Armour in Byzantium in the early years of the Varangian Guard, with special reference to limb defenses Peter Beatson - NVG Miklagard 1. Introduction Just before the time of the beginning of the Varangian Guard [ 1 ] there were several military manuals written in Byzantium [ 2 ]. Some of them list the pieces of armour worn by the different classes of infantry and cavalry soldiers. From these sources [ 3 ] it is clear that arm and leg armour was not worn by infantry soldiers at all. 2. Descriptions in the military manuals The hoplitai (‘heavy’ infantry) who formed the bulk of the foot soldiers were deployed en masse in pike blocks. Essentially a ‘mobile fortress’ for the offensive cavalry arm to sally from and retire to, they would engage in close combat only as a last resort. Relying mainly on their large shields and a forest of points for protection, they wore a coat (kabadion) padded with raw silk or cotton. In the first half of the 10th c. the sleeves of this coat extended to the wrist, providing some protection for the lower arm. Later, the sleeves were shortened toward elbow length. In both cases the sleeves were slit and buttoned so they could be folded back, presumably to prevent overheating on the march. They did not even have metal helmets - only a thick felt cap (kamelaukion) worn under a turban (phakiolion). The infantry wore boots, which could be supple and thigh-length, or thick (“doubled”) and knee-length, providing some leg protection. The kaballarioi or ordinary cavalry wore helmets (kassidia) and a short klibanion (lamellar corslet) or lorikon (mail shirt), legs were unprotected except again by boots, and speculatively by padded hose (toubia) [4 ]. Mounted archers also had belted kabadia, padded coats with long and full skirts [5 ] screening their legs (and the flanks of their horse), probably as they were not able to use their shield as cover from missiles while using the bow. Around 950 a superheavy cavalry unit was formed - the klibanophori or kataphraktoi. Their entire body, and their horses as well were armoured. Over their lamellar klibanion, which had elbow-length sleeves (manikia), they wore an epilorikon,which was a padded surcoat. Their iron helmets (kassidas sideras) had doubled or tripled zabai (‘screens’, of
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Armour in Byzantium in the early years of the Varangian
Guard, with special reference to limb defenses
Peter Beatson - NVG Miklagard
1. Introduction
Just before the time of the beginning of the Varangian Guard [1]
there were several military manuals written in Byzantium [2].
Some of them list the pieces of armour worn by the different
classes of infantry and cavalry soldiers. From these sources [3] it is
clear that arm and leg armour was not worn by infantry soldiers at
all.
2. Descriptions in the military manuals
The hoplitai (‘heavy’ infantry) who formed the bulk of the foot soldiers were deployed en masse in pike blocks. Essentially
a ‘mobile fortress’ for the offensive cavalry arm to sally from and retire to, they would engage in close combat only as a
last resort. Relying mainly on their large shields and a forest of points for protection, they wore a coat (kabadion) padded
with raw silk or cotton. In the first half of the 10th c. the sleeves of this coat extended to the wrist, providing some
protection for the lower arm. Later, the sleeves were shortened toward elbow length. In both cases the sleeves were slit and
buttoned so they could be folded back, presumably to prevent overheating on the march. They did not even have metal
helmets - only a thick felt cap (kamelaukion) worn under a turban (phakiolion). The infantry wore boots, which could be
supple and thigh-length, or thick (“doubled”) and knee-length, providing some leg protection.
The kaballarioi or ordinary cavalry wore helmets (kassidia) and a short klibanion (lamellar corslet) or lorikon (mail shirt),
legs were unprotected except again by boots, and speculatively by padded hose (toubia) [4]. Mounted archers also had
belted kabadia, padded coats with long and full skirts [5] screening their legs (and the flanks of their horse), probably as
they were not able to use their shield as cover from missiles while using the bow.
Around 950 a superheavy cavalry unit was formed - the klibanophori or kataphraktoi. Their entire body, and their horses as
well were armoured. Over their lamellar klibanion, which had elbow-length sleeves (manikia), they wore
an epilorikon,which was a padded surcoat. Their iron helmets (kassidas sideras) had doubled or tripled zabai (‘screens’, of
mail?) covering the whole face except the eyes. Both lower arms and thighs were protected by thickly padded silk or cotton guards, called manikelia [6] for the arms, and kremasmata for the legs, but reinforced by zabai, here possibly meaning
panels of mail [7] or strips/plates of leather or horn (or possibly metal). On the lower leg greaves (chalkotoubai) were worn
- their construction is not described and the term is a transference of an ancient one, originally referring to the solid bronze
ones worn by classical Greek hoplites.
3. Armour of the Emperor’s Varangians
The Varangians were an infantry unit, though of course an elite one. As they are not mentioned in the Byzantine manuals,
we can only guess that they were provided with somewhat better armour than the ordinary infantry. There is some later
evidence that they were a mounted infantry unit like English huscarls - that is, they rode to battle but fought on foot, as at
Dyrrhachion in 1081 [8]. This might allow them to have armour as heavy as the normal cavalryman - i.e. an iron helmet
and mail coat [9] or lamellar corslet. According to Anna Komnena [10], fatigue from their rapid advance and weight of
their armour contributed to their defeat by Robert Guiscard’s forces at Dyrrhachion.
