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Englands Regency is a creative and productive period forboth architecture and the decorative arts. Designers bor-row and synthesize forms and influences from classical, medieval, and exotic sources. Neoclassicism continues todominate the arts and architecture, but the Romantic andPicturesque Movements also affect design. Consequently,formality and symmetry through classicism shape the maincharacter, and eclecticism and asymmetry enliven thebuilding context. This mixing of influences contributes toa unique and distinctive design image, one that offers morevariety than is evident in earlier periods.

HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL

The term Regency can refer to several periods. Politically, it designates the time between 1811 and 1820 whenGeorge, Prince of Wales, serves as Prince Regent for his father who is too ill to reign. Artistically, Regency coversthe years between 1790 and 1830, although characteristicsof this style appear as early as the 1780s and continue wellpast 1830.

George, Prince of Wales and eldest son of George III andQueen Charlotte, is a great patron and collector of art andarchitecture. Unlike his forebears, he sees himself as anarbiter of taste. He gives numerous commissions to architectsand designers, including the remodeling of Carleton Housein London and the Royal Pavilion at Brighton. Hugely unpopular, he becomes one of the most despised Englishmonarchs because of his excessive spending and dissolute,immoral lifestyle. His marriage to Caroline of Brunswickproduces one daughter, Princess Charlotte.

C H A P T E R 4

EnglishRegency,British GreekRevival1790s-1840s

Whether the house be Grecian or gothic, large orsmall, it will require the same rooms for the presenthabits of life, viz. a dining-room and two others, oneof which may be called a drawing-room, and the othera book-room, if small, or the library, if large: to theseis sometimes added a breakfast room, but of late,especially since the central hall, or vestibule, has beenin some degree given up, these rooms have beenopened into each other, en suite, by large foldingdoors; the effect of this enfilade, or visto, through a modern house, is occasionally increased by aconservatory at one end, and repeated by a largemirror at the opposite end.

Humphry Repton, 1816 from Regency Style,1996, p. 29 by Steve Parissien

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Architecture and Interior Design from the 19th Century: An Integrated History, Volume 2, by Buie Harwood, Bridget May, Ph.D., and Curt Sherman.Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

66 L AT E N E O C L A S S I C A L


The period is largely one of luxury, prosperity, andgrowth despite social unrest, violence, and injustice. Fol-lowing the loss of the American colonies, Great Britainlooks to the south (Africa) and east (India) for coloniza-tion to increase trade and commerce and enhance pros-perity. The British victories over Napoleon stimulatenationalism and patriotism. The Congress of Vienna,which meets in 1814 to bring order back to Europe fol-lowing the defeat of Napoleon, increases Britains terri-torial holdings by adding former Dutch holdings, such asCeylon (todays Sri Lanka).

The Industrial Revolution, which begins in the textileindustry, boosts economic prosperity. New inventions helpBritain become the largest exporter of cotton textiles inthe world by 1830 and increase her production of iron andcoal. Towns and cities grow as people move to them to takefactory jobs. London, the largest city, is a center for tradeand commerce. People are living longer, marrying younger,and having larger families.

The nobility become wealthier as does the larger mid-dle class (Fig. 4-1), whose demand for houses and furnish-ings creates a building boom. Fashion begins to surpasstaste as the driving force in art and design, and fashionschange quickly. Consumers of the new commercial classesface a vast array of stylistic choices. Numerous books andperiodicals assist them in furnishing their homes with thelatest fashions. The seeds of revivalism that will character-ize the Victorian era are sown during this period.

CONCEPTS

During the Regency period, classicism dominates architec-ture, interiors, and furniture and follows two paths. Onethread maintains the flow of the Neoclassical, continuingits lightness and advocating stylistic purity and archaeo-logical correctness. A second, later trend, adopts elements

from other classical sources, such as the Italian Renaissance.Although often at war with France, French influences arestrong in England.

The Romantic and the Picturesque Movements influ-ence design thinking throughout the period. Romanticsbelieve in the unity of reason, nature, and antiquity, andthey rigorously seek the beautiful and the sublime or theawe-inspiring or terror-filled experience of nature. Becausefeelings are supreme, Romantics esteem past styles for their visual and symbolic associations, and they evoke an emotional response. They regard medieval styles as equalcounterparts to classical ones. The Picturesque Movementalso admires nature and the visual qualities of landscapes,such as asymmetry. These two movements open the doorfor a broader range of design resources and greater eclecti-cism. Their reliance upon links and relationships leadseventually to designing in a particular style based uponthat styles historical associations, which characterizes design throughout the Victorian period. Known as associ-ationism, this manner of thought values a work of art beyond beauty, which may be shown by intrinsic qualitiessuch as form, to the images, memories, and thoughts that itmay conjure up in the viewers mind.

Unlike European designers, the English freely borrowfrom many sources besides classical, producing a uniqueexpression. Forms remain the same, but the details

4-1. Costumes ofwomen.

IMPORTANT TREATISES

The Cabinet Dictionary, 1803; Thomas Sheraton.

The Cabinet-maker, Upholsterer and GeneralArtists Encyclopaedia, 18041806; ThomasSheraton.

The Cabinet-maker and Upholsterers Guide,1826; George Smith.

A Collection of Designs for HouseholdFurniture and Interior Decoration, 1808; GeorgeSmith.

A Collection of Ornamental Designs, 1812;George Smith.

Household Furniture and Interior Decoration,1807; Thomas Hope.

The Laws of Harmonious Colouring, 1821;David Ramsay Hay.

Plans of Buildings, 1788; Sir John Soane.

Periodicals: The Repository of Arts, Literature,Commerce, Manufactures, Fashions and Politics(Ackermans Repository), 18091828; RudolphAckerman.


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denote a particular style or design source. The IndustrialRevolution produces new materials, makes existingmaterials more available, and helps to bring about less-formal living patterns. In this period, interior decorationadvice books and periodicals begin their ascent inpopularity. Two important ones are Household Furnitureand Interior Decoration (1807) by Thomas Hope and A Collection of Designs for Household Furniture and Inte-rior Decoration (1808) by George Smith.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

Although classicism dominates, Regency architecture, in-teriors, and furniture exhibit great variety and eclecticismthrough classical (Greek, Roman, Egyptian, and ItalianRenaissance), medieval (Norman, Gothic, Tudor, and Elizabethan), and exotic (Chinese, Turkish, and Indian)influences and characteristics. Some designers working inthe classical mode strive for archaeological correctness anduse the vast array of treatises portraying works of ancientGreece, Rome, and Egypt as resources. Others are more

eclectic, receiving inspiration from contemporary Franceand Renaissance Italy. In general, symmetry, concern forproportion, monumentality, and antique forms and detailscharacterize the classical styles. The medieval and exoticmodes are evocative, freely mixing elements and detailsfrom their sources with contemporary forms. Asymmetryand irregularity are more common with these influences.Emblems and associations become important during theperiod.

Greek Revival. Originating in the early 19th century inEngland, examples portray a stark, Grecian image thatderives from studies of antiquity in the late 18th century.Buildings feature bold, simple massing; flat, unbrokenwalls; minimal, refined, and flat ornament; the Greekorders, particularly the Doric; heavy proportions; porti-coes; colonnades; and Greek or Roman temple forms. Motifs. Motifs include pediments, columns, arabesques,grotesques, urns, classical figures, trellises, fretwork, bam-boo, foliage, pagodas, pointed arches, fan vaulting, rosewindows, sphinxes, sun disk and vulture, Egyptian heads,and stars (Fig. 4-2, 4-6, 4-13, 4-22, 4-24, 4-29, 4-30, 4-31,4-34, 4-36, 4-40).

4-2. Ornamental motifs and vase; published in Household Furniture and Interior Decoration, 1807; Thomas Hope.


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ARCHITECTURE

Regency architecture follows two paths, Neoclassicism andthe Picturesque Movement, with each producing manyvariations. Architects possess a large body of architecturaltheory, the classical being the best understood. Conse-quently, most public buildings are Neoclassical and featuretypical classical elements, such as columns and pediments,and attributes like symmetry, order, and balance.

During the 18th century, classical Greek buildings become objects of scrutiny by architects, dilettantes, andothers who measure, draw, and publish them. The most fa-mous treatise is Stuart and Revetts Antiquities of Athens,published beginning in 1762. Although interpretations oftemple ruins are common in picturesque landscapes, tastesdo not run to the Grecian, so few buildings are constructedin the style during the period.

By 1800, appreciation for things Greek has increased.Abb Marc Laugiers theories of simplicity and architec-tural purity deriving from the primitive hut are findinggreater acceptance among English architects, and Lord Elgins importation into England of the Parthenon sculp-tures focuses popular attention on Greece. Thomas Hope,who prefers Greek designs to Roman, issues a strong call forbuildings of pure Greek design. Designers respond with

4-3. Dulwich Picture Gallery, 18111814; London, England;John Soane. English Regency.

4-4. Bank of England, 17881823; London, England; SirJohn Soane. English Regency.

IMPORTANT BUILDINGS AND INTERIORS

Brighton, England: Royal Pavilion, 17861787, remodeled 1815-

1821; Henry Holland, remodeled by John Nash.English Regency.

Edinburgh, Scotland:Royal College of Physicians, 18441846; Thomas

Hamilton. British Greek Revival. Gloucestershire, England:

Dodington Park, 1798-1817; James Wyatt.British Greek Revival.

Liverpool, England:Branch Bank of England, 1845; C. R. Cockerell.

British Greek Revival.S. Georges Hall, 1840-1854; Harvey Lonsdale

Elmes; interiors completed 18511854 by C. R.Cockerell. British Greek Revival.

London, England:Athenaeum, 18291830; Decimus Burton.

British Greek Revival.Bank of England, 17881823; Sir John Soane.

English Regency.British Museum, 1823-1846; Sir Robert Smirke.

British Greek Revival.Carlton House Terrace, begun 1827; John Nash.

English Regency.Cumberland Terrace, Regents Park, 1825; John

Nash. English Regency.Hyde Park Corner, arch and screen, 1825;

Decimus Burton. British Greek Revival.No. 13, Lincolns Inn Fields (Soanes house, now

the Soane Museum), 18121813; Sir JohnSoane. English Regency.

Marble Arch, 1828; John Nash. English Regency.Park Crescent, Regents Park, begun 1812; John

Nash. English Regency.Regents Park, 18111830; John Nash. English

Regency.S. Pancras Church, 18181824; H. W. Inwood.

British Greek Revival. Oxford, England:

Cambridge University Library (Squire Law Library),1837-1840; C. R. Cockerell. British Greek Revival.

Ashmolean Museum and Taylorian Institution,18391845; C. R. Cockerell. British Greek Revival.

Suffolk, England:Ickworth, 17951829; Mario Asprucci the

Younger. English Regency.


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4-8. Athenaeum, 1829-1830; London, England; Decimus Burton. British Greek Revival.

4-7. Marble Arch, 1828; London, England; John Nash.English Regency.

4-6. Hyde Park Corner, arch and screen, 1825; London,England; Decimus Burton. British Greek Revival.

4-5. S. Pancras Church, 18181824; London, England; H. W.Inwood. British Greek Revival.


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4-9. Branch Bank of England, 1845; Liverpool, England; C. R. Cockerell. British Greek Revival.

the integration of nature inside and outside. These attrib-utes contrast with Neoclassical and for the most part char-acterize domestic structures.

Medieval sources, important to the Picturesque, lead tothe appearance of Gothic characteristics, such as pointedarches and tracery, applied to contemporary buildings (seeChapter 6, Gothic Revival). Late in the period, the Tudor and Elizabethan styles join Gothic. Elements fromsuch exotic sources as China, India, and Islam also appear,although rarely are entire structures designed in thesemodes. An exception is the Royal Pavilion at Brighton,which features onion domes, foliated arches, and lattice-work. The Italianate style also develops from Italianvernacular buildings during this period. It features asymme-try, towers, round arches, and large overhanging eaves onroofs (see Chapter 7, Italianate, Renaissance Revival).

Public Buildings Types. The period produces a variety of building typessuch as monuments, banks, museums, gentlemens clubs,markets, churches, factories, and warehouses (Fig. 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10). Most important buildingsare classical or Greek Revival in style. Beginning in thisperiod, architects make a distinction between architectureand engineering. They do not consider utilitarian build-ings, such as factories, as architecture. Nevertheless, manyof these buildings have classical design compositions. Site Orientation. Some public buildings are part of Pic-turesque urban developments and their relationship toeach other and the street is carefully considered to createfocal points (Fig. 4-6, 4-7, 4-8, 4-10, 4-11). Floor Plans. Plans do not change a great deal. Symmetrycontinues to govern the disposition of spaces. Importantbuildings often have a variety of sized and shaped spacessuitable to their functions. Materials. Stucco as facing for other materials dominatesthe period (Fig. 4-3, 4-6). It usually is colored and scoredto resemble stone. Brick and stone also are used (Fig. 4-4,4-8) and ironwork is especially characteristic. Because ironcan easily reproduce ornament in any style, balconies, verandas, some interior columns, windows, and roofs aremade of cast iron. Faades. Usual classical characteristics include templefronts, porticoes, colonnades, pediments, clean lines,smooth or rusticated walls, geometric forms, and sym-metrically disposed wings. Greek Revival (Fig. 4-6, 4-10,4-11) strives to create a Grecian image using the Doric,Ionic, or Corinthian orders, minimal ornament, andcompositions of geometric solids derived from ancientGreek prototypes such as the Parthenon (448432 B.C.E.),the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (c. 334 B.C.E.),and the Tower of the Winds (c. C.E. 40). During the1820s, architects begin to add elements from the ItalianRenaissance and Andrea Palladio. The Italian palazzo

Greek Revival buildings. Many museums, libraries, art gal-leries, and university buildings are Greek Revival andstand as Temples of Learning or Temples of Art, structurescreated for educating humankind about the accomplish-ments of the ancients. Largely supplanted by GothicRevival by midcentury in England, Greek Revival contin-ues well into the 1860s in Scotland.

Beginning in the 1820s, designers, having reached whatthey believe are the limitations of the Greek Revival, turnto the Italian Renaissance, Italian vernacular, and AndreaPalladio for inspiration. Thus, they develop the Renais-sance Revival, which continues into the Victorian period.Renaissance Revival, adopted first for gentlemens clubs,copies and adapts forms and details from Italian Renais-sance palaces (see Chapter 7, Italianate, RenaissanceRevival).

The Picturesque Movement in architecture developsfrom landscapes designed in the second half of the 18th cen-tury. These landscapes feature asymmetry, meanderingpaths, ponds with irregular shapes, and ruins or small build-ings for contemplation as designers strive to create a series ofviews or pictures reminiscent of ancient history, literature,or lyrical paintings. In architecture, this translates to unitywith the landscape, asymmetry in plan and form as well as


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4-11. St. Georges Hall, c. 18401854; Liverpool, England; by Harvey Lonsdale Elmes. British Greek Revival.

4-10. British Museum, 18231846; London, England; Sir Robert Smirke. British Greek Revival.

becomes the model for gentlemens clubs and banks(Fig. 4-8). Most churches maintain the 18th-centuryGeorgian or classical tradition with portico or templefront and steeple behind (Fig. 4-5). Some follow medievalor Gothic prototypes. Windows. Windows may be rectangular or square,small or large (Fig. 4-8, 4-9). Typical sash and Frenchwindows are arranged symmetrically across the faade

usually with blank walls in between. Some have roundedtops, lintels, or pediments. A few buildings have Palla-dian windows. Doors. Doors are wood paneled with surrounds appro-priate to the style, including columns, pilasters, porticoes,pointed arches, and foliated arches. Roofs. Roofs may be flat, gabled with pitch dependentupon the style, hipped, vaulted, or domed.


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DESIGN SPOTLIGHT

Architecture: Park Crescent, begun 1812; RegentsQuadrant, 1819-1820; Cumberland Terrace, 1825; inRegents Park, London, England; John Nash. EnglishRegency. These row houses are centerpieces in RegentsPark. The design of Cumberland Terrace treats the ter-race as a single unit. The building has triumphal archesin the center joined by two wings on either side. Al-though Grecian details embellish the building, its longwall is broken by a series of projections that createrepetitive movement and visual interest, vital ingredi-ents in the Picturesque. Projecting pavilions withbalustrades carried by pairs of Ionic columns definethe ends of the wings and middle section. A large

two-step projection distinguishes the buildings center.This pavilion is composed of a central portico witha pediment flanked by smaller stepped-back Ionicporticoes. The tympanum has terra-cotta figures ofBritannia flanked by the arts and sciences. Ionicpilasters divide the recessed portions of the buildinginto bays. The entire lower story is rusticated and hassash windows. French windows highlight the middlestory, and smaller square sashes define the third andfourth stories. Nash places the main entrances andservice buildings at the rear so as not to disturb hiscomposition and to further the illusion of one longbuilding.

Pediment

Balustrade with classical motifs

Ionic column

Rusticated facade

Square sash window

Tympanum

Center axis

Rectangular sash windows

Ionic pilaster

4-12. Park Crescent, Regents Quadrant, Cumberland Terrace, London.

Later Interpretations. A second Neoclassical Revival beginsin the late 19th century. Architectural expressions are evenmore monumental and larger than earlier ones, although theymay look similar to one another.

Private Buildings Types. Villas, which are somewhere between a mansionand a cottage in size, and townhouses are common in the

period (Fig. 4-12). The few large country houses built maybe rectangular blocks or have wings in the Palladian man-ner. The villa and cottage are more likely to exhibit me-dieval or exotic characteristics. Townhouses, often calledterraces in England, are tall and narrow in width and exhibit classical characteristics. Site Orientation. Some private apartment buildings arepart of urban developments, and their relationship to eachother and the street is carefully considered to create a


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4-14. No. 13, Lincolns Inn Fields (Soanes house, now theSoane Museum), 18121813; London, England; Sir John Soane.English Regency.

4-13. Ickworth, 17951829; Suffolk, England; MarioAsprucci the Younger. English Regency.

series of scenic views. John Nashs design for Regent Streetand Regents Park in London is an example (Fig. 4-12).Nature and the landscape are important, so country housesand villas are set in gardens of formal and informal or wildareas enhanced with ancient ruins and statuary (Fig. 4-13).Picturesque structures attempt to blend with the landscapeinstead of contrasting with it as in the 18th century. Natureis brought into the house with conservatories, greenhouses,verandas, and with plants and flowers. Floor Plans. Neoclassical house plans, with the excep-tion of terraces, are symmetrical (Fig. 4-23). Picturesqueplans are asymmetrical and may have angled wings and/orcenter on verandas or towers. Plans are less likely than before to be disposed around suites of apartments and morelikely to be arranged in circular patterns around the stair-case. Rooms of state begin to disappear as rank and cere-mony decline in importance. The library evolves from asingularly masculine domain to a room used by the entirefamily. The dining room, however, remains masculine inatmosphere, whereas the parlor, where guests are received,has a feminine air. New additions to the plan may includethe breakfast room, adjoining parlors with sliding doors tocreate a more open plan, and the conservatory to bring nature into the house (Fig. 4-15). Somewhat more com-mon are bathrooms, although the vast majority of houseshave no running water, at least on upper floors. Materials. Brick is the dominant building material fol-lowed by local stone, which is used primarily by thewealthy (Fig. 4-13). New methods of firing give a greater

range of colors for brick. Yellow, gray, cream, and whitebrick replace red in popularity. In the 1830s, new ma-chinery ensures consistency in brick sizes. As in publicbuildings, stucco often covers brick and is colored andscored to resemble ashlar masonry. However, stucco isnot very durable, so builders develop Portland cement in1814 as a substitute. Its name comes from its resemblanceto Portland stone. Ceramic tiles in similar colors to brickare a less common building material. Cast iron is used forbalcony railings, glazing bars in windows, balustrades,and staircases. Iron is usually painted green to resemblebronze. Faades. Newer characteristics include wider and tallersash windows, bow and bay windows, simpler door cases,


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4-14. (continued)

and/or stucco. Classical faades in town and country are sym-metrical with temple fronts, porticoes, blank walls, columns,and/or pilasters (Fig. 4-12, 4-14). Compositions develop fromgeometric forms derived from classical sources. Townhousesoccasionally show medieval or exotic details, such as trellisbalcony supports or pointed arches. Asymmetry, irregularmassing, and freely mixed elements from a variety of sourcesoften characterize medieval- and exotic-style country houses,castles, villas, and cottages. Indian-style buildings, which arefew, feature cupolas, lacy arches, and onion domes. Verandas,arriving from India, may surround a medieval- or exotic-stylehouse or be integrated into one or more faades, giving a Pic-turesque image and taking advantage of light and views.French windows often open to verandas and balconies. Withthe exception of garden buildings, there are few purelyChinese structures. Some buildings freely mix Indian and/orChinese details (Fig. 4-16).

Windows. Sash windows are the most typical (Fig. 4-12,4-13, 4-14). New methods of glassmaking increase sizes ofthe panes. Floor-length windows, usually leading to balconies,verandas, or conservatories, are more evident. Dark colors,such as chocolate brown, may highlight window frames.Exterior shutters may be brown, black, or green. Some win-dows have fabric awnings or canopies over them. Doors. Door surrounds are plainer than before with lightreeding preferred over columns or pilasters. Fanlights aresmaller with simpler glazing patterns. Doors are wood withtwo or three large panels. Some have circular or diamondshapes in the panels. In the 1830s, doors with glass panes

4-15. Floor plan, No. 13, Lincolns Inn Fields, 18121813;London, England; Sir John Soane. English Regency.


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emerge. Glass is usually in the upper half of the door oronly in the top two panels. Doors are painted dark colorsunless they are made of mahogany or oak. Cast-iron knobsand hinges are usually painted black. Door knockers, suchas lion heads, sphinxes, or crocodiles, are fashionable, butbells begin to replace them in the 1830s. Roofs. Roofs may be flat, gabled, hipped, or battle-mented. Roofs of classical styles are likely to be flat orgabled. Medieval and exotic styles may be battlemented,

parapeted, or domed in exotic shapes (Fig. 4-16). Italianvilla roofs may have overhanging eaves. Later Interpretations. Some variations of the EnglishRegency style filter to the United States in the early 19thcentury through the work of a few architects, such asWilliam Jay (Fig. 4-17). In approximately 1904, interestin Regency brickwork and ironwork revives, so manyRegency Revival terraces are constructed in London andother English cities.



4-16. Royal Pavilion; Brighton, England.

Architecture: Royal Pavilion, 1786-1787, remodeled1815-1821; Brighton, England; Henry Holland, remodeledby John Nash. English Regency. Originally classical in style,the Royal Pavilion represents the exotic, eclectic aspects ofRegency as envisioned by John Nash for the Prince ofWales. Nash creates a building without parallel in Europethat sets the standard for fantasy resort architecture. Tak-ing advantage of new materials, he enlarges the buildingwith a cast-iron frame. Highly irregular in form, the Pavil-ion combines Chinese, Islamic, medieval, and Indian detailsand motifs. Curving and rectangular forms create a pictur-esque outline. Chinese-style lattice in a Gothic pattern fillsIslamic horseshoe arches and edges the balconies. French

windows with curving tops allow access to the outside orthe balconies. Minarets, onion domes, chimneys, andpointed battlements punctuate the roofline. The minaretsand domes are iron covered in stucco.

The Pavilions interiors are equally exotic and ostentatiousin design. Exterior influences repeat inside, but Chinesedetails predominate. Lavish materials, rich colors, gilding,bamboo, fretwork, flowers, foliage, and dragons charac-terize wall, floor, and ceiling treatments as well as fur-nishings throughout the Pavilion. The most magnificent ofthe rooms are the Banqueting Room by artist Robert Jonesand the Music Room decorated by Frederick Crace.


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INTERIORS

Like architecture, Regency interiors are eclectic and bor-row from the same sourcesclassical, medieval, Italian,French Empire, Chinese, and Indian. Classically inspiredrooms are the most common, followed by medieval exam-ples. Entirely Chinese or Indian interiors are rare as in ar-chitecture. Public interiors and important domestic roomshave more ambitious treatments that include architecturaldetails such as moldings, the orders, or fan vaulting. Otherrooms have flat, decorative treatments such as paint, fab-ric, or wallpaper. Each room typically is treated as a unitwith its own color scheme or theme and is usually desig-nated as such (Chinese Room or Yellow Room). Inheritedrank becomes less important than wealth, which must be

DESIGN PRACTITIONERS

Breaking with the 18th-century tradition of Robert Adamand others, Regency architects rarely design domestic in-teriors and furniture. These tasks are left to upholsterers,cabinetmakers, and other designers often with the helpof patrons. Pattern books for furniture and interiors as-sist patrons and consumers in designing their homes.

Crace and Son is one of the best-knownfurniture-making, upholstery, and interiordecoration firms of the Regency. Frederick, a son,creates the interiors of the Royal Pavilion atBrighton. The father, John C. Crace, makes thefurniture for the Pavilion. Another son, John G.Crace, collaborates with A. W. N. Pugin on theinteriors of the Houses of Parliament.

Gillow and Company designs interiors andfurniture for wealthy patrons from the mid-18ththrough the 19th centuries. Robert Gillow opensthe London branch as a cabinetmaking firm in1769. By 1800, the firm furnishes entire houses.Innovations include the whatnot and piecesnamed for wealthy patrons.

Thomas Hope (1769-1811) is a wealthyconnoisseur and collector who designs thefurniture and interiors of his homes around hiscollection of ancient artifacts. Influences includeclassical antiquity and Napoleons architects andhis friends, Percier and Fontaine. Hopes correctapplication of forms and motifs reflects hiscareful study of antique sources. His book,Household Furniture and Interior Decoration,introduces the term interior decoration to theEnglish public and also features the interiors ofhis Duchess Street house.

John Nash (17521835) is the leading architectof the Picturesque in England. His partnershipwith landscape designer Humphry Reptonproduces many country houses, villas, andcottages that exemplify Picturesquecharacteristics. Nash becomes the principalarchitect of the Prince Regent in 1811. Hecreates plans for Regent Street and RegentsPark, thus bringing the Picturesque into thecity. Nash designs in many styles andintroduces cast iron for various parts of hisbuildings.

George Smith (c. 17861826) promoteseclecticism with less concern for archaeologicalcorrectness than Hope does. Smith popularizesHopes ideas. Unlike Hope, he includes a fewNorman or Gothic and Chinese designs in hisbook. Because he is a cabinetmaker, his designsassume a more practical approach. His first book,A Collection of Designs for Household Furnitureand Interior Decoration, contains color plates andis a guide to furnishing all rooms in a house.

Sir John Soane (1753-1837), one of Englandsgreat architects, creates a unique and personalstyle in architecture and interiors that synthesizesNeoclassicism and Picturesque. His Neoclassicalstyle is one of reductioneliminating details. Thus,fluting in his hands becomes incised lines.Picturesque characteristics include antiqueallusions, changes in level, and implied movement.His interiors have slender proportions, spare details,unusual lighting, rich colors, and unusual vaultsand domes.

4-17. Later Interpretation: Owens-Thomas House, 18161819; Savannah, Georgia; William Jay. American Regency.


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displayed. Consequently, many rooms are ostentatious orsometimes even garish.

The Industrial Revolution greatly affects interiors andtheir decoration. The use of textiles increases becausethey are more readily available and cost less. Cast-ironbalustrades, fire grates, and stoves become more univer-sal. Advancements in the manufacture of glass and thedevelopment of plate glass allow larger windows to pro-vide more natural light. Artificial lighting improves with


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4-20. Drawing room, dining room, stair hall, and section at No. 13, Lincolns Inn Fields, 18121813; London, England; Sir JohnSoane. English Regency.

4-18. Rotunda and office area, Bank of England,17881823; London, England; Sir John Soane. English Regency.

4-19. Entry hall, Athenaeum, 18291830; London, England;Decimus Burton. British Greek Revival.


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Skylight

Incised lines and Greek key motifs on dome

PendentiveLight well above illuminates perimeter of room

Shallow canopy dome

Lightweight furnishings contribute toNeoclassical character

Classical artifacts are accented throughoutthe space to create vistas

4-21. Breakfast room, No. 13, Lincolns Inn Fields, London.

Interiors: Breakfast room, No. 13, Lincolns Inn Fields; Lon-don, England; Sir John Soane. English Regency. This en-gaging room in Soanes second house shows his personalstyle that includes Neoclassical as well as Picturesque de-sign elements. The rooms location creates a series of vistascommon to the Picturesque that draw the eye into thedome, across the space, and into the Monument Courtyardoutside. The shallow canopy dome seems to float lightlyabove the space, making it appear more intimate in scale.Contributing to this effect, natural and artificial light fromlight wells illuminate the room perimeter, making the wallsbrighter than the dome is. Hundreds of small mirrors in the dome, the pendentives, and underneath the arches

multiply light and views to enhance the feeling of Neo-classical lightness. The incised lines and Greek key motifsthat embellish the dome are typical of Soanes style. Thehouse showcases his interior architecture and vast collec-tion of artifacts, books, and artwork.

Remodeled by Soane, the cream-colored exterior of thehouse features a projecting faade on the first two storieswith triple arches and classical details (Fig. 4-14). A singleprojecting arch and statues define the third story, while thefourth story has square windows separated by pilasters. A balustrade caps the composition and hides the roof.


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4-22. Interior with Egyptian influence; published inHousehold Furniture and Interior Decoration, 1807; London,England; Thomas Hope. English Regency.

4-23. Floor plan, Thomas Hope House, Duchess Street, c. early 19th century; London, England. English Regency.

advances in the fishing industry that provide more oiland the development of gas lighting.

During this period, room use and associations becomemore prescribed as family and business relationshipschange in response to the Industrial Revolution and eti-quette and manners increasingly define roles and inter-actions. Residential entry halls regulate social status asfriends, acquaintances, beaux, and social climbers leavetheir calling cards to be reviewed by the family. In addi-tion, business associates and less important persons waitin the hall for the gentleman or lady of the house. Par-lors, where guests are received and entertained, give im-pressions of status and culture through formal, usuallyfeminine, dcor. An important symbol of wealth andhospitality is the dining room, which is found in moremiddle-class homes. The family gathers for formal, elaborate meals in which acquaintances and friends areentertained in lavishly appointed, masculine spaces. Although private, bedrooms have richly embellishedsuites of furniture as an expression of wealth and taste.These specific room uses and connotations continuethroughout the 19th century.

Completely architect-designed interiors decline asmany people begin decorating their own rooms aided byfurniture and interior pattern books. Some call in uphol-sterers or furniture-making firms. A few antiquariansconduct more scholarly restorations of homes.

Public and Private Buildings Types. Commercial buildings generally continue to usethe same types of room spaces, but business offices becomemore important and increase in number. New in houses areconservatories and breakfast rooms (Fig. 4-21). Galleriesfor paintings and sculpture are important in museums andthe homes of the wealthy.

Relationships. Interiors may or may not repeat exteriorarchitectural details. In commercial structures, there ismore design integration between exterior and interiorarchitectural features, whereas there is usually morevariety in residential buildings (Fig. 4-22, 4-24). Styles are often mixed in houses; not all room styles reflect theexterior style. For example, some Picturesque houseshave classically inspired interiors and some classicallyinspired houses have halls and libraries rendered in other styles. Color. Color inside public buildings comes from thematerials, such as stone or marble. Wallpaper and fabric arenot commonly used in public spaces. Walls are paintedwhite, gray, or a rich red or blue.

Regency colors tend to be rich and vivid. Usual colorsinclude crimson, saffron yellow, blue, and gold. Colorschemes come from many sources, including a motif orpattern used in the room. Scholarship discovers the col-ors of the ancients, which form Etruscan or Pompeiancolor plans of terra-cotta, red, and black, sometimesmixed with blue or green (Fig. 4-21). Chinese colorschemes, such as those at Brighton Pavilion, may bebased on the blue or green backgrounds of imported Chi-nese wallpapers or the red, black, and yellow of importedChinese lacquer (Fig. 4-24).

Pattern books and periodicals promote rooms that arecoordinated in color. Authors insist that walls, curtains,and upholstery should match. Newly developed colortheories, such as those of David Ramsay Hay, advocatecolor schemes based upon the use of the room (gaiety fordrawing rooms) or orientation (blue for south rooms andred for rooms facing north). Most rooms have at least twocolors that may be either matching or contrasting. Many


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424. Entry hall, Music Gallery, Banqueting Room, Saloon in the Royal Pavilion, 17861787, remodeled 18151821; Brighton,England; Henry Holland, remodeled by John Nash. English Regency.

more colors are available to consumers than ever before,but crimson and red remain the most used colors, partic-ularly for dining rooms and libraries. Drawing rooms areoften green, while bedrooms are frequently blue. By the1830s, lighter hues, such as French gray, lilac, or lightblue, are fashionable. White rooms are rare, and yellow isconsidered a daring color. Marbling and graining arecommon. As before, baseboards or skirting are painted orgrained a dark color. Lighting. Interiors are more light-filled than everbefore. Larger windows allow more natural light to enter.Advancements in artificial lighting brighten rooms after dark. The Argand lamp is in common use duringRegency (Fig. 4-25). Argands and other oil lamps may bemade of silver, brass, bronze, glass, and crystal in manyshapes and sizes, including multiarmed hanging fixtures.Crystal chandeliers with candles continue in importantspaces, along with decorative wall sconces and torchres(Fig. 4-25). The Sinumbra lamp, invented in 1809,begins to rival the Argand in popularity because it has noreservoir to cast a shadow. Throughout the period, gaslighting increases in use, but it is hazardous and causesexplosions. Despite lighting improvements, candles stillpredominate in most homes.

Floors. Most floors are wood boards cut in randomlengths and widths (Fig. 4-21). The best woods, such as oakand mahogany, are left uncovered. Other woods arepainted, stenciled, or covered with carpet or rugs. Parquetfloors, especially those that imitate Roman flooringpatterns, briefly return to fashion. Stone, scagliola, andmarble cover only lower floors because of the weight of the materials (Fig. 4-19). Black and white are the mostfashionable color choices. Floor Coverings. Industrialization makes machine-made rugs and carpets more readily available for the mid-dle class, although some types, such as Brussels andWilton, remain beyond the reach of many. A less expen-sive alternative is ingrain, a reversible woven pilelesscarpet that is also called Kidderminster or Scotch carpet.Ingrains typically cover hallways, staircases, servantsrooms, sitting rooms, and parlors of those unable to af-ford more expensive carpet. Brussels and Wilton aremade in 27 strips, whereas ingrains come in widths upto 54 with 36 as standard. Strips are sewn together sothat carpet can be laid wall to wall, although some leavea 1 to 2 border of wood floor. Usual patterns include de-signs after Roman pavements, stone, tile, geometric, orfloral patterns in three or more colors with or without


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borders. Gothic motifs are more evident after 1820. Although Oriental rugs are largely out of fashion, Turk-ish and Persian patterned carpets are used in libraries anddining rooms (Fig. 4-20, 4-21). Axminster, a knottedcarpet, remains expensive and so is not common. Grassmatting, plain and patterned, is especially popular forChinese rooms and summer use in all rooms.

People carefully safeguard their carpets from wear anddirt by using strips or pieces of drugget, green or brownbaize, serge, haircloth, and other long-wearing materials.Drugget remains in place unless important personagesare being entertained. Hearth rugs in matching or con-trasting designs protect the carpet in front of the fire-place. Crumb cloths of drugget cover carpets beneathdining tables.

Floor cloths are still used, but they are not cheap ordurable. Composed of heavy canvas or similar tightly woven fabric and several layers of paint, patterns includeblack-and-white marble, stone, tile, flowers, and Turkish orPersian patterns. Walls. In public buildings, architectural details, such ascolumns, pilasters, and pediments, articulate the walls (Fig. 4-18, 4-19). Most have a dado, fill, and cornice or frieze. Spaces between details are often painted or

paneled. Architectural details in the average Regencyinterior are lighter in scale, more restrained in design, andsimpler in detail than before because they are designed toshow off furnishings and fabrics, not the moldings. Insome grand houses, the more impressive the room, themore profuse the ornament, whether carved or molded(Fig. 4-20).

In all houses, important rooms have more ambitiouswall schemes. Each style has its own appropriate treat-ments. Dadoes are largely out of fashion, so walls aretreated as a single entity. Plaster, papier-mch, or stuccodecorations may adorn walls. In wealthy homes, gildinghighlights these details.

Paneling adapts to any style. Oak and pine are the mostcommon woods. Pine usually is painted or grained toimitate more expensive woods. Very wealthy peoplechoose mahogany for paneling. Centers of panels may begrained, marbleized, painted a solid color, or painted withclassical, medieval, or Chinese motifs; trellises; foliage; orlandscapes (Fig. 4-20, 4-24). Alternatively, fabrics may fillpanels or be draped in folds with valances on walls. Panelmoldings, panel centers, and the walls contrast in color.Following French Empire fashion, tent rooms with fabric-draped walls and ceilings are fashionable. Some rooms



4-25. Lighting: Argand lamp, torchre, and chandeliers mainly from Brighton Pavilion, c. 17751790; England.


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have painted landscapes or outdoor views, an outgrowth ofRomanticism. Wallpaper. With improvements in its manufacture, theuse of wallpaper increases (Fig. 4-24, 4-26). Early in the pe-riod, it is block printed in rolls (called pieces) about 11-6long. By the 1830s, most wallpaper is roller printed. Withso many patterns available, advice books recommend cer-tain types for certain rooms. They suggest papers imitatingstone or marble for entrance halls and hallways. The pat-tern gives an architectonic feel, is easy to repair, and thecolors do not rival those in other rooms. Flock papers areparticularly prized for drawing rooms. Sometimes matchingplain papers adorn adjoining rooms. Also in vogue are ar-chitectural papers, papers that imitate textiles or drapery,sprig papers with small floral patterns, and small prints.The latter commonly cover walls in servants rooms or ser-vice areas. Many papers have matching borders.

Papers from China, although expensive, remain highlyfashionable. European chinoiserie papers are a less-expensivechoice. French scenic or landscape papers, though highlyesteemed, have little appeal in Britain. Most likely this isbecause the many paintings and artworks collected on GrandTours look better on simpler backgrounds. Chimneypieces. Rectangular chimneypieces are simplytreated with reeding instead of columns, brackets, or

caryatids. Mantels are made of colored marble, scagliola,stone with or without ormolu or bronze details, or, for sim-pler ones, painted pine or plaster. The Regency fireplace issmaller than before and is fitted with a coal grate decoratedwith classical or Gothic motifs. A large mirror or paintingusually hangs over the fireplace. Staircases. Staircases in Regency houses are impressive,revealing great delicacy and ingeniousness (Fig. 4-20). Us-ing iron framing and cantilevering, designers create grace-fully curving forms that appear to have no structuralsupport. Some even have no soffits beneath and appear asrisers and treads in a sweeping curve ascending from floorto floor. Individual steps and balusters may be of cast ironor wood. Iron balusters are particularly fine. They may besimple columnar forms or have classical details, such asrosettes or acanthus leaves, and be painted black or brightgreen. Handrails are mahogany, oak, or a grained pine re-ferred to as deal. Windows. Most windows have simple molding sur-rounds. Many continue to have folding interior shutters. Window Treatments. Curtains become universal dur-ing the period (Fig. 4-27). Fabrics for curtains includevelvet (reserved for dining rooms and libraries), silks,satins, damasks, moreen, moir, and calicoes or otherprinted cottons. Treatments, especially in important

4-26. Wallpapers: Papers in vogue include ones with architectural designs of stone blocks, swag or small floral patterns finishedwith matching borders, as well as those with Chinese decorative patterns.


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may be compartmentalized, beamed, vaulted, or domedwith coffers, in essence more architecturally significant(Fig. 4-18, 4-19). In houses, ceilings may be plain white ora paler version of the walls. Some are treated in the Adammanner or have a plaster rosette in the center. ThomasHope publishes barrel or groin vaulted ceilings with classi-cal features in frieze area below (Fig. 4-22). Following afashion set by the Prince Regent, some ceilings are paintedwith clouds and other heavenly details. Ceilings inGothic- or Tudor-style rooms may have real or imitationbeams or brackets. Later Interpretations. Regency interiors briefly are re-vived as an additional classical style at the end of the19th century continuing into the early 20th century.Some rooms revive only one aspect or component of theoriginal. Other rooms focus upon Regency refinementand simplicity, thereby rejecting the opulence of theprevious Victorian period. Individual characteristics ofRegency interiors, such as architectural concepts orwindow treatments, still appear in some interiors today(Fig. 4-28).

FURNISHINGS AND DECORATIVE ARTS

Eclecticism, large areas of veneer with applied or inlaid dec-oration, and a shiny finish characterize furniture through-out the period. Dark and exotic woods dominate, and manypieces have metal parts, ornament, details, and/or castersto facilitate mobility. Regency designers synthesize formsand motifs from classical (Egypt, Greece, Rome), FrenchEmpire, medieval (Gothic, Tudor, and Elizabethan), andexotic sources (Turkey, India, and China). As in architec-ture, classicism is the dominant influence.

Early Regency furniture is graceful, movable, and lightin scale as in the previous period. Sheraton and Hepple-white forms continue from before. Forms are rectangularand symmetrical with restrained ornament. Exceptionsare sideboards and couches, which tend toward massive-ness. Many classical pieces copy or adapt from ancientsources. Medieval and exotic designs apply motifs to con-temporary forms rather than copy earlier pieces. About

rooms, are composed of layers of fabric. Swags orvalances (called drapery) hang from or drape overwooden or brass rods or carved and gilded cornices. Con-trasting linings and a variety of trims add interest andrichness. Floor-length or longer curtains hang beneaththe swags with sheer white or tinted muslin curtainsbehind them. Blinds or shades hang next to the glass toblock light and protect furnishings from fading. Bothsets of curtains may be tied or looped back over cloakpins during the day. Multiple windows may be treated asone for unity.

Swagged drapery predominates until about 1820, whenvalances or pelmets and valance boards come into vogue.Designs and shapes of valances harmonize with the styleof the room. Throughout the period, fringe, braid, or tapein contrasting colors embellish swags, valances, curtains,and glass curtains. Blinds or shades include roller blinds,Venetian blinds, or fabric or paper shades. Interior shut-ters may be painted green or to match the room. Doors. Interior doors are paneled. Mahogany doors havea clear finish, while other woods are painted to match therest of the decoration. Double doorways signal importantrooms. Ceilings. Ceilings are important areas for design in bothpublic and private buildings. In public buildings, ceilings



4-27. Window Treatments: Designs for draperies with fringe, c. 1820s1830s.

4-28. Later Interpretation: Pool House, c. 1981; LlwellynPark, New Jersey; Robert A. M. Stern.


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1810, furniture becomes heavier, more eclectic, and moreembellished as form becomes subordinate to decoration.Toward the end of the period, much more furniture ismachine-made and the dominance of classicism declinesin favor of other styles.

Furniture pattern books and treatises, important dur-ing Regency, show the scores of resources, styles, andapproaches to design available. Two books by ThomasSheraton forecast Regency furniture trends. His first one,Cabinet Dictionary (1803), introduces the Grecian couchand French Empire, and later The Cabinet-maker, Uphol-sterer and General Artists Encyclopaedia (1806) illustratesEgyptian taste for the first time. Thomas Hope intro-duces archaeological eclecticism to England in his bookHousehold Furniture and Interior Decoration (1807). It

DESIGN SPOTLIGHT

Greek fret motif

Geometric motif

Laurel wreath

Monopodia

Curved back imitates theklismos chair

Paw feet

Decorative fringe

429. Armchairs, published in Household Furniture andInterior Decoration, 1801, London.

Furniture: Armchairs; published in Household Furni-ture and Interior Decoration, 1807; London, England;Thomas Hope. These chairs showcase Hopes main ideasof furniture design: to design in a close imitation of theantique. Emulating his friends Charles Percier andPierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine in Empire France,Hope copies extant ancient furniture or illustrationsfrom vase paintings and relief sculpture. The upper leftchair resembles the ancient Roman curule, the X-formstools for the highest officials. Form and design are

simple. Reeding on the frame, finials, and wavy incisingon the back are the only embellishment. The lower leftchair derives from the Greek klismos and closelyresembles a design by Percier and Fontaine. Massive inscale, the front supports on the chair at right aremonopodia (head and chest of a lion attached to apaw), a Roman form. The back legs are saber. The solidcurvilinear back is embellished with Greek frets and alaurel wreath. Decorative fringe hangs beneath the seatas is common during the period.

showcases his ideas, as does his London home (which heopens to the public). During the next year, GeorgeSmiths A Collection of Designs for Household Furnitureand Interior Decoration (1808) also promotes eclecticismand includes designs for entire rooms. AckermansRepository (published between 1806 and 1828) also fea-tures Regency furniture and, more rarely, interiors. Clas-sicism dominates the Repository until about 1825 whenother styles prevail.

Public and Private Buildings Types. New pieces of furniture include sofa tables, Gre-cian couches, X-form stools, nesting tables, work tables,chiffoniers, and dwarf bookcases (Fig. 4-33, 4-36). Also


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4-30. Armchairs with Egyptian influences; published inHousehold Furniture and Interior Decoration, 1807; England;Thomas Hope.

4-31. Drawing room chairs; published in A Collection ofDesigns for Household Furniture and Interior Decoration, 1808;London, England; George Smith. 4-32. Elbow chair with saber legs, c. 1810; England.


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new to the period are the whatnot, a stand of open shelvesfor display, and the flower stand. Distinctive Features. Eclecticism distinguishes Regencyfurniture in totality. Although there is great variety in designs, classical elements and attributes are most evident.Forms often remain the same with details distinguishingthe style. Classical pieces often have saber legs, reeding,

and/or brass paw feet with or without casters. Classical details come from antique architecture as well as furniture.Unlike classical, medieval or exotic furniture does not attempt to copy extant examples but, like architecture,strives to be evocative. Chinese examples, which are moreprevalent among the exotic styles, have fretwork, pagodas,or lacquered finishes (Fig. 4-34).

4-33. X-form stools; published in Household Furniture and Interior Decoration, 1807; London, England; Thomas Hope.

4-34. Armchairs of bamboo, Brighton Pavilion, early 19thcentury; England.

4-36. Grecian-style couch; published inHousehold Furniture and InteriorDecoration, 1807; London, England; ThomasHope.

4-35. Scrolled-end sofa with representative leg detail, c. 18051810; England.


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4-37. Pedestal table and wall table withcaryatids; published in Household Furnitureand Interior Decoration, 1807; London,England; Thomas Hope.

Materials. Expensive furniture is made of mahogany oroak. Highly prized are exotic woods, such as rosewood,tulipwood, or zebrawood, which are often used as veneers. Less expensive woods are grained or stained toimitate more expensive ones. Pieces may be paintedgreen to imitate bronze, be painted like bamboo, orfeature classical or Chinoiserie scenes (Fig. 4-39). Muchfurniture is simply painted with gilded highlights;black is particularly fashionable. Also fashionable areBoullework and glomis. Japanning in red, green, orblack revives. Beginning in the 1820s, cast-iron gardenfurniture, hall furniture, and beds emerge. Especially

Relationships. Less-formal living patterns bring aboutmodern space planning for use and convenience. Furnitureno longer lines the perimeter of the room when not in use,except in important rooms. Sofas sit at right angles to or infront of the fireplace. Many have sofa tables in front ofthem. Center tables, introduced from France, become agathering place for the family. Unique to Regency are themany additional small tables placed around the room for avariety of functions. Comfort becomes increasingly impor-tant, and furniture makers experiment with different typesof stuffing and springs. Furniture variety indicates wealthinstead of position in society.


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4-39. Chinoiserie cabinet, early 19th century; England.

distinctive in Regency furniture are brass and othermetals used as furniture mounts, inlay, trellises or grilles, or paw feet. Stringing or cross-banding highlightsdrawers, doors, and plain legs. Seating. Much of the seating is classical in design.Some chairs imitate the earlier work of Sheraton or copythe Greek klismos (Fig.4-29, 4-30, 4-31, 4-32). Othersadapt the classical language with saber front and backlegs, caned seat, and back and legs in a continuouscurve. Arms are graceful scrolls. The horizontal back-boards may be painted or gilded. Alternatively, the frontlegs may be turned or in the form of Roman monopodia(Fig. 4-31). Paw feet are common. Another much imi-tated ancient form is the X-shaped or Roman curulechair or stool popularized by Hope (Fig. 4-29, 4-33).Windsor chairs are found in the garden, hall, and familydrawing rooms. Toward the end of the period, bizarre orhighly exaggerated ornament or forms materialize onseating.

Sofas and couches inspired by antiquity or French Empire are very fashionable during the Regency (Fig. 4-35, 4-36). Most drawing and dining rooms have atleast one, if not two. Sofas have outward-scrolled armsand legs ending in paw feet. Cornucopia-shaped legs arecommon. Backs may be rectangular, curved, or have anasymmetrical panel not as long as the back. Seats have abolster on each end and, sometimes, cushions across theback. Stools and window seats follow designs of sofas. Tables. Numerous tables fill Regency rooms. Pier tables,circular tables, and stands frequently copy antique exam-ples in wood or metal (Fig. 4-37). Supports may be turned,columnar, or monopodia. Most terminate in paw feet. Nestsof tables, usually slender, may have three (trio tables) orfour (quartetto tables) small tables that slide into one an-other. Worktables, often for sewing, are small with drawersand a silk pouch for scraps and threads. Some small tablesopen to reveal game boards. Sofa tables, placed in front ofthe sofa, are oblong and supported by trestles that are usu-ally lyre shaped. They often have drop leaves and drawers.Dining tables may be in several parts as in earlier periods ormay be extension tables with several pedestals or claws, asthey are called. Pedestals have a single center support andoutward- curving legs ending in metal paws. Sideboards arelong, have tapered pedestals, and may resemble an Egyptiangateway. Storage. Fashionable commodes are massive witheclectic designs and marble tops (Fig. 4-38). Painting,veneers, and metalwork are common embellishments.Chiffoniers, introduced in the late 18th century, haveopen shelves for books with drawers or cupboards below.Low or dwarf bookcases of elbow height are also fashion-able because paintings can be hung over them. Tallbookcases and secretary bookcases are often classical indesign, but Smith illustrates bookcase doors in severalstyles, including Chinese and Egyptian. Instead of glass,

4-38. Commode, mahogany, c. 1820; England.


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4-40. Bed; published in HouseholdFurniture and Interior Decoration, 1807;London, England; Thomas Hope.

4-41. Convex mirror,gilded wood with eagle, c. 1800; England.

4-42. Upholstery:Printed cottons anddamasks, c. early 1800s.

many have brass trellises with silk curtains behind themto protect the books. Double chests with Chinoiseriedecoration are popular and bring the exotic influenceinto a room (Fig. 4-39). Beds. Several types of beds are fashionable, including thefour-poster, the half-tester, and the French bed or lit enbateau (Fig. 4-40). All have carved and applied details. Thefour-poster with complex hangings is most fashionable, butall types of beds display opulent hangings with rich trims.Like window treatments, bed hangings sometimes havecontrasting linings. Sunburst patterns often form the headcloth or line the canopy ceiling. Upholstery. Upholstery fabrics include velvet, silk,damask, chintz, and leather for dining rooms and libraries.Braid, tape, tassels, or fringe embellishes many pieces.Also, festoons of fabric with eye-catching trim hangbetween furniture legs or arms, across backs, under seats orrails, and over tables and beds. Loose slipcovers to protectexpensive fabrics or tabletops are more common and elab-orate than ever before. Made of chintz, gingham, calico, orbaize, furniture covers may have contrasting trims.

Plain-woven machine-made fabrics become increas-ingly common throughout the period in contrast to thehandwoven silks of earlier (Fig. 4-42). Printed textiles are

highly prized. During the first decade of the 19th century,drab-style furniture prints in dull brown with yellow orgreen and no red are fashionable. Superseding these arebrightly colored chintzes in a full range of patterns, includ-ing architectural motifs, flowers, game birds, panels with borders, and large-scale botanical plants. Stripes begin toappear in pattern books in the mid-1820s.


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4-43. Later Interpretation: Anziano klismos chair, 2004; NewYork; John Hutton, manufactured by Donghia. ModernHistoricism.

usually reflect the style or theme of the space. Also fash-ionable are porcelain figures made in sets. The number of objects in rooms begins to proliferate at the end of theperiod.

Meals are lavish so tables and sideboards display manypieces of silver, silver plate, china, and cut glass. Bone chinabegins to replace soft paste porcelain in the 1790s. Mostpieces are elaborately decorated with classical, Chinese, orfloral motifs. Lesser houses continue to use transfer-printedearthenware primarily in blue and red. Patterns includeChinese, Indian, medieval, and classical themes. By 1830,the popular Willow pattern features birds in the sky, apagoda, water, boat, bridge, Chinese figures, and a willowtree.

Nature, so valued by the Romantic Movement, entersthe house through the plants, flowers, and caged birds thatoften decorate Regency rooms. Naturalistically arrangedflowers, real and artificial, sit on stands or hang on walls. Later Interpretations. The scale and simplicity of someRegency furniture appeal to followers of the AestheticMovement in the 1860s and 1870s. Dante Gabriel Ros-setti, for example, uses Regency seating furniture in hisown home. Regency furniture revives along with interiorsat the end of the 19th century. In 1917, the sale of ThomasHopes personal furniture prompts a continued revival ofRegency furniture in the 20th century. The form, scale,and curving lines of Regency chairs and sofas continue toappeal to designