Aristotle, On the Soul, Translated by Hett

5/13/2018 Aristotle, On the Soul, Translated by Hett

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ARISTOTLEIN TWENTY-THREE VOLUMES

VIII.",~ ON THE SOULPARVA NATURALIA

ON BREATHWITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

W_S. HETT, M.A.SOMETl l\ IE SCHOLAR OF WADHAlI [ COLLEGE , OXFORD

AMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSE'ITSHARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESSLONDONWILLIAM HEINEMANN LTDMCMLXXXVI


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ARISTOTLE ~ ON THE SOULBOOK r

I. WE regard all knowledge as beautiful and valu- The objectable, but one kind more so than another, either in ~~~h~ethodvirtue of its accuracy, or because it relates to higher inquiry.and more wonderful things. On both these countsit is reasonable to regard the inquiry concerning thesoul as of the first importance. Moreover this in-vestigation seems likely to make a substantial con-tribution to the whole body of truth, and particularlyto the study of nature; for the soul is in a sense theprinciple of animal life. So we seek to examine andinvestigate first the nature and essence of the soul,and then its (essential) attributes. Of the lattersome seem to be affections peculiar to the soul, andothers seem to belong to living things also, by virtueof the soul. But to attain any sure belief on thesubject is hedged with difficulties on every sideThis inquiry, I mean that which treats of the essenceor essential nature, is common to many other fields,and one might suppose that there is one methodapplicable to all the things whose real nature we wishto understand; just as logical demonstration appliesto all their (essential) attributes. If so, this method

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ARISTOTLE ON THE SOUL, I. I.itself? This question must be faced, but its solutionis not easy. In most cases it seems that none of theaffections, whether active or passive, can exist apartfrom the body. This applies to anger, courage9desire and sensation generally, though possiblythinking is an exception. But if this too is a kindof imagination, or at least is dependent uponimagination, even this cannot exist apart from thebody. Ifthen any function or affection of the soulis peculiar to it, it can be separated from the body;but if there is nothing peculiar to the soul it cannotbe separated. In the same waythere are many attri-butes belonging to the straight, qua straight, as, forinstance, that a straight line touches a bronze sphereat a point, yet if separated, the straightness will notso touch. It is in fact inseparable, if it is alwaysassociated with some body. Probably all the affec-tions ofthe soul are associated with the body-anger,gentleness, fear, pity, courage and joy, as well asloving and hating; for when they appear the bodyis also affected. There is good evidence for this.Sometimes no irritation or fear is expressed, thoughthe provocations are strong and obvious; and con-versely, small and obscure causes produce movement,when the body is disposed to anger, and when it isin an angry mood. And here is a still more obviousproof. There are times when men show all thesymptoms of fear without any cause of fear beingpresent. If this isthe case, then clearly the affectionsof the soul are formulae expressed in matter. Theirdefinitions therefore must be in harmony with this;for instance, anger must be defined as a movementof a body, or of a part or faculty of a body, in a par-ticular state roused by such a cause, with such an

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ARISTOTLE

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ARISTOTLE

'" i.e. the Metaphysician,ll.S

ON THE SOUL, I. I.-II.are the province of the mathematician, and in so faras they are separable are the sphere of the FirstPhilosopher. aBut we must now return to the point from whichour digression started. We were saying that theaffections of the soul, such as anger and fear, are in-separable from the matter of living things in whichtheir nature ismanifested, and are not separable likea line or a plane.II. In our inquiry about the soul we shall have to Previousraise problems for which we must find a solution, and ~~e~!essin our progress we must take with us for comparison nature ofthe theories expounded by our predecessors, in order the soul.that we may adopt those which are well stated, andbe on our guard against any which are unsatisfactory.But our inquiry must begin by laying down in advancethose things which seem most certainly to belongto the soul by nature. There are two qualities inwhich that which has a soul seems to differ radicallyfrom that which has not; these are movement andsensation. We have practically accepted these twodistinguishing characteristics of the soul from ourpredecessors. Some say that capacity to producemovement is first and foremost the characteristic ofthe soul. But because they believe that nothing canproduce movement which does not itself move, theyhave supposed that the soul isone of the things whichmove. On this supposition Democritus argues thatthe soul is a sort of fire or heat. For forms and atomsbeing countless, he calls the spherical ones fire andsoul, and likens them to the (so-called) motes in theair, which can be seen in the sunbeams passingthrough our windows; the aggregate of these par-ticles he calls the elements of which all nature is

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a Empedocles, Il> Anaxagoras,28

ON THE SOUL, I. H.he constructs all other things; it is most incorporealand in ceaseless flux: he, like many others, supposedthat a thing moving can only be known by some-thing which moves, and that all that exists is inmotion. Alcmaeon's suppositions about the soul are Alcmaeon.somewhat similar to these ; for he says it isimmortal,because it resembles immortal things, and that thischaracteristic is due to its perpetual motion; forthings divine, the moon, the sun, the stars, and thewhole heavens, are in a state of perpetual motion.Some of the less exact thinkers, like Hippo, have Hippo.declared the soul to be water. This belief seems toarise from the fact that the seed ofall animals ismoist.For he rebuts those who say that the soul is blood,on the ground that the seed is not blood; and seed,he says, is primary soul. Others, like Critias, have Critias.imagined the soul to be blood, because they havesupposed that sensation is the peculiar characteristicof the soul, and that this is due to the nature ofblood. In fact each of the elements in turn hasfound a supporter, except earth; but this no onehas suggested except in so far as one a has said thatthe soul is composed of, or is identical with, all theelements.But all, or almost all, distinguish the soul by threeof its attributes, movement, sensation, and incor-

poreality; and each of these is referred back to thefirst principles. So those who define it by the powerof knowing describe it as an element, or as derivedfro~ t~e el.ements, all arguing with one b exceptionon similar hnes; for they say that" like" is knownby " like " ; for since everything isknown by the soul,they construct it of all the principles. Those, then,who allege that there is only one cause, and but one

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ARISTOTLE ON THE SOUL, I. H-H.405 b ,1. '" e ' ? ~" f e < ; " \ I'f'VXTJV EV TL eaaiv , OWV 'lTVP TJ aEpao Ot DE 'lTI\EWV~

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ARISTOTLE ON THE SOUL, I. III.406 a Q '\ P e I C : : : > c : : : ~ 'f C :: : . , "pOVIlOfLEVOLS pq-otoV a7TooovvaL en 0 I. fLEJ. avw

I "..." .,~" - , ,KLVYJO'ETat, 7TVP EO'Ta~, E~ OE KaTW, YYJ' TOVTWV yap..... I eo r l' e~ " Il, \ I'TWV uWfLaTwv at KLVYJO'EtSaVTa~. 00 aVTOS IlOyOS

' \ \ . . . . . i : . '30 KaL 7TEpt 'TWV fLETaSV.:IE C : : : " 'A..' A' ~ PTil, 0 E7TE!, 'f'aLVETat Kwovua TO uWfLa, 'TUV'TasEVAOYOV KLVEtV TOS Ktv~O'EtS a s Kat aijT~ KWEtTat.

c : : : \ ~ " '.f, ~ ~\ e ' . ,ll, OE TOVTO, Kat aVTLO'TpE'f'autv EL7THJl aAYJ ES' OTt(\ ~ - ..... , ,\, I \~4 10 6 b TJV TO O'wfLa KtVELTaL, TaVTYJV Kat aVTTJ. 'TO OEuwp,u KLVEtTat 1>opfj. .OaTE Ka~ 7 ] "'VX~ fLETaf16)J\.OL"1\ '\ ~ ..... .,\ C/\ 'i\ " () Iav curo: TO uWfLa TJOIlTJTJ scorro: p.,opta f1-E tUTafJ-H'TJ> c : : : , ~ " C :: : ' \ 't '$)~ .,Et OE TOU'T EVOEXETat, Kat ESEIl ovaav eunevaiI) , ~I ">f I' ~, tl ,." "7TaIlLV EVOEXOLT aV' TOVT~ 0 E7TOt'T av 'TO av-

P (J , (J ~ ~ '1 "I) U1Tua all, - r o : 'TE VEWTa TWV o"ctJWV.T' C : :: ' \ Q f3 " ",_p e I7JVOE tauro: UVfLpE Y)KOS KLVTJUtJl o vr p ETEpOV~ 1I P \ " f3' 'Y~ c : : : ~ " " ' "KWOLTO' WOTJELYJyap av LC[-TO , T 6

\ ~ S I " , \ 'S ' ' \ ~ , ( " " ' \ ~ ,10 f1-EV Of, a!V\o ELvaL, 'TO 0 ETEpOV EVEKEV. 'TYJVOE,I.' 1,\ A .. r ". \ ~ () ~'f'VXYJV pva/\W'Ta 'f'atYJ ' TLS ' av V7TO TWV (ua YJTWVKLVEtO'(Jat, Et7TEP KWEt'Ta~.

S>A,$' \ \" '"'" ') \ e' ~ , '\.fiI\II.a f1-TJJlKat ei KWH yE aVTYJ aVTYJV, Kat avTYJ.... 'jl ~ e/ -, ,..... I )1 I.,KWOLT av. WO''T EL 7TaO'a KtVTJaLS EKU'TaULS eo-ri

- I '( ..... \ e ~ / # \ , c' ,'Tot) ICLVOVp_EVOV J KWELTott, Kat ' I f } 'f'VX'YJ ESLO'TatT." , ...... ~ , " \ Q R ' e \av EK 'TTJSOVO'Las, Et fLYJ Ka'Ta aVfJ-pEpTJKOS aVT7JV" Many of the things we want we want for the sake ofsomething else; e.q. we may want money for the sake of

health. health for the sake of our work in the world, and soon. But ultimately we must reach a " good" which we want34

fancies free play. Again, if the soul moves upwardsit will be fire, and if downwards, earth; for these twomovements belong respectively to these two bodies;and the same argument will apply to movementsintermediate between " up " and " down."Moreover, since the soul can be seen to move thebody, it is reasonable to suppose that it imparts to itthe same movements that it has itself; and if this isSO, then it is true to assert conversely that the soulhas the same movements asthe body. Now the bodymoves by change of position; and therefore the soulmust change position in the same manner as the body,either as a complete whole or in respect of its parts.But, if this is possible, it would also be possible for asoul which has left the body to enter in again; andupon this would follow the possibility of resurrectionfor animals which are dead.Indirect movement of the soul may indeed be

caused by something external to it; the living creaturemay be pushed by force. But that which has self-movement as part of its essence cannot be moved byanything else except incidentally: just as that whichis good in itself is not good because of anything else,and that which is good for its own sake is not goodfor the sake of anything else.> But one would beinclined to assert that the soul, if it is moved at all,ismost likely to be moved by sensible objects.Moreover, if the soul moves itself, it is also itselfmoved, so that, if all movement is a displacement ofthat which is moved qua moved, then the soul mustdepart from its essential nature, if it does not movefor its own sake. Similarly the essential self-movement ofthe soul is not to be explained as imparted indirectly fromwithout.

85


16/99

ARISTOTLE406 lli . , ~" !J~15 lavE'i, &A' \ ' :laTtv 7 } Klvrw~s 'Tfjs ouauis aV'TTJS Kau. ,(WT'Y}V."E c ; - \ , ~,I,." .1 , \ , A ,'Vtot UE Kat KWHV exun. T'f}V 'f'VX'fJV 'TO O'wl'.a EV-, \ e ,\ ..... "C ' AW EO''TW we; aVT'YJ u/evrac, OWV U'f}fLOKPLTOS, rrapo

.:rA'Y]O'{WS Mywv < i h A . t ' T f 1 T C P 'T0 KW/ ..UtJ000tOaaKaAq_J.. i. \ , , A I C ; - " ' A \' f'YJat yap 'TOV UO.wal\ov KLVOVfLEV'YJV 7To~'Y]O'aL 'TTJVc '\' 'A.. i . c;- r " ,, , rSV/\LVYJV 'f'pO0t7'YJIl, EYXECl.VT apyvpov XVTOV.e I '" \ A)' r20 0f-L0LWS OE Kat UTJf-LOKptTOS /\EYH KtVOVjJ!,Evas yap..i . ,>C;- , ,1..' '" , ,I.. ,'f'TJO'L 'Tas aouuperous O''f'atpas OLa TO 7TE'f'VKEVat

c;- I I ,I.. P 'A' A1-TJOE7TOTE fLEVEtV, aVVE'f 'EI\KEtV Kat KVEW 'TO aWfLae '" ~~ ') r ~ \" """7TaV. YJfA-EtS;0 EPWTYJU0f-LEV Et Kat YJPEfLYJUW -iroie:, \ -. ...... ~ I '\ ,, '\'TaVTa TaVTa. 7TWS oe 7TOL7JaEt. XaI\E1T01J Y J Kat

> ~ p > ~ " " S ., ,1..'aovvaTOV EL7TEtV. OI\WS; OVX OVTW 'f'aLVETatA e ,I, ' 'r A > '\ 'I.' " , r25 KWEW TJ'f'VXYJ TO