4. Splinted armour and the Varangians
There are no archaeological remains of any arm and leg armours from Byzantium itself. Despite this, many popular works
present splinted limb armour as ‘typically Byzantine’, but in reality there is only a little evidence from art of the period to
suggest that splinted limb defenses could have been in use in the Balkans-Asia Minor region during the middle period of
the Empire (see below).
Given this lack of information, what then is behind the popular and ingrained depiction [11] of Varangian guardsmen
wearing splints on their arms and legs?
Several burials of fully equipped warriors have been excavated in Sweden, at Vendel and Valsgärde. One mound
(Valsgärde, grave 8) included splint-and-mail armour for one arm and both legs (see Catalogue, no. 2).
Authors and illustrators inspired by mentions of limb armour in the Byzantine military manuals (which, as we have already
seen, actually bear no relevance to infantry equipment) seem to have seized on this Scandinavian find to kit out their vision
of the “Viking” troops of the Empire’s best known battalion. Unfortunately the Valsgärde panoply dates to 635-650, long
before the Viking age, thus it can have no connection to the Varangian Guard.
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NOTES [1] The year of the formal inauguration of the ‘Imperial Varangians’ guard unit is debatable, the mainstream position is 988 (eg. Franklin & Cutler)
but anyway it is likely to be within a couple of decades either side of 1000. PB (back)
[2] I acknowledge of course that the label ‘Byzantine Empire’ is a neologism, and its inhabitants justifiably called themselvesRhomaioi, ‘Romans’,
not ‘Byzantines’. With due respect to modern scholars who prefer to use more accurate terms like Rhomania, or ‘the continuing Eastern Roman
Empire’, I have used the more generally familiar ‘Byzantium’, which thanks to their efforts is now largely devoid of the negative associations it
[17] A disputed set of gold tableware discovered in modern-day Romania, and displaying features of Sassanian Persian, Byzantine and Central
Asian art - different authorities have assigned it to the Avars, Bulgarians, Khazars or Hungarians, with dates ranging from the 6th to the end of the
10th century. Held - Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria). (back)
[18] The Scythians probably invented splint armour, which is well-attested both in art of the period and in the archaeological record. PB. (back)
[19] Currently scholarly consensus holds that the ms. was produced in southern Italy (Palermo?), and should be dated 1150-75 (Anderson,
1997). Held - Biblioteca Nacionale, Madrid (Vitr. 26-2). (back)
[20] Heath, p.11. (back)
[21] The Harbaville triptych is held in the Louvre, Paris (inv. no. OA 3247: Kalavrezou 1997, cat. no. 80). The series’ prototype is held in the
Palazzo Venezia (Venice), dated c.950. A third triptych of intermediate date is kept at the Vatican (Museo Sancta della Biblioteca Apostolia: inv.
no. 2441: Kalavrezou 1997, cat. no. 79). (back)
[22] Kolias, p.65-9. (back)
[23] ‘The expedition which took place against the island of Crete and the arming of both the ships and the cavalry under Constantine and Romanos,
the Emperors born in the purple, faithful in Christ, in indiction seven’, recorded by Constantine VIIPorphyrogennitos c.949, incorporated in de
Cerimoniis. Note that in this troop transport role, the dromon’s crew plus passengers totalled 300. Pryor & Jeffreys, [b].II 1-22 (p.556-7). (back)
[24] The very untypical (and legendary) Byzantine hero Digenis Akritis disdained to don armour, whether fighting men (even whole armies!), beasts
or monsters - so it is interesting that he wears his manikin (bracers) when fencing with a most dangerous band of outlaws (Digenis, Grottaferrata
version Book 6: Jeffreys, p.161). Although the setting of Digenis is the Arab-Byzantine frontier of the 9-10th c. our earliest known version was
written c.1300, and it incorporates some later material (Jeffreys, p.xli). (back)
[25] For example, the experience of a Kurdish huntsman, witnessed and related by ibn-Munqidh (Syrian, c.12th): ‘The lion came towards Zahr-al-
Dawlah while he lay prostrate on the ground. He lifted his leg high and the lion bit at it. We rushed at the lion, killed it and pulled the man out safe
and sound. Then we said to him, “O Zahr-al-Dawlah, why didst thou lift thy leg to the mouth of the lion?” He replied: “My body, as you see it, is
thin and lean; and I have on me only a garment and a tunic. There is nothing in me better clothed than my foot, with its stockings, boots and
leggings. I therefore thought that I would keep the lion busy with it rather than my ribs, hand or head until such time as Allah (exalted is he!) should
provide relief.”’ (from Hitti, p.116).
A silk-covered kaftan excavated from 8-9th c. Alanic graves at Moschevaya Balka (northwestern Caucasus) had two interlayers in the sleeves = silk
[26] There is no mention of soldiers wearing gloves in any source either, but it would be extremely unwise for us to go without these!
Possibly manikelia incorporated protection for the hands as well as lower arms? PB. (back)
[27] In this reference the location is called Gendjik or Tuapse, and the reconstruction is different, but it is almost certainly the Borisov find. (back)
[28] Source: Fine Art Images (back)
‘Armour in Byzantium in the early years of the Varangian Guard, with special reference to limb defenses’, written and webbed by Peter Beatson. (c) Birka Traders 2011-12. Not to be copied without permission.
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