http://www.jstor.orgAristotle and EducationAuthor(s): Felix C.
RobbSource: Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 20, No. 4, (Jan.,
1943), pp. 202-213Published by: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (Taylor
& Francis Group)Stable URL:
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ANDEDUCATION FELIXC.ROBB Birmingham Southern College "For hym
wasleverhaveathisbeddesheed Twentybookes, cladinblakor reed,
OfAristotleandhis philosophie, Thanrobes riche, or fithele, or gay
sautrie." -Chaucer Thetwo greatperiods ofGreekeducational thought
werethe HellenicandtheHellenistic.Betweenthemlived
Aristotle,adjudged by
commonconsentthebesteducatedmanwhoeverlived.Hewas a
philosopher,psychologist,logician,moralist,politicalthinker, bio-
logist, and literary critic-amanwhoseremarkablebreadthand depth of
learning have inspired admirationand praise in everyage.
ToEusebiushewas"nature's privatesecretary,dipping his pen in
intellect;" to Dante, the"masterofthosethatknow."ToAlexander
Bainhewasa"devoteetofactsandamasterofthe highest ab- stractions;"
to Hegel, "a manbesidewhomno age hasan equal."1 Perhaps morethan
any other person, Aristotlehasdeterminedthe fundamental concepts
ofwestern thought.Byanalyzing,defining, and classifying
thevariousbranchesof knowledge helaidthe
foundationsformodernscienceand philosophy. His writings,par-
ticularly the Organon, foundtheir way into university curricula
andremainedtheretodominatethe thinking oftheMiddle Ages.
Evensolateastheseventeenth century, JohnLockewasheardto say
withanoteof exasperation abouttheOxford curriculum, "The
AristotleoftheSchoolmenstilldeterminesthestudiesofthe place."
Ithasbeen suggested thatthesuccessionSocrates-Plato-Aristotle
hasareal unity, andthatinAristotle'sworksistobefoundthe
fulfillmentoftheSocratic impulse.2Certainly itis difficult, ifnot
impossible, toconsiderAristotlewithout lingeringupon hisrelation
tohis predecessors. Hewas very muchaPlatonist.In fact, Plato
wouldhavehim every inchaPlatonist. For, onceafterAristotlehad
intimatedthatallwisdomwouldnotdiewith Plato, theoldmaster
issaidtohavereferredtohisbrilliant pupil as"a foalthatkickshis
motherafter draining her dry."3 'ThomasDavidson,
AristotleandAncientEducationalIdeals,pp.153, 154. 2J.L.
Stocks,Aristotelianism,p. 13. "Benn, TheGreek
Philosophers,London,1882, Vol. I,p. 283. [202]
ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION Nevertheless,
detailsoftheinfluenceofPlatoandothers upon
Aristotle'sworkarewithoutthe scope ofthis paper, the purpose
ofwhichistostatetheessentialfactsofhis life, tosearchouthis
beliefswhichbearmost directlyupon education. I.LIFEOF ARISTOTLE
Aristotlewasborninthe year 384B.C.Socrateshadbeendead fifteen
years, Platowas 43, andthe Academy had already beenin existencefora
year ortwo.His birthplace wastheIonian colony of Stagira, in
Thrace, abouttwohundredmilestothenorthofAthens.
Hismotherwasdescendedfromthe early settlersofthe place and his
father,Nichomachus, wasacourt physician intheserviceof
AmyntasII,King ofMacedonand grandfather ofAlexanderthe Great.
Justhowconsiderableorhow direct, wastheinfluenceofNicho- machus
upon hissonisamatterfor conjecture. Itwas possibly through the
encouragement ofhisfatherthatAristotle developed aninterestin
physicalphenomena andthus prepared himselfto
becomethe"founderofscience."Asonewriter expressesit, Aristotle was
"broughtup intheodorofmedicine."4 Still, herefusedto
followtheancestral professionand, afterthedeathofhis parents,
journeyed southtoAthensto study underthefamedPlato.Tra-
ditionhasitthatinAthensthe eighteen-year-old lad,inquiring the way
tothe Academy, waslabeleda"barbarian" by astreetidler andwas
givenroguish directionsinsomesuchmannerasthis:
"Ifthouwouldstfindthe Academy, walknorthwest through the
Dipylongate, followthe Cephissus Riveramileorsotothesuburb
oftheCeramicus.Therethoucanstseea garden witha high wall.
Ifthouheareststudents makinggreat talkbeneaththe trees,apply thy
uncouth ear, andifthoucanstnotunderstandawordof it, thou
wiltknowthouhastreachedthe place thouseekest."5 For
nearlytwentyyears Aristotleremainedatthe Academy in pursuit
oftruthand goodness,listening tothe aging Plato, and acquiring
thatvast encyclopedicknowledge whichlaterhewas
tosetforthinlecturesandscientifictreatises.Hedelvedinto every phase
of learning,nothingbeing soobscureordetailedastoforbid
hisobservationofit. Beingfairly welloff financially, he began the
collectionof manuscripts forhisown library, thesecondsuchcol-
lectioninexistenceatthattime.Aboutthemethodsand subjects of study
atthe Academy weknowlittle.WedoknowthatAristotle 'Durant, The
StoryofPhilosophy,p. 58. 'Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, Vol.
1,p. 283. 1943] 203 PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION taught inthe
school,perhaps rhetoric;thathewastutored by a Plato occupied
withthe problems of"ideas"andtheir divisibility;
thathereceivedtherethe germ ofhis logic and metaphysics; that
heassistedPlatoinhiswork and, in time, roseto challenge the
teachings ofhis master, even rejecting themostfundamentalof them,
thedoctrineofself-existentideas.Plato recognized the great-
nessofhis amazingpupil fromthenorthand spoke ofhimasthe "Nous"
ofthe Academy-thepersonification of intelligence.
WhenPlatodiedhewassucceededasheadofthe Academyby a
nephew,Speusippus.Seemingly, Aristotledidnottakeoffenseat
thissacrificeofmerittothe "partiality of blood," and having written
versesin praise ofhisdeceased master, hedeterminedtoleaveAthens.
Aristotlehadnowreachedtheendofthefirstofthree periods into
whichhislife may be divided;(1) His stay atthe Academy,(2) That
period bestdescribed by theGermanword "Wanderjahre," and (3) The
period ofhisworkasheadofthe Peripatetic schoolinthe Lyceum
atAthens. With Xenocrates, anotherofPlato's pupils, Aristotle
journeyed to Atarneus, thehomeofhisformer guardian.Uponarrival, he
learnedthatanoldfriendandfellow student, Hermeias,hadbecome tyrant
ofthat region. Aristotleremainedthereforthree years,
marriedHermeias' adopteddaughter, andmovedtotheislandof Lesbos,
whereshe died,.leaving himaninfant daughter. Soonthere-
afterhewascalledtothecourtof Philip ofMacedontotake charge
oftheeducationof youngAlexander, thenthirteen years old. In
training sucha youth as Alexander, Aristotlecould onlyhope to give
anewdirectionto passions and powers whichitwastoo
latetomoderateorcontrol.Histreatiseon politics hassetforththe plan
ofeducationbest adapted to persons ofthe highest rankin society;
andin performing thetask assigned tohim byPhilip, this plan
wastobemodified byadjusting ittothe peculiar circumstarices andthe
extraordinary characterofa pupil destinedtobethe military
masteroftheworld. Very littleisknownaboutthis period of Aristotle's
life, a thing tobe regretted, for knowledge ofthat period
wouldcastconsiderable light onhiseducational practices andbeliefs.
Thedeathof Philip andtheaccessionofAlexandertothethrone
terminatedAristotle's stay inMacedon."Asthe pupil setoutto conquer
theinhabited world, themastersettledinAthenstoestablish
hisdominionoverthewholefieldof knowledge. Itwasoneofthose
raremomentsin history whenthebarriersseemto fall, tillthe only
limitisthatset by shortnessoflifeor weaknessofwill."6
'Stocks,op.cit.,p. 33. 204 [January ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION Finding
Xenocratesin charge ofthe Academy, Aristotle opened a
schoolinasuburban gymnasium, knownasthe Lyceum,where, in spite ofa
growinghostility tohispolitical affiliations, studentsin large
numberscameto partake ofhis great knowledge. His energies
nowweredividedbetweenintensive writing and teaching, andhe
foundtimefor physical exercise only while engaged: ithelatter. This
practice of strolling aboutthe "peripaton," orwalk,ofthe temple of
LycianApollo whilehe taughtgave toAristotleandhisfollowers thename
"Peripatetics." Itwas during hissecondresidencein Athens,
inthetwelveyears from335to323 B.C., thatAristotle composed
mostofthegreat worksinwhichhe sought tosum up theresultsofalifeof
study and thought. These years we may considerasthethirdofthethree
major periods intowhichhislifehasbeendivided.Hehadbeeninno hasteto
put himselfon record, anditwasnotuntilhehadreached a
consistentviewoftheworldthatheventuredto treat, inadefinitive
way,anyaspect ofit.Thusitwasthateachofhistreatisesformeda part
ofone great wholeof thought.Unfortunately his plan wasnot
completed, andoftheworkswhichhedidwrite only aportionhas
comedowntous. Aristotle's writings
ranintothehundreds.Theexotericworks
whichheintendedforcirculationhavebeen lost, while only the
esotericandlessreadablediscoursesin philosophy andscienceremain.
Hisworksin logic-the"Categories,""Topics," "Prior" and"Posterior
Analytics," and "Sophistical Refutation"werecollectedandedited by
later Peripatetics underthegeneraltitleofAristotle's Organon.
Itwasthis work,translated byBoethius, whichbecamethemoldof
mediaeval thought andthebulwarkofScholasticism. During the years
thatAristotlewas engaged inhis prodigious workat Athens, his
position was becoming moreandmoreinsecure. Following thedeathof
Alexander, a longsuppressedhostility ofthe anti-Macedon party
burstforth against Aristotlewithirresistible violence.Their
chargeagainst himwas impiety, more specifically, the
deificationofamortal.Aristotlefoundit expedient towithdraw
fromAthenstohis country homeat Chalcis,saying thathewould not give
Athensachancetosinasecondtime againstphilosophy. While awaiting
anotherturnofaffairshewastakenillandinthe ye4r
322hediedofadiseasefromwhichhehad long suffered. Forallhis
greatlearning Aristotlewasa very human person. We
missinhimthevisionand poetic charmof Plato, forcommonreason
washissole authority. Yetwe may besurethathelovedlifeas hedid
learning, thathefelta genuine affectionforhisrelatives 19433 205
PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION and friends, andthathisintimateswere
impressedby the nobility, the kindness, and justice ofhisnature.
II.ARISTOTLE'SEDUCATIONALBELIEFS In1918 theN.E.A.Commissiononthe
Reorganization of Secondary Education produced
adocumentwhichwasintendedtosetanew goal for high
schoolsinAmerica.Inthis report theCommission
heldthateducation"should develop ineachindividualthe knowledge,
interests,ideals,habits, and powerswhereby hewillfindhis place
andusethat place to shape bothhimselfand society towardever
noblerideals."7Thatstatementwould hardly bemoreAristotelianif
Aristotlehadwrittenithimself. Furthermore, Aristotle anticipated by
sometwothousand years allbutoneoftheseven greatprinciples
setforthinthe report. That exception wasvocationaleducation.
Witharathernaive conception oflifeinhisideal community,
Aristotlefailedtoenvisionthe complexities ofanindustrialized
worldwhenhewarned against vocational training and any semblance of
"professionalism" intheschools.Inhisschemeof things the drudgery
ofmanuallaborand craftsmanship wastodevolve upon
slaves,mechanics,farmers, andthe like-personsdeniedthe rights of
citizenship. Fortheeducationofthesemembersofthestatewho arenot
citizensthereisnoprovision.They learntheir practical duties
byperforming them. Thematterof training for citizenship
isessentialtoanunderstand- ing ofAristotle's philosophy
ofeducation.Hebelievedinanaris- tocracy ofintellect and, with
typical Greekdisdainformanual labor,
wrote:"Hewhocanforeseewithhismindis by natureintendedto belordand
master; andhewhocanwork only withhis body is by natureaslave."8
AtonetimeAristotlemadea study oftheconstitutionalhistories
ofovertwohundredand fifty differentstates.Asaresultofthis
investigation heconcludedthatthestateisthe highest socialinsti-
tution, onewhichsecuresthe highestgood or happiness ofman.To
thestateisowedthe allegiance and support ofallitscitizensand
itssubordinateinstitutions.The highest artofman-Aristotlecalls
itPolitics-istodirect society soasto produce the greatestgood for
mankind.Andbecausethesuccessofastate dependsupon thede- velopment
ofa happy, virtuous, and intelligentcitizenry, the purpose ofthe
state,therefore, istoeducateitscitizens.Educationmust beamatterof
public concern, andnot something lefttothe caprice of parents.
