Architecture of Indonesia

Architecture of IndonesiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia  (Redirected from Indonesian architecture)

Pagaruyung Palace in the MinangkabauRumah gadang style.

The Architecture of Indonesia reflects the diversity of cultural, historical and geographic influences that have

shaped Indonesia as a whole. Invaders, colonisers, missionaries, merchants and traders brought cultural

changes that had a profound effect on building styles and techniques. Traditionally, the most significant foreign

influence has been Indian. However, Chinese, Arab—and since the 18th and 19th centuries—European

influences have been important.

Contents

  [hide] 

1 Religious architecture2 Traditional vernacular architectureo 2.1 Exampleso 2.2 Decline

3 Palace architecture4 Colonial architecture5 Post independence architecture6 Contemporary architecture7 See also8 Notes9 Bibliography

10 External links

[edit]Religious architectureSee also: Ancient temples of Java

The Prambanan temple complex

Although religious architecture has been widespread in Indonesia, the most significant was developed in Java.

The island's long tradition of religious syncretismextended to architecture, which fostered uniquely Javanese

styles of Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and to a lesser extent, Christian architecture.

A number of often large and sophisticated religious structures (known as candi in Indonesian) were built in Java

during the peak of Indonesia's great Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms between the 8th and 14th centuries

(see Ancient temples of Java). The earliest surviving Hindu temples in Java are at the Dieng Plateau. Thought

to have originally numbered as many as 400, only 8 remain today. The Dieng structures were small and

relatively plain, but architecture developed substantially and just 100 years later the second Kingdom of

Mataram built the Prambanan complex near Yogyakarta; considered the largest and finest example of Hindu

architecture in Java. The World Heritage-listed Buddhist monument Borobudur was built by

the Sailendra Dynasty between 750 and 850 AD, but it was abandoned shortly after its completion as a result

of the decline of Buddhism and a shift of power to eastern Java. The monument contains a vast number of

intricate carvings that tell a story as one moves through to the upper levels, metaphorically

reaching enlightenment. With the decline of the Mataram Kingdom, eastern Java became the focus of religious

architecture with an exuberant style reflecting Shaivist, Buddhist and Javanese influences; a fusion that was

characteristic of religion throughout Java.

"Grand Mosque" of Yogyakarta shows Javanese interpretation and took Hindu heritage of Meru stepped roofs.

Although brick was used to some extent during Indonesia's classical era, it was the Majapahit builders who

mastered it, using a mortar of vine sap and palm sugar. The temples of Majaphit have a strong geometrical

quality with a sense of verticality achieved through the use of numerous horizontal lines often with an almost

art-deco sense of streamlining and proportion. Majapahit influencess can be seen today in the enormous

number of Hindu temples of varying sizes spread throughout Bali (see gallery below). Several significant

temples can be found in every village, and shrines, even small temples found in most family homes. Although

they have elements in common with global Hindu styles, they are of a style largely unique to Bali and owe

much to the Majapahit era.

By the fifteenth century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, Indonesia's two most

populous islands. As with Hinduism and Buddhism before it, the new religion, and the foreign influences that

accompanied it, were absorbed and reinterpreted, with mosques given a unique Indonesian/Javanese

interpretation. At the time, Javanese mosques took many design cues from Hindu, Buddhist, and even Chinese

architectural influences (see image of "Grand Mosque" in Yogyakarta). They lacked, for example, the

ubiquitous Islamic dome which did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century, but had tall timber, multi-

level roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples still common today. A number of significant early

mosques survive, particularly along the north coast of Java. These include the Mesjid Agung in Demak, built in

1474, and the Menara Kudus Mosque in Kudus (1549) whose minaret is thought to be the watch tower of an

earlier Hindu temple. Javanese mosque styles in turn influenced the architectural styles of mosques among its

neighbors, among other the mosques in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Maluku, and also

neighboring Malaysia, Brunei and the southern Philippines. Sultan Suriansyah

Mosque in Banjarmasin and Kampung Hulu Mosque in Malacca for example displaying Javanese influence.

In 19th century, the sultanates of Indonesian archipelago began to adopt and absorb foreign influences

of Islamic architecture, as alternative to Javanese style already popular in the archipelago. TheIndo-

Islamic and Moorish style are particularly favoured by Aceh Sultanate and Deli Sultanate, as displayed

in Banda Aceh Baiturrahman Grand Mosque built in 1881, and Medan Grand Mosque built in 1906. Particularly

during the decades since Indonesian independence, mosques have tended to be built in styles more consistent

with global Islamic styles, which mirrors the trend in Indonesia towards more orthodox practice of Islam.

[edit]Traditional vernacular architecture

An avenue of houses in a Torajan village

Rumah gadang near Lake Singkarak,West Sumatra, Indonesia

Each of Indonesia's ethnic groups has its own distinctive form of the traditional vernacular architecture of

Indonesia, known as rumah adat.[1] Rumah adat are at the centre of a web of customs, social relations,

traditional laws, taboos, myths and religions that bind the villagers together. The house provides the main focus

for the family and its community, and is the point of departure for many activities of its residents.[2] Traditional

Indonesian homes are not architect designed, rather villagers build their own homes, or a community will pool

their resources for a structure built under the direction of a master builder and/or a carpenter.[1]

With few exceptions, the peoples of the Indonesian archipelago share a common Austronesian ancestry

(originating in Taiwan, c. 6,000 years ago[3]), and traditional homes of Indonesia share a number of

characteristics such as timber construction, varied and elaborate roof structures.[3] The earliest Austronesian

structures were communal longhouses on stilts, with steep sloping roofs and heavy gables, as seen in

the Batak rumah adat and the Torajan Tongkonan .[3] Variations on the communal longhouse principle are found

among the Dayak people of Borneo, as well as the Mentawai people.[3]

Traditional house in Nias; its post, beam and lintel construction with flexible nail-less joints, and non-load bearing walls are typical of rumah adat

A traditional Batak Toba house in North Sumatra

A fishing village of pile houses in theRiau archipelago

The norm is for a post, beam and lintel structural system that take load straight to the ground with

either wooden or bamboo walls that are non-load bearing. Traditionally, rather than nails, mortis and tenon

joints and wooden pegs are used. Natural materials - timber, bamboo, thatch and fibre - make up rumah

adat.Hardwood is generally used for piles and a combination of soft and hard wood is used for the house's

upper non-load bearing walls, and are often made of lighter wood or thatch.[4] The thatch material can

be coconut and sugar palm leaves,alang alang grass and rice straw.

Traditional dwellings have developed to respond to natural environmental conditions, particularly Indonesia's

hot and wet monsoon climate. As is common throughout South East Asia and the South West Pacific,

most rumah adat are built onstilts, with the exception of Java and Bali.[1] Building houses off the ground on stilts

serve a number of purposes: it allows breezes to moderate the hot tropical temperatures; it elevates the

dwelling above stormwater runoff and mud; it allows houses to be built on rivers and wetland margins; it keeps

people, goods and food from dampness and moisture; lifts living quarters above malaria-carrying mosquitos;

and reduces the risk of dry rot and termites.[5] The sharply inclined roof allows the heavy tropical rain to quickly

sheet off, and large overhanging eaves keep water out of the house and provide shade in the heat.[6] In hot and

humid low-lying coastal regions, homes can have many windows providing good cross-ventilation, whereas in

cooler mountainous interior areas, homes often have a vast roof and few windows.[2]

[edit]ExamplesSome of the more significant and distinctive rumah adat include:

Batak architecture  (North Sumatra) includes the boat-shaped jabu homes of the Toba Batak people, with

dominating carved gables and dramatic oversized roof, and are based on an ancient model.

The Minangkabau of West Sumatra build the rumah gadang, distinctive for their multiple gables with

dramatically upsweeping ridge ends.

The homes of Nias peoples include the omo sebua chiefs' houses built on massive ironwood pillars with

towering roofs. Not only are they almost impregnable to attack in former tribal warfare, but flexible nail-less

construction provide proven earthquake durability.

The Riau region is characterised by villages built on stilts over waterways.

Unlike most South East Asian vernacular homes, Javanese rumah adat are not built on piles, and have

become the Indonesian vernacular style most influenced by European architectural elements.

The Bubungan Tinggi, with their steeply pitched roofs, are the large homes of Banjarese royalty and

aristocrats in South Kalimantan.

Traditional Balinese homes are a collection of individual, largely open structures (including separate

structures for the kitchen, sleeping areas, bathing areas and shrine) within a high-walled garden

compound.

The Sasak people of Lombok build lumbung, pile-built bonnet-roofed rice barns, that are often more

distinctive and elaborate than their houses (see Sasak architecture).

Dayak  people traditionally live in communal longhouses that are built on piles. The houses can exceed

300 m in length, in some cases forming a whole village.

The Toraja of the Sulawesi highlands are renowned for their tongkonan, houses built on piles and dwarfed

by massive exaggerated-pitch saddle roofs.

Rumah adat on Sumba have distinctive thatched "high hat" roofs and are wrapped with sheltered

verandahs.

The Papuan Dani traditionally live in small family compounds composed of several circular huts known

as honay with thatched dome roofs.

[edit]Decline

The House of the Five Senses, Eftelingtheme park, The Netherlands. An example of a modern building constructed using Western techniques, based on a rumah gadang design

The numbers of rumah adat are decreasing across Indonesia. This trend dates from the colonial period, with

the Dutch generally viewing traditional architecture as unhygienic, with big roofs that sheltered rats.[7] Multi-

family homes were viewed with suspicion by religious authorities, as were those aspects of the rumah

adat linked to traditional belief.[7] In parts of the Indies, colonial authorities embarked on vigorous demolition

programmes, replacing traditional homes with houses built using Western construction techniques, such as

bricks and corrugated iron roofs, fitting sanitary facilities and better ventilation. Traditional craftsmen were

retrained in Western building techniques.[8] Since independence, the Indonesian government has continued to

promote the 'rumah sehat sederhana' ('simple healthy home') over the rumah adat.[9]

Exposure to the market economy made the construction of labour-intensive rumah adat, such as the Batak

house, extremely expensive (previously villages would work together to construct new homes) to build and

maintain. In addition, deforestation and population growth meant that the hardwoods were no longer a free

resource to be gathered as needed from nearby forests, but instead a too-expensive commodity.[8] Combined

with a general appetite for modernity, the great majority of Indonesians now dwell in generic modern buildings

rather than traditional rumah adat.[citation needed]

In areas with many tourists, such as the Tanah Toraja, rumah adat are preserved as a spectacle for tourists,

their former residents living elsewhere, with design elements exaggerated to the point that these rumah

adat are considerably less comfortable than the original designs.[10] While in most areas rumah adat have been

abandoned, in a few remote areas they are still current, and in other areas buildings in the style of the rumah

adat are maintained for ceremonial purposes, as museums or for official buildings. Buildings are sometimes

built with modern construction techniques that include stylistic elements from rumah adat, such as The House

of the Five Senses in the Efteling, a building modeled on the Minangkabau rumah gadang. In the colonial

period some Europeans constructed homes according to hybrid Western-adat designs, such as Bendegom,

who built a 'transitional' Western-Batak Karo house.[11]

It has been noted that the traditional wooden houses are generally more earthquake-resistant than modern

brick designs, although they are more vulnerable to fire. In some areas, a 'semi-modern' rumah adat concept

has been adopted, such as among some Ngada people, with traditional elements placed inside a concrete

shell.[9]

[edit]Palace architecture

Sultan palace in Yogyakarta

Istana (or "palace") architecture of the various kingdoms and realms of Indonesia, is more often than not based

on the vernacular adat domestic styles of the area. Royal courts, however, were able to develop much grander

and elaborate versions of this traditional architecture. In the Javanese Kraton, for example, large pendopos of

the joglo roof form with tumpang sari ornamentation are elaborate but based on common Javanese forms,

while the omo sebua ("chief's house") in Bawomataluo, Nias is an enlarged version of the homes in the village,

the palaces of the Balinese such as the Puri Agung in Gianyar use the traditional bale form, and the

Pagaruyung Palace is a three-storey version of the Minangkabau Rumah Gadang.

Similar to trends in domestic architecture, the last two centuries have seen the use of European elements in

combination with traditional elements, albeit at a far more sophisticated and opulent level compared to

domestic homes.

In the Javanese palaces the pendopo is the tallest and largest hall within a complex. As the place where the

ruler sits, it is the focus of ceremonial occasions, and usually has prohibitions on access to this space.

[edit]Colonial architectureSee also: Colonial architecture of Indonesia

Javanese and neo-classical Indo-European hybrid villa. Note the Javanese roof form and general similarities with the Javanese cottage.

The 16th and 17th centuries saw the arrival of European powers in Indonesia who used masonry for much of

their construction. Previously timber and its by-products had been almost exclusively used in Indonesia, with

the exception of some major religious and palace architecture. One of the first major Dutchsettlements was

Batavia (later named Jakarta) which in the 17th and 18th centuries was a fortified brick and masonry city.[12]

For almost two centuries, the colonialists did little to adapt their European architectural habits to the tropical

climate.[2] In Batavia, for example, they constructed canals through its low-lying terrain, which were fronted by

small-windowed and poorly ventilated row houses, mostly in a Chinese-Dutch hybrid style. The canals became

dumping grounds for noxious waste and sewage and an ideal breeding ground for the anopheles mosquitos,

with malaria anddysentery becoming rife throughout the Dutch East Indies colonial capital.[2]

Ceremonial Hall, Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung, by architect Henri Maclaine Pont

Although row houses, canals and enclosed solid walls were first thought as protection against tropical diseases

coming from tropical air, years later the Dutch learnt to adapt their architectural style with local building features

(long eaves, verandahs, porticos, large windows and ventilation openings).[13] The Indo-European hybrid villa of

the 19th century were among the first colonial buildings to incorporate Indonesian architectural elements and

attempt adapting to the climate. The basic form, such as the longitudinal organisation of spaces and use

of joglo andlimasan roof structures, was Javanese, but it incorporated European decorative elements such

as neo-classicalcolumns around deep verandahs.[14] Whereas the Indo-European homes were essentially

Indonesian houses with European trim, by the early 20th century, the trend was for modernist influences—such

as art-deco—being expressed in essentially European buildings with Indonesian trim (such as the pictured

home's high-pitched roofs with Javan ridge details). Practical measures carried over from the earlier Indo-

Europeanhybrids, which responded to the Indonesian climate, included overhanging eaves, larger windows and

ventilation in the walls.[15]

This pre-war Bandung home is an example of 20th century Indonesian Dutch Colonial styles

At the end of the 19th century, great changes were happening across much of colonial Indonesia, particularly

Java. Significant improvements to technology, communications and transportation had brought new wealth to

Java's cities and private enterprise was reaching the countryside.[16] Modernistic buildings required for such

development appeared in great numbers, and were heavily influenced by international styles. These new

buildings included train stations, business hotels, factories and office blocks, hospitals and education

institutions. The largest stock of colonial era buildings are in the large cities of Java, such as

Bandung, Jakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya. Bandung is of particular note with one of the largest remaining

collections of 1920s Art-Deco buildings in the world, with the notable work of several Dutch architects and

planners, including Albert Aalbers, Thomas Karsten, Henri Maclaine Pont, J Gerber and C.P.W. Schoemaker.

[17]

Colonial rule was never as extensive on the island of Bali as it was on Java— it was only in 1906, for example,

that the Dutch gained full control of the island—and consequently the island only has a limited stock of colonial

architecture. Singaraja, the island's former colonial capital and port, has a number of art-deco kantor style

homes, tree-lined streets and dilapidated warehouses. The hill town of Munduk, a town amongst plantations

established by the Dutch, is Bali's only other significant group of colonial architecture; a number of mini

mansions in the Balinese-Dutch style still survive.[18]

The lack of development due to the Great Depression, the turmoil of the Second World War and Indonesia's

independence struggle of the 1940s, and economic stagnation during the politically turbulent 1950s and 60s,

meant that much colonial architecture has been preserved through to recent decades.[19]Although colonial

homes were almost always the preserve of the wealthy Dutch, Indonesian and Chinese elites, and colonial

buildings in general are unavoidably linked with the human suffering of colonialism, the styles were often rich

and creative combinations of two cultures, so much so that the homes remain sought after into 21st century.[14]

Native architecture was arguably more influenced by the new European ideas than colonial architecture was

influenced by Indonesian styles; and these Western elements continue to be a dominant influence on

Indonesia's built environment today.

[edit]Post independence architecture

Istiqlal Mosque, the national mosque of Indonesia.

Early twentieth century modernisms are still very evident across much of Indonesia, again mostly in Java. The

1930s world depression was devastating to Java, and was followed by another decade of war, revolution and

struggle, which restricted the development of the built environment. Further, the Javanese art-deco style from

the 1920s became the root for the first Indonesian national style in the 1950s. The politically turbulent 1950s

meant that the new but bruised Indonesia was neither able to afford or focussed to follow the new international

movements such as modernist brutalism. Continuity from the 1920s and 30s through to the 1950s was further

supported Indonesian planners who had been colleagues of the Dutch Karsten, and they continued many of his

principles.[19]

Let us prove that we can also build the country like the Europeans and Americans do because we are equal

— Sukarno [20]

The West Sumatra representative office in Jakarta featuring Minangkabau vernacular architecture.

Despite the new country's economic woes, government-funded major projects were undertaken in the

modernist style, particularly in the capital Jakarta. ReflectingPresident Sukarno's political views, the

architecture is openly nationalistic and strives to show the new nation’s pride in itself.[21] Projects approved by

Sukarno, himself a civil engineer who had acted as an architect, include:

A clover-leaf highway.

A broad by-pass in Jakarta (Jalan Sudirman).

Four high-rise hotels including the famous Hotel Indonesia.

A new parliament building.

The 127 000-seat Bung Karno Stadium.

Numerous monuments including The National Monument.

Istiqlal Mosque  the largest mosque in Southeast Asia.

The 1950s jengki style, so named after Indonesian references to the American armed forces as 'yankee', was a

distinctive Indonesian architectural style that emerged. The modernist cubic and strict geometric forms that the

Dutch had used before World War II, were transformed into more complicated volumes, such as pentagons or

other irregular solids. This architecture is an expression of the political spirit of freedom among the

Indonesians.[22]

When development picked up in the early 1970s under Suharto's New Order administration following the

turbulent mid-century decades, Indonesian architects were inspired by the strong American influence in

Indonesia's architecture faculties following independence. The International Style dominated in Indonesia in the

1970s, as it did in much of the rest of the world. The 1970s saw the Indonesian government promote

indigenous Indonesian forms. Constructed in 1975, the Taman Mini Indonesia Indah theme park re-created

over twenty buildings of exaggerated proportions to showcase Indonesian traditional vernacular forms. The

government also called for Indonesian architects to design an Indonesian architecture, and by the 1980s in

particular, most public buildings were built with exaggerated elements of traditional vernacular forms. These the

large concrete Minangkabau style roofs on government buildings in the city of Padang, the giant Javanese

joglo structures at the University of Gadjah Mada, and also the Javanese-Balinese meru multi-tiered roofs of

rectorate tower in University of Indonesia.

[edit]Contemporary architecture

Wisma 46 in post-modernist style, currently the tallest building in Indonesia.

The 1970s, 1980s and 1990s saw foreign investment and economic growth; large construction booms brought

major changes to Indonesian cities, including the replacement of the early twentieth styles with

late modern and postmodern styles.[23] The urban construction booms have continued in the 21st century and

are shaping skylines in Indonesian cities. Many new buildings are clad with shiny glass surfaces to reflect the

tropical sun.[citation needed] Architectural styles are influenced by developments in architecture internationally,[citation

needed] including the introduction of deconstructivism architecture

Architecture of IndonesiaOne can easily trace a reflection of the same diversity of cultural, historical, and geographic influences that have shaped Indonesia as a whole in the aarchitecture of Indonesia as well.The architectonic concepts of Indonesia have been pronouncedly affected by the multifarious cultural influences brought along by several invaders, colonisers, missionaries, merchants and traders. Traditionally, the most significant foreign architectural influences that have effected the building styles and techniques of Indonesia have been Indian, but included Chinese and Arab, and more recently European influences which have been important since the 18th & 19th centuries.Religious architecture of IndonesiaThe most striking specimen of Religious architecture of Indonesia can be seen in Java, though one can easily see a variety of samples of Religious architecture of Indonesiaspread throughout the archipelago. The island’s long tradition of religious syncretism, where it blends two or more religious belief systems into a new system or incorporates beliefs from unrelated traditions into a religious tradition has extended to architectural styles as well. This has resulted in the confluence of structural styles of Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and to a smaller extent, Christian architecture as well, that are uniquely Javanese in interpretation.Traditional vernacular architecture of IndonesiaThere is a distinctive style of traditional housing unique to each ethnic group in Indonesia called Rumah adat. Apart from some small differences and diversity of styles, traditional

homes of Indonesia built by peoples with a common Austronesian ancestry, share a number of characteristics such as timber construction, varied and elaborate roof structures, and pile and beam construction that take the load straight to the ground.These houses are the focal point of a web of customs, social relations, traditional laws, taboos, myths and religions that bind the villagers together. The house serve as the main unit of the family and its community, and is the point of departure for many activities of its residents.

Architecture

Minangkabau Rumah Gadang

Main article: Indonesian architecture

For centuries, the most dominant influences

on Indonesian architecture were Indian, although

European influences have been particularly strong since

the nineteenth century and modern architecture in

Indonesia is international in scope.

As in much of South East Asia, traditional buildings in

Indonesia are built on stilts, with the significant

exceptions of Java and Bali. Notable stilt houses are

those of the Dayak people in Borneo, the Rumah

Gadang of the Minangkabau people in western Sumatra,

the Batak people in northern Sumatra, and

theTongkonan of the Toraja people in Sulawesi.

Oversized saddle roofs with large eaves, such as the

homes of the Batak and the tongkonan of Toraja, are

often bigger than the house they shelter. The fronts of

Torajan houses are frequently decorated with buffalo

horns, stacked one above another, as an indication of

status. The outside walls also frequently feature

decorative reliefs.

The eighth-century Borobudur temple near Yogyakarta is

the largest Buddhist temple in the world, and is notable

for incorporating about 160 relief panels into its structure,

telling the story of the life of the Buddha. As the visitor

ascends through the eight levels of the temple, the story

unfolds, the final three levels simply

containing stupas and statues of the Buddha. The

building is said to incorporate a map of the Buddhist

cosmos and is a masterful fusion of the didactic, the

monumental and the serene.

The nearby ninth-century temple complex

at Prambanan contains some of the best preserved

examples of Hindu temple architecture in Java. The

temple complex comprises eight main shrines,

surrounded by 250 smaller shrines. The Indian influence

on the site is clear, not only in the style of the monument,

but also in the reliefs featuring scenes from

the Ramayana which adorn the outer walls of the main

temples, and in the votive statuary found within.

Architecture of IndonesiaOne can easily trace a reflection of the same diversity of cultural, historical, and geographic influences that have shaped Indonesia as a whole in the aarchitecture of Indonesia as well.The architectonic concepts of Indonesia have been pronouncedly affected by the multifarious cultural influences brought along by several invaders, colonisers, missionaries, merchants and traders. Traditionally, the most significant foreign architectural influences that have effected the building styles and techniques of Indonesia have been Indian, but included Chinese and Arab, and more recently European influences which have been important since the 18th & 19th centuries.Religious architecture of IndonesiaThe most striking specimen of Religious architecture of Indonesia can be seen in Java, though one can easily see a variety of samples of Religious architecture of Indonesiaspread throughout the archipelago. The island’s long tradition of religious syncretism, where it blends two or more religious belief systems into a new system or incorporates beliefs from unrelated traditions into a religious tradition has extended to

architectural styles as well. This has resulted in the confluence of structural styles of Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and to a smaller extent, Christian architecture as well, that are uniquely Javanese in interpretation.Traditional vernacular architecture of IndonesiaThere is a distinctive style of traditional housing unique to each ethnic group in Indonesia called Rumah adat. Apart from some small differences and diversity of styles, traditional homes of Indonesia built by peoples with a common Austronesian ancestry, share a number of characteristics such as timber construction, varied and elaborate roof structures, and pile and beam construction that take the load straight to the ground.These houses are the focal point of a web of customs, social relations, traditional laws, taboos, myths and religions that bind the villagers together. The house serve as the main unit of the family and its community, and is the point of departure for many activities of its residents.

Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With a population of around 230

million people, it is the world’s fourth most populous country, and has

the world’s largest population of Muslims. The Indonesian archipelago

has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century,

when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India.

Local rulers gradually adopted Indian cultural, religious and political

models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms

flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers

drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and

European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice

Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a

half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its

independence after World War II. Indonesia’s history has since been

turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption,

separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic

change.

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic,

and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest—and the politically

dominant—ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity

defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism

within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism

including rebellion against it. Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups,

each with cultural identities developed over centuries, and influenced

by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, Malay, and European sources. Traditional

Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu

culture and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet)

performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat and songket are created

across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant

influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian;

however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have

been significant.

Indonesia’s size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support

the world’s second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil), and its

flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.

Geography of IndonesiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Indonesia is an archipelagic island country in Southeast Asia, lying between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific

Ocean. It is in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean. The

country's variations in culture have been shaped—although not specifically determined—by centuries of

complex interactions with the physical environment. Although Indonesians are now less vulnerable to the

effects of nature as a result of improved technology and social programs, to some extent their social diversity

has emerged from traditionally different patterns of adjustment to their physical circumstances.

Contents

  [hide] 

1 Regions2 Geology3 Mountains and tectonics4 Time zones5 Climate6 Environmental issues7 Area and boundaries8 References

[edit]Regions

Detailed map of Indonesia

Indonesia is an archipelagic country extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760

kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.[1] It encompasses an estimated 17,508 islands, only 6,000 of which

are inhabited. It comprises five main islands: Sumatra, Java, Borneo (known as "Kalimantan" in

Indonesia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea; two major archipelagos (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands); and

sixty smaller archipelagoes. Four of the islands are shared with other nations: Borneo is shared

with Malaysia and Brunei, Sebatik, located eastern coast of Kalimantan, shared with Malaysia, Timoris shared

with East Timor, and the newly divided provinces of Papua and West Papua share the island of New

Guinea with Papua New Guinea. Indonesia's total land area is 1,919,317 square kilometres (741,052 sq mi).

Included in Indonesia's total territory is another 93,000 square kilometres (35,908 sq mi) of inland seas

(straits, bays, and other bodies of water). The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesia's generally

recognized territory (land and sea) to about 5 million square kilometers. The government, however, also claims

an exclusive economic zone, which brings the total to about 7.9 million square kilometers. Latitude = 5.00 S &

Longitude = 120.00 W

[edit]GeologyMain article: Geology of Indonesia

Sumatra, Java, Madura, and Kalimantan lie on the Sunda Shelf and geographers have conventionally grouped

them, (along with Sulawesi), as the Greater Sunda Islands. At Indonesia's eastern extremity is western New

Guinea, which lies on the Sahul Shelf. Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average 200 metres (656 ft)

or less. Between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara (also known as the Lesser Sunda Islands),

and the Maluku Islands (or the Moluccas), which form a second island group where the surrounding seas in

some places reach 4,500 metres (14,764 ft) in depth. The term "Outer Islands" is used inconsistently by various

writers but it is usually taken to mean those islands other than Java and Madura.

Volcanoes in Indonesia

Borneo is the third largest island in the world and the original vegetation was mostly Borneo lowland rain

forests although much of this has been cleared with wildlife retreating to the Borneo montane rain

forests inland.

Nusa Tenggara consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward Papua. The inner arc of

Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through

Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the volcanic Banda Islands, which along with the Kai Islands and

the Tanimbar Islands and other small islands in the Banda Sea are typical examples of the Wallacea mixture of

Asian and Australasian plant and animal life.[2] The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the

chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa

Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor.

The Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands. They

are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippines to the north, Papua to the

east, and Nusa Tenggara to the south. The largest of these islands include Halmahera,Seram and Buru, all of

which rise steeply out of very deep seas and have unique Wallacea vegetation.[3] This abrupt relief pattern from

sea to high mountains means that there are very few level coastal plains. The islands of North Maluku are the

original Spice Islands, a distinct rainforest ecoregion.[4]

Geomorphologists believe that the island of New Guinea, of which Papua is a part, may once have been part of

the Australian continent. The breakup and tectonic action created towering, snowcapped mountain peaks lining

the island's central east-west spine and hot, humid alluvial plains along the coasts. The New Guinea

Highlands range some 650 kilometres (404 mi) east to west along the island, forming a mountainous spine

between the north and south coasts. A number of islands off the coast of New Guinea have their own

distinctive habitats, including the limestone islands of Biak, in the entrance to the large Cenderawasih Bay at

the northwest end of the island.[5][6]

[edit]Mountains and tectonics

Main article: Volcanoes of Indonesia

Most of the larger islands are mountainous, with peaks ranging between 3,000 and 3,800 metres (9,843 and

12,467 ft) meters above sea level in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram. The country's tallest

mountains are located in the Jayawijaya Mountains and the Sudirman Range in Papua. The highest

peak, Puncak Jaya (4,884 metres (16,024 ft)), is located in the Sudirman Mountains.

Tectonically, Indonesia is highly unstable. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire where the Australian Plate and

the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian plate where they melt at about 100 km deep. A string of

volcanoes stretches from Sumatra to the Banda Sea.[7] While the volcanic ash has resulted in fertile soils, it

makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java,

Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then loops around through to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern

Sulawesi. Of the 400 volcanoes, approximately 150 are active.[8]Between 1972 and 1991, twenty-nine volcanic

eruptions were recorded, mostly on Java. The two most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in

Indonesia; in 1815 Mount Tambora inSumbawa erupted killing 92,000 and in 1883, Krakatau, erupted killing

36,000.

[edit]Time zonesMain article: Time in Indonesia

The keeping of standard time is divided into three time zones:

Western Indonesian Time/WIT (Indonesian: Waktu Indonesia Barat/WIB) (UTC+7)

WIB is observed in islands of Sumatra, Java, provinces of West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan

Central Indonesian Time/CIT (Waktu Indonesia Tengah/WITA) (UTC+8)

WITA is observed in islands of Sulawesi, Bali, provinces of East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa

Tenggara, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan

Eastern Indonesian Time/EIT (Waktu Indonesia Timur/WIT) (UTC+9).

WIT is observed in provinces of Maluku, North Maluku, Papua and West Papua.

[edit]ClimateMain article: Climate of Indonesia

The Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia

Lying along the equator, Indonesia's climate tends to be relatively even year-round. The country experiences

two seasons—a wet season and a dry season—with no extremes of summer or winter. For most of Indonesia,

the wet season falls between October and April with the dry season between May and September. Some

regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature

between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences

with droughts in the dry season, and floods in the wet. Rainfall in Indonesia is plentiful, particularly in west

Sumatra, northwest Kalimantan, west Java, and western New Guinea.

Parts of Sulawesi and some islands closer to Australia, such as Sumba and Timor, are drier, however, these

are exceptions. The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that

temperatures on land remain fairly constant. The coastal plains averaging 28 °C (82.4 °F), the inland and

mountain areas averaging 26 °C (78.8 °F), and the higher mountain regions, 23 °C (73.4 °F). The area's

relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons

usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the northwest in November

through March. Typhoons and large scale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesia waters; the major

danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.

[edit]Environmental issuesMain article: Environmental issues in Indonesia

For centuries, the geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall

into consistent social and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists of the formerly Indianized, rice-

growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali; another cultural complex is composed of

the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector; a third, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest

farming communities which exist by means of subsistence swidden agriculture. To some degree, these

patterns can be linked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm

seas, and steady winds favoring the use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains—at least in the

Greater Sunda Islands—permitting irrigated rice farming. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders

overland communication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture.

Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues, which are often

given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[9]Issues include large-

scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western

Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems

associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion,

garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[9]Deforestation and the destruction of

peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.[10] Habitat

destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species

of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically

endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.[11]

In 1970, 15% of Indonesians lived in cities compared to over 30% today, and this increases pressure on the

urban environment. Industrial pollution is increasing, particularly in Java, and the increasing affluence of the

growing middle class drives a rapid increase in the number of motor vehicles and associated emissions.

Garbage and waste water services are being placed under increasing pressure. Reliance on septic systems or

effluent disposal in open canals and river systems remains the norm, and is a major polluter of water

resources. Very few Indonesians have access to safe drinking water and must boil it before use.

About Indonesia

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a nation in South-East Asia. Comprising 17,508 islands, it is the world's largest archipelagic state. With a population of over 234 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority nation, although officially it is not an Islamic state. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected parliament and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, the Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since the seventh century, when the Srivijaya Kingdom formed trade links with China. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Under Indian influence, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished from the early centuries. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Exploration. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the politically dominant and largest ethnic group. As a unitary state and nation, Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka tunggal ika" ("Unity in Diversity" i.e. "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that continues to shape the country. However, sectarian tensions and separatism have led to violent confrontations that have undermined political and

economic stability. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contemporary Indonesia.

The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, meaning "India", and the Greek nesos, meaning "island". The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesian - and, his preference, Malayunesians - for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago". In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and even Insulinde.

From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayichen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.

History of IndonesiaAs early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. There is a picture of a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800CE. Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South-East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade. Trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several centuries BCE. Trade has fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.

The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia. From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it. Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century and, under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. 

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South-East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra. Other areas of Indonesia gradually adopted Islam, making it the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku. Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over these territories was tenuous; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during WWII ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence.

Sukarno, as Indonesia's founding president moved from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military, Islam and communism. However, rising tensions between the military and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) culminated in an attempted coup on 30 September 1965, during which six top-ranking generals were murdered under mysterious circumstances. The army, led by Major General Suharto, countered with a violent anti-communist purge, and the PKI was subsequently blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Between 500,000 and one million people were killed. Politically, Suharto capitalized on Sukarno's gravely weakened position; following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno, Suharto was formally appointed president in March 1968. Suharto's "New Order" administration encouraged foreign investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.

In 1997 and 1998, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis. This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to popular protests. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998. In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five year occupation, which was marked by international condemnation of repression and human rights abuses. The Reformasi era, following Suharto's resignation, has led to a strengthening of democratic processes,

including a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.

Ecology -  Flora and Fauna of IndonesiaIndonesia's size, tropical climate and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil), and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically.

Forests cover approximately 60% of the country. In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku, having been long separated from the continental landmasses, have developed their own unique flora and fauna. Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.

Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers of coastline is bounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds and small island ecosystems.

Indonesia ( i / ̩ ɪ n d ə ̍ n iː ʒ ə /  or / ̩ ɪ n d oʊ ̍ n iː z i ə / ), officially the Republic of

Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in Southeast Asia andOceania. Indonesia is

an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands.[5] It has 33 provinces with over 238 million

people, and is the world's fourthmost populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature

and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New

Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia,

and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member

of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the

world's seventeenth largest economy by nominal GDP and fifteenth largest by purchasing power parity.

The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century,

when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with Chinaand India. Local rulers gradually absorbed

foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE,

and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers

drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers

brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during

the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its

independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by

natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic

change.

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups.

The Javanese are the largest—and the politically dominant—ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a

shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority

Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national

motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that

shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas

of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed

with natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread.[6][7]

Contents

  [hide] 

1 Etymology

2 History

3 Government and politics

4 Foreign relations and military

5 Administrative divisions

6 Geography

7 Biota and environment

8 Economy

9 Demographics

10 Culture

11 See also

12 Notes

13 References

14 External links

[edit]Etymology

The name Indonesia derives from the Latin and Greek Indus, and the Greek nèsos, meaning "island".[8] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.[9] In

1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians — and, his

preference,Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".[10] In

the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym

for Indian Archipelago.[11][12] However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant

to useIndonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands

East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië;the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.[13]

From. 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and

Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[13] Adolf Bastian, of the University of

Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels,

1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar

Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-

bureau in 1913.[9]

[edit]History

Main article: History of Indonesia

A Borobudur ship carved on Borobudur, c. 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east

coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.[14]

Ancient fossils and the remains of primitive tools show that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited

by Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", between 1.5 million years[15] ago and 550,000 to

143,000[16] years ago.[17][18][19]

In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years

old and named "Flores Man" (Homo floresiensis) were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific

community.[20][21] This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a species descended from Homo Erectus and

reduced in size over thousands of years by a well known process called island dwarfism. Flores Man

seems to have shared the island with modern Homo sapiens until only 12,000 years ago, when they

became extinct.

Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[22] In 2011 evidence was uncovered in

neighbouring East Timor, showing that 42,000 years ago these early settlers had high-level maritime

skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other

islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.[23]

Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from

Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago,

confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.[24] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the

mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,[25] allowed villages, towns, and

small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia’s strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-

island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established

several centuries BCE.[26] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[27][28]

The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the

first European colonial powers to Indonesia.

From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the

influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.[29][30] Between the 8th and 10th centuries,

the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java,

leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The

Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada,

its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.[31]

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest

evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[32] Other

Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the

end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious

influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[33] The first

regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, when Portuguese

traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb

pepper in Maluku.[34] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East

India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was

formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a

nationalized colony.[35]

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal

strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become

Indonesia's current boundaries.[36] Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during

the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. Japanese

occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,[37][38] and encouraged the previously suppressed

Indonesian independence movement.[39] A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia

as a result of famine and forced labor during the Japanese occupation.[40] Two days after the surrender of

Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was

appointed president.[41][42][43][44] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an armed and diplomatic

struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally

recognized Indonesian independence[42][45] (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea,

which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-

mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969).[46]

Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president

Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by

balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[47] An

attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist

purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.[48][49][50]Around 500,000

people are estimated to have been killed.[51][52] The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered

the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order

administration [53]  was supported by the US government,[54][55][56] and encouraged foreign direct

investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial

economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and

suppression of political opposition.[37][57][58]

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis.[59] This increased popular

discontent with the New Order and led to popular protestacross the country. Suharto resigned on 21 May

1998.[60] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military

occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.[61] Since

Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy

program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest,

corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed

strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian

discontent and violence has occurred.[62] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was

achieved in 2005.[63]

[edit]Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia

A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central

government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and

governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of

Indonesia [64] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.[65] The president of Indonesia

is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of

domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers,

who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first

in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.[66] The president may serve a

maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.[67]

The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main

functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad

outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.[68] The MPR comprises two houses;

the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative

Council (DPD), with 132 members.[69] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch;

party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.[65] Reforms since

1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.[70] The DPD is a new chamber for

matters of regional management.[71]

Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High

Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and

hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court,

which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear

administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear

disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of

authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law

cases.[72]

[edit]Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Indonesia and Indonesian National Armed Forces

President of Indonesia Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono with Barack Obama, the President of United States, in ceremony at

the Istana Merdeka in Jakarta, 9 November 2010. Obama has been quite popular in Indonesia since his experience about

being a child in Jakarta was unveiled.[73]

In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with

Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and

political cooperation with Western nations.[74] Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in

Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.[69] The nation restored relations

with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early

in the Suharto era.[72] Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,[75] and was a

founder of the Non-Aligned Movement(NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now

the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation).[69] Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade

Areaagreement, the Cairns Group, and the WTO, and has historically been a member of OPEC, although

it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and

development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.[69]

The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of

major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.[76]The deadliest bombing killed 202 people

(including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002.[77] The attacks, and

subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's tourism

industry and foreign investment prospects.[78]

Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which

includes marines), and Air Force (TNI–AU).[79] The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel.

Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by

revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.[80] One of the reforms following the 1998

resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament; nevertheless, its

political influence remains extensive.[81]

Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent

allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.[82][83] Following a sporadic thirty-year

guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire

agreement was reached in 2005.[84] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect,

implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human

rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.[85]

[edit]Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Indonesia and Administrative divisions of Indonesia

Provinces of Indonesia

Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has

its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and

cities (kota), which are further subdivided into districts (kecamatan), and again into village

groupings (either desa or kelurahan). Furthermore, a village is divided into several citizen-groups (Rukun-

Warga (RW)) which are further divided into several neighbourhood-groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)).

Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have

become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village

administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or

neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).

The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges

and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese

government, for example, has the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system; in

2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law).[86] Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region

in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.[87] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was separated

into Papua and West Papua in February 2003.[88][89] Jakarta is the country's special capital region.

MendutFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mendut

Location within Java Topography

General information

Architectural style

Buddhist candi

Town or city near Magelang, Central Java

Country Indonesia

Coordinates7.604°S 110.23°E

Completed circa early 9th century

Design and construction

Client Sailendra

Mendut is a ninth century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid sub-

district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three kilometres east

from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist temples, are located in one straight

line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the three temples, although the exact ritual process is

unknown.[1]

Contents

  [hide] 

1 History2 Architecture3 See also4 References5 External links

[edit]History

The ruins of Mendut temple before restoration, 1880.

Built around early ninth century AD, Mendut is the oldest of the three temples including Pawon and Borobudur.

The Karangtengah inscription, the temple was built and finished during the reign of King Indra

ofSailendra dynasty. The inscription dated 824 AD mentioned that King Indra of Sailendra has built a sacred

building named Venuvana which means "bamboo forest". Dutch archaeologist JG de Casparis has connected

the temple mentioned in Karangtengah inscription with Mendut temple.[2]

In 1836 it was discovered as a ruins covered with bushes. The restoration of this temple was started at 1897

and it was finished at 1925. Some archaeologists who had conducted research on this temple were JG de

Casparis, Theodoor van Erp, and Arisatya Yogaswara.

[edit]Architecture

The statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana,Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside the Mendut temple

The 26.4 metres tall temple is facing northwest. The stairs projecting from the northwest side square elevated

base is adorned with Makara statue on each sides, the side of the stairwall carved with bas-relief

of Jataka fable narrating the animal story of buddhist teaching. The square terrace surrounding the body of the

temple was meant for pradakshina or circumambulating ritual, walking clockwise around the temple. The outer

walls is adorned with bas-reliefs of Boddhisattvas (buddhist divinities), such

as Avalokitesvara,Maitreya, Cunda, Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Mahakarunika

Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani, Manjusri,Akasagarbha, and Boddhisattvadevi Prajnaparamita among other buddhist

figures. Originally the temple had two chambers, a small chamber in the front, and the large main chamber in

the center. The roof and some parts of the front chamber walls are missing. The inner wall of front chamber is

adorned with bas-relief of Hariti surrounds by children, Atavaka on the other side, Kalpataru, also groups

of devatas divinities flying in heaven.

Location three Buddhist temples, Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut, in one straight line across Progo River.

The main room housed three beautifully carved large stone statues. The three statues are the Buddhist main

divinities revered in Mendut temple which can explain the spiritual purpose of the establishment of this temple.

The 3 metres tall statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana was meant to liberate the devotees from the bodily

karma, at the left is statue of Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara to liberate from the karma of speech, at the right is

Boddhisatva Vajrapani to liberate from karma of thought. [3]

Today, during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak annual ritual by walking

from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at Borobudur.[4]

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pawon

Location within Java Topography

General information

Architectural style

Buddhist candi

Town or city near Magelang, Central Java

Country Indonesia

Coordinates7.6061596°S

110.2195215°E

Completed circa early 9th century

Design and construction

Client Sailendra

Pawon (known locally as Candi Pawon) is a Buddhist temple in Central Java, Indonesia. Located between two other Buddhist temples, Borobudur(1.75 km (1.09 mi) to the northeast) and Mendut (1.15 km (0.71 mi) to the southwest), Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the Sailendra dynasty (8th–9th centuries).[1] Examines the detail and style of its carving this temple is slightly older than Borobudur.

The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic meaning that binds these temples.

Location of the Buddhist temples triad: Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut in one straight line.

Pawon temple, 1900.

Relief of Kalpataru tree on the outer wall.

"Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple architecture. Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending Borobudur."[2]

The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means "kitchen" inJavanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to the word "dust" also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary temple for a king.[3]. Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple that houses the dust of cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed here is still unknown. Local people name this temple as "Bajranalan" based on the name of the village. Bajranalan is derived from the sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a Buddhist ceremonial tool) and Anala (fire, flame).

In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at Borobudur.[4]

[edit]ArchitectureThe temple slightly faces northwest and stands on a square base. Each sides of the stairs and the top of the gates are adorned with carved Kala-Makara, commonly found in classic Javanese temples. The outer wall of Pawon is carved with reliefs of boddhisattvas and taras.

There are also reliefs of kalpataru (tree of life), flanked between Kinnara-Kinnari. The square chamber inside is empty with a square basin in the center of it. Rectangular small windows were found, probably for ventilation.

The roof section of is crowned with five small stupas and four small ratnas. Because of its relative simplicity, symmetry and harmony, the historians dubbed this small temple as "the jewel of Javanese temple architecture", in contrast with tall-slender East Javanese style counterparts as founds in laterSinghasari and Majapahit period

Borobudur, or Barabudur, is a 9th-

century Mahayana Buddhist monument in Magelang, Ce

ntral Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six

square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and

is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha

statues.[1] A main dome, located at the center of the top

platform, is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated

inside perforated stupa.

The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and

a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims

begins at the base of the monument and follows a

path circumambulating the monument while ascending to

the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology,

namely Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the

world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of

formlessness). During the journey, the monument guides

the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors

with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and

the balustrades.

Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th

century and abandoned following the 14th century

decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java, and

the Javanese conversion to Islam.[2] Worldwide

knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir

Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java,

who was advised of its location by native Indonesians.

Borobudur has since been preserved through several

restorations. The largest restoration project was

undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian

government and UNESCO, following which the

monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage

Site.[3] Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year

Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the

monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia's single most

visited tourist attraction.[4][5][6]

Contents

  [hide] 

1 Etymology2 Locationo 2.1 The three templeso 2.2 Ancient lake

3 Historyo 3.1 Constructiono 3.2 Abandonmento 3.3 Rediscoveryo 3.4 Restorationo 3.5 Contemporary eventso 3.6 Rehabilitation

4 Architectureo 4.1 Designo 4.2 Building structure

5 Reliefs6 Buddha statues7 Gallery of reliefs8 See also9 Notes10 References11 Further reading12 External links

[edit]Etymology

Borobudur stupas overlooking a mountain. For centuries, it was deserted.

In Indonesian, ancient temples are known as candi; thus

"Borobudur Temple" is locally known as Candi

Borobudur. The term candi is also used more loosely to

describe any ancient structure, for example gates and

bathing structures. The origins of the

name Borobudur however are unclear,[7] although the

original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are

no longer known.[7] The name Borobudur was first written

in Sir Thomas Raffles' book on Javan history.[8]Raffles

wrote about a monument called borobudur, but there are

no older documents suggesting the same name.[7] The

only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the

monument as a holy Buddhist sanctuary

is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca in 1365.[9]

The name Bore-Budur, and thus BoroBudur, is thought

to have been written by Raffles in English grammar to

mean the nearby village of Bore; most candi are named

after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language,

the monument should have been named 'BudurBoro'.

Raffles also suggested that 'Budur' might correspond to

the modern Javanese word Buda ("ancient") – i.e.,

"ancient Boro".[7] However, another archaeologist

suggests the second component of the name (Budur)

comes from Javanese term bhudhara (mountain).[10]

The references about the construction and inauguration

of a sacred buddhist building — possibly refer to

Borobudur — was mentioned in two inscriptions, both

discovered in Kedu, Temanggung Regency.

The Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned

vaguely about a sacred building named Jinalaya (the

realm of those who have conquer worldly desire and

reach enlightenment) inaugurated

by Pramodhawardhani daughter of Samaratungga.

The Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about

the sima (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan

(Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and

maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra.[11]Kamūlān itself from the word mula which means 'the

place of origin', a sacred building to honor the ancestors,

probably the ancestors of the Sailendras. Casparis

suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra which

in Sanskrit means "The mountain of combined virtues of

the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original

name of Borobudur.[12]

[edit]Location

[edit]The three templesSee also: Borobudur Temple Compounds

Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut

Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest

of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area

between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-

Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers,

the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area

known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and

has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its

high agricultural fertility.[13]During the restoration in the

early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist

temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawonand Mendut,

are positioned along a straight line.[14] The ritual

relationship between the three temples must have

existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown.[9]

[edit]Ancient lakeSee also: Borobudur ancient lake

Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m

(869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor

of the dried-out paleolake.[15]The lake's existence was the

subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in

the 20th century. In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of

Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp,

developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and

Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on

the lake.[10]

[edit]History

[edit]Construction

A painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916—1919) reconstructing the scene of Borobudur during its heyday

There is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its

intended purpose.[16] The construction time has been

estimated by comparison between carvedreliefs on the

temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used

in royal charters during the 8th and 9th centuries.

Borobudur was likely founded around 800 CE.[16] This

corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 CE, the

peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java,[17] when it

was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The

construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years

and been completed during the reign

of Samaratungga in 825.[18][19]

There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers

in Java around that time. The Sailendras were known as

ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions

found at Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus.[18] It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist

monuments were built on the plains and mountains

around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments,

including Borobudur, were erected around the same time

as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan  temple compound. In

732 CE, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned

a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only

10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.[20]

Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur,

at that time was possible because Sanjaya's immediate

successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission

to the Buddhist followers to build such temples.[21] In fact,

to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village

of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in

the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE.[21] This has led some

archaeologists to believe that there was never serious

conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for

a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a

Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act

likewise.[22] However, it is likely that there were two rival

royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist

Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which the latter

triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on

the Ratubaka plateau.[23] This confusion also exists

regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at

the Prambanan complex, which was believed that it was

erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya

dynasty's reply to Borobudur,[23] but others suggest that

there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where

Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.[24]

[edit]Abandonment

The eruption of Mount Merapi probably caused the abandonment of Borobudur

Borobudur's main stupa, which is empty and raised a mystery when discovered

Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers

of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its

abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when

active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it

ceased. Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu

Sindok moved the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the

region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it

is not certain whether this influenced the abandonment,

but several sources mention this as the most likely

period of abandonment.[2][15] The monument is mentioned

vaguely as late as ca. 1365, in Mpu

Prapanca's Nagarakretagama written

during Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in

Budur".[25] Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular

belief that the temples were disbanded when the

population converted to Islam in the 15th century.[2]

The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk

stories gradually shifted from its past glory into

more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and

misery. Two old Javanese chronicles (babad) from the

18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with

the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or

the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for

Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I,

the king of Mataram in 1709.[2]It was mentioned that the

"Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the insurgents

were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In

the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram

Kingdom), the monument was associated with the

misfortune of Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of

the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757.[26] In spite of a taboo

against visiting the monument, "he took what is written

as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in

one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his

palace, he fell ill and died one day later.

[edit]Rediscovery

The first photograph of Borobudur byIsidore van Kinsbergen (1873) after the monument was cleaned up

Following its capture, Java was under British

administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed

governor was Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas

Stamford Raffles, who took great interest in the history of

Java. He collected Javanese antiques and made notes

through contacts with local inhabitants during his tour

throughout the island. On an inspection tour

to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big

monument deep in a jungle near the village of

Bumisegoro.[26]He was not able to make the discovery

himself and sent H.C. Cornelius, a Dutch engineer, to

investigate. In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men

cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away

the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of

collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported

his findings to Raffles including various drawings.

Although the discovery is only mentioned by a few

sentences, Raffles has been credited with the

monument's recovery, as one who had brought it to the

world's attention.[8]

Hartmann, a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region,

continued Cornelius' work and in 1835 the whole

complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur

was more personal than official. Hartmann did not write

any reports of his activities; in particular, the alleged

story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in

the main stupa.[27] In 1842, Hartmann investigated the

main dome although what he discovered remains

unknown as the main stupa remains empty.

The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned

F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied

the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches.

J.F.G. Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed

study of the monument, which was completed in 1859.

The government intended to publish an article based on

Brumund study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but

Brumund refused to cooperate. The government then

commissioned another scholar, C. Leemans, who

compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and

Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the

detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by

its French translation a year later.[27] The first photograph

of the monument was taken in 1873 by a Dutch-

Flemish engraver,Isidore van Kinsbergen.[28]

Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served

for some time largely as a source of souvenirs and

income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the

chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that

Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation

of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of

the monument.[28] As a result, the government appointed

Groenveldt, an archeologist, to undertake a thorough

investigation of the site and to assess the actual

condition of the complex; his report found that these

fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact.

[edit]Restoration

1971 poster calling for the restoration of Borobudur

Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when Yzerman,

the Chairman of the Archaeological Society in

Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden foot.[29]Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were

made in 1890–1891.[30] The discovery led the Dutch East

Indies government to take steps to safeguard the

monument. In 1900, the government set up a

commission consisting of three officials to assess the

monument: Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp,

a Dutch army engineer officer, and Van de Kamer, a

construction engineer from the Department of Public

Works.

Embedding concrete and pvc pipe to improve Borobudur's drainage system during the 1973 restoration

In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of

proposal to the government. First, the immediate

dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners,

removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts,

strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several

niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second,

fencing off the courtyards, providing proper maintenance

and improving drainage by restoring floors and spouts.

Third, all loose stones should be removed, the

monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured

stones removed and the main dome restored. The total

cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch

guilders.

The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and

1911, using the principles of anastylosis and led by

Theodor van Erp.[31] The first seven months of his

restoration was occupied with excavating the grounds

around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and

panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper

three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van

Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the

monument; he submitted another proposal that was

approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At

first glance Borobudur had been restored to its old glory.

Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been

primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and Van

Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen

years, the gallery walls were sagging and the reliefs

showed signs of new cracks and deterioration.[31] Van

Erp used concrete from which alkali saltsand calcium

hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of

the construction. This caused some problems, so that a

further thorough renovation was urgently needed.

Small restorations have been performed since then, but

not sufficient for complete protection. In the late 1960s,

the Indonesian government had requested from the

international community a major renovation to protect the

monument. In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur

was created.[32] The Indonesian government

and UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of

the monument in a big restoration project between 1975

and 1982.[31] The foundation was stabilized and all 1,460

panels were cleaned. The restoration involved the

dismantling of the five square platforms and improved

the drainage by embedding water channels into the

monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were

added. This colossal project involved around 600 people

to restore the monument and cost a total of US$

6,901,243.[33] After the renovation was finished,

UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in

1991.[3] It is listed under Cultural criteria (i) "to represent

a masterpiece of human creative genius", (ii) "to exhibit

an important interchange of human values, over a span

of time or within a cultural area of the world, on

developments in architecture or technology, monumental

arts, town-planning or landscape design", and (vi) "to be

directly or tangibly associated with events or living

traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and

literary works of outstanding universal significance".[3]

[edit]Contemporary events

Buddhist pilgrims meditate on the top platform

Tourists in Borobudur

Following the major 1973 renovation funded

by UNESCO,[32] Borobudur is once again used as a place

of worship and pilgrimage. Once a year, during the full

moon in May or June, Buddhists in

Indonesia observe Vesak (Indonesian: Waisak) day

commemorating the birth, death, and the time

when Siddhārtha Gautama attained the highest wisdom

to become the Buddha Shakyamuni. Vesak (or Waisak)

is an official national holiday in Indonesia[34] and the

ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by

walking from Mendut to Pawon and ending at Borobudur.[35]

The monument is the single most visited tourist attraction

in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000 tourists of whom 36,000

were foreigners visited the monument.[5] The figure hiked

into 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic

tourists) in the mid 1990s, before the country's economy

crisis.[6] Tourism development, however, has been

criticized for not including the local community on which

occasional local conflict has arisen.[5] In 2003, residents

and small businesses around Borobudur organized

several meetings and poetry protests, objecting to a

provincial government plan to build a three-story mall

complex, dubbed the 'Java World'.[36]

"Mahakarya Borobudur" ballet performance at Borobudur

On 21 January 1985, nine stupas were badly damaged

by nine bombs.[37] In 1991, a blind Muslim preacher,

Husein Ali Al Habsyie, was sentenced to life

imprisonment for masterminding a series of bombings in

the mid 1980s including the temple attack.[38] Two other

members of a right-wing extremist group that carried out

the bombings were each sentenced to 20 years in 1986

and another man received a 13-year prison term. On 27

May 2006, an earthquake of 6.2 magnitude on

the Richter scale struck the south coast of Central Java.

The event had caused severe damage around the region

and casualties to the nearby city of Yogyakarta, but

Borobudur remained intact.[39]

UNESCO identified three specific areas of concern under

the present state of conservation: (i) vandalism by

visitors; (ii) soil erosion in the south-eastern part of the

site; (iii) analysis and restoration of missing elements.[40]The soft soil, the numerous earthquakes and heavy

rains lead to the destabilization of the structure.

Earthquakes are by far the most contributing factors,

since not only stones fall down and arches crumble, but

the earth itself can move in waves, further destroying the

structure.[40] The increasing popularity of the stupa brings

in many visitors, most of whom are from Indonesia.

Despite warning signs on all levels not to touch anything,

the regular transmission of warnings over loudspeakers

and the presence of guards, vandalism on reliefs and

statues is a common occurrence and problem, leading to

further deterioration. As of 2009, there is no system in

place to limit the number of visitors allowed per day, or to

introduce mandatory guided tours only.[40]

[edit]RehabilitationBorobudur was heavily affected by the eruption of Mount

Merapi in October and November 2010. Volcanic

ash from Merapi fell on the temple complex, which is

approximately 28 kilometres (17 mi) west-southwest of

the crater. A layer of ash up to 2.5 centimetres (1 in)[41] fell on the temple statues during the eruption of 3–5

November, also killing nearby vegetation, with experts

fearing that the acidic ash might damage the historic site.

The temple complex was closed from 5 to 9 November to

clean up the ashfall.[42][43]

UNESCO donated US$3 million as a part of the costs

towards the rehabilitation of Borobudur after Mount

Merapi's 2010 eruption.[44] More than 55,000 stone

blocks comprising the temple's structure were

dismantled to restore the drainage system, which had

been clogged by slurry after the rain. The restoration was

predicted to finish in November 2011[dated info].[45]

[edit]Architecture

Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala

Borobudur architectural model

[edit]DesignBorobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when

viewed from above takes the form of a giant tantric

Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the

Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind.[46] The

foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres

(387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the

lower six are square and the upper three are circular.

The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas

surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-

shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings.

Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.

The design of Borobudur took form of step pyramid.

Previously

the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in

Indonesia has constructed several earth mounds and

stone step pyramid structure called punden berundak as

discovered in Pangguyangan, Cisolok and Gunung

Padang, West Java. The construction of stone pyramid is

based from the native beliefs that mountain and high

places is the abode for the spirit of

the ancestors or hyangs. Thepunden berundak step

pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur, believed to be

the continuation of older megalithic tradition incorporated

with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism.[47]

The monument's three divisions symbolize the three

"realms" of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the

world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and

finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient

beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of

desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued

existence leave the world of desire and live in the world

on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not

drawn to them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even

form, and experience reality at its purest, most

fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana.[48] The

liberation from the cycle of Saṃsāra where the

enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form

is corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, the complete

voidness orthe nonexistence of the self. Kāmadhātu is

represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square

platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three

circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The

architectural features between three stages have

metaphorical differences. For instance, square and

detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into

plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent

how the world of forms – where men are still attached

with forms and names – changes into the world of the

formless.[49]

Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in the

form of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system

of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform.

Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment.

The path that guides pilgrims was designed to

symbolize Buddhist cosmology.[50]

In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was

accidentally discovered.[29] The "hidden foot" contains

reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the

realKāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with

short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for

the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be carved.[51] The

real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose

of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the

real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous

subsidence of the monument through the hill.[51] There is

another theory that the encasement base was added

because the original hidden foot was incorrectly

designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient

book about architecture and town planning.[29] Regardless of its intention, the encasement base was

built with detailed and meticulous design and with

aesthetics and religious considerations.

[edit]Building structure

Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively

Lion gate guardian

Stairs of Borobudur through arches ofKala

A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall

Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd)

of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring stone

quarries to build the monument.[52] The stone was cut to

size, transported to the site and laid without mortar.

Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form

joints between stones. Reliefswere created in situ after

the building had been completed.

The monument is equipped with a good drainage system

to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To

prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner,

each with a unique carved gargoylein the shape of

a giant or makara.

Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of

other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being

built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill.

However, construction technique is similar to other

temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other

temples, and with a general design similar to the shape

of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to

have served as astupa, instead of a temple.[52] A stupa is

intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas

were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A

temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of

worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's

design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple.

Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the

complex.[53] His name is recounted from Javanese folk

tales rather than from written inscriptions.

The basic unit of measurement used during construction

was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from

the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the

distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle

finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum

distance.[54] The unit is thus relative from one individual

to the next, but the monument has exact measurements.

A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of

a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had

used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of

the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's

design.[54][55] This ratio is also found in the designs of

Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples.

Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and

the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological

significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor

Wat in Cambodia.[53]

The main structure can be divided into three

components: base, body, and top.[53] The base is

123×123 m (403.5 × 403.5 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft)

walls.[52] The body is composed of five square platforms,

each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7

metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base. Each

subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving

a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of

three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a

row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles.

There is one main dome at the center; the top of which is

the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft)

above ground level. Stairways at the center of each of

four sides give access to the top, with a number of

arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates

are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each

and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-

Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of

Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern

side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways

on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the

low-lying plain.

[edit]Reliefs

The position of narrative bas-reliefs stories on Borobudur wall

Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals

various levels of terraces, showing intricate architecture

that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs

to being plain in arupadhatu circular terraces.[56] The first

four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief

sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the

most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.[57]

The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of

daily life in 8th century ancient Java; from the courtly

palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in

the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various

flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture.

People depicted here are the images of king, queen,

princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant,

commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted

mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such

as asuras,

gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras.

The images depicted on bas-relief often served as

reference for historians to research for certain subjects,

such as study of architecture, weaponry, economy,

fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th

century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous

rendering of 8th century Southeast Asian double

outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.[58]Today the actual-size

replica of Borobudur Ship that had sailed from Indonesia

to Africa in 2004 is displayed inSamudra Raksa

Museum located few hundred meters north of

Borobudur.[59]

The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to India

aesthetic discipline, such as pose and gesture that

contain certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs

of noblemen, and noble women, kings, or divine beings

such asapsaras, taras and boddhisattvas usually

portrayed in tribhanga pose. The three bent pose on

neck, hips, and knee with one leg resting and one uphold

the body weight. This position is considered as the most

graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding

a lotus.[60]

Narrative Panels Distribution[61]

section location story #panels

hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160

first gallery

main wall

Lalitavistara 120

Jataka/Avadana 120

balustrad

e

Jataka/Avadana 372

Jataka/Avadana 128

second

gallery

balustrad

eJataka/Avadana 100

main wall Gandavyuha 128

third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88

balustrad

eGandavyuha 88

fourth gallery

main wall Gandavyuha 84

balustrad

eGandavyuha 72

Total 1,460

Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas

reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels),

which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief

surface is 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft) and they

are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the

five square platforms (Rupadhatu).[61]

The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and

Manohara,[62] are grouped into 11 series encircled the

monument with the total length of 3,000 metres

(9,800 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with

160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are

distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four

galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to

the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to

left, while on the balustrade read from left to right. This

conforms withpradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation

performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction

while keeping the sanctuary to their right.[63]

The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The

walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of

reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part

depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part

of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the

second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former

lives.[61] The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's

further wandering about his search, terminated by his

attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story,

but each panel provides one complete illustration

of cause and effect.[61] There are depictions of

blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their

corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy

activities, that include charityand pilgrimage to

sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of

hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated.

There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full

panorama of samsara(the endless cycle of birth and

death).

The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of

Buddha (Lalitavistara)

Prince Siddhartha Gautama became anascetic hermit.

Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to PrinceSiddhartha Gautama

Main article: The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

The story starts with the descent of the Lord Buddha

from the Tushita heaven, and ends with his first sermon

in the Deer Park near Benares.[63] The relief shows the

birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of

KingSuddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in

present-day Nepal).

The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various

preparations, in heavens and on earth, to welcome the

final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[63] Before descending

from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his

crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He

descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with

six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb.

Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was

interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign

or a Buddha.

While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth,

she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu

city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch

with her right hand and she gave birth to a son, Prince

Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the

prince becomes the Buddha.

The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and

other legendary persons (Avadana)

Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was

born as Prince Siddhartha.[64] It is the stories that tell

about the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human

and animal form. The future Buddha may appear in them

as a king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in

whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale

thereby inculcates.[65] Avadanas are similar to jatakas,

but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The

saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other

legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in

one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.

The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall

depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or the saintly deeds

of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same

gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends

of the Jatakamala.[66] The remaining 237 panels depict

stories from other sources, as do for the lower series and

panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas stories are

depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi

(Rama's forefather).

Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth

(Gandavyuha)

Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of

the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless

wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It

covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the

second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels.[67] The

principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of

an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel.

The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of

the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of

Jeta at Sravasti.

During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30

teachers but none of them had satisfied him completely.

He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk

Megasri, where he was given the first doctrine. As his

journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following

order) Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of

Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja,

the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment),

Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna,

Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called

Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker

Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva

Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then

back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a

specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These

meetings are shown in the third gallery.

After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the

residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in

the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is

devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The

narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement

of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.[68]

[edit]Buddha statues

A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra(turning the Wheel of the Law)

A Buddha statue inside a stupa

Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in

stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas.

The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus

position and distributed on the five square platforms

(the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform

(the Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at

the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides

of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as

platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The

first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the

third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are

432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.[1]At

the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms),

Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The

first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and

the third 16, that add up to 72 stupas.[1] Of the original

504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly

headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's

discovery, heads have been stolen as collector's items,

mostly by Western museums).[69]

At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but

there is a subtle difference between them in

the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five

groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith,

which represent the five cardinal compass points

according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have

the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of

which the Buddha statues that face one compass

direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues

at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the

top platform have the same mudra: Zenith.

Each mudra represents one of theFive Dhyani Buddhas;

each has its own symbolism.[70]

Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise

circumumbulation) starting from the east, the mudras of

the Borobudur buddha statues are:

Statue MudraSymbolic

meaning

Dhyani

Buddha

Bhumisparsa

mudra

Calling the Earth to

witnessAksobhya

Vara mudraBenevolence, alms

giving

Ratnasambhav

a

Dhyana mudraConcentration and

meditationAmitabha

Abhaya mudraCourage,

fearlessnessAmoghasiddhi

Vitarka mudra Reasoning and virtue Vairochana

Statue MudraSymbolic

meaning

Dhyani

Buddha

Dharmachakra

mudra

Turning the Wheel

ofdharma (law)Vairochana

[edit]Gallery of reliefs

Prambanan is a ninth century Hindu temple compound

in Central Java, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimurti, the

expression of God as the Creator (Brahma), the

Sustainer (Vishnu) and the Destroyer (Shiva). The

temple compound is located approximately 18 km east

of Yogyakarta city on the boundary

between Yogyakarta and Central Java province.[1]

The temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the

largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, and is one of the

largest and the most beautiful Hindu temples in

Southeast Asia. It is characterized by its tall and pointed

architecture, typical of Hindu temple architecture, and by

the towering 47m high central building inside a large

complex of individual temples.[2] One of the most

majestic temples in the Southeast Asia, Prambanan

attracts many visitors worldwide.[3]

Contents

  [hide] 

1 Historyo 1.1 Constructiono 1.2 Abandonmento 1.3 Rediscoveryo 1.4 Contemporary events

2 The temple compoundo 2.1 Shiva templeo 2.2 Brahma and Vishnu templeso 2.3 Vahana templeso 2.4 Apit temples and smaller shrineso 2.5 Pervara temples

3 Architecture4 Reliefso 4.1 Ramayana and Krishnayanao 4.2 Lokapalas, Brahmins and Devataso 4.3 Prambanan panel: Lion and Kalpataru

5 The Rara Jonggrang legend6 Other temples around Prambanan7 See also8 References9 Further reading10 External links

[edit]History

[edit]Construction

The Prambanan temple compound amids the morning mist.

Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple of ancient Java,

and the construction of this royal temple was probably

started by Rakai Pikatan as the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty's

answer to the

Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty's Borobudur and Sewu temp

les nearby. Historians suggest that the construction of

Prambanan probably was meant to mark the return of

the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty to power in Central Java

after almost a century of Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty

domination. Nevertheless, the construction of this

massive Hindu temple signifies that the Medang court

had shifted the focus of its patronage

from Mahayana Buddhism to Shivaist Hinduism.

A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE

by Rakai Pikatan and expanded extensively by King

Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu the Sanjaya king of

theMataram Kingdom. According to the Shivagrha

inscription of 856 CE, the temple was built to honor Lord

Shiva and its original name was Shiva-grha (the House

of Shiva) or Shiva-laya (the Realm of Shiva).[4] According to Shivagrha inscription, a public water

project to change the course of a river near Shivagrha

Temple was conducted during the construction of the

temple. The river, identified as the Opak River, now runs

north to south on the western side of the Prambanan

temple compound. Historians suggest that originally the

river was curved further to east and was deemed too

near to the main temple. The project was done by cutting

the river along a north to south axis along the outer wall

of the Shivagrha Temple compound. The former river

course was filled in and made level to create a wider

space for the temple expansion, the space for rows

of pervara (complementary) temples.

Some archaeologists propose that the statue of Shiva in

the garbhagriha (central chamber) of the main temple

was modelled after King Balitung, serving as a depiction

of his deified self after death.[5] The present

name Prambanan, was derived from the name of

Prambanan village where the temple stood, this name

probably being the corrupted Javanese pronunciation of

"Para Brahman" ("of the brahmins"), doubtless an echo

its heyday when the temple was filled with great numbers

of brahmins.

The temple compound was expanded by successive

Mataram kings such as Daksa and Tulodong with the

addition of hundreds of perwara temples around the

chief temple. Prambanan served as the royal temple of

the Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's

religious ceremonies and sacrifices being conducted

there. At the height of kingdom, scholars estimate that

hundreds of brahmins with their disciples lived within the

outer wall of the temple compound. The urban center

and the court of Mataram were located nearby,

somewhere in thePrambanan Plain.

[edit]AbandonmentIn the 930s, the court was shifted to East Java by Mpu

Sindok, who established the Isyana Dynasty. An eruption

of Mount Merapi volcano, located north of Prambanan in

central Java, or a power struggle probably caused the

shift. That marked the beginning of the decline of the

temple. It was soon abandoned and began to

deteriorate.

The temples themselves collapsed during a major

earthquake in the 16th century. Although the temple

ceased to be an important center of worship, the ruins

scattered around the area were still recognizable and

known to the local Javanese people in later times. The

statues and the ruins become the theme and the

inspiration for the Loro Jonggrang folktale. After the

division of Mataram Sultanate in 1755, the temple ruins

and the Opak River were used to demarcate the

boundary between Yogyakarta and Surakarta (Solo)

Sultanates.

[edit]Rediscovery

The ruins of Prambanan soon after their discovery.

The Javanese locals in surrounding villages already

aware of the temple ruins existence, however they did

not know the historical background about which

kingdoms or who was the king that commisioned the

construction of such monuments. As the result, the locals

developed the tales and legends tried to explain the

origin of temples; infused with the myth of giants, the

cursed princess, and the wonderous origin of the

Prambanan and Sewu temple ruins said to be created by

multitude of demons under the order of Bandung

Bondowoso, according to Loro Jonggrang legend.

The temple officially caught the international attention in

early 19th century. In 1811 during Britain’s short-lived

rule of the Dutch East Indies, Colin Mackenzie, a

surveyor in the service of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles,

came upon the temples by chance. Although Sir Thomas

subsequently commissioned a full survey of the ruins,

they remained neglected for decades, with Dutch

residents carting off sculptures as garden ornaments and

native villagers using the foundation stones for

construction material.

Half-hearted excavations by archaeologists in the 1880s

merely facilitated looting. Reconstruction of the

compound began in 1918, and proper restoration only in

1930. Efforts at restoration continue to this day. The

reconstruction of the main Shiva temple was completed

around 1953 and inaugurated by Sukarno. Since much

of the original stonework has been stolen and reused at

remote construction sites, hampering restoration and

since a temple can be rebuilt only if at least 75% of the

original masonry is available, only the foundations of

most of the smaller shrines are now visible with no plans

for their reconstruction.

[edit]Contemporary events

Ramayana dance performance in Prambanan.

Prambanan nightview from the Trimurti open-air stage.

In the early 1990s the government removed the market

that had sprung up near the temple and transformed the

surrounding villages and rice paddies into an

archaeological park. The park covers a large area, from

Yogyakarta-Solo main road in the south, encompassing

the whole Prambanan complex, the ruins of Lumbung

and Bubrah temples, and as far as the Sewu temple

compound in the north. In 1992 the Indonesian

government created a State-owned Limited Liability

Enterprise (PERSERO) of PT Taman Wisata Candi

Borobudur, Prambanan, dan Ratu Boko. This enterprise

is the authority for the park management of Borobudur

Prambanan Ratu Boko and the surrounding region.

Prambanan is one of the most visited tourist attraction in

Indonesia.

The open-air and indoor stages on the west side of the

temple right across the Opak river, were built to stage

the Ramayana ballet. This traditional Javanese dance is

the centuries old dance of the Javanese court,

performed every full moon night in the Prambanan

temple since the 1960s. Since then, Prambanan has

become one of the major archaeological and cultural

tourism attractions in Indonesia.

After the reconstruction of the main temples in 1990s,

Prambanan once again reclaim its status as an important

religious center for Hindu rituals and ceremonies in Java.

The religious significance revival of Prambanan was due

to Balinese and Javanese Hindu communities in

Yogyakarta and Central Java that annually perform their

sacred ceremonies in Prambanan, such

as Galungan, Tawur Kesanga, and Nyepi.[6][7]

The temple was damaged during the May 2006 Java

earthquake. Early photos suggested that although the

complex was structurally intact, the damage was

significant. Large pieces of debris, including carvings,

were scattered over the ground. The temple was closed

to visitors until the damage could be fully assessed.

Eventually, the head of Yogyakarta Archaeological

Conservation Agency stated that it would take months to

identify the precise extent of the damage.[8][9] However,

some weeks later in 2006 the site was re-opened for

visitors. In 2008, 856,029 Indonesian visitors and

114,951 foreign visitors has visited Prambanan. In 6

January 2009 the reconstruction of Nandi temple

finished.[10] As of 2009, the interior of most of the temples

remains off-limits for safety reasons.

[edit]The temple compoundThis information does not take account of damage caused by the 2006 Java earthquake

An architectural model of the Prambanan temple complex, originally there was 240 temples stood in this temple compound

Originally there was total 240 temples stood in

Prambanan. The Prambanan Temple Compound

consist of:

1. 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples

dedicated to Shiva, Visnu, and Brahma

2. 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of

Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of each

gods; Nandi, Garuda, and Hamsa

3. 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the

rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples on north

and south side

4. 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4

cardinal directions right beyond the 4 main gates

of inner zone

5. 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4

corners of inner zone

6. 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples

arranged in 4 concentric square rows; numbers of

temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52,

60, and 68

The Prambanan compound also known as Rara

Jonggrang complex, named after the popular legend

of Rara Jonggrang. There were once 240 temples

stood in this Shivaite temple complex, either big or

small.[11] Today, all of 8 main temples and 8 small

shrines in inner zone are reconstructed, but only 2 out

of the original 224 pervara temples are renovated. The

majority of them have deteriorated; what is left are

only scattered stones. The Prambanan temple

complex consists of three zones; first the outer zone,

second the middle zone that contains hundreds of

small temples, and third the holiest inner zone that

contains eight main temples and eight small shrines.

The Hindu temple complex at Prambanan is based on

a square plan that contains a total of three zone yards,

each of which is surrounded by four walls pierced by

four large gates. The outer zone is a large space

marked by a rectangular wall. The outermost walled

perimieter, which originally measured about 390

metres per side, was oriented in the northeast,

southwest direction. However, except for its southern

gate, not much else of this enclosure has survived

down to the present. The original function is unknown;

possibilities are that it was a sacred park, or priests'

boarding school (ashram). The supporting buildings for

the temple complex were made from organic material;

as a consequence no remains occur.

[edit]Shiva temple

Main shrine dedicated to Shivaof Prambanan temple complex

The statue of Durga Mahisasuramardini in northern cella of Shiva temple.

The inner zone or central compound is the holiest

among the three zones. Its the square elevated

platform surrounded by square stone wall with stone

gates on each four cardinal points. This holiest

compound is assembled of eight main shrines

or candi. The three main shrines,

called Trimurti ("three forms"), are dedicated to the

three gods: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Keeper,

and Shiva the Destroyer.

The Shiva temple is the tallest and largest structure in

Prambanan Loro Jonggrang complex, it measures 47

metres tall and 34 metres wide. The Shiva temple

encircled with galleries adorned with bas-reliefs telling

the story of Ramayana carved on the inner walls of

the balustrades. To follow the story accordingly,

visitors must enter from the east side and began to

perform pradakshina or circumambulating clockwise.

The bas-reliefs of Ramayana continued to Brahma

temple galleries.

The Shiva shrine located at the center and contains

five chambers, four small chambers in every cardinal

direction and one bigger main chamber in central part

of the temple. The east chamber connect to central

chamber that houses the largest temple in

Prambanan, a three meter high statue of Shiva

Mahadeva (the Supreme God). The statue

bears Lakçana (attributes or symbol) of Shiva such as

skull and sickle (crescent) at the crown, and third eye

on the forehead, also four hands that holds Shiva's

symbols: a prayer beads, feather duster,

and trisula (trident). Some historians believe that the

depiction of Shiva as Mahadeva also meant to

personify king Balitung as the reincarnation of Shiva.

So, when he died, a temple was built to commemorate

him as Shiva.[12] The statue of Shiva stands on lotus

pad on Yonipedestal that bears the carving

of Nāga serpents on north side of pedestal.

The other three smaller chambers contain statues of

Hindu Gods related to Shiva; his consort Durga,

the rishi Agastya, and Ganesha, his son. Statue

of Agastyaoccupy the south chamber, the west

chamber houses the statue of Ganesha, while the

north chamber contains the statue of Durga

Mahisasuramardini depictingDurga as the slayer of

Bull demon. The shrine of Durga is also called the

temple of Rara Jonggrang (Javanese: slender virgin),

after a Javanese legend of princess Rara Jonggrang.

[edit]Brahma and Vishnu templesThe two other main shrines are that of Vishnu on the

north side of Shiva shrine, and the one of Brahma on

the south. Both temple facing east and each contain

only one large chamber, each dedicated to respected

gods; Brahma temple contains the statue of Brahma

and Vishnu temple houses the statue of Vishnu.

Brahma and Vishnu temple measures 20 metres wide

and 33 metres tall.

[edit]Vahana templesThe other three shrine in front of three main temples is

dedicated to vehicle (vahana) of the respective gods –

the bull Nandi for Shiva, the sacred swan Hamsa for

Brahma, and Vishnu's Eagle Garuda. Precisely in front

of Shiva temple stands Nandi temple which contains a

statue of Nandi bull, the vehicle (vahana) of Lord

Shiva. Besides it, there is also other statues, the

statue of Chandra the god of moon and Surya the god

of sun. Chandra stands on his carriage pulled by 10

horses, and the statue of Surya also standing on a

carriage pulled by 7 horses.[13] Facing Brahma temple

is the temple of Hamsa or Angsa (sacred swan). In the

chamber of this temple contains no statue. But it

seems likely that there was once a statue of the

sacred swan, vehicle of god Brahma. In front of Vishnu

temple is the temple dedicated for Garuda, however

just like the Hamsa temple, Garuda temple contains

no statue. Probably this temple once contains the

statue of Garuda, the vehicle of Vishnu. Garuda holds

important role for Indonesia, which serves as

the national symbol of Indonesia, also to the

airline Garuda Indonesia.

[edit]Apit temples and smaller shrinesBetween these row of main temple, on north and south

side stands two Candi Apit. Beside these 8 main

temples, there's also 8 smaller shrines; 4 Candi

Kelir on four cardinal direction of the entrance, and

4 Candi Patok on four corner of inner zone.

[edit]Pervara templesThe two walled perimeters that surround the remaining

two yards to the interior are oriented to the four

cardinal points. The second yard's walled perimeter,

which measures about 225 metres per side, surrounds

a terraced area that consists of four rows containing

44, 52, 60, and 68 pervara temples. Respectively,

each with a height of 14 metres and measuring 6

metres x 6 metres at the base, or 224 structures in

total. The sixteen temples located at the corners of the

rows face two directions; the remaining 208 structures

open to only one of the four cardinal directions.[14]

The middle zone consists of four rows of 224

individual small shrines. There are great numbers of

these temples, but most of them are still in ruins and

only some have been reconstructed. These concentric

rows of temples were made in identical design. Each

row towards the center is slightly elevated. These

shrines are called "Candi Perwara" guardian or

complementary temples, the additional buildings of the

main temple. Some believed it was offered to the king

as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in

four rows around the central temples, some believed it

has something to do with four castes, made according

to the rank of the people allowed to enter them; the

row nearest to the central compound was accessible

to the priests only, the other three were reserved for

the nobles, the knights, and the simple people

respectively. While another believed that the four rows

of Perwara has nothing to do with four castes, it just

simply made as meditation place for priests and as

worship place for devotees.

[edit]Architecture

The cross section of Shiva temple

The architecture of Prambanan temple follows the

typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu

Shastra. The temple design

incorporated mandalatemple plan arrangements and

also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples.

Prambanan was originally named Shivagrha and

dedicated to godShiva. The temple was designed to

mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of Hindu

gods, and the home of Shiva. The whole temple

complex is a model of Hindu universe according

to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.

Just like Borobudur, Prambanan also recognize the

hierarchy of the temple zones, spanned from the less

holy to the holiest realms. Each Hindu and Buddhist

concepts has their own terms, but the concept's

essentials is identical. Either the compound site plan

(horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) are

consists of three zones:[15]

Bhurloka  (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest

realm of common mortals; humans, animals also

demons. Where humans still binded by their lust,

desire and unholy way of life. The outer courtyard

and the foot (base) part of each temples is

symbolized the realm of bhurloka.

Bhuvarloka  (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle

realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics, and lesser

gods. People here began to see the light of truth.

The middle courtyard and the body of each temples

is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.

Svarloka  (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest

and holiest realm of gods, also known

as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of

each temples is symbolized the realm of svarloka.

The roof of the Prambanan temples is adorned and

crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel), the shape of

Prambananratna took the altered form of vajra that

represent diamond. In ancient Java temple

architecture, ratna is Hindu counterpart of

Buddhist stupa, and served as the temple's

pinnacle.

During the restoration, a well which

contains pripih (stone casket) was discovered under

the center of the Shiva temple. The main temple has a

well of 5.75 m depth in which a stone casket was

found on top a pile of charcoal, earth and remains of

burned animal bones. Sheets of gold leaves with the

inscription Varuna (god of the sea) and Parvata (god

of the mountains) were found here. The stone casket

contained sheets of copper mixed with charcoal,

ashes and earth, 20 coins, jewels, glass, pieces of

gold and silver leaves, seashells and 12 gold leaves (5

of which in the shape of a turtle, Nāgaserpent, padma,

altar and egg).[16]

[edit]Reliefs

Ravana kidnapping Sita while the Jatayuon the left tried to help her. Prambanan bas-relief

Prambanan panel, lion in niche flanked by two kalpataru trees each flanked by a pair of kinnaras or animals.

[edit]Ramayana and KrishnayanaThe temple is adorned with panels of narrative bas-

reliefs telling the story of Hindu

epic; Ramayana and Krishnayana. The narrative bas-

relief panels was carved along the

inner balustrades wall on the gallery around the three

main temples.

The narrative panels on the balustrade read from left

to right. The story started from east entrance where

visitors turn left and moving around the temple gallery

in clockwise direction. This conforms with pradaksina,

the ritual of circumambulation performed

by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while

keeping the sanctuary to their right. The story of

Ramayana started on Shiva temple balustrade and

continued to Brahma temple. On the balustrades in

Vishnu temple there is series of bas-relief panels

depict Krishnayana, the story of lord Krishna.

The bas-relief of Ramayana illustrate how Sita, the

wife of Rama, is abducted by Ravana. The monkey

king Hanuman brings his army to help Rama and

rescue Sita. This story is also shown by

the Ramayana Ballet, regularly performed at full moon

at Trimurti open air theatre in west side of the

illuminated Prambanan complex.

[edit]Lokapalas, Brahmins and DevatasOn the other side of narrative panels, the temple wall

along the gallery were adorned with the statues and

reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure

oflokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can

be found in Shiva temple. The brahmin sage editors of

veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in

Vishnu temple the figures of a male

deities devatas flanked by two apsaras.

[edit]Prambanan panel: Lion and KalpataruThe lower outer wall of these temples were adorned

with row of small niche containing image of sinha (lion)

flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru

(kalpavriksha) tree. These wish-fulfilling sacred trees

according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on

either side by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of

birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc.

The pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees

is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus it is

called as "Prambanan panel".

[edit]The Rara Jonggrang legend

The multitude of temples scattered around Prambanan inspired the local legend of Rara Jonggrang

The popular legend of Rara Jonggrang is what

connects the site of the Ratu Boko Palace, the origin

of the Durga statue in northern cell/chamber of the

main shrine, and the origin of the Sewu temple temple

complex nearby. The legend tells of the story about

Prince Bandung Bondowoso who fell in love with

Princess Rara Jonggrang, the daughter of King Boko.

But the princess rejected his proposal of marriage

because Bandung Bondowoso had killed King Boko

and ruled her kingdom. Bandung Bondowoso insisted

on the union, and finally Rara Jonggrang was forced to

agree for a union in marriage, but she posed one

impossible condition: Bandung must build her a

thousand temples in only one night.

The Prince entered into meditation and conjured up a

multitude of spirits (demons) from the earth. Helped by

supernatural beings, he succeeded in building 999

temples. When the prince was about to complete the

condition, the princess woke her palace maids and

ordered the women of the village to begin pounding

rice and set a fire in the east of the temple, attempting

to make the prince and the spirits believe that the sun

was about to rise. As the cocks began to crow, fooled

by the light and the sounds of morning time, the

supernatural helpers fled back into the ground. The

prince was furious about the trick and in revenge he

cursed Rara Jonggrang to stone. She became the last

and the most beautiful of the thousand statues.

According to the traditions, the unfinished thousandth

temple created by the demons become the Sewu

temple compounds nearby (Sewu means "thousands"

in Javanese), and the Princess is the image

of Durga in the north cell of the Shiva temple at

Prambanan, which is still known as Rara Jonggrang

or Slender Virgin.

Brief Description

Built in the 10th century, this is the largest temple compound

dedicated to Shiva in Indonesia. Rising above the centre of

the last of these concentric squares are three temples

decorated with reliefs illustrating the epic of the Ramayana,

dedicated to the three great Hindu divinities (Shiva, Vishnu

and Brahma) and three temples dedicated to the animals who

serve them.

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Long Description

Prambanan, named after the village, is the biggest temple

complex in Java. It is actually a huge Hindu temple complex

about 15 km north-east of Yogyakarta. Dedicated to the three

great Hindu divinities, this temple with its decorated reliefs is

an outstanding example of Siva art in Indonesia and the

region.

It was built in the 9th century and designed as three

concentric squares. In all there are 224 temples in the entire

complex. The inner square contains 16 temples, the most

significant being the 47 m high central Siva temple flanked to

the north by the Brahma temple and to the south by the

Vishnu temple. These three ancient masterpieces of Hindu

architecture are locally referred to as the Prambanan Temple

or Lorojonggrang Temple (Slender Maiden); the compound

was deserted soon after it was completed, possibly owing to

the eruption of nearby Mount Merapi.

A square platform is divided into concentric courts by square-

plane walls. In the middle of the last enceinte stand the

temples dedicated to the three great Hindu gods and three

small temples dedicated to their animal vehicles (Bull for Siva,

Eagle for Brahma and Swan for Vishnu). Other minor temples

were located at the entrance gates or outside the central

enceinte (four ensembles).

The Siva temple had four statues: located in the centre

chamber is the Siva statue; in the north chamber stands the

Dewi Durga Mahisasuramardhini statue; in the west chamber

stands the Ganesya statue; and the south chamber contains

the statue of Agastya. Inside the Brahma temple there is

Brahma statue, and in the Vishnu temple there is the Vishnu

statue. In the Vishnu temple is carved the story of

Kresnayana, while the Brahma temple houses the continuous

story of the Ramayana. The temples of Siva, Vishnu and

Brahma are decorated with reliefs illustrating the Ramayana

period (history of the Hindu hero Rama, written around 300).

The neighbouring Buddhist ensemble at Sewu comprises a

central temple surrounded by a multitude of minor temples.

Surprisingly, it shares many design attributes with the Hindu

Loro Joggrang Temple, perhaps indicating the degree to

which such temples also reflect state policies and control.

Three other temples in ruins set between Sewu and Loro

Joggrang complete the ensemble around Prambanan:

Lumbuna, Burah and Asu.