, 1997; Steward & Jo, 1998).

Address correspondence to William H. Jeynes, Professor, Department of Teacher

Education, California State University-Long Beach, 1250 Bellflower Boulevard, Long

Beach, CA 90840. E-mail: [email protected]

36

Biblical Literacy, Academic Achievement, and School Behavior

Of these two branches of research, educators and sociologists haveexamined the impact of religious schools more than they have thatof individual religious commitment (Jeynes, 1999, 2 003a, 2003b).However, in recent years a growing number of efforts have beenlaunched to examine the influence of religious commitment onacademic and behavioral outcomes (Cochran, 1992, 1993;Jeynes,1999, 2 003a, 2003b; Johnson, Jang, Larson, & Li, 2001; Johnson,

Jang, & Li, 2000).Within the context of religious commitment, there has

emerged an ascending interest in examining the influence of Bibleliteracy on the scholastic outcomes and behaviors of individuals,particularly adolescents. This interest in Bible literacy hasemerged, in large part, because of a move by some Americans toplace Bible courses back in the public schools (Bradley, 2005).The focus of these courses would be to teach the Bible as literatureand would be available to students who desired to deepen theirknowledge of this holy book. Efforts are now underway acrossthe country to make this study of the Bible available to students(Boston, 2006). Supporters of this initiative assert that individualswho study the Bible will be more likely to excel both academicallyand in their school behavior (Boston, 2006).

As one might imagine, there is considerable debate aboutwhether Bible literacy has these positive influences (Francis, 2000,2002). Beyond this, it is not clear whether the effects of Bible literacywould be the same in Christian and private schools. In one regard,one can argue that Bible literacy might have less of an influence onschool achievement and behavior in a Christian school as opposedto public school environment, because Christian schools alreadyprovide a myriad of the spiritual benefits that one obtains fromstudying the Bible. In another regard, one can claim that Bibleliteracy might have less of an influence in a public school as opposedto Christian school environment because public schools do not pro-vide the kind of moral scaffolding that some would deem necessaryto support the benefits of Bible study. Given that both perspectivesseem reasonable, it is wise to determine which is correct.

A study on Bible literacy is all the more important becausethere is really no consensus in the academic community aboutwhether Bible literacy is associated with positive or negative aca-demic outcomes or whether indeed there is any real relationshipat all. A large part of the reason for this is the dearth of studies that

37

have examined this relationship. Moreover, perhaps the primary

reason why social scientists have not initiated many studies to

examine the effects of Bible literacy is that after three United States

(US) Supreme Court decisions in 1962 and 1963 prayer and Bible

reading are no longer allowed in the public schools (Blanshard,

1963; Michaelsen, 1970). Given that there are fresh movements

to teach the Bible as literature in public schools, it is imperative

that academics undertake research to determine the relationship

between Bible literacy with school achievement and behavioral

outcomes (Bradley, 2005).Since the US Supreme Court removed voluntary group prayer

and Bible reading from American public schools in a series of three

decisions in 1962 and 1963, the topic of Bible literacy has become

one of the most salient debates taking place in American educational

circles (Flowers, 1994; Kliebard, 1969; Sikorski, 1993). Clearly, to the

extent that educators no longer promoted Bible literacy as a result

of those decisions, one can certainly make an argument that Bible

literacy would go down. To whatever degree Bible literacy and

voluntary prayer are designed to stimulate moral behavior, one could

also expect that a subsequent decline in moral behavior would result

from public schools that no longer tolerate these religious expressions

(Kliebard, 1969; Mann, 1849; Sikorski, 1993). It is these concerns

that have caused a large number of people to aver that the teaching

of the Bible as literature needs a place in the public schools.

Increasingly, educational historians are asserting that the US

has paid a considerable price for removing a place for the Bible

in the schools UJeynes, 2007; Kliebard, 1969; Sikorski, 1993). More-

over, these same individuals are asking whether the forced absence

of instructing students about biblical content is even constitutional

(Jeynes, 2007; Kliebard, 1969; Sikorski, 1993). To the extent that

the US Constitution guarantees freedom of religious expression,

the fact that most public schools either discourage or prohibit the

study of the Bible as literature causes some to wonder if this contra-

dicts the very essence of the first amendment to the Constitution

(Kliebard, 1969; Sikorski, 1993).The interest of social scientists in Bible literacy has become

prominent for two reasons especially. First, moral education, based

primarily on the teachings of the Bible, was a primary thrust in

American education until the early 1960s. Second, some assert that

the deterioration in juvenile behavior since the early 1960s is a result,

WV. H. Jeynes38

Biblical Literacy, Academic Achievement, and School Behavior 39

in part, of the removal of the Bible, prayer, and moral teachings fromthe public schools in the 1960s (Kliebard, 1969; Sikorski, 1993).

From the very beginnings of permanent European settlementsin North America, moral instruction has been a crucial aspect ofAmerican education. Stephen Yulish (1980, p. 80) sums this upwell, "The concept of moral education has always been a crucialunderpinning of the American notion of a virtuous republic.Throughout its development, American leaders in education havestrenuously sought to condemn mere intellectual training."

Horace Mann, the father of the nation's public schoolsasserted that Bible and religious training should be a central focusof public school education. Mann asserted:

But, it will be said that this great result, in Practical Morals, is a consumma-tion of blessedness that can never be attained without religion; and that nocommunity will ever be religious without a Religious Education. Both ofthese propositions, I regard as eternal and immutable truths. Devoid of reli-gious principles and religious affections the race can never fall so low that itmay sink still lower. (as cited in Kliebard, 1969, p. 73)

For three and a half centuries, most American educatorsviewed moral education in schools as the primary function of edu-cation. The Supreme Court's removal of vocal prayer and Biblereading from the public schools had a significant impact on theteaching of moral education in the public schools UJeynes, 2007;Sikorski, 1993). Prior to 1962, moral education was founded onthe Bible. Once Bible reading was forbidden, schools no longeremphasized moral teachings like "turning the other cheek," "youshould not covet," and "honoring your mother and father" for fearthat many would interpret these as religious and moral teachings.A great deal of this change was not a product of the desires ofschool officials, but their fear of lawsuits by anti-religious parents(Jeynes, 2007; Sikorski, 1993). It is conceivable that the suddendecline in school-sponsored moral instruction that had even agreater negative impact on student behavior than the thwartingof religious freedom by banning vocal prayers in the school (Jeynes& Martinez, 2007; Sikorski, 1993).

There is little question that over the past 45 years behavioraltrends have emerged among America's youth that are very dis-concerting. Virtually every major measure of the adolescentdelinquent behavior has surged over this period of time (US

Department of Health and Human Services, 1998; US Department

of Justice, 1999, 2006). Most of this increase occurred among the

first generation of children who were raised in a nation in which

the Bible could not be taught in the schools, 1963-1980 (US

Department of Health and Human Services, 1998; US Department

of Justice, 1999, 2006). Today, the measures of juvenile delin-

quency are similar to those in 1980 (US Department of Health

and Human Services, 1998; US Department of Justice, 1999,

2006). Not only has adolescent delinquent behavior risen signi-

ficantly since the early 1960s, but also students are assaulting tea-

chers at a disconcerting rate, causing 1,000 Teachers a month to

either be hospitalized or seek medical attention (Casserly et al.,

1985).