'EllwoodP. Cubberley, PublicEducationintheUnited States,p.633,
sAristotle,Politics, Book 1, ch. 2, sec.1252b. 206 [*January
ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION AnAristotelianeducationshall necessarily
havereferencetosome community. Inthis community
itshallbethefunctionofeducation tofitthe young for
intelligentparticipation incivicactivities. Only
inthismannercantheinstitutionsofthestatebe safeguarded and the
plurality whichisthestatebemadeintoa unity. Above all, the
citizenshallbe taught obedienceto existinglaw, elsethestateis
impossible. Happiness isamatterofchiefconcerninAristotle's
conception of the good life. Everycommunity shallhaveasitsultimate
goal the attainmentof happiness; andthat city isbest governed which
pro- videsthe greatestopportunity foritsattainment. Happiness,by
Aristotle's definition, is essentially therealizationandtheexercise
ofvirtue.This virtue, or goodness, isoftwokinds: goodness of
intellectand goodness ofcharacter.Intellectual integrity isin-
creased mainlybyinstruction, whereasfinenessofcharacteris produced
inusnot bynature, but by habitsformed through our relationtoa
proper environment.Itisataskoftheschoolto provide
thatdesirableenvironment.
BecauseweoftenlikebestwhatevercomesfirstAristotlewould
keepveryyoung children "strangers" toallthatis bad, untilsuch
atimeastheir training shallhave developed inthem powers of
discrimination. Thereafter, itisnot bysuppressingfeelings or by
removing all opportunities for wrong actionthathewouldmake
peoplegood, butrather byletting themhavethe feelings andcom- mitthe
acts,directing themsothatthese feelings andactionsshall constitutea
training in rightjudgment. RecallthatoneofthesevenCardinal
Principles or objectives of the twentieth-century
schoolis"ethicalcharacter."Charactertrain- ing
inAristotle'sschemeofeducationtakes precedence overallother
immediate objectives oftheschool.Onecan hardly avoid noting the
rigorous natureofthe schooling herecommends.This aspect is
broughtforcibly tomind by the following linesfromtheEthics.
Commentingexpansively, JohnBurnet says of them, "Thisisthebest
accountofthe training ofcharacterthathaseverbeen given and shouldbe
engraved intheheartof every educator."9 Strength is
producedbytaking a great dealofnourishmentandunder- going a great
dealof exertion, anditis just the strong manthatcando these things
best.Soitisinthecaseof goodness. Itis byabstaining from pleasures
thatwebecome temperate anditiswhenwehavebecometem- perate
thatwearebestabletoabstainfromthem.So again with courage; itis
byhabituating ourselvesto despiseobjects offearand byfacing
themthatwebecome courageous, anditiswhenwehavebecome courageous
thatweshallbestbeabletofacethem. 'John Burnet, Aristotleon
Education,p. 48. 19433 207 PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION Wemusttakethe
pleasures andpains-that supervene uponouractions as symptoms
ofourcondition.Themanwhoabstainsfrom bodilypleasures andactually
enjoys :ding sois temperate, whilethemanwhodoessobut dislikesitis
intemperate. Themanwhofaces danger and enjoysdoing so, orat any
rateisnot painedby it,isbrave;buttheman whofacesitwith
painisacoward.For goodness ofcharacterhas to dowithpleasuresand
pains. Itis pleasure thatmakesusdowhatisbad,andpainthat makes
usabstainfromwhatis right. Thatis why we require tobetrainedfrom
ourearliest youth, asPlatohas it, t6feel pleasure andpain
attheright things. Trueeducationisjustthat.0
Aristotlemaintainedtoafaultthatthisisatwo-valuedworld. Itisaworldof
night and day, of good and evil, ofbusinessand pleasure, warand
peace.Byenormouslyextending this listofbal- anced, or opposing,
valuesitbecomestheconsiderabletaskofeduca- tiontotrain persons
forthebetteralternatives. We mightlogicallyexpect
thatsuchalearnedmanasAristotle
wouldbeobliviousofthesocialforceswhich shape a growing child
andwouldexalt scholarship attheexpenseofsocial development.