17/99

ARISTOTLE407 III

s .LEVOSVOUS 1 0 - 0 yap 0 1 ] 0[6v y' ~ aiO"(}'Y}TIK~, 0.00'l' f'JlLl ' , \ ~ I ,OWV 7J E1TL!1,VfL'Y}TtKTJTOUTWV yap YJ KtV'Y}o"LS OV"-I.. r e < : - ' ~ '< " f (1.11/\ OUX WS TO f.!EJlEUOS.~ , ')~) It .....~, " \ \ " , \Dt01TEP ouo < : - \ " e "'II ' ". ,OLEsElaw, Et OE oao: jLEyE OS. 7TOl\I\aKtS 7 J a1TELpaKL'), " I ,I.. I < : - \ \


18/99

ARISTOTLE4\07 !!l

optUfLOS 7 j 6:lToOntLS al S' a.7ToOdtns Ka~ a?T9, , - \ " , ' \ ' ' \ ' \ , ' ) \ fapxYJS, Kat EXOVUL ?TWS TEI\OS TOV O'VI\I\OYWP.OV Y J .' , ,~, \ . . . . . . ''-)''TO UVfL?TEpUufLU H OE f 1 / Y J ?TEpaTOvVTat, a/V\ OVK" , '\'", \ Q IavaKafL?TTOVUt yE ?Tal\LJ) etr apxYJv, ?Tpoul\ap.t 'a-

~ :), I , " 'fJ ~ elVOVuat 0 an p,Eaov Kat UKpOV EV v?Topovaw 11< : - , , / . . ' 1 ", , " e ~>S O OE ?TEpL'Y0pa ?Tal\LV ett apKYJv avaKafL?TTEt. oz 0f! " ,,, ~e"optafLOL '1TaVTES '1TE?TEpaup.EVOL. ETI. Et YJ aVTYJ 1TEP-,/.. "\\ ~ I \\ ~ \ f'Y0pa ?TOI\I\UKLS> OEYJUEL '1TOl\I\aKLS VOEt,V TO aVTo." ~, e, " " ' ' 1 . . , IEn 0 Y J VOYJUts EOLKEV 7]pEP/fJUH 7"tV~ Kat E?TUJ'TaO'(:u,

. . . .. . \ " . " , ' 1 . ." ~ '\ I \ ejLa/V\OV Y J KLVTJUEt TOV aVTov DE TP0'1TOV Kat 0\\ I ')\ , ,~ , I '1avlV\Oywp,OS. ul\I\a P,YJV OVOE p,aKaptoV yE TO p . 7 J

e ,~ > \ \ \ f J ' , < : - > > , e I , ~ ,407b PCfotOV al\/\a LaLOV' EL 0 EaTtV YJKLVY)UtS aVTTJS p'TJ, I ',/..,''' ..... " C : : : - " ' \oVULa, ?Tapa 'YVULV av KLVOtTO. E?Tt?TOVOV OE Kat TO

jLEfL'ix8at Tip uwp,an p"~ oVllafLEvov a?TOAv()ij llaL, j (:a~-npoaer CPEVKTOV, Ei'1TEP {3I.ATLOV ' 1 ' 0 vip fLij P.ETa..I '> ' ( ) ' " ( ) ' " ( ) ,Ii aW/LaTOS HvaL, o. a1TEp HW E '1E I\EyEU at a:

'1TO.AAOLS UVVOOKEL. aOTJAOS O E Kat TOU KVKAlp,/ .. r () , , \ e " " \ ~ ,1 . ~' t'EpEU at TOV ovpaVOll 7 fJ aLna OVTE yap TTJS 'f'VXY)Se , I " ~ 1 ,/.. () '\" ,Y J OVULaaLTLa TOV KVK/\4! '(JEpEU at, al\/\a KaTU

Q f 3 'tl ..... :1 ~. "UVp,t'E TJKOS OVTW KtJlELTaL, OVTE TO awp,a atTLOV,' \ , > e ,1. ' ~ "\ \ 'I _,\\"' , ,~,.,0./\/\ YJ ,/"VXTJ fJualV\oV EKEtV~. UlV\a fJu7JVOVu OTt. { 3 1\ \ , " , ~ ~ \ ~ ,10 E/\TWV /\EYE'1'au. KaL'1'OL Y EXPTJV ota TOVTO TOV

8 E O V KVKA~ 1TOLEtVcf>l.pw{)aL T~V if;VX~lV, on f3I.Anoll, ~ ~{) ~ I ~() ~ eraVTn TO KtVEtU at TOV p,EVELV, KLVEtU at 0 OVTWS")\ '" \ ~, ~, , ,e I I.., e,r; al\/\ws. E7TE~ 0 EUTW 7 J TOtaVT17 UKE'f'LS ETEPWlV\1 , I r ",/..~ ,~I\oywv OLI(Eto'1'Epa, TaVTTJV {LEV U'f'Wp,ElV TO VVIl.'E A ~" Q I " ~ v tKEtVO oE a'1'O'1TOVavp,jJaLVEL Kat, TOVT~ Tl[) /\oyl[)

, A " f ~ '.1. ~ ,15 tau. TO('S 7TI'IE~aTOLS '1'WV 7TEpt oyVXTJS uvva7TTOVU&, 'f) r ,~ '.f.' '(),yap Kat. -r t Eaaw EIS ocoua TTJV oyVX7JV, OV ElV 1TpOO'~40

ON THE SOUL, I. III.Demonstrations both start from a beginning, andhave in a sense an end, viz., the inference or con-clusion. Even if they do not arrive at a conclusion,at least they do not return again to the beginning,but advance in a straight line by means of additionalmiddle or extreme terms. But circular movementisfor ever returning to its starting-point. Definitions,too, are all finite. Again, ifthe same revolution recursfrequently, the mind must frequently think the samething. (4) Again, thinking seems more like a stateof rest or a halting than a movement; and the samething is true of the syllogism. (5) Furthermore, thatwhich moves not easily but only by force cannot behappy; and if the soul's movement is not part of itsessence, it will be moved unnaturally. (6)Again, theinescapable association of the mind with the bodywould be wearisome; such a conception must be re-jected, if it is true that it is better for the mind to bewithout the body, as is usually said and widely ac-cepted. (7) Again, the reason why the heavens shouldmove in a circle is obscure. For the essence of thesoul is not the cause of this circular movement-itonly moves inthis way by accident; nor isthe body;on the contrary, the soul causes the body's move-ment. Nor is there any suggestion that this circularmovement is better, and yet God should surely havemade the soul move in a circle for this very reason,that movement is a better condition for it than rest,and this movement better than any other. But sincethis inquiry belongs more properly to another subject,let us leave it for the present.But there is one absurd feature both in this argu- Relation of

ment, and in most of those about the soul. Men ~o~ andassociate the soulwith and place it in the body,with- 0 s.41


19/99

ARISTOTJLE4 !0 7 b c ; : - , c ; : - " , , ~ " . Aocopuraures oia TtV acriav Kat 7TWS EXOVTOS TOV

/ / \:"{: " ~. A l'ocouaros . tau-roc OO~lEV 0.1/ TOVT avaYKawv /tvat~ , , , 1 1 0 . , ' i i ' . . . . . . " < :: ' \ IOLa yap T7JV KOlVWVtaV TO fEV 7TOtH TO OE 7TaaXEt\ " ..... ,,~ , "" , ~"(j'tau. TO p , E V ivevrac TO 0':: KWEL, TOVTWV 0 OV EVe , ,,'\ \ \ ~ ~ ~ C;:-' I20 V7TapXH 7TpOSalV\.Y]l\u TOLS TvxovaLV. 01, OE f-L0llOV, ~ \ r ~ r .f. I , c ; : , ' AE7TLXEtPOVG&AEyEW 7TOWlI 'Tt Y] 'f'VXYJ, 7TEpt.OE TOVc ; : , c : f r '8'" I:,yaES OJLEVOV aWfLUTOS OV Ell en 7TpOGOtopt':,oVGtV.'" 'I:, I \, n e 'a7TEp EVOEX0j.LH'OV cure: TOVS v ayopLlCOVS'8 ' ~ .1.' , , ,. c ; : , I 8LV OVSTYJVTvxovaav 'f'VXYJ'VELS TO TVXOV EVuVEa at~ c ; : - A ,., "1: ," ~ l c ; : , ,aWp,a' OOKE" yap EKaGTOV OLaV EXEW E OOS Kat,/,., \1 1:,' " ., "p.,Op'f'YJV. 7TapU7TI\Y]UWV OE I\Eyovmv wanEp EL ns, /, . r " > , \ TYJVDE 'l'VXY]V OVOETEPOVorov''S' I ,,~" ..... ", eT ELva TOVTWV. ET DE TO laVEW OVK Ea'TtV ap-J.ln g , .t. ~ < ;' \ I , I ~'1> 0'"'" a povias , 'f 'VXn DE 7TaVTESa7TOVE/-WVUtTOVTO p,aluuJ J s EinE'iv. u.pp ,o{Et S E p.-8XAOV umO' vytElas AEYHVe , \ e I , _ . . . . . ) _ . . . .o.pfLovLav, Kat OI\WS TWV aWf.LaTLKwv o.pETwv. 7 JUCaTu. ~vxfjs. cpaVEpWTaTOV o ' d 'TtS a7Tooto6va~f}' , 'f) "" ~ ,f. ~ e ,5 1TEtpa Ety} 'To. no. T) Kat TO. Epya TYJS't'VXT)S apf.LoVtqLI \ , , ''/' ,y " c ; : , " , f 1TtVQ,' XCu\E7TOV yap E'f'apf.LO':,ELv. En 0 EK . I\EY0P.EV

\ C I KVptWTaTa P.EVII M y o J L E I I l8:1STVX: A E Y O t J L i E Y .

ON THE SOUL, I. lII.-IVout specifying why this is so, and how the body isconditioned; and yet this would seem to be essential.For it is by this association that the one acts and theother is acted upon, that the one moves and the otheris moved; and no such mutual relation is found inhaphazard combinations. But these thinkers onlytry to explain what is the nature of the soul, withoutadding any details about the body which is to receiveit; as though it were possible, as the Pythagoreanstories suggest, for any soul to find its way into anybody, (which is absurd,) for we can see that every bodyhas its own peculiar shape or form. Such a theory islike suggesting that carpentry can find its way intoflutes; each craft must employ its own tools, andeach soul its own body.IV. There is another traditional theory about the Is the soul

soul, which many find the most credible of all current ~rh;;~~~:theories, and which has been approved by the verdict tion?of public opinion. It is said that the soul is a harmonyof some kind; for, they argue, a harmony is a blendor composition ofcontraries, and the body iscomposedof contraries.But (1) a harmony is a fixed proportion or com- Objectionsposition of the ingredients blended, and the soul ttOlthisb . h f h hi ( ) ieory,cannot e eit er 0 t ese t mgs. 2 Again, it is nopart of harmony to cause movement, yet almost every-

one ascribes this to the soul as its chief characteristic.(3) It seems more in accord with the facts to connectharmony with health or generally with good condi-tions of the body than with the soul. This willbecomequite obvious if one tries to attribute the soul's exper-ences and actions to some sort of harmony; for it isdifficult to make them fit. (4) Again, we use the wordharmony in two different senses: most properly

43


20/99

ARISTOTLE4082 "" ,... ' S l " " " P ' \ P ~'TWV P.EYE()WV EV TOLS EXOVO't KWYJO'LV Kat BEO'tV 'T'1}V, (j , ~ , "',., 'Y ""avv EO-tv av'TWv> E7TEtoaV OVTW o-vvapft0~W(fW coo-re

'"\ , '"I a ~a '", , ,I'v'1}OEV avyyEVES 7TapaOEXEuuat, EVTEVuEV OE Kat TOV~ I \ rTWV P.E/Ltyp.-EVWV l\oyOV.O "" ,-;- "" e "" 'a ~],0 VOE'TEPWS /LEV (lVV EVII.0YOV. r; OE aV1JflEULS 'TWV

~ A \f , c' \'\ pTOV Uwp-a'TOS /LEpWV II. tav EVESE'TaO'TOS' 7TOl\I\ar- 'TEyap ai O'vv8luHS ,.,Ivv p'EPWV Ka~ 7ToilAaxws' Ttvos

-- " A '\ a~ , A "() '\ovv r; 7TWS v7To/laJ-'EtVTOV vovv XP'Y) (fVV EULV ELvat,' i o ' l . . . " ' ) { J . . ~ 'll , e P ~\7 J Kat TO aur "I}7tKOV T J OpEK'TLKOV; ououos OEaTo7Tov Gca~TOV AOYOV TfjS p,tgEWS dvat T~V if;vx~v'

, " ' \ , . . " ' \ ' : ' t . . . . . IA o ov yap TOll aVTOV EXEL I\oyov 'Y} fUs tS' TWV O'TOLXHWV(j' C ,( , { J ' '" ,~ p r -;-a 7]v O'aps Kat a: '1}VOO'TOVV. O'Vt-LJ-'TJUE'TatOVV\" I ,I.'" , ,~ , ~7TOIVlaS' TE 'Tvxas EXHV Kat arro: tiav TO awp,a,

" , \ _ , I ~H7TEp 7TaV'Ta fLEV EPC'TWV (J'TOLXEtWV j1-EP-~YftEVW"', 0'"\ ~ 1; \ I e I '.1 I , rOE 'T7]S' I'-ts EWS' /loyoS' apfLovta Kat '11VXTJ' a7TaL'T7]-

". " ~ I , "E '" \ rUEtE 0 av nS' TOV'TO yE Kat 7Tap f.L7TEOOKI\EOVS'ttl '\ ' J " ' " \1 P; " l' I20 KaaTOv yo,p (W'TWV /loy~ 'TLVt T"I}(J'W Etvm' 7TOTEPOVr," e \.' " e ' J I , , " ) \ . . . . . \ . ) . ~I fDVV 0 /wyOS' ecrriv '1 } 'f'VX'Y}. '1 } fLal\l\OV E'TEp01J 'Tt

Love is Empedocles' personification of the force of

attraction which accounts for the combination of elementsinto a whole, as its opposite repulsion (Strife) accounts forthe separation of things into separate wholes.44

ON THE SOUL, I.IV.of spatial magnitudes, to mean compaction a in thecase of things which have movement and position,when they cohere in such a way that they do notadmit the intrusion of anything homogeneous; butin a derivative sense we also use the word to meanthe ratio in which constituents are mixed.In neither of these senses can harmony be reason-ably identified with soul, but the view that the soulis a composition of parts of the body is easily refuted.For the compositions of parts are many, and takeplace in many ways. Of which of the parts, then, arewe to suppose that the mind or the perceptive orappetitive faculty is a composition, and how is sucha composition effected? But the view that the soulis a harmony in the sense of a ratio of mixture isequally absurd. For the mixture of the elementswhich go to make the flesh has not the same ratio asthat which makes the bone. Itwill follow, then, thatthere are many souls distributed all over the body,since every part of it is a mixture of the elements andthe ratio of each mixture is a harmony, i.e. a soul.One might put this question to Empedocles (for hesays that each part of the body owes its distinctivenature to the ratio of its mixture): is this ratio thesoul, or is the soul something distinct, which developsin the limbs? Again, does his principle of Love IIcause any random mixture, or only a mixture in theright ratio? And is Love this ratio, or is it someother thing distinct from the ratio? Such are thedifficulties which these theories present. And if thesoul is a different thing from the mixture, why is itdestroyed at the same time as that which constitutesthe flesh and the other parts of the living animal?Besides this, if each of the parts has not a separate

45


21/99

ARISTOTLE4G B !II " '\ eI ..... I . , f , ' " 'S I PH7TEp p:YJ EI(aaTOV TWV J.LOptWV ,/,VXYJV EXH, H p:YJ

, r ~I, \ r '\ I ....... ,(; I., aEaTW YJ ,/,VXYJ 0 I\oyoc; TYJS p.,LSEWS, T~ EanV 0o/8E{pETa,~ TijS " 'vxi is (l.7roAH7Toi5a7]S;"OTt (LEV OVV ouf)' app.,ovtav olov T Etvat TI]v

11 0 if;vx~v oilTE 1(i5KAf{! 7TEpio/EpWeat, 8ij.\Oll E K 'T(VVElpY)p.,EVWV. KaTa avpf3'Ef3Y)KOS D E KLVELa8at, l ''I 8 I " 8' 8 \ < : : - ~ETt OE opyLsEa at TE Kat aLa UVEa at Kat ouivoei-B ~ < ; : - , I I l' < ; : - ~a at TaVTa OE 7TaVTa.. KLVYJans ELVUt UOI(OV(JW."8 ' e ' - . , ' ' . . . . . .J , < ; : - " , "60 EV OLYJEL7Jns av aVTYJV KWEW at TO 0 ou EaTtV

avaYKaLovo El yap ImL on fLa.\WTa T O AV7TE"ia8at 7 JI " 'C :- . . . . f) , )' \f:IXatpEtV Y J ouivoeio at KWYJans eun., Kat E!( aaTOV~ e ' , < : ; - , ~ e ,>


22/99

ARISTOTLE408 b ~'() " ~ , e ~ , , , , , ~ Iaur TJO'tS a7TO TWVO~. T J 0 avafLVYJO'LS an KWTJS) ' \, . .. . . .. " e ' , . " ,7Tt Tas Ell TOLS cuo YJTYJPWLS KLV1JO'EtS ' I' } fLO)Jus.'0 ~, ~" 'e ' I 'i'os lJOVS EOLKEV EY)'LVEO' at OVO'La TLS ouao.,\ '..I...(} I () 1\ "..I...e'" e ,20 KaL OV 't' EtpEO' at. fLal\U1Ta yap Et' ELpET av V7TO

TfjS E V T([; Y~PIf ap.avpWUEWS. VVV 8' taws 01TEP" ~ 'e I f 3 I ,\ '\ ' f 3 7TL TWV ata TJTYJPLWV O'VfL aLVH' Et yap I\a ot 0f 3 P" < : : : ' (3 ) I ,,


23/99

ARISTOTLE1 i i 0 9 a~" ,,!.. e ~ , . , ~ ~o tE1TEt'f'acTt KLVTj EW"aV ypapp:YJv E1TL1TEOOV1TOLHV"

, ~ , , \ ("..... Ie;:. I50'TtYJLTjV UE ypaJLJLTjv, Kat at TWV p..ovauwv KWTjCfEtS\ " t" \ " ' ) (JPypapp"aL EOOVTat 7 J yap O'TtY/kTJ uovos EOTt EOtV

" < ~ , , (J' ~ ./. ~,,~ , \EXOVao,' o o apt p..OS TYJS 'f'VXTJS TJoTJ1T0'!; EOTt Kat.a I " "" ~ , il ~ , ,\ ,.l;1UEO'W EXEL. I ETt 0 apwfkov JLEV Eav a'f'EI\y/ TLS, ( J , " I I~ ... I "\...' (J' \ ~,apt /kov 7 J I fovaua, I \Et1TETat a/VtOS apt fLos' TO, oe. .! ., , ~ y, \\' ~ , y~ ,'f'VTa Kat 'TWV sCPWV 1TOl\I\a otatpOVfLEva sy/, Kat~ ~ , ., .1 . '" ~ "'" '" It; ~,1000KE/, TTJV aVTTJV "!'VX7JV EXEL'IJ T!p EtOEL OOSELE o" '( J ' ~ . )..' ,~ \ ' " Pav OV EV otaf'EpEtV JLovaoas I\EYEtV 7 J O'WfLUTUJ"

I ,\ , ..... Ii ' A . . , ' ) \jLLKpa' Kat 1tap EK TWV UTJfLOKptTOV O''f'atptWv Eav, , I c ; : . ' I \ I "'YEVWVTa~ O"TtYjLat, p..0VOl' DE fLEVYJ 7"0 zrorrov, EUTat, .,...... \ \ _ \ ~ I 6-n. EV avnp TO fLEV KLVOVV 'TO OE KtVOVfLEVOV. wa1TEp

E V T0 aVVEXEt OV yap Sta 7 "0 fLEy(JEt StapEtV ~P Q ' '... (J' .,'>., r15 /ktKpOT'Y}TI. C1vfLjJaLVEt 'TO I\EX EV. 0,1\11. on ttocov,

~ 'I.) ,... ')' I , ,.. , I~ow avaYKawv EtVaL 'TI, TO KLV'Y}O'OVTas ,,",ovaoas., ~" ~ y, , ~ e .1.' " ~El. o EV TlP so/lP TO KtVOVV 'Y} 't'VXTJ. Kat EV 'To/'0 " ' " ~ ' ) " . . . . . . ' l . ' r eapt fLO/' WO"TE OV 'TO KLVOVV Kat TO KLVOVf.LEVOV 7 J./. ' '... " ~ , ~ ~, 1~,'f'VXTJ, ulV\a TO KtVOVV f.LOVOV. EvoEXETat OE 0TJ

. . . . . . I r : ; ; ; : I 'S" 1 ~""" , e I \'TrWS fLovaua TaVTTJV eu/cu ; OEt yap V1TapXELV nva, ~ ~ ,f..' , , "\ \ ~ ~ ,20 aVTYJ ota' f'0paJ I 'TrpOS Tas: aNlUS' anYfLTJs DE fLova-~ ~ , " " ~ ..! . ' \' ( J ' ., ' , 'otKTJS TtS av E t T J ota'f'0pa 1TI\TJV eois ; Et JLEV OVV, \ rl e o , . . . . , I~ tEtatV ETEpat at EV Tep awj -taTt p,OVUOES Kat at

r ~ , ~ " .,~ (J ' t ;aTtyp.at, EV 7"ep av'TctJ EC10VTUL at, p.ovaOES teo: ESEtyap xwpav; aTt'YfLijs. airo 'TL KWAVEt E V T0, .....l' I '~I .... ,' 'C" C' ,aVTep Hvat'1 E~OVO. Kat, osreipous ; WV yap 0 T01TOS,~, ,,\ '), ')~, e, ,... ,25aOLaLpE'TOS. Kat curta: El. 0 0,1, EV T~ aWfLaT(,uTtyp.at 0 apdJp.os 0 7"ijs .pvxijs, ~ E l J E K TWV E VTij> aWfLan aTLYfLwv apt8fLOS ij fvx~, Otd. 7"t O~11 . o~ 'IfWS 0 ~il'ru.. Bekker.50

ON THE SOUL, I. IV.(2) Again, since they say that a moving line describesa surface, and a moving point a line, the movements ofthe soul's units will be lines. For a point is a unithaving position; and the number of the soul is ipsofacto somewhere, and has position. (3) Now, if onesubtracts a number or unit from a number, anothernumber is left. But plants and many animals con-tinue to live even when divided, and seem to retainin these fragments a soul specifically the same asbefore. It would seem to make no difference whetherwe speak of units or of minute particles; for if wesuppose Democritus's spherical atoms to be convertedinto points and to retain nothing but their quantita-tive nature, there will still be in each of them some-thing which moves and something which is moved,just asin a continuum. For what we have mentioneddoes not occur through any difference of size in theatoms, but because they possess quantity. Theremust, then, be something to give movement to theunits. But if that which produces movement in theanimal is the soul, then it is also so in the number, sothat the soul is not both that which produces move-ment and that which is moved, but only that whichproduces movement. But how can this possibly bea unit? Such a unit must differ inherently from theothers. But what difference can a unit which is apoint exhibit, except position? If then the soul-unitsin the body are different from the points in the body,the former will be in the same place as the latter,for each will occupy the place of a point. And yet iftwo units can be inthe same place, why not an infinitenumber? for things which occupy an indivisible spaceare themselves indivisible. But if the bodily pointsare identical with the units of the soul number, orif the number of bodily points is the soul, why do not

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ARISTOTLE~ , .nYI'_at yap lEV

E ' T t O E 7TW~ o L a va7ToAVEO"80 , t TWV

1p v x a s STU.

ON THE SOUL, I. IV-Vall bodies have a soul? For there appear to be points-infinitely many, indeed-in all of them. And againhowis it possible to separate the points and free themfrom the bodies, if lines cannot be resolved intopoints?V. In effect, as we have said, this theory in one Xeno-

respect repeats the view of those who suppose the ~~~~i~soul to be a body of fine particles, and in another, just furtheraswhen Democritus states that the body ismoved by crltielzed,the soul, it has an absurdity of its own. For if thesoul exists in every part of the sentient body thenthere must be two bodies inthe same place, ifthe soulisa body. And those whosay that the soul isa numbermust believe that there are many points in one point,or else that every body has a soul, unless the numberengendered in the body is different and distinct fromthe points already present in the body. And itfollows that the living creature is moved by thenumber, just aswe have already said that Democritusaccounted for its movement; for what difference doesit make whether we call them small spheres, or largeunits, or generally moving units? For in either casewe can only account for the movement of the livingcreature by the movement of these particles.These are some of the difficulties in the viewwhich Conclusion.combines movement and number, and there are manyothers of a like nature; for this combination, so farfrom being a definition of the soul, cannot even beone of its attributes. And this will become clear toanyone, if he tries on this theory to give an explana-tion of the affections and functions of the soul, suchas calculations, perceptions, pleasures, pains, andso on; for, as we have said before, on these lines itis not easy even to conjecture an explanation.

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ARISTOTLE409 il TptWvSe 'Tp07TWV 7TapaDE00f-tEVWV Kaf)' OtJS

'Y ',/.' < " ,00 OptsoVTat TYJV 'f 'vXYJv, oz f-tEV TO KLVYJTLKWTaTOV,,t.' ~ ~ c , (~ , ~ \ \a7TE'f'YJvaVTO Tf.tJ /aVELV EaVTO, ot. OE ocoua. TO I\E-I '\", r -.. ,'\ \7TTOfLEpEaTaTOV YJ TO aaWfLaTWTaTOV 'TWV UIV\WV.

. . . . . . ~ \ , " , - r , , 'TaVTa DE TLvas csropuxs TE Kat V7TEVUVTLWaEtS E X E L ,OLEAYJAveaf-tEV aXEDOv. AEL7TETat 8' EmaKEif;aaf)aL...... \1 ".,..... I ') .;-7TWS I\EYETat TO EK TWV aTOtXELWV aVTYJV ELva~.