Why Bible Literacy Could Have an Ameliorative Effect

There are reasons to support the idea that being familiar with and

influenced by the Bible could contribute to positive academic and

behavioral outcomes. The first of these reasons, and historically

probably the most documented, deals with a religious, Bible-based,

work ethic. Research in the social sciences has indicated consis-

tently the existence of a religious work ethic (Furnham, 1987;

Gerhards, 1996; Giorgi & Marsh, 1990; Mudrack, 1992). Busto

(1996) and Ter Voert (1993) found that this religious work ethic

transcends differences in race and nationality.A second reason emerges from the results of some studies that

indicate that religious people are more likely to have an internal

locus of control, which is consistent with the many biblical exhorta-

tions to have courage and stand firm (Jackson & Coursey, 1988;

Shrauger & Silverman, 1971). Educational researchers have found

a rather consistent relationship between possessing an internal

locus of control and performing well in school (Garner & Cole,

1986;Johnson, 1992).A third reason to conclude there might be a relationship

between Bible literacy and educational and behavioral outcomes

emerges from the tendency for the Bible to teach students to

abstain from behaviors that are often regarded as undisciplined

and harmful to academic achievement. A number of studies indi-

cate that religious students and religiously oriented committed

teens are less likely to become involved in drug and alcohol abuse

W. H. Jeynes40


(Bahr, Hawks, & Wang, 1993; Brownfield & Sorenson, 1991;Jeynes, 2005; Nylander, Tung, & Xu, 1996). Other studies demon-strate that religiously inclined teens are less likely to engage insexual behavior or become pregnant while they are still teenagers(Beck, Cole, & Hammond, 1991; Holman & Harding, 1996; Miller& Olson, 1988).

Research Questions

In spite of the fact that social scientists have undertaken studies toexamine the influence of religious schools and religious commit-ment specifically, there has been almost no recent research thatexamines the relationship between Bible literacy and both aca-demic and behavioral outcomes among students. Moreover, therehas been even less research that focuses on the differing effects ofBible literacy in Christian and public schools. With these facts inmind, this study then addressed three research questions. First, towhat degree were students of high overall Bible literacy morelikely to achieve at high levels academically and behave well inschool? Second, to what degree were students of high specific mea-sures of Bible literacy more likely to achieve at high levels acade-mically and behave well in school? Third, to what degree did thefindings differ according to whether students attended a Christianor public school?

Methods

Analytical Approach and Data Collection

In order to assess the influence of Bible literacy on the achieve-ment and behavioral patterns of secondary school students, asurvey was distributed to individuals who attended Christian orpublic schools as seventh to twelfth grade students in schoolslocated in the Los Angeles, CA, and Chicago, IL, metropolitanareas. Parents were informed of the survey and their approvalwas obtained. Initially, 220 survey instruments were distributedand returned from these students. A total of 110 surveys were dis-tributed to the public school students (55 from two Los Angelesarea schools and 55 from two Chicago area schools). One hundredand ten surveys were then distributed from two Los Angeles area

private schools and two Chicago area private schools (55 from two

Los Angeles area schools and 55 from two Chicago area schools).

For analysis, a sample of 160 students was randomly selected from

the 220 completed survey instruments. Eighty students were from

Christian schools and eighty were from public schools. The num-

bers of students by grade levels were 38 seventh graders, 36 eighth

graders, 37 ninth graders, 36 tenth graders, 36 eleventh graders,

and 37 twelfth graders.The questionnaire collected information about the student's

race, gender, and grade-level and included questions relevant to

the variables under study. Students were asked information about

their grade point average (GPA) from the previous year, how they

ranked in their grades and tests versus their fellow students, and

how their teachers rated their behavior versus other students.

Teachers helped the students fill out the survey and were espe-

cially helpful for the GPA question. Bible literacy was determined

by combining: 1) their score (0-100) on a ten question Bible quiz;

2) the students' assessments of their ability to name the 66 books

of the Bible in order and; 3) their self-rated percentile of Bible

knowledge compared to most students their age. The content of

the Bible quiz had three different levels of difficulty, one for

seventh and eighth grade students, a second for ninth and tenth

grade students, and a third for eleventh and twelfth grade

students. Examples of questions on the quiz included, "What bib-

lical hero fought and defeated Goliath?" and "Who successfully

led Israel into the Promised Land?" The split half reliability of

this test was .83.

Defining of Variables and Statistical Methods

Logistic regression using a general linear model (GLM) analysis

was first undertaken to determine if there was relationship was

between Bible literacy and the academic and behavioral out-

comes. In this logistic regression analysis, students were defined

as having some degree of Bible literacy (90 points or higher in

Bible literacy) or having little or no Bible literacy (89 points or

lower in Bible literacy). Once this was done students were then

divided into three groups of relative Bible Literacy: High (120

total points and higher), medium (60-119 points), and low (59

points and lower). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was then used

W. H. Jeynes42


to determine whether there were any differences among the threegroups of students in their grade point average (GPA), how theyrank in their grades and tests versus their fellow students, andhow their teachers rate their behavior versus other students.ANOVA using the Kruskal-Wallace test was used when ordinaldata was involved. The same set of analyses was done to comparethe effects of Bible literacy among students attending Christianand public schools.

The study then addressed three research questions. First, towhat degree were students of high overall Bible literacy (a combi-nation of scores on all three measures of Bible literacy) more likelyto achieve at high levels academically and behave well in school?Second, to what degree were students of high specific measures ofBible literacy more likely to achieve at high levels academicallyand behave well in school? These specific measures of Bibleliteracy included: 1) their score (0-100) on a ten question Biblequiz; 2) the students' assessments of their ability to name the 66books of the Bible in order; 3) their self-rated percentile of Bibleknowledge compared to most students their age. In addition, thisstudy wanted to examine specific measures #2 and #3 combinedas a measure of "general Bible knowledge," because the combinedmeasure would likely be more accurate than one Bible test. Third,to what degree did the findings differ by whether the studentattended a Christian or public school?

Results

The results indicated that there is a strong relationship betweenboth the overall and specific measures of Bible literacy and theeducational and behavioral outcomes of secondary students.Logistic regression analysis indicated that an increase of 10 pointsin Bible literacy was associated with a .065 increase in GPA(p <.01).

Overall Bible Literacy

The first research questions investigated the relationship betweenoverall Bible literacy and both academic achievement and schoolbehavior. The results (Table 1) indicate that of the three groupsof students, those with the highest level of Bible literacy also had

43

TABLE I Mean Academic Results and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Summary for Overall Bible Literacy (n = 160)

Grade point Test & Grade School

Academic Results average (GPA) Ranking (0) Behavior (%)

High Bible literacy group 3.31'* 72.7* 82.5

Medium Bible literacy group 3.09* 66.4* 81.4

Low Bible literacy group 2.91" 56.7* 80.0

ANOVA Summary

High Bible literacy group versus medium Bible literacy group:

GPA, p< .01, Test & Grade Ranking, p< .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

Medium Bible literacy group versus low Bible literacy group:


High Bible literacy group versus low Bible literacy group:

GPA p < .01, Test & Grade Ranking, p< .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

"*p<.05; **p<.01 (Significant effects are for comparison with the other two groups

combined).

the highest average GPA (3.31), (EF(2, 157) = 5.82, p < .01) and the

highest ranking in test and grade results (72.7 percentile), (F(2,

157) = 4.37, p < .05). Although these students had the best ratings

of school behavior (83.5 percentile) it was not higher than the other

groups to a statistically significant degree. In contrast, those with

the lowest level of Bible literacy also had the lowest average

GPA (2.91), (,F(2, 157) = 4.55, p < .05) and the lowest ranking in test

and grade results (56.7 percentile), (.-(2, 137) = 4.40, p < .05). The

group that was medium in Bible literacy had the following results:

GPA (3.09), ranking in test and grades (66.4 percentile), and 80.0

percentile in school behavior. The overall sample of students

had the following means: GPA (3.10), ranking in test and grades

(65.2 percentile), and 81.7 percentile in school behavior.

"General Knowledge" of Bible Literacy

The second research question was concerned with the relationship

of a general knowledge of Bible literacy to academic achievement

and school behavior. When one examines the relationship

between general knowledge Bible Literacy (measures #2 and #3

described earlier) and academic and behavioral student outcomes,

the data showed a similar pattern with somewhat larger numerical

W.. H. Jeynes44


TABLE 2 Mean Academic Results and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)Summary for "general Knowledge" Bible Literacy (n = 160)

Mean Academic Grade point Test & Grade SchoolResults average (GPA) Ranking (%) Behavior (%)

High Bible literacy group 3.39** 73.4* 83.3Medium Bible literacy group 3.07* 65.9* 80.6Low Bible literacy group 2.87* 56.5* 79.8

ANOVA Summary

High Bible literacy group versus medium Bible literacy group:GPA, p< .01, Test & Grade Ranking, p< .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

Medium Bible literacy group versus low Bible literacy group:GPA, p < .01, Test & Grade Ranking, p < .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

High Bible literacy group versus low Bible literacy group:GPA p < .01, Test & Grade Ranking, p< .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

*p<.05; **p<.0! (Significant effects are for comparison with the other two groupscombined).

differences between the three Bible literacy groups than for theoverall measures of Bible literacy measure. The results (Table 2)indicate that of the three groups of students, those with the highestlevel of Bible literacy also had the highest average GPA (3.39),(/7(2, 157) = 5.77, p < .01) and the highest ranking in test and graderesults (73.4 percentile), (.F(2, 157)=4.33, p<.05). In contrast,those with the lowest level of Bible literacy also had the lowestaverage GPA (2.87), (,F(2, 157)= 4.19, p< .05), the lowest rankingin test and grade results (56.5 percentile), (1F(2, 157)=4.07,p < .05). The group that was medium in Bible literacy had the fol-lowing results: GPA (3.07), 65.9 percentile ranking in test andgrades, and 80.6 percentile ranking in school behavior. No statisti-cally significant results emerged for school behavior.

Comparison Between Christian- and Public-School Students

The third research question asked if findings differed according towhether students attended a Christian or public school. The resultsamong Christian- and public-school students separately indicatetwo general trends. First, high rates of Bible literacy amongChristian school students, numerically speaking, were associated

45

TABLE 3 Mean Academic Results and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Summary for Christian-School Students (n = 80)

Mean Academic Grade point Test & Grade School

Results average (GPA) Ranking (%) Behavior (%)

High Bible literacy group 3.52- 77.1* 84.4

Medium Bible literacy group 3.25** 70.4* 82.9

Low Bible literacy group 2.96** 60.6* 81.2

ANOVA Summary

High Bible literacy group versus medium Bible literacy group:

GPA, p < .01, Test & Grade Ranking, p< .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

Medium Bible literacy group versus low Bible literacy group:


High Bible literacy group versus low Bible literacy group:

GPA p< .01, Test & Grade Ranking, p< .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

*p<.05; **p<.01 (Significant effects are for comparison with the other two groups

combined).

with a greater advantage over their middle- and lower-level student

counterparts than was so among public school students (Table 3).

Second, medium rates of Bible literacy among these students,

numerically speaking, were associated with a greater advantage

over their lower-level student counterparts than was so among

public school students. Third, Christian school students had higher

mean averages than their public school counterparts in all the aca-

demic and behavioral measures included in this study. The results

indicate that of the three groups of Christian school students, those

with the highest level of Bible literacy also had the highest average

GPA (3.52), (P(2, 157) = 5.99, p< .01) and the highest ranking in

test and grade results (77.1 percentile), (/A(2, 157) = 4.47, p < .05)

of the three groups. Nevertheless, although these students had

the best ratings of school behavior (84.4 percentile) it was not

higher than the other groups to a statistically significant degree.

Those with the lowest level of Bible literacy also had the lowest

average GPA (2.96), (P(2, 157) = 5.57, p < .01) and the lowest rank-

ing in test and grade results (60.6 percentile), (F(2, 157) =4.30,

p < .05). The group that was medium in Bible literacy had the

following results: GPA (3.25), ranking in test and grades (70.4

percentile), and 81.2 percentile in school behavior.

W.. H. Jey nes46


TABLE 4 Mean Academic Results and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)Summary for Public-School Students (n = 80)

Mean Academic Grade point Test & Grade SchoolResults average (GPA) Ranking (%) Behavior (%)

High Bible literacy group 3.11* 68.3* 80.6Medium Bible literacy group 2.93 62.5* 79.9Low Bible literacy group 2.86* 52.8* 78.3

ANOVA Summary

High Bible literacy group versus medium Bible literacy group:GPA, p< .05, Test & Grade Ranking, p< .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

Medium Bible literacy group versus low Bible literacy group:GPA, p < .05, Test & Grade Ranking, p < .05, and School Behavior, n.s.

High Bible literacy group versus low Bible literacy group:GPA p < .05, Test & Grade Ranking, p < .01, and School Behavior, n.s.

*p < .05 (Significant effects are for comparison with the other two groups combined).

Among public school (Table 4) the results demonstrate that ofthe three groups of these students, those with the highest level ofBible literacy maintained the highest average GPA (3.11), (F(2,157) = 4.30, p < .05) and the highest ranking in test and grade results(68.3 percentile), (P(2, 157) = 4.25, p < .05) of the three groups. Thosewith the lowest level of Bible literacy also numerically had the lowestaverage GPA (2.86, (f(2, 157) = 5.49, p< .01). This group did havethe lowest ranking average in test and grade results (52.8 percentile),(f'(2, 157) = 4.38, p<.05). The group that was medium in Bibleliteracy had the following results: GPA (2.93), ranking in test andgrades 62.5 percentile, and 79.9 percentile in school behavior. Thosewith a medium degree of Bible literacy were not different from theother two groups to a statistically significant degree. There wereno statistically significant different in school behavior among thethree groups.

Discussion

The results suggest that student Bible literacy is associated withhigher levels of achievement and better school behavior. Conver-sely, lower levels of Bible literacy are associated with lower levelsof achievement and poorer school behavior. Not only were the

47

differences generally statistically significant, but also they were

fairly large. For example, the average GPA for the high Bible lit-

eracy group was .40 GPA units higher than for the low Bible lit-

eracy group. Among Christian school students the difference was

.56 GPA units. For the overall measure of Bible literacy, for all

three outcome variables (GPA, Test & Grade Ranking, and Beha-

vior) numerically the high level Bible literacy groups averaged the

highest in all three categories, the medium level Bible literacy

group was second highest in all three of these categories, and the

low level Bible literacy group was the lowest in all three of these

categories. One should note, however, that some of these differ-

ences were not statistically significant, particularly for behavior.

The results were stronger for the general knowledge measures

of Bible rather the overall measures of Bible literacy. This likely

results from the fact that the measures of the general knowledge

type of Bible literacy were broader and covered a broader time

span than the more narrowly defined Bible quiz. It also appears

that Bible literacy was more strongly associated with educational

outcomes than for behavioral outcomes. This result might have

emerged because Bible literacy is more of an intellectual facet of

religious expression than a behavioral one. Possibly, behavioral

aspects of religious commitment such as prayer and church atten-

dance might influence behavior more than intellectual prowess

and more mental aspects of religious expression such as Bible

knowledge could influence one's thought processes especially.

However, this is simply a hypothesis and that further research

should test its veracity.One should note that no statistically significant effects

emerged for the relationship between Bible literacy and student

behavioral measures. There were numerical differences in the

behavioral outcomes and they were in precisely the same direction

that some social scientists might theorize. That is, those students

high in Bible literacy had the best behavioral outcomes followed

by those students medium in Bible literacy, and trailed by those

lowest in Bible literacy. This trend held for all four analyses under-

taken in this study. Nevertheless, none of these results were statis-

tically significant for behavioral measures. Consequently, from the

results of this analysis it appears that the association between Bible

literacy and the dependent variables is greater for the academic

variables than for the behavioral ones.

W.. H. Jeynes48


Reasons for the Relationship Between Bible Literacyand Academic Outcomes

To the extent that a cause and effect relationship likely existsbetween Bible literacy on the one hand and behavior and aca-demic outcomes on the other, one can suggest a number of reasonswhy this relationship exists. The first of these reasons, and histori-cally probably the most acknowledged, deals with a religious workethic. For centuries many religious and less religious peoplebelieved that reading, studying, and applying the Bible encouragesa person to maintain a certain work ethic that could influence theiracademic life. Although, this work ethic is commonly referred to asthe "Protestant work ethic," recent research indicates that thiswork ethic may extend beyond the Protestant sphere to other reli-gious groups as well. Mentzer (1988), for example, has found thatCatholics in America possess a strong work ethic. Research in thesocial sciences has indicated consistently the existence of a reli-gious work ethic (Furnham, 1987; Gerhards, 1996; Giorgi &Marsh, 1990; Mudrack, 1992). Busto (1996) and Ter Voert(1993) found that this religious work ethic transcends differencesin race and nationality. Giorgi and Marsh's (1990) research sug-gests that a religious work ethic can become strong enough toencompass an entire culture's practices. Although there are somestudies such as that undertaken by Chusmir and Koberg (1988)that suggest that the relationship between religious commitmentand a work ethic is assumed more than real, most studies havefound a consistent relationship between the two.

A second reason to believe there might be a relationshipbetween Bible literacy and school outcomes stems from the factthat the Bible encourages people to abstain from behaviors thatare often regarded as undisciplined and deleterious to academicachievement. A number of studies demonstrate that highly reli-gious adolescents are less likely to become involved in drug andalcohol abuse (Bahr et al., 1993; Brownfield & Sorenson, 1991;Nylander et al., 1996). Other studies indicate that religiously com-mitted teens are less likely to engage in sexual behavior or becomepregnant while they are still adolescents (Beck et al., 1991; Holman& Harding, 1996; Miller & Olson, 1988).

The third reason is that reading, studying, and applying theBible could make one more intellectually sophisticated, in much

49

the same way that reading Shakespeare or the "great books" would

produce the same effect (Hutchins & Adler, 1963). Given that the

studying the Bible requires a certain degree of reading ability, it

may be that engaging in this discipline enhances one's ability to

examine other challenging passages of literature and other

academic material. It may well be that this relationship is less

likely than the other two to produce changes in behavior, it could

conceivably help explain why in the overall body of literature,

Bible literacy has a stronger relationship with academic achieve-

ment than it does with behavioral outcomes.A fourth reason for this relationship may be that a high degree

of Bible literacy simply reflects a higher degree of educational

knowledge overall and therefore it would only make sense that

Bible literacy would be associated with superior academic out-

comes. This study does not resolve the issue of whether increased

Bible literacy actually causes higher academic outcomes. Rather,

the purpose of this article has been to indicate if there is a relation-

ship. Given that there is a consistent relationship, further study

appears warranted.

Reasons for Different Levels of Association Between Bible Literacyand the Dependent Variables

The reason why Bible literacy had a stronger association with aca-

demic outcomes than it did with behavioral outcomes may be

rather intuitive. Bible literacy, after all, is the variable that is being

measured and not commitment to, faith in, or desire to apply the

Bible. It may also reflect the difficulty humans have in applying

the Bible to their lives.The results indicate that Bible literacy is a goal that schools

may be wise to encourage. It is associated with positive academic

outcomes. One should also note the fact that students from the

low Bible literacy group had mean achievement and behavioral

measures that were clearly lower than the overall mean for the

students.

Limitations of the Study

One should note that this study was undertaken at two schools in

two major metropolitan areas. Researchers will need to conduct

W. H. Jeynes50


further research in other areas of the country to determine theextent to which one can generalize the results of this study to otherenvironments. One should also note that this study addresses levelsof Bible literacy already in place as opposed to a program designedto augment levels of Bible literacy. Therefore, the results of thisstudy cannot suggest what the results of a Bible literacy programmight be.

In addition, one should note that this study is a cross sectionalstudy and not a longitudinal one. Therefore, although the results ofthis study may suggest likely causal relationships one cannot cometo conclusions regarding the direction of causality. It is possible, forexample, that students who already excel in school are more likelyto be interested in reading the Bible. It is also conceivable that stu-dents who are more cerebral or more likely to cogitate aboutreligious and philosophical issues such as the purpose of life, the"first cause," and the spiritual nature of humanity.

However, having acknowledged the limitations referred topreviously, it is also vital to realize that it is difficult to conductlongitudinal studies until a certain number of public schools, inparticular, offer courses on the Bible as literature. Hence, a majorcontribution of this study is that the results indicate that socialscientists need to engage in more research to obtain a greaterunderstanding of the causal relationships that this study suggestsexist, but have not proven. If the strong associations that emergedin this study had not appeared, these results would not necessarilylead one to the conclusion that considerably more research isneeded in this area. However, the relationships are substantialenough to lead one to conclude that much work is required in thisrelatively new area of study.

Conclusion

The results suggest that researchers ought to further examine theeffects of Bible literacy to see if it is something that schools shouldencourage. It is associated with positive academic outcomes.Equally noteworthy is the fact that students from the low Bibleliteracy group had mean achievement and behavioral measuresthat were well below the overall mean for the school.

The findings of this study suggest that the attempt to bringBible courses into the public schools may be a worthy endeavor.

If these courses can substantially increase the Bible literacy of pub-

lic school students then increased academic outcomes and

improved student behavior could possibly result. Although this

study did not seek to determine, but only suggests, the direction

of causality specifically, many theories have been propounded

about the effects of religious expression has on academic achieve-

ment and student behavior. These theories include: 1) the presence

of a religious "work ethic" (Gerhards, 1996;Jeynes, 2003a, 2003b),

2) the fact that religious people are more likely to have an internal

locus of control (Jackson & Coursey, 1988), and 3) that Christians

are less likely to engage in behaviors, such as drug and alcohol

abuse, that has a deleterious effect on academic and behavioral

outcomes (Fabbro, Muzor, Bellen, Calcione, & Bava, 1999;Jeynes,2006).

Nevertheless, until direct causality can be shown, one should

be careful not to make assertions that indicate that if students know

more about the Bible, their achievement will rise. Addition studies

are necessary that involve larger sample sizes or include the use of

a Bible literacy "treatment" group compared with a control group.

In addition, this particular analysis involves a moderately sized

sample from two major geographical areas. Although this study

can offer some degree of insight into what the relationship

between Bible literacy and various outcomes might be, conducting

a meta-analysis would be a logical next step because it would give

a sense of whether the associations apply to the research literature

at large.Further research should examine whether Bible literacy can

enhance the achievement and behavior of students in school.

Meta-analyses and longitudinal studies are likely the types of stu-

dies that can best provide further insight into the relationship

between Bible literacy and academic and behavioral outcomes.

Most recent studies of the influence of Bible literacy have been

particularly interested in its influence on student behavior, particu-

larly given the moral qualities inherent in the Bible (Francis, 2000,

2002). In addition, most recent studies that have examined the

effects of Bible literacy have either been undertaken in Europe

or have been in the form of doctoral dissertations. Given the

importance of the ongoing debate on the effects of Bible literacy,

it is vital that social scientists examine this issue with a new level

of vigor, particularly as it relates to academic achievement.

W,Y. H. Jeynes52


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William H. Jeynes is Professor in the Department of TeacherEducation at California State University at Long Beach, Californiaand is a Non-Resident Scholar at Baylor University, Waco, Texas.He has an earned doctorate from the University of Chicago and amaster's degree from Harvard University. He is the author ofmultiple articles and books.

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TITLE: The relationship between Biblical literacy, academicachievement, and school behavior among Christian- andpublic-school students

SOURCE: J Res Christ Educ 18 no1 Ja/Ap 2009

The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and itis reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article inviolation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher:http://www.andrews.edu/

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