However, suchwasnotthecase.A part ofthelittlethatisknown
aboutAristotle's training ofAlexanderrevealsthatinAristotle's
schoolat Mieza, Alexanderwas by nomeansthe onlypupil. Such an
arrangement wouldhavebeeninconsistentwithone: ofthefunda- mental
principles ofAristotle's pedagogicalsystem. Forheheld that
education, particularly moral education, was largely tobeat- tained
through personalassociations. The sharp and irritating
cornersofachild's personality wouldbe dubbedoff byrubbing
elbowswithotherchildren.Insuchmanner couldthechild experience
learning of great socialvalue.Aristotle knewthatanother rugged
littleindividualistcouldteach head-strong Alexander manythings with
greater successthanhe. Inhisown teaching, atthe Lyceum and
elsewhere, Aristotle ap- proached
theidealofinformaleducation.AsPlatoand Socrates, he epitomized
that"comaraderie"of pupil andteacherwhichlends itselfbesttothe
fellowship ofkeenmindsandthe contemplation of high-order
abstractions.Itisa relationship difficulttoachievein the grade
schoolswherementalandsocialdifferencesare greatest, yet
itisbasictothesuccessful guidance ofa pupil. Toonewhose study
ofancient philosophers hasbeenlimitedthe "modernity"
ofAristotlecomesasamild surprise. For instance, the "modern"and
challenging problemofhowschoolchildren may be guided toa worthy
useof spare timehasitsancient counterpart in Aristotle's "gospel
ofleisure."Morethantwomillenniums ago he was asserting thatthe
highest educationisintendedtofitusforthe 'Aristotle, Nichomachean
Ethics, Book 2, ch. 2, sec.1104b. 208 [January
ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION right
andnobleuseofleisure.ItisAristotle'scontention that, since wecannot
alwayswork, ifoureducationhasnotfittedustouse our spare time
rightly, wearesuretotaketothelifeofmereamuse- ment. Physical
educationwas always amatterof primary concerntothe ancientGreeks.In
regard tohealthAristotleis veryspecific. Care ofthe bodyought to
precede thatofthemind. Physicalwell-being is
essentialtomentalhealthandabalancemustbemaintainedbetween bodily
exerciseand training ofthemind.Innocaseshouldchildren bebrutalized
bysubjection toviolenteffort. Youngsters ought not
atthesametimetolaborwiththeirmindsand bodies, for"thelabor ofthe
bodyimpedes the mind, andthelaborofthemindthe body."12 Turning
nowtothemore scholarly phaseof education, wefind
thatAristotlewasthefirsttoformulatethe logic ofinduction13and
issaidtohaveusedtheinductiveprocessmorethan any manin prior or
subsequent ages.14 Forthis persistent andimmenselabor heis justly
calledtheFatherof Logic. The underlyingthought in his theory
ofinductionisthis:Truthrevealsitself subjectively in
thehistoricconsciousnessoftheraceand objectively inthefactsof
nature. Therefore, hismethodof learning istoseeknew light from
whatis already knownand observed,proceeding totheunknown by
meansofinductionand syllogism.1" Aristotlehada deep concernforthe
objectivepresent, asevidenced by his great intellectual curiosity,
hiscareful observations, andhis classificationofaccumulatedfacts.
Emphasis was placedupon the concreteembodimentofideasas against the
conceptionalism andthe universalsofPlato.Hiswork represented a
turningaway from vague generalities
totheprecisionofascientificmethod. Despite this scientific
tendency,experimentation hadlittle place inAristotle's
technique,probably because satisfactoryexperimental mechanisms
wereatthattimeunknown.l1 Aristotle'sinterestsrantoward biology
andnatural science, toward the physicalphenomena of life,
ratherthantomathematical concepts
andsheerideation.WiththeaidofAlexanderthe Great, hewasable
toestablishafine zoologicalgarden filledwith specimens fromall the
regions traversed by thearmiesofhisformer pupil.Through "Ari-totle,
Politics.Book8.ch.5. sec.1339a. 'J.M. Warbeke.The Searching Mind
ofGreece,p. 277. "BecausethelittlethatAristotlewrote concerning
theartof indlctive reasoning was lost,
followersandinterpretorsofthemasterofinduction ironically fastened
upon thehumanracethe type ofintellectuallifethatwas
deductiveincharacter. '"Aristotle'sfamous syllogism:
"Allmenaremortal.Socratesisaman. Therefore,Socratesismortal." "Will
Durant, The StoryofPhilosophy,pp. 64-65. 19433209
PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION hisobservationoftheseandother phenomena
hewas intriguedby the continuity ofnatureandallbuthit upon the
evolutionaryprocess asthe way oflife.17
ConsiderableattentionhasbeendirectedtoAristotle's philosophy ofthe
"golden mean." Applied toeducationthis philosophy would provide
aflexible school,adaptable toconditions existing under quite
differentconstitutions.Itwouldbea school proceedingsanely toward
its objectives, aschoolwhere theory isnot givenprecedence over
practice, andwhereno singlephase ofchild development receives
emphasis tothedetrimentofothers. By thissame concept all per-
ception isviewedasthe power to apprehend deflectionsfromamean.
Virtuebecomesanexerciseofsuchtraitsasare destroyedby excess or
deficiency and preservedby themean.Sincethemeanwilllie wherea
prudent manwould putit,emphasis isthrown upon educa- tion,practice,
and progress. Aristotleconceivedoflifeasa process ofactive
development, not simply aconditionof being; andin outlining a
system ofeducation hefollowedanorderofhuman development
whichseemednatural. Inthe concluding sentenceofPoliticshesums up
his philosophy in thesewords:"Thus
isclearthateducationshouldbebased upon three principles-themean,
the possible, the becoming, thesethree."18 III.ARISTOTLE'SSCHEMEOF
PUBLIC EDUCATION Theeducative process, administered by aselect
group of citizens, knownasthe "guardians of education,"may
bedividedintothree periods: education during thefirstseven years,
the years fromseven to twenty-one, andlifeafter twenty-one.19
1.Thefirstseven years. Marriage
isamatterofbasicconcerntoeducation.Thestatemust assume
responsibility fortheeducationofchildrenevenbeforetheir
birth,byforbiddingmarriage to any who might be physically or
mentally unfit.Thestatelimitsthenumberofchildrenandsees
tothedestructionor exposure ofdefectivesandthoseborninexcess ofthe
quota. Neitherathletesnor weaklings are byphysical make- up
suitedfor parenthood. Aristotlerevealsthatthebest age for matrimony
is thirty-seven foramanand eighteen forawoman.20 Youthful marriages
are undesirable, forthechildrenareoftensmall, ill-developed,
and"tendtobefemale." Furthermore, thechildrenin 'EdwinWallace,
Outlines of the PhilosophyofAristotle,p. 83. "Aristotle,
Politics.Book 8, sec.1342b. "Practically
allthatAristotlewroteaboutformal pducaticn iscortainpe
inBooksSevenand Eight of Politics, a fragmentary work.
"Aristotlewas thirty-seven atthetimeofhisfirst marriage. 210
CJanuary ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION suchinstancesconsider themselves
contemporaries oftheir parents and are contemptuous. Although
children must remain at home until they are seven years old, slight
stress islaid upon the family as aninstitution oran edu- cative
influence.Aristotle seems more aware of the dangers of family life.
However, hedoesnotrecommend suchaunification ofstate
aswouldabolishthe familyaltogether. He merely feelsthatin- sistence
upon the complete brotherhood of man, and especially the communism
of wives, would yield adiluted affection, as hefeltthat communismof
property wouldresultina shirking ofcivicre- sponsibility. Much
careshouldbeexercisedin providing proper nourishment for young
children.Inthe earlyyearsthey should become inured to
cold,exposure, andotherforceswhichincrease hardihood, if
survived.The loud screaming and crying of children ought not to be
checked, for straining thevoicehasa strengthening effect upon the
body. Little children, up tothe age of five, arenottobe subjected
to any instruction or rigorous discipline, things thatconstitute
impedi- mentsto earlygrowth.Playactivities, if properlyconducted,
are types offuturestudies.Games andotheramusements ofchildren
should not be vulgar, tiring, or effeminate. The; environmentof
youngsters needcarefulcontrol. Impro- prieties of speech and
manner, improper pictures or statues, and contact withslaves should
be prohibited from their early experience. Thus, by thetime they
areold enough to"sit atthe public tables and drink strong wine"
education willhave armed them against evil influences. 2.The years
fromsevento twenty-one. There arefourbranches offormal training
inAristotle's curricu- lum: letters,gymnasticexercises,music,
andsometimes drawing. Letters and drawing are taught
fortheirusefulnessinthe ordinary conduct of life;gymnastics foster
manliness; butsomedoubt exists in Aristotle's mind as to the
purpose of music. About the teaching of letters Aristotle has
written little. According tosomeauthors this subject
includesalloftheSevenLiberal Arts butmusic.Whetherornotthatis true,
Aristotle recognized the importance of reading and writing as
essential tools for the acquire- ment of additional knowledge. The
drama and other arts are valued for their "purging" effect upon the
emotions and passions.Byproper
excitementandcatharsisthefineartstrainchildren's emotions, draining
themoffina pleasant andharmless way. 1943] 211
PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION Educationofthe body is designed to
supplement other phases of child development
andshouldnotbecomeanendinitself.Up to the age of puberty children
ought to undergoonlylight exercises whichwillnot impedegrowth. When
boyhood is over,young men devotethemselvesforthree years tothe
study of letters,music, and drawing,unhamperedby the physical
exertionsof gymnastics. Thenceforth, untilthe completion
oftheformaleducation, they are subjected tosevereexerciseandstrict
dieting, mentalexertion being reducedtoaminimum. Concerning
musicasabranchof study Aristotlehaswrittenan almostelaborate essay.
He begins thediscussion byinquiring as
tothenatureandfunctionofmusic.Isitanamusement, an occupa-
tionforcultured leisure, ora gymnastic forthesoul?Heconcludes
thatitisall three, andis worthy of study forthesakeof any one
ofthem.Atthesame time, itschiefvalueineducationliesinits
thirduse-asaninstrumentofmoralworthandasan expression
ofthesoul.Becausemusicmakestheheartsofmen glad, we may
assumethatchildren ought tobetrainedinit. Variousresultsofmusic may
ensue.Somemusicis saddening, enfeebling themind. Phrygian
harmoniesarouseenthusiasm.Some music gives asentimentalturntoone's
thoughts. Doricharmonies produce a feeling
ofbalanceandcollectedness.Thereiscoarsemusic and refined,
fromwhichitisobviousthatmusichasa power toform
characterandthereforeshouldbeincludedasa part oftheeducation ofthe
young. Having convincedhimselfthatmusicisa propersubject ofin-
struction, Aristotlewonders why weshouldbothertotrainchildren to
play musicalinstrumentsthemselves.Cannottruepleasurebe
hadandcorrect judgments formedfrom hearing others?Theanswer
iscontainedinhisassertionthat"itis difficult, ifnot impossible, for
thosewhodonot perform tobe goodjudges ofthe performance of
others."21 Besides, childrenmusthave something todoforamuse- ment
and,just astherattleisthe properthing forbabiesto prevent themfrom
breakingthings aboutthe house, somusicalinstruction
isasuitablerattleforolderchildren.
Themostbeneficialresultsofmusical training willbeattained if,
insteadof engaging inlaborious practice, suchasis necessary for
public exhibitionanda display of"fantasticmarvelsof execution,"
childrenwilllearn justenough toenablethemtotake delight in noble
songs and rhythms. Fromthis principle we may
inferwhatinstrumentsshouldbe 21Aristotle,Politics, Book 8, ch. 5,
sec.1340b. EJanuary212 ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION used. Any
instrumentwhich requiresgreatskill, asfor example the fluteandthe
harp,ought nottobeadmittedintoeducation.Aristotle hasa special
dislikeforthe flute,saying thatitisaninstrumentnot expressive
ofmoralcharacter.In fact, becauseitistoo exciting,
itisimmoralandshouldberesortedtowhenthe performance aims notat
instruction, butatthereliefofthe passions. Those rhythms and songs
whicharesedateand expressive of manly
character-Doricharmonies-followthemeanbetweentheextremi- tiesof
feeling andaremosttobedesired. Music, when played for audiences,
needstobe appropriate tothe occasion, aswellastothe age
andnatureofthelisteners.Sincetherearetwokindsof public,
theonefreeand cultivated, theotherrudeand vulgar, thereshould be
played selectionswhichafford pastime tothelatteraswellasthe
former.Ethicalharmoniesshouldbe taughtchildren; therestto
beleftforprofessionals. 3.Lifeafter twenty-one. Thosewho
successfullycomplete thestatesystemofeducation becomecitizensandare
assigned to posts ofactive service, where theymayput to practical
usetheir philosophy. As theygrowolder, theygradually
risetopositions demanding less practice andmore thought.Finally
theiractivedutiesceaseand they devotetheir entiretimeto
speculativephilosophy, in contemplation ofdivine things. The very
oldestarechosenas priests, sothat theymay
"livewiththegods."Thusdomen graduallypass fromtheworld
oftimetotheworldof eternity. AndthusdoesAristotlesettlethe question
oftherelativevaluesofthe practical andthe contemplative
life.Heseesthemas complements ofeachother. 1943] 213