\1 ,J ~ /" 'f)' P ...... ',s e I\EyoVat f-tEV yap, tV aur aVYJTat TE TWIJ O)JTWV, er 'y' A ~ f 3 Icu. EKaaTOJ! yvwPLsYJ, avaYKaLOV UE av/-t atVEW\ \ \ " ~ , ~ \ ' 'f) , 'Y-tto/vvi: Kat auvvaTa Tf.tJl \oyl tJ' Tt EVTat yap yvwpLsEW......c, '~I r ." \ ,It' ,TltJ OfLOLltJ TO of-towv, cocrtrep av EL TYJV ,/,vXYJv -ra, f)' .,"~, I .....7TpaYf-taTa TL EVTES. OVI . . . . . ~ ~ " f)yap EKaaTOV 'TO 0IWtoll, TO 0 oaTOVV Y J TOll av PW-1 7~ Torstrik, Biehl", Rodier, Diels: TWV ElSTUXy, eomm,vett. Biehl f ~ T e l E2V. Bekker.

54

ON THE SOUL, I. v.Three methods ofdefining the soulhave come down The sou]to us; some have regarded it as the principal 'cause as a com-f tb . . If h h pound ofo movemen, ecause It moves itse ; ot ers ave the ele-described the soul as composed of the finest particles, ments.or asthe least corporeal of all bodies. We have prettywell exhausted the difficulties and contradictionswhich these two definitions involve. But it remainsto see what is meant by saying that the soul is com-posed of the elements. This theory is intended toaccount for the soul's perception and cognition ofeverything that is, but the theory necessarily involvesmany impossibilities; its supporters assume thatlike is recognized by like, as though they thus identi-fied the soul with the things it knows. But theseelements are not the only things existing; there aremany-to be more exact, infinitely many-otherthings, composed of the elements. Granted that thesoul might know and perceive the elements of which~ach of. these things is composed; yet by what willIt perceIve and know a composite whole: e.g., whatgod, man, flesh, or bone is? and similarly any othercompound whole; for such wholes do not consist ofthe elements arranged at random, but in a certainratio and with some principle of composition, asEmpedocles says in his description of bone :" The kindly earth in broad-bosomed crucibles gottwo of the eight parts from the gleam of moisture,

and four from Hephaestus; and bones come intobeing all white."It is then no use for the elements to exist in the

soul, u:r:les~tl~eratios and the principle of compositionalso exist InIt; for each element will recognize itslike, but there willbe nothing in the soul to recognize

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ARISTOTLE1! .10a _ , , ,- 107TOV ovOev, l {J-7JKai 'Tat!'"r EVa'Tat. 'TOVTO S~ o n

'''' P 'Q ' '" A \ , "" > Iaovva70V> OVUEV DEt I\EyEtV" 'TLS yap av a7Top'rJaHEV, " 'A ,I. A i\ '(j "" 8 e'EL EVEa7tV EV 'TTJ 'f'VXTJ t os 'rJ av PW7TOS; 0IWLWS~, , , '8' "\, {}' , , \OE Kat 70 aya OV Kat 'TO p : r J aya OV. 'TOV aV70V~ " \ , . . . . "\\OE 'Tp07TOV a: 7TEp!. TWV alV\WV."En D E 1ToAi\axws i\EYOp.,EVOV 'TOU OV70S (c111p.,atvEq,\ \ \ I~ , C : : : : : - ' ' \ ' \ \ \ "1\ 8

yap 'TO p.,EV 700E 'T", 70 OE - ttooov ' rJ 7TOLOV'rJ Kat].5 nva aXi\YJv TWV otatpE8EWWV Ka7'rJyoptWv) 7T67EPOV, c. c' " c ~ /r ,"1\ " , \ , ' 'c,; ....ES a'TraV'TWV Ea7aL YJ ' t'vX' rJ 1] ov; alVl. ov OOKEI.\ I '$ " .... . .. ., . . ~ ..,. .~ , ....KOLva 7TaV7WV ELvat o-roiXELa. ap OVV oco. 7WV,-., I , ...... -;- , ,ovaLWV E K 70V7WV povov ; ttcos OVV ywwaKH cu._ " \ \ t : 1 . . , , J , . . , e , ,'TWV al\l\wv EKaa'TOV; YJ 't'YJaovaw EKOW70U YEvove;

Elvat a'TOLXELa Kat dpxas lStas, J g Lv 7~V fvx~vI )/ " ,\ \ \ ') ,20 ovveoravai ; eo-rai apa ttoaov Kat 7TOLOVKat Ovata.'\ \' '~I ,............. ,... " ,0.1\1\ auvva70V EK 'TWV 'TOV arooov a70~XELWV ovaiav') \ ,I r ..... ~\ " , IELvat Kat f.LYJ'-nooov 'TOtS' 01] I\EyovaLv EK 7TaV7WVA , \ All' " P , " c :, \'TaU'Ta 'TE Kat 'TOtavu E7Epa avp.,FatVEL. a'T07TOV OE\ \ .J.. I \) 8' ';' ,


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ARISTOTLE


28/99

ARISTOTLE ON THE SOUL, I.v.410 b '" , ." > '" I 'A'250tCLVOtCLV OVK EXELV. t 01 'TtS Kat 'TaV'Ta 7Tapa-

XWp~aEtE, Ka~ (JElTJ 'T6V VOVV /-dpos 'Tf, 'Tfjs if;vxfjs,e , < : : ' - \ \ " , EJ r ,~ , ~ \ " \ IOJ.LOtWS OE Kat 'TO atUUTJ'TtKOV, ovo av OVTW I\EYOLEV

(J " " ,I. ~ ''''' 't / ' '' ' ' 'teo: O/lOV 7TEpt 7TaaTJS 'f'VXTJS OVOE 7TEpt OI\YJS OVOEA A A 'O A .. Aj.Ltas. TOVTO 01 7TE7TOV E Kat EV TOtS P'f'LKOtS

" ,\ I '\ ' . . J . . " ' , / , , ,E1TEat KaIl.OVJ;tEvOtS /\OYOS' ,(.IYJut yap 'TYJV 'f./VXYJV EKA t/ , I, , A .. r ., ASO'TOV OI\OV Eta+EVat ava7TVEOVTWV, 'f./EP0J.LEVYJVV7TO 'TWV

, p .' "" "" A . .J . . A ~ Q 'aVEJ.LWV. OVX OtOV TE OTJ 'TOtS 'f'VTOtS 'TOV'TO aVJ.LJ-'ut-'\:" ..... Y' ." " \ I :)4111a VEtV OVOE TWV "'CflWJ' EVWtS , EL7TEp fLTJ 77UVTU a/a-

, ~ " " \ ' \ { ] , e r . . . . A . . . '7TVEOVatV. TOVTO OE I\EI\YJ E TOVS OVTWS V7TEtI\YJ'f'0-" '" A , ,f. ' ,~ , A'Tas. Et TE DEI, 'TTJV'f'VXTJV EK TWV O"TOIiXEtWV 7TOLEtV.

'{ '" A 'C ., < " (J , rOV EV DEI, Es a7TaVTWV ucauov yap aTEpov J.LEpOS..... , , (I I \ \, I'TTJS EVaVTtWO"EWS EaV'TO 'TE KptVELV Kat 'TO avrucei-\ , , . " e ' " , ' ) \ , \ . "5 fLEVOV. Kat yap 'TCfl EV Et Kat aVTO cu. TO Kaj.L7TVI\OV, " '..J.. A e I '''''ywwaK0J.LEV I


29/99

ARISTOTLE4 1 1 1 . & , I er ,e ..... , e f eJEV TOVTOtS, OTt TO oAov TOtS p.,OpwtS OfLOEt?ks. coar

avayKa~ov Q.1ho~s ,\EYEtl' Kai T~V !fvX-ryv ofLonofj~ , ' ; ' , , , > " \ f3 ' (J' ~TOtS ,uoPWtSI ELvat, EL T

~ y ~ ,'f'VXYJ. OE7]aEt oe KOLL7Tal1ltV KaKEtVO SYJTELV. TTOTEPOV62

ON THE SOUL, I. v.elements, onthe ground that a whole is homogeneouswith its parts; so they are compelled to say that thesoul also is homogeneous with its parts, if livingcreatures become possessed of soul because somepart of the surrounding air is cut off and enclosed inthem. But if the air detached ishomogeneous, whilethe soul has parts of different kinds, then evidentlyalthough one part of the soul will be present in thisair, another will not. Sothat either the soul must beof similar parts, or else it does not exist in any andevery part of the universe.From what has been said it is obvious that the Can the soulfaculty of knowing does not belong to the soul be- !Jetdividetd. . d f h 1 In0par scause It IS compose 0 tee ements, nor is it right accordingor true to say that it is moved. But since knowing, ~~~~tiODJj l'perceiving, and the forming of opinions are opera-tions of the soul, besides desiring, wishing, and theappetites in general, and again since movement inspace is induced in living creatures by the soul,besides growth, maturity, and decay, does each ofthese belong to the soul as a whole? Do we think,perceive, and do or suffer everything else with thewhole soul, or do some functions belong to one partand others to another? Does life reside in one orseveral or all of these parts or is something else thecause of it? Some say that the soul has parts, andthinks with one part, and desires with another. Inthis case what is it which holds the soul together,if it naturally consists of parts? Certainly not thebody: on the contrary the soul seems rather to holdthe body together; at any rate when the soul is gonethe body dissolves into air and decays. Ifthen someother thing gives the soul unity, this would really bethe soul. But we shall have to inquire again, whether

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ARISTOTLE41:U v ~ ' lTo'Avp.Epls. E l p .~V yap E V , S L a Tl OUK EU(J JWS'" ,F . , ., ." " " \ e\,Kat TJ ,/,VXTJ EV; EL OE P.EptO'TOV, 7TUII.LV 0 I\OYOSr I " I ') "" \" ~ ,~TJTTJ(TELT~ 'TO UVVEXOV EKELVO, Kat OVTW OTJ7TPOELO'LV" , , , " C : : : - ' " " . . . . .E7Tt TO a7TELpov. a7ToPTJUELE 0 av TS Kat 7TEpL TWV

I ,_ "" \;.'1 eI ') .....15 fLOPLWV aVTTJS, TLV EXEL oovcquv EKaO'TOV EV ' r C P, >, e or\ .1 . ' ~ ,~ ,uwp.an. EL yap TJOI\TJ ,/ ,VXTJ -nav 'TO O'wp.a avVEXE,I ,_ I ~I I .....7TpoaYJ'it isnatural that each ofthe parts should hold togethersome part of the body. But this seems impossible;for it is hard even to imagine what part the mind willhold together, or how it will do it. Moreover plantsclearly live even when divided, and some of theinsects also; which implies that the parts have a soulspecifically if not numerically the same as that of thewhole; at any rate each of the two parts has sensa-tion and moves in space for some time. It is not atall surprising that they do not continue to do so;for they have not the organs necessary to maintaintheir natural state. But none the less all the partsof the soul are present in each of the two segments,and the two half-souls are homogeneous both witheaeh other and with the whole; which implies thatalthough the parts of the soul are inseparable fromone another, the soul as a whole is divisible. Thefirst principle in plants, too, seems to be a kind ofsoul; for this principle alone is common to bothanimals and plants. It can exist in separation fromthe sensitive principle, but nothing can have sensationwithout it.

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, , ~ p '') " : l I t \ 1t J'6 aVLWj-I-EV. '1TELPWJLEVO~ oOp~aat neo-ri ' f'VXYJ Kat TLS') 1J r )f ,.... \P ~"o,v HTJ IIWWOTaTOS 1l0YOS o,VTYJS 0 IlEYOJLEV OYJ YEVOS~I ......" '\, r r ~,'\ , eEV T TWV OVTWV T11V OVUtaV, TaVTYJS OE TO JLEV WS~\ e\ ll' e '\ , .", Ir : ; : : ~I '" \'{jJIlYJV, 0 KaU aVTO J-hEV .aVK EaT~ -roos T, ETEpml OE

- I .. ' ''I '''' ( ) ' r A '" \-ro: 'f'vUtKa' TaVTa yap TWV aAl\wv apxat. TWV OE. . . I . . . A , \" y, ,"'"" Y''f'VU~KWV -ra jLEV EXH ,:>WYJV> -ro. 0 OVK EXEt ..,WYJVO E AeYOJLEV T~V Ot' aihov Tp01>~V TE Kat avgYJutv, . . . 1 .. . 8 '


32/99

ARISTOTLE< 1 1 1 2 III

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e ~ , ') r ') '\ r I " I"I} 0 ov (ua V 7EI\EXE ta. T OLOV TOV apa UWfJ -I!LTOSEVTEAExna. aVT" I } O E Mye-rat OLXWS. ~ f.LEv W SE 7 TWT -I jf J-T J , ~ S' W S TO, BEWpELV. c !>aV Ep ov O VV on

e ') r ~ \ ..... f: I '.,1 ," \WS E7TLUTYJ f -LYJ ' EV yap T 4} v 7T apXELJ I T 17 v ..,.,V X1 ]v tccu .f'/ \ ' j l , " , ' \ ~ '!l' \25 V 7T VOS Kat E ),PT JyopUtS EUTW, av al\o yo v 0 Y J f-L EV, f ,..., II ..... co~ , o ,_, " \EI'PYJ YO PULS T ~ UE WPE LJ I, 0 U V 7 TVOS T < {J EXHV tau.

\ > ~f-LYJ EYEpya V .e > ,'Y J E1TLUTYJ f -LYJ .

\.\ ~

, A ,. ~ " ', y \ 'fUW fJ -a < rC l S ' f' VC 1 tK O V o v v, .a j. LE L , :> W YJ V EXOVTOS.412 b D E , 0 a lJ iii opyavueo l J (opyava O E Im~ To ' TWV

c /> VT W V J .L EP YJ , a '\ A. a 1 Ta VT E Aw s a : r r A . & , oiov T O , c pv A A ovp, , ~ " _7 TE ptKap 1T WV UIC erraap .,a, T O OE 1 T Ep tK ap 7 T LO V K ap 7 T OV .e "" O Y ~ r > , \ " A ,. , "\a OE pL,:>a~ T< {J aT0 fJ -an avalw yov ' afJ -'f'w yap E I\KE t\ -I,') "', '" I .f. ~T Y J V T pO 'f 'Y J V . EI.. OYJ n KO tVOV E7T~ 1 T au YJ S ' f' VX YJ S

~"""\1 ",,' ' \ e , I'50EL I\E'.l'EtV, EL1 J av EVTEI\EXEta Y J 1 T PW T YJ u wp .. aT O S_$. A ' ~ " " , ' ' ''~Y ~ ''''.'f 'V U LK O V 0 p ya vL KO V . ow Kat OV OEt ' :>YJTE-LJ'H EV 'Y J< J I l l \ ' \ , . . . . . ~ , ~ \ \ , " "' f 'VX1J tau. T O C T WfJ -a , W U'lT EP OVOE TOV KYJPOV le a l, TO

...... ,t;:" ~') '( I (,1\ '\ ' 1 : 1 ' ('aXYJJ LOL . OV O -O /lWS' T 1]V EKat'FT OV V II.T J V cu. TO (1)VAYJ ' T O , yap ~V Kal, T O E lv at .l'lTE~ nA .OvaxWs\1 ' I . ' If" \1 f ~{ \EyETa~ , T O KV PLW S T J EV TEIlEXE ta ECTn v .

U I Ka0 6A ov f-LEV OV V E ipYJT at -r l ECTT tV T ] i fiv XT J' o ua iaX l ' lJ 'OV (sic)Bekker,

.. Every" substance" is composed of two factors-matter68

ON THE SOUL, n. I.ject, i.e., as matter.? So the soul must be substancein the sense of being the form of a natural body,which potentially has life. And substance in thissense is actuality. The soul, then, is the actualityo f the kind of body we have described. But actualityhas two senses, analogous to the possession of know-ledge and the exercise of it. Clearly actuality in ourpresent sense is analogous to the possession of know-ledge; for both sleep and waking depend upon thepresence of soul, and waking is analogous to theexercise of knowledge, sleep to its possession butnot its exercise. Now in one and the same personthe possession of knowledge comes first. The soulmay therefore be defined as the first actuality of anatural body potentially possessing life; and suchwill be any body which possesses organs. (The partsof plants are organs too, though very simple ones:e.g., the leaf protects the pericarp, and the pericarpprotects the seed; the roots are analogous to themouth, for both these absorb food.) If then one is tofind a definition which will apply to every soul, itwill be " the first actuality of a natural body possessedof organs." So one need no more ask whether bodyand soul are one than whether the wax and the im-pression it receives are one, or in general whetherthe matter of each thing is the same as that of whichit is the matter; for admitting that the terms unityand being are used in many senses, the paramountsense is that of actuality.We have, then, given a general definition of what The gold

and form; e.g. a billiard ball. Its matter is ivory, its form as furm.spherical. An animate body, then, as it is a substance,consists of matter and form. The body must be matter, forit is not itself an attribute, but has attributes. Thereforethe soul is form.

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ARISTOTLE412 b ,. ""\ ' _ '" , , r '" '"yap TJ aro. TOV l\oyOV. TOVTO OE 'TO T~ 'Y]V E!.va~. . . . . . ~ " e I s r , . . . ) r' r c t > TO~ct>0t ooniom , o. a7TEp EL -ri TWV opyavwv

CPVUtKCW .ryv uWfLa, olov 7TEAEKVS' 7]v YdP a.v TO7TEMKEt Elvat T ] ova{a aVTOV, Ka~ 7 ] o/VX1] TOVTO'XWptUeE{aT)S YdP TatJr-ryS OVK a.v E n 7T)\EKVS; .f}v,

, ' \ \ ' "1\ e I ,.., ~., , "\ ' \15a/\/\ 7 J OfLWVVfLWC;. VVV 0 EO''Tt 7TEI\EKVS' OV yapI , \, '; '; \ e \1 e'TOWVTOV oonuxros TO TI, TJV ea/ai tau. 0 I\oyos; TJ,1. r , \).',1.. - < : : " " " I' f'VXTJ, a/ \/\a ' !- 'VO'LKOV TOWVOt EXOVTOS apx'Y]v KtV'Y]-" , e .- ( J . . . . . ~ \ " \O'EWS Kat O'TaaEWS; EV EaVTct>. EWpELV OE cu. E7TL'TWIJ f.LEpWV OEL TO AEXfJI.V. E l yap .f}v 0 ocp{}aAfLosr . . . . . ' ! l l , \ " - ; - , . .. ... c ",/~ r: , ') I~ct>0v, 'f'VX"fJ av TJV aVTov "fJ 0'f'LS aVT"fJ yap OVCTLa

20 OCP{}aAfLofJ T j KaTa TOV A6yov. 0 0 ' ocfo8aAfLos vAT)",1. '1" I ,,, ' , l . . e ) . ' , \0'f'EWS, 'I]'> a7TO/\EL7Tova"fJS;OVIC EaTLV O'f' a/\fL0S;, 7T/\TJVe I e I e ) . 'e \ ,OJLWVVfLWS, o: a7TEp 0 /\1, uros Kat 0 YEypal'-fLEVos.

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fiE{3A'l]KOS 'T~V


34/99

ARISTOTLE413 31 I ,. ".. \ " ,KOP"fJ Kat 'l'} 0'f'ts> KaKEL .. q ~VX"fJ Kat TO aWfLa.. TOr ..... ~ , , .,.. " , ( " 1 1 , ' \ , \ " ' _sOV. OTt fL~V OVV OVK EUTLV n 'f'VX"fJ XWPWT"fJ TOV

, .,\, ,.,... .. , ",1 ..I) ccouorros , ' l '} ftEp"fJ nva aVT"fJS> Et fLEptUT"fJ 7TE'f'VKEV.OtJK a8"fJAov' EV{WV yap .. q EVTEAEXEta TWV fLEpWV

, ' \ , , .. . . , ' \ , ), \ ' 5 ) ~ I '( J ' " \ IEaTLV aVTWV. OV fLYJV alV1. EVta yE ov EV KWI\VEt.< ; : - , , f)' ~ I \ r "ota 70 fLYJ EVOS EtV01.~ aonuxros EJlTEIlEXEWS. En'" \ "" \ ,,, '"\ , ~ I OE aOYJN>V Et OVTWS' EJlT,EI\EXEta 'IOU awp.aTOS 'lJ,F . '''' \ \ \' I ''I' p'f'VXYJ coottep 7TI\WTYJP 7TI\OWV. TV7T

10 OLwp{af)w Ka~ lnroYEyp&.1>8w 7TEP'i apuxijs.II 'E ,"',. ~ , . .I .. ~ 'A.. P "" 7TEt o EK TWV aaa'f'wv fLEV 'f'avEpwTEPWV OEr ' . . 1 . . " " v r IytYVETat TO aU'f'Ee; KUt KUTU TOV 1\0yOll yvwPLfLW-

I P " '\(J ~ " ~TEPOll, 7TEtpaTEOll 7TaI\LV OVTWC; E7TEI\ ELV 7TEpt av7"'l'JS'" , '" '" ~ ,e '\1 '"\ ~ov yap ;.WVOV TO OTL OEt TOll optanKOV I\oyov OYJflOVV.., (\~ ~"\I '\\": 1 . 5 Wa7TEp oz , 7TI\ELaTOt TWV OpWV I\EyoVatV, alv\a Kat, I , I , >,J. I ( J ~ , " ' .TYJV aLTtaV EVU7TapxEtV Kat EfJ-'f'atVEa at. VUV 0

eJ I .()) e " r . . . . . e r , Iwa7TEp UUJ1!7TEpaafLau O~ I\oyo~ TWV opWV EW'LV''l " " ~I e rOtOV -ri ecrrt TE'rpaywvw/J,OS; 70 U)"OV ETEPOfLYJKEt

> (J I 'Il' "\ e "" ~ "op oywvwv ELvat La07TI\EVpOV. 0 OE TOWVTOS opOS\' ~ , e "" \' ""IWyos 'IOU UUfL7TEpaafLuTOS. 0 OE IlEyWV on ecrru/~ " u . . . . . ,20 0 TETPUywvwfLor; fLEUYJe; EVPEfJ"tS, TOV 7TpaYfLUTOr;" I ,')1 II\EyEt TO aLTLpv.

NOTE.-The reference is to the figure opposite.AB is a straight line divided into two parts at C. On Alla semicircle ADB is described. CD isdrawn at right anglesto AB to meet the circumference in D. Two conclusionscan be proved. (1) The square on CD is equal to therectangle AC.CB. (2) CDis the mean proportional between

AC and CB, or in other words AC: CD:: CD: CB. For theproofs of these two propositions c t . Euclid Ii,14 and vi. 13.72

ON THE SOUL, II. I.-II.the soul and body make a living creature. Its quiteclear, then, that neither the soul nor certain partsof it, if it has parts, can be separated from the body;for in some cases the actuality belongs to the partsthemselves. Not but what there is nothing to preventsome parts being separated, because they are notactualities of any body. It is also uncertain whetherthe soul as an actuality bears the same relation tothe body as the sailor to the ship.a This must sufficeas an attempt to determine in rough outline thenature of the soul.H. But since the definite and logically more in- True.telligible conception arises from the vague but more deflmtlon.

obvious data of sense, we must try to review thequestion of the soul in this light; for a definitiveformula ought not merely to show the fact, as mostdefinitions do, but to contain and exhibit the cause.But in practice the formulae of our definitions are likeconclusions; for instance, what is squaring a rect-angle? The construction of an equilateral rectangleequal to an oblong rectangle. Such a definition ismerely a statement of the conclusion. But if a mansays that squaring a rectangle isthe finding of a meanproportional, he is giving the underlying cause ofthe thing to be defined. b

D

c B73


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ARISTOTLE413 a A l y o P . o V OOV apX1]v ;7I.a{30VTos TfjS O'IdfEWS.

Stwp{a(Jat TO EJLif;vXOV TOV dif;vxov T0 ~fjv. 7TAEO-vaxws O ~ TOU ~fjv AI/oJLlvov, I()[atv Aaft{3avovat ImTa TOUS" If' '\" '\ ,,(; fEvaVTWVS T07TOVS' 01!) yap avco j-tEV aVsETat, KaTW

~ , " J : \ ' \ : ) 1 , " " " / " ' \ I ,o OV, aJV\ Op.-OLWS E7T ap.-'f'w ai 7TaVTOUE Kats o 7'pEE7'at Kat ~il Otd. 7 'E A o v S , E W S U V ovvYJTat 'Aap.--{3avEtV TPOc/>~V. xwpi~Ea(Ja t o ~ TOVTO LEV TWV

" , ,


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ARISTOTLE~1tll1b .F . ' ~ . , , " , ,opVXYJ TWV ELp7)JLEVWV TOVTWV UpX7J KU~ TOVTOLS'

WptO'TUt, 8pE7TTtK0. ulO'(7)TtK0, Sww(7)TLK0. KtV~O'E~.I ~\ , ~ ' " J l . . l, \ '" I7TOTEPOV DE TOVTWY.l EKaO'TOV EOTt opVXYJ 7) f-tOPWV! I I , " " \ ' I , e r ~ / ' 9-rVX7)S. tccu. Et JLOptOV. ~rrOTEpOV OVTWS WO'T ELVaL

1 1 1 1 > XWPWTOV A6yc r p ,6 vov ~ D \ \ ." ,I. ~ovvaJLEWC:; OVDE11 TrW ,/,aVEp01I. alVl EOU-(E -rVXYJS

I 1:/ 9 ,,... I "~IYEVOS ETEpOV eivcu , cu. TOVTO fLoVOV EVDEXETaLxwpt~EO'eaL. KaBa7TEp T e l dt -Swv TOV 4>BapTofJ. Td.o E Aoma .J..bpta TfjS if;vxijs cpavEpov K TOtJrWV O T t, " I [jl ' . .1 . . ~ '< "OVIC EOTU, xwp/,aTU, KUlJ'a7TEp TLVES ,/,UO"LV' TlfJ 101

\ ~f!I J . . . ' 'fJ ...... , -;- \30 f \oycp on ETEpU, 'f'UVEpOV' atO'uYJTtKl.p yap ELvat I EL7TEp Kat TO u~O'uaVEO' at TOU< ; : - c' Y ., ' < ' , \ ~ " , \ " ~IOOSUSEW 0 Ofl--OLWS OE KG~t TWV UI\f\WJl EKuaTOV TWV, I ,,< ; :-: ;., , \ ...... y, sr 8'ELPYJJLEVWV. ETt 0 EVtOtS !LEV TWJl '!o


37/99

ARISTOTLE4 , 1 4 . 1I l ,p , ,\ r '''' , ,>EXE~ 7To.ao.s, TO. DE -rcvae, TO. oe fdav TYJV OLvay-

I ~.. 'leaWTo.TT}V, a'f'YJv.'E ''''' '" )'~ ,. () 'e '" ~ \ I5 ttei OE.


38/99

ARISTOTLE~14a \ I \ )" It I ,r! ' !I \ IO 'YtVET(U Kat KU'Ta 1\0yOV ekcurrou yap TJ EVTEI\E-

, .-.. ~ (I , -.. , I u ,XHa EV Tcp ouvcui.e: V7Tapxovn tcai TYJ OtKHC[- VI\YJ',I.. " e r: \ 'i" , \ , I ,7TE't'VKEV EyywEa at. OT JLEV OVV EVTEI\EXELa TtS, , , I .....:; : I " ..,.. J'ecrri Kat I\oyos TOV ovvafLLV EXOVTOS ELVat TOWVTOV,. . . l . . \ ' J'' t'ave:pov E/( TOVTWV.I I I . TWV O E OVV&.fLEWVTfjS i fJvxfjs al AEx(JELaat TOLS, co I .... {}'" '" ~,30 JLEV V7TapxoVat traacu , o. a7TEp Et7TOfLEV, TOtS OE\ ,..... , I ~, I I ~ I ~TtVES aVTWV, EVWLS oe !LLa JLOVYJ. ovvaJLELS 0" ( J " I ' ( J ,Et7TOjLEV pE7TTLKOV, 0PEKTtKOV, au) " YJTLKOV, KLVYJ-, \ I ~ I e < ; : 0 - , . . . . .TtKOV or rc: T07TOV> otaVOYJTLKOV. V1TapXEt OE TOtS, . . J . ~ '{ } " Kat\ > , " C ' , > e I '{} \TO OpEKTtKOV- OpES tS fLEV yap 67Tt VfLta Kat VfLOS\ R 1 \ < : - \ r ~ " " ,Kat {JOVI\YJ'1LS, - ra os scpa 1TaVT EXOVaL fLtaJJ yE

TWV al0"8~aEWV, T~V a c p ~ v ' 0 o ata{}YJatS tJ1TapXEt,I t~ I \ \ \ f. \;;:I \5 TOVTW 1700VYJ TE Kat I\V7TTJ KaL TO YJOV TE cu.\ " , '(' ~\..... \ e , {} I ~ \I\V1TYJpOV, OtS OE TaVTa, cu. YJ E1Tt vJLta TOV yap~ 8 E O S OPEgLS aVTYJ. E T t D E TijS TpOcpfjS a'ta{}YJatvEXOVaLV ~ yap acp~ TfjS TpOcpfj


39/99

ARISTOTLE1 & 1 4 1 m \ , I ., "UK1T'Tlov. EvtoLs O E 1TpOS TOV'TDtS V1TapXH Kat 'TD

" , Ie, ~\ \ 'S VO'Ylaao: TDnOV KLV'Y)'TUWV, ETEpOtS oe Kat TIO ui "I-I ,- ~ 'e I '\ " 'f"n ~OtOVTOVTtKOV TE Kat VDVS > O~DV av PW1T0LS Kat H,~,

~ I' " I I , ' IETEpOV EUTW 'YJ Kat T tfLLWTEpOV.20 llfj,\DV oV V on TOll alhov TPC!1TOV ErS U V EL'Y}A6YD~

!fvxfjs 'T E Ka~ UX~fLa'TOs' OVTE yap E K E L axijfLa 1Tapa'\ I " '\ \ " , 1 . . , c , . . . , , ~ , -O nTD 'TpLYWIJOV EU'Tt Kat TO. E'f'ES 'Y)C:;, OVT EVTav\ "" I ~"\ ,.".1,vX'YI 1Tapa Tas EtpYJfLEvas. YEVDLTO u av Kat E1TL'f'"/ , \ ' P os E'f'apfLDaEt jJ-EV

~ "t;: < : : ' ~ ,t;: '" , . p1Taaw towS' o DVuEVOC:; EfJ'TUL aXYJf.LUTDS OfLOLWS, t ; : " \ ~25 O E Ka~ E 1 T l TaLC:; EtpYJfLEVat


40/99

ARISTOTLE4158 >I ~ '" , e' , , , , - r?5 UVEV TWV UIV\WV V7TUPXEt 7TOIV\U yup TWV ~pWV

OUT onv OUT aKO~V EXOVOW OVT OO"p:Yj~ oi\w~" B ,~ , 8 .....~""" ,UtU YjUW. KUt TWV ULa YjTKWV OE -ra JLEV EXEL TO\ P J \~"" '\ ""KUTU T01TOJI KLVYjTI.KOV, TU U OVK EXEt. TEI\EVTUWV


41/99

ARISTOTLE415 a

TO [LEV OU. TO OE? ,~,.. .....,~.......... ) \ '\ ...... (} . . . . . . , , 1 : 1 ~ / ~ ~ , Capt / L 4 ? JUEV OUX Ell, Ewn 0 Ell."E "" e .f. ' ~ r ~ I .,an OE r; -rUX'l TOU ",WllTOS aW/LaTOS ULna Kat" ~ '" \ \ \ ~ \' ., " ' . .0apX1]' TaVTa OE 7TO\I\axWS I\EYETat. OfWLWS o 1],f. \ \ \ '" , , ~, p-rVXTJ orro: TOVS otWpWfLEVOVS TP07TOVS TpEtS aLna'

\ , tllJ It ' ,,'? e r ' \ eKat yap OUEV Y J KtV'Y}UtS aVT'Y), Kat OV EVEKa, Kat WSe ,I !..... ' . , I t I I e "g~ , ~ I7 J ovata 'T~V fL-rVXWV aWfLaTWV 1] ,/,VXYJ acrui;~ \ '3 e , Jl < : : : ' .. . . . " ' \ , , , ~on fLEV OVll WS ououx, O'Y}/lOV' TO yap aL'TtoV TOVlva '1Taow ~ ovalo" T O D E 'fiv TOLS ~wat 'TO Elval, "~ , '\ , \ , ( . .Ir '" .. ...eo-rw, atna OE cu. apxYJ TOVTWV Y J -rUX'Y)' En TOU" ' , " \ , < , \ , . J . . , " ' , ell50uvap.Et OVTOS I\oyos 'Y} EVTEI\EXELa. "t'aVEpov 0 WS

\ ' C ' CI e " J / ~ , ' ) l ' (t l ,(-tcai OV EVEKEV 'Y) '!"UX'Y} acrui: wa7TEp yap


42/99

ARISTOTLE415 b f/, ......"" I , e . J . . . fEVEKa TOV 7TOtEt. TOI! aVTOV TP07TOV Kat TJ ,/,vate;.

Kat, TOVT EaTtV a:ihfj TEAOS. TOWVTOV S' E V TOLe;r I e ,,/, \. " ' A . . . I r , ,",,


43/99

ARISTOTLE1 J , 1 6 !il " A '" P e ~ ' . J . . p ." ~ "10 uOICEI- OE T~O'W 'If} 'TOU -mipos 'PvO'tS a7TAWS atTta.

'Tfjs TpOcpfj . J . . I]" \ \ , ", " < : : , /'!TPWTOV' a'f'opL':,ETat yap 7TpOS Tae; alVl.as uvvajLHS'

A " I '" A "" '" e . J . . ' ,TCf! EPYCf! TOVTCf!. UOKEt 10 eivac YJ TpO'f'Y'J TO, I _ ~ p ':) ..... ~ \ t' '\\' e:1EvaVTWV T4 J EvaVTLCfY, OV stcur UE 7TaVTt, allil ooaA' , " , 'l: > \ \ /\ "TWV EvaVTLWV 1 ' . : ' 1 } jLOVOll YEVEaw ES allllYjIlOOJl Exovaw& ) . A o . Ka~ avg1'}aw' ytvETa~ yap 7TO'\;\o. rE g d)C\~'\wv.~ ~) \ Sl ' f ; ~ e \ , r25 alVI. ov 7TaVTa trooa , OWV VytES K KafLllOVTOS.. J . . ; " " ' ' ' ' . . A , ,\ , '"11) I'll'f'aLVTut 10 ova KEWa TOP aVTOV TP07TOV al\/\1}lIotsElvaL TpO~~, a A A o . T O fLEV VOwp Tip 7Tvpl TpO~~> 'T O'" , A , ,.l; \.,'" \ .,. A < \ ADE '!TVp OV TpE'f'H TO vowp. EV jLEV OVV TOLS U7TIlOLS

, ~ > "G' < : : , A 1 " . J .. 'awp,aaq, TaVT eu/cu. OOKH p.,allLaTa TO fLEV TpO'f'YJ, '" \ . J . . r >,' < : : " " . J . . " . e'TO OE TpE'f'OfLEVOV. a7TOptaV 0 EXH' 'f'aau, yap OL\ ' < f ~ e ' f . J . . ( ) Qt ,30 fLEV 'TO UfLOW1! T C f J 0itLOLCfYTpE'f'EO" at, l(aUa7TEp Kat'{; f e A ". ., " " '" AaVSUVEU at, TOLS 0 ooO'7TEpEL7TOfLEV TOVfL7TUIIW ootcet.,~ $I I .-.., r e , n""~' .....'00 VaVTWV TI({I EvaVTLcp> WS traoovs OVTOS TOVe r < , - e, ' < : : " . J .. \ f)' II \0;.o-oov V7TOT~V OfWWV, T1jlV UE TpO'f'Y'JVj1.ETapallilEW\ 'e ' e "" f) \\ ~ "tau. 7TETTEG' at 7 J UE fLETapOM? -iracnv ELS TO aVTI/.-90

ON THE SOUL, n. IV.To some the nature of fire seems by itself to be the Fire ~ncau~e of nutrition and growth; for it alone of all :~~l~obodies and. elements seems to be nourished and growof itself. Hence one might suppose that it is theoperating principle in both plants and animals. It

is in a sense a contributory cause, but not absolutelythe cause, which is much more properly the soul;for the growth offire iswithout limit, solong as thereis something to be burned, but of all things naturallycomposed there is a limit or proportion of size andgrowth; this is due to the soul, not to fire, and tothe essential formula rather than to matter.Since the same faculty of the soul is at once nutri- The naturetive and generative, we must first define nutriment of'food,

carefully; for the nutritive faculty is distinguishedfrom the others by its function of nutrition. Thereis a general opinion that contrary is nutriment tocontrary; not of course in every case , but amongsuch contraries as have not merely their birth fromea~h other, but their growth as well; for manythmgs arise from each other, but they are not allquantities; e.g., a healthy from a diseased thing.But not even the things mentioned seem to be foodfor each other in the same way; water feeds fire ,OIbut fire does not feed water. It seems, then, thatin simple bodies especially the food and the thing fedare contraries. But this presents a difficulty; forsome say that like is fed, as also it grows, by like, butothers, as we have said, hold the opposite view, thatcontrary is fed by contrary, on the ground that likeis unaffected by like, but that food changes and isdigested. But all change is to the opposite, or to an"Itwas supposed that wood. when perfectly dry, would notkeep a fire al ight . 91


44/99

ARISTOTLE, ' :~ ~ C ' "p e,l..' !z I!.35 KHfLEVOV TJ TO fLETaS V. ETL 7TaaXEL -ri 7 J TP0'f'Tj 'lJ7TO

4 16 lb TaU TpECPOP.,EVOV,dA N aL l Toiho {) 'ITO TfjS' TpOCPfjS'.~ 'J ~,e, eo ' I . . . . . . ("f, , \ \ , e : ) , rwa7TEp avo 0 TEfCTWV V7TO TTJS'VM7S', 0.11.1\ V7T EKEL-

" c "" 1 f 3 1\ r "VOV aVTrr 0 oe TEKTWV fLETa al\I\H fLoVOV ELS' EV-r 't' IEpYELav E~ apywS'.T I r "" , ,e A .. ' , \ ~OTEpOOJa ecrrtv '1 7 TP0'f '17 TO TEII.EVTaWV 7Tpoa-

1 ," ~ " '" A .. 1 , "'.'JILVOfLEVOV 'Y } TO 7TPWT01J', EXH OLa'f'0pmJ. E 0[) afLcpw, d A N : ~ fLEV a7TE7TToS' i; O E 7TE7TEfLfLEV1],, A . . I " ' < ; " , A .. , v r 1;'afL'f'oTEpWS' OLVEVOEXOLTO TTJV TpO'f'1]V I\EyELJI" 2 1 fLEV

,,' '~/......., r ' A . .yap a7TE7TTOS', TO EvaVTWV T4J EvaVTL4J -rpespercu ,l' ~\, , ' \ CI .. ... e I erY J OE 7TE7TEfLfLEV1], TO OfLOLOV TCfP OfLOU-fY. oxrr eA . . ' " \ ' If' A . . , ,'f'aVEpov on I\EyovaL Twa TP07TOV apyOTEpOL Kat, e ~ " , e ~ " 'Y J aE TpO'f'7J 7Tapaaf(EVUsH20 EVEpyEtV. O L O aTEp7J8EV TPOcpijS' o u OVVUTat Elvat.. , \~ , '' 'I , , A .. ' 'C' I A . . .E7TEL U eo-ri TpLa, TO TPE'f '0{-LEJ!OV t cc u. ( {} TpE'f'ETUt

' \ \ 1 ,, 1 . . . ~ ' \ I . . J . . " eo IKaL TO TP,-p0Y, TO f-LEV TpEoyOV ecrriv ~17TPWT1]i f;VX1] , TO O TpEcpO{-LEVO",,'TO EXOV auri}v aWfLu, il J< ;, \ I .. . e . . I . I , \ c : - \ , \ ~ "OE TpE


45/99

ARISTOTLE416 b " , , , ' ,\"" ~omav-ro: 7TpouayopEVELV uUCatoV, TEAOS DETO yEVVY]aaL

'l" ,J I r , ~ \ e I' ..l, , " 'i'25 ozov aVTO, ELY] av 7 1 7TPWT7] 'rvXYJ yEVV7]nK"IJ aLOP" " ", '1' ' - I . . . , , ' " , ' Il'aVTO. eo-ri OE ~ TpE TO OE KWOVV fLOVOll. 7Taaall 0

avaYKaLov Tp01>~V 3-6vaa(}(u 7TETTEaea~, Epya~ETaL< : - \ \ IJ \ (J I "" ~ 'f ,1, " (}OE TYJ117TEo/W: TO EPP-0V' ow -n av Ej.L'rVXOV EXH E P-I I' '\ r,- e J . . . \ I . , "30 p,OT"IJTU. TV7T~ p'EV OVV 1 1 Tp0'l~'l -rc EUTtV Hp7JTat' " - I . . . p "'.. , eI , ~. ~(}LaaO.yYjTEOV o EUTW V(JfTEPOV 7TEpt aVTYj '> lEV TO~S'., ., ImKELO~S' /wyOtS'.V. !:HWptUfl-EVWV S~ T06TWll AEYWp,EV KOWfj 7TEP~, , ()I < "'. " ( J , ~ ~ (J ,7TaaYJS aur T)aEW


46/99

ARISTOTLE4flm

'n5xYI KallE-iJoov, Ka 'TO f j O T J EVEpyOVV), StxwS avMYOL'TO Kat i] ataeY)O"tS, i] /LEV w s ovvaf-LEt, ~ D E~ ') I e I ~. \ , '8' e rws EVEpyHq_. Of-LOLWS DE Kat 'TO aio aVEa at, 'TO~ I ." \., I'TE ouvcuieu OV Kat 'TO EVEpyELq,.

15 npW'TOV -LEV01)V W S 'TOV av'TOV OV'TOS 'TOV 1TaO"XELVKat 'TOV raVELu8at Kat 'TOV EVEPYELV AEYWf-1,EV' !(UI,

", e I , I , ') Iyap ecrriv Y J KLVY)o"LS EVEpYHa 'TIS, a'TEI\Y)S -LEVTOL,a f '(' '" /~" "t eo. a1TEp EV ETEPOLS ELpY)7'a~ . 1TaVTa OE 1TUaXEL Katr I I . . . . . . - . , . , I~'saveircu. U1TO TOV -trocrrruco Kat E V E p y E L q - OVTOS.~ \ ) ' \ ~ t : ' . . . . . . e {' , ,,~ \ow EaT~ f-LEV WS V1TO TOV 0fLoWV 7TaaXEL, EaTL DE

e e : ' . . . . . , , e " , I20 WS V7TO TOV aJJofLOWV, o. a7TEp Et7T0f-LEV" 7TaUXEL, , \' , e '


47/99

ARISTOTLE" () ...\ , '" ' I A~' ')414b au}' 7JULV 7] TY]V ypo..fLJLo..nKY]!! > p : 1 J EVEPYHV 0 ELS''\., "" ") '\ I .,"~ c : ) . , . . . . .TO EVEPYELV alV\ov Tp07TOV. OVK eo-ri 0 a7T/\OVV, ~ \ \ 1 > \ \ , , \ , / , . ( ) I al\ l\o. . TO /-LEV -r opa TLS' V7TO TOV

, r , "" ,~ \\ ~ '" I "EvaVTWV> TO UE aWTYJpta ,"WJV\OV TOU ouvafLH aVTOS'e' ,......, , '" \ 4: I sr eV7TO Tau EVTEI\EXELq. OVTOS' KO.L 0fLOWV> OUTWS wS'

6 Duvap.LS EXH 7TPOS EVTEAExnav' fJEwpaVl' yapI '\ " '\, , ~ ." ') "'}lLyvETm TO EXOV TY]V E7TWTYJP/YJV> 07TEP T J aVEC EUTLV~ \ \ ~ e ( ' " \


48/99

ARISTOTLE\ \\ 17 b J7TtO'T?JJLTJTWV KafJ6,\ov TaVTa S~ lv airrfj ,"dYe;

5) .. .. . ,1 , . . . . . . ~ . . . , . . . . , ' ) , , . . . . . . t IUTt T'[J 'f'VX'[J. UW vOYJaat /LEV E7f aVTC.!!, 01TOTaVR ',\ f)' f) < : ' ' ' , " ,~ , ~25,..OV YJTat, aur avec at 0 OVK E1T aVTCf!' avaYKawv

, I '! I '\ , ()' I! P ~\ .... :)"yap V1TapXEW TO aLO' YJTOV. Of-tOLWS UE TOVT EXEI.., ..... , I .......... '8 - \~\sea Tate; E7ftO'TYJfLate; Tate; TWV aur YJTWV, Kat ota, , \ " e r "8' ~ 0 ' "TTJV aVTYJV atnav, OTt -ra ata YJTU TWV a etccurro.

Ma~ TWV EgWfJEV.~I"\,\' \, I ~..I ..~ " .fi/\I\a 1TEpt fLEV TOVTWV ouuraqmcai aipos YEVOLT

" "~f) ~ ~ , < : - 'f) ~ erav Kat naav tS. VVV OE otWptO' W ToaOVTOV, OTt e ' \ ~ >I ~ < : - ' " " , > ' " " \ ~IIOOUX a7fI\OV OVTOS TOV OVI'lajJ-Et IlEYOfLEVOV, aNla TOV" e J . " " , . . . .~ ~ I 8/LEV wa1TEp au H7fOt/LEV TOV -itcuoti uvvaa at aTpaTYJ-

. . . . , . . , ~ , e o , , ~ , ! " ~I )' ,yEtV, TOV OE: WS TOV EV YJl\tKtq. OIlTa, OVTWS EXEI.. TO { } , , \ < : - . , , , , . . e


49/99

ARISTOTLE ON THE SOUL, n. VI.-vn.4 ' . 1 8 a

- " . '~ , ~ \ . I . . ' A . . ,-OLOV O'f'tS xpW/LaTos Kat aK01] 'f'0'f'0V Kat ,),EV(ns~ e


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ARISTOTLE ON THE SOUL, H. VII.4 :1 1 . 8 I I , ., '.J,' ~ \ fl' "utO '1TEpt ' f'WTOS 7TPWTOV I\EKTEOV 'Tt Eunv. EaTto~ -ri OLacpav~s. OtafavEs O E I\lyw 8 Ean f-J-EV

e r , 8' ,,, ~'(' , (' c"\ ...... ') .....60paTOV, OV c: aVTO OE opaTOV WS a7TI\WS H'1TELV,dl\l\a OL' dl\l\6TPWV xpwfLa. -roioirrov O~ Eanv d~p

, " < : : : : ' " \ ' , ~ ~".$; "< CKat VOwp KaL '1TO/\/\OL 'TWV UTEpEWV OV yap u vowp'< : : : : ' ~ " < : : : : . J . . ' ' \ \ ' cr , \ . J . . ' ,ova i J aYJp, ouupaves , a/\/\ OTt EaTt 'f'vatS EVV7T-

, e ", I ' _ I ' " . . . .apxovaa YJ aVTYJ EV 'TOV'TOLS afL!pOTEpOLS Kat EV 'Tt>, < : : : : ' ~ " , . J . . ~ < : : : : ' , 0 ,ai:oL!p T


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ARISTOTLE418 b \ . ' ~ " " < : :' " \ ~ '"/\tav TO atTTjfLa. eo-ri OE xpWfLaTOS jLEV OEKnKOV, " ,I, ',1.. ~, , s.i.: " ~ . , \'TO axpovv, 'f'0'f'0V OE TO cupospov , axpovv 0 eo-ri, ~ A . . . \ , \ , , . " \ " e ITO ouupaves cu. TO aopaTOV Tj 'TO fLol\te; OpWfLEVOV,? ~ ~ , I ~ ~ \ we;EUTtV. aYJf.l-.EL01!< ; " / , / . . . , ' \ I e~ ' sr ~OE TOVTOV 'f'aVEpOV eav yap TLS Y I TO EXOV xpwfLa" " ' \ " , / p ''',1 '\ \ \ , \E7T aVTYJv T17v 0 'f 'LJ !, OVl'C 0' lJETUt a/ \/ \a TO fLEJ!xpwf.La KWEL T O OtacpaVEe;, olOV TOV dlpu, U7TO

, ~ \ ..... " .....,' L) ,15 TOVTOV OE aVVEXOVS OVTOe; KLVEtTa~ TO aLaU1]TYJpwV." ,~ ~ \' A "OV yap KaI\We; TOVTO I\Eyn UTlfLoKpLToe; OWf.LEVOC;,') I \, C I (....... L l " , Q ,....,EL YEVOLTO KEVO'V TO f.LETasV, 0paauat av UKptJ-'WS

Kai E t fLVPfLYJ~ E V T < { 1 ovpav0 ELYJ TOUTO yap, ~ , , , . , , . . . . . .' ) e ~aovvaTOV EaTtV. trcuryovros: yap TL TOU aur YJTLKOUI \ 1:.... .. ( ', ') .. .. \ .,. .- . e ,YWETUt TO opav V7T . aVTOV /-tEV OVV TOV OpWf.LEVOV, '< ; " \ ' < ; "


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ARISTOTLE419 a. "c \ \ ~ '31 I " "" !J A '3 J . . . 'St 1JV j1-EV OVV aL'TLaV 70 XpwfLa aVaYKaWV EV 'f'WTt.

opaa()at, E'lpYJTat. 7Tfip O e - ~V afLcpOLV 6paTaL, Kat, , I \ , , I . ._ I \ .... 'c) I ,EV otcorei Kf.H EV ",WTt, xcu. TOVTO ES avaYKTJS 7'0, '" A,. ,I ., , r < : : - . . 1 . . '25 yap ouupaves V7TO TOVTOV YVE7'at ouupaves,'0 "'. " )" , '.1. ' . . 1 . . \ ' ~o aVTOS I\oyos KC~L 7TEpt 'f'O'f'OV Kat oafLTJS, , '(J' \ ,..... e I ......, () raTLV ov EV yap aVTWV o.,7T7'0fLVOVTOV aur TJTTJpWV~, "(J ,),)"., \ ~ \ /'1

7TOtEt TTJV ata TJatv, al\/\ V7TO!LEV oafLYJs Kat ~'JoCPOV, c' ~ OV, ouoeiucu: ata TJ(J'WI \ ~ (,/..,... , , " \7TOLTJ(J'Et. 7TEpt oe a'f'TJs Kat YEV(J 'EWS EXEt fLEV. , , . . I . . I ", '< > ' " " ', " "ofLOtWS, ClV 'f'aWETat oE" ot: TJV 0 a tTtaV, V(J 'TEPOV" ' < > ~ ) , , < : : - ' c' .f. IA . . \ ' I , ~IE(J'Tat OYJI\Ol!. TO OE p .e rtu; v ' f'0" 'WV fLEV aYJP, oa fJ-YJS

~ ) : > I " ~, Ill' , "o avcovvuov: I(OVOV yap oYJ -ri srouos lETT aepos, " '< > " " \ '" . . 1 . . ' ,Kat uoorros earur, coatrep TO ota'f'aVES XpwfLan.

er .... ', ') \ C\') ',l..' el35 OVTW T


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ARISTOTLE419b, ~ > ~ .1 . P - I . . . r ,


54/99

ARISTOTLE419 I > ~ X ' s r , \ ~ . , s ,I..'iL'vov), a,vi oVX OVTUJlS' aVaKl\aTat cootrep a~

~/~ 't I). ,.. "" ,\ '\ ..... '" Iuoorros r; X:/UI.KOV r; cu. T~VOS' a/\/\ov TWV I\ELWV,eJ , ,... 1" \ A . . . " ' " e 'Y , ~ \oxrte otcuiv 7TOtHV, Tl TO ~WS' OpLsOjLEV. TO OE, '(J . ... \' , ..... " ~ .....KEVOV op WS' I\EYETat KVPWV TOV aKOVELV. OOI(EL\ i" ,e " " C ' ~ ) " e .....yap Etvat KEVOV 0 ay)p, OVTOS 0 EO'TW 0 7TOLWV, , ~ , e . . . . . \ \ ' C " ' \ \ ' ~ ,35 aIWVEtV, OTav KLVY) T I aVVEXy)S' Kat ELS. 0.1\1\0 . OLa

420 a TO if;aevpoS' Elvat o u YEYWVEL, av jL~ AELOV i 7 TO\ I I "" '" I "",,, I '"7T1\Y)yE1/. TOTE OE EtS' yWETa~ afLa OLa TO E7TL7TEOOV'c \ ~ ...... , "~EV yap TO TOV I\ELOV E1Tt1TEOOV.

\TP A . . . ' \ , ; , ' '+. C ' + . , IJ[O~T)nKOV fLEV ovv TO KLVT)TLKOV EVOS' aeposaVVEXEtq, fLExpLS' aKoijs,. aKo~ D E aVfLc/>v~S' aEpt.~ \ ~ \ , , , ''9 I,... " I: . 'Iii OLa OE 'TO EV aEpL ELVa,!', KLVOVjJ.,EVOV TOU ESW TO" ..... ~ I " , y . . . . . , ,Law laVELTat.1 OL07TEP OU 7TaVrn TO sctJ0V OXOVEt,,~\ , ~ , e " , \ , "OUOE 7TaVTTl OLEpXETat 0 aY)p' ov yap 7TaVTy/ E XEt, I \ I I \ " ,r ' / ' " 2 ' \ 3aEpa TO KWT)aOjLEVOV [LEpOS' tau. E}L'f'0~OV. aUTOS', "" "I, -"


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ARISTOTLE420 III ~ .... 1l l , ~ t : J " , 3 ' i i i \ . , pTJXEV atEL TO OVS' wa7TEp TO KEpaS' aei yap OLKELaV

" (' ) \ ..... (' ......" _,,')' eTLva KLV17atV a1]p KtVEL'Tat 0 EV TOtS' waLlI" a/V\ 0.1 . , ''/ '' , \ \ I " " c;, \ c ;,' ~ ,'f'0'f'0S' a/\/\oTpwS' 1(0. OUK LOWS'. Kat ow, TDVTD,I.,. " .......... " ..... tJ ) ''f'aatV aKoVELV TlfJ KEV

waTE avp./-,atJJEL TO fLEV Taxv TO OE paav5 Elvat. 7TEP~ fLEV o~V i f;6cpov TaVTn oLwplaew.

eH c;,'" / ,, \ ,1. I i!_ " , ,1.' ~ \OE 'f'WV1] 'f'0'f'0S' TtS EaTW EjL'f'VXOV TWV yap, . 1. ' '8' A . . ~ ' \ \ ' O ' e I '\ ra'f'vXWJJ ov Ell 'f'WVI,. allll.a 1(0. op.OLOT'YJTa AE')'ETal.1114

ON THE SOUL, II. VIII.like a horn; for the air in the ear always moves witha special movement of its own; but sound is from anoutside source, and not a property of the ear. Thisis why they say that we hear by something which isempty and resonant, because we hear by that whichhas the air enclosed ill it. Now which makes thesound-the thing struck or the striker? Surely both,but in different senses; for sound is the movementofwhat can be moved, in the way that things reboundfrom a smooth surface when struck against it. But,as has been said," not everything produces a sound,when it strikes or is struck, for instance, if one needlestrikes another; but that which is struck must beflat, so that the air may rebound and vibrate as onemass. But the differences in things which sound areshown in sound actually realized; for just as colourscannot be seen without light, so sharp and heavynoises cannot be distinguished without sound. Theseterms are used by analogy from the sense of touch.The sharp sensation excites to a great extent in ashort time, the heavy to a slight extent in a long time.It is not that the sharp is itself quick, while the heavyis slow, but that their respective movements differin quality because of their speed and slowness. Thereseems to be an analogy to the sharp and blunt in thesphere of touch; for the sharp stabs, so to speak,but the blunt pushes its way in, because the formerproduces its effect in a short, the latter in a long time,so that the one is swift and the other slow. So muchfor our analysis of the properties of sound.Voice is the sound produced by a creature posses- Voice.sing a soul; for inanimate things never have a voice;they can onlymetaphorically be said to givevoice, e.g.,

a 419 b 6.115

~.1


56/99

ARISTOTLE4 20 b cPwVEiv> orov avAoc; ,ca~ Avpa ica~ olJa (J).Au TWV

',1. I , I " " A Kui ihdi\EICTOVa't'v xwv asroraaur EXE~ Kat fLE OS" ,f:1 '\ ~ , . I . , . , , . . . , ." , ' \ ' ~E'EOLKE yap OTt KaL 7 J ' ('WV7J TaVT EXH, ' lTo/\I\U 0

'" _l' "C I "10 TWV ~WWV OVK EXOVIJL OLOV 'Ta TE avutfLa'\ .. ') I ') {JI , ..... , ", ,FKat TWV EvaLfLwv LXUVES. Kat TOVT Ev/\oyWS, H'lTEP

, , " e .t, ,'''/'' 'i\i\' e i\ Idipos KtV7JlJtS ns EIJTW 0 't'0'f'0S . a oi EyO-j.LEVOQ,CPWVE,+V,OlOV E V n{ > >AXEA0o,} > OVIJtTOLSI " e , I A . . " 0 ' ., "{3paYXLOtS 1 'J nVL E'TEPo,} 'TOWV'To,}. 'f'WV1] etrri'A.. I ' \ , . . . . . . I I '" 'A A . , '" ' \~wov !f0'f'0S, Kat OV 'Tl {) 'TVXOV 'TL fLOP t o ,} a E7TEL. . " " I , A . . . I I I' "11 5 sriiv "f'O'f'EI. TV'lT'TOVTOS ~rLVOS KaL 'Tt Kat EV T~Vt.

< ;- , > , , r ')' , " A . . . P A-roirro 0 EIJ'TtV aTJP, Eit//\oyWS av ' f'WVOLYJ 'TaV'Ta, CI ~ , ,) l "~ \ ......,p.m'a oao. OEXE 'TaL 'TOV aEpa. 1]oYJyap 'To,} aVa'lTVEO-I ~ < ,../ .., ,,~ , " ( )'j-tEVCP KaTaXP7J'Tat 7 J 'f'vms eire ovo Epya, o. a'lTEp'\ I , I , ~ "~ 1Tfj yIl.W'T'T'[J E'In 'TE T7JV YEVUtV Kat TYJV oLal\EKTOV ,): e , ~ , ~ (~' , \ pWV 7 J jJ-EV YEVULS avaYKawv ow Kat 'lTI\ELOIJLV

20 U ' l T C L P X E L ) , ~ S' EpfL1]VEla EVEKa TOV EV, OVTW KalF I '\ D I \"'TW 'lTVEVfLan 'lTPOS 'TE 'T7JV VEpfLo'T7JTa 'TYJV EV'TOS

e c . , . . . . . ( ' \ < ; ; : - , 1'1 ') e I " )ws avuy!(awv 'TO 0 al~'TWV EV E'TEpOtS npYJUETuL, , ''/' I er e f '\ -;- "Kat 'lTpOS 'T1]V 'f'WV1]V, 01TWS V'lTapXTJ 'TO EV. opya-~ , , ~ e A . . . 't.'" ~, < "VOV OE 'Tn avu'lTVoYJ 0 'j'0.pvy';, ou 0 EVE/(a Kat TO, ' ' ) . . . . . i \ } ' " . . . . . . IjLOptoV eo-ri 'TOV'TO, 'IT EVVWV TOV'T


57/99

ARISTOTLE4 2 () I I , , r , , J.. ,. ., ~T'Y}V KaIlOvfLEVT}V apTfJptaV ,+,WV'Yj EUTV. OV yap ' iTas

Y , , I . ' .t. J..' Ll , " ( " ,30 ':,


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ARISTOTLE421 a

" . . I . . I I .../.. """ \cu. avoa 'f 'pav'TOv. avoa' f'pav 'TOV OE TO p.,EV 7Tapa,e/). ) ~ I 5 1 1 , I' ,,~ , '\"TO OI\WS' aOVVa'TOV EXELV oa fL7Jv, 'TO OE fLL/CpaV EXOV, J 1 ., '", , '" " ,1{o"L q>avll7Jv. 0 /LOLWS' DE KaL 'TO aYEVa'TOV "EYETat .

Ean D E Kat 1 J oaCPP7J(JLS'OLa TOV fLETag., ;, o lov dEpoS'" ~/~ '\ \" ~ ~ . . . . . . , . - .10 7 J VoaTOS" cu. yap -ro. Evvopa OOKoVatv O(JfLYJ


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ARISTOTLE,4 1 : 2 J l . l> " ,J. ~ , , ,J .. , "EVLIl; 'iT0PPWO{~V O/lTaVTC!- 7TpOS 7' ' 'YJV Tp0'f'YJV v7I'0up..a

ywOj-tEva.A . 'i ", , ! . . . I ~ I '\ e ruw Kat a7l'0pov spcuverac, EI, 7TaVTa .LEV op..O~WS,,., e~, n (} ", I "oafLaTat, 0 0 av pW7I'OS ava7TVEWV ji-EV, ji-YJ ava-I ~"\\" ", 1 , ..... ')15 7TVEWV DE a!V~ EK7TJIEWV ' Y J ' KaTEXWV TO '!TVEV}La aVK

,..... ~I r () "" '8 ,~,."oap,aTat, OVTE 7TOppW Ell OVT EyyV Ell, ovo av'J I \ - ... .. 'J I ' \ 0 . . . . . \ ' \ \ "E7T/, TOV .LV8(TTJpOS EVTOS TE Y J " Kat TO /LEi! E1T, ~ (}f ~'ll I 'e 'N 'aVT4J> -ri EfLEVOV T4J> aWUYJTYJpU.p avaur YJTOV eu/ac'\, .:!\)"" ,.." A '\KOWOV 7TaVTWV' aJ1.l\a TO aVEV TOV aJ1U1TVEtv p.YJ, e 1 e ,,< :; , . , ~ > {} 1 < :; ~ \ < :' \aur UVEa at WWV E'!TL 7'WV cur PW1TWV" OTJI\OV DE

I ~ '\:If ' ~ " ! I207TELPWj-tEVOtS. ourre - r o : avuLfLa, E'!TEW7J OVK ava-, e r ~ , , " ( ) " ' i I . \1TVEOVUW, ETEpav av TLV aur YJaw EXOL '!Tapa ',as

\ 1 ",\" 8EtpO}LEva 1>a{VETat ()1TO TWll iaxvpwJl 6afLWVe - 1 . . '" " " e . . . . . - 1 . . ' , \ , ( ) I25V'/-' WV7TEp av pW7TOS, OWV au,/-,a TOV cu. tov'\.... I ' . . . J l I 8 \ ';"' ,Kat TWV TOWVTWV" ou,/-,paWEU at f-LEV OVII avay-

Ka'iov, aM 013K ava7TvlovTa."E < ;' , A '(} I < ; ',J .. , " ()otKEIOE TOIS ow PW'7TOLS ota,/-,Epnv TO aLU r; -f _ ,\ _ .,\ "\ Y , r:IT7JpLOV TOVT,O 7TpOS TO ~rwv a!Vl.WV ':oipWV, wa7TEp

, sr I " - \ " -(J ''\ \ \'ra OfLl'"aTa 'lTpOS Ta -row UlCllTJpO'f' a IJ,WV' TO. {LEV, " ,J .. if ,., "\ , Q\ ,''-yap EXEt 'f'fJ,ayp,a a: W(T'lTEP EII.VTPOV TO. jJII.E'f'apa.

C \ , C", , 's e . . . . . \ ~ \30 a f L Y J KLVYJuas f-L7JO aucurtraaas avx Opf!' - r o : DE,\ f,l,.(} \ '< :" " ~ '\\ ' '( }'UK YJPO,/-,o.,/\}La. OVuEV EXEt TOWVTOV, o.,/V\ EV EWS

e . . . . . . . ' I )...... ~,J.. " e r " . ' \apC!- -ro. ywofJLEva EV Tip OLa'f'aVEL. OVTWS OVV cu., > -I.. "() r ~" " .A.422 a TO oa'jJpO,VTUCOV aLa YJT17ptOV TOLS fLEV o.,KaI\V,/-,ESl' ~ , ~f ..... ~, '\ " ~Hva. W(},7TEP TO 0pp,a. TOtS DE TOll aEpa DEXO-I " "\ '" I ,J.LEVOtS EXEW E7TtKo.,Il.VfLfJ,a, 0 aVU7I'VEOVTWll a7TO-

KaA.v7TTEufJa~J ()LEVPVVOfLEJ~WVTWV cfo'\Ef3tWV KaL TWVI \~ ..... \) I ') ~ ......7TOpWV. Kat oui TOVTO -ra ava7TVEOVTa OVK aCfp,aTo.,&

ON THE SOUL, II. IX.which live in the air; for some of them, guided bythe scent, come from a great distance to find theirfood.Hence a problem presents itself. All animals smell How the. h hil 1 11 duri . senseofm t e same way, w 1 e man on y sme s uurmg m- smell oper.halation; when not inhaling, but either exhaling or ates,holding the breath, he cannot smell either at a dis-tance or at close range, not even if the object of smellis placed inside and in contact with the nostril. Thatwhat is placed on the sense organ should be imper-ceptible is common to all senses; but to perceiveno smell without inhaling seems to be peculiar toman. The fact, when tested, is obvious. So thatbloodless animals, since they do not inhale, wouldseem to have another sense beyond the usuallyaccepted ones. But this is impossible, if what theyperceive is smell ; for perception of the odorous, andof sweet or foul smell, is an act of smelling. Again,we can observe that they are destroyed by the samestrong smells, such as bitumen, sulphur and the like,which destroy man. Sothey must smell, but withoutinhaling.Probably this sense organ in man differs from its Man differstI th 1"" . t h from thecounterpar m 0 er lVmgcreatures, JUs as uman animal.eyes are different from those of hard-eyed animals;for human eyes have lids as a covering, and

Aristotle, On the Soul, Translated by Hett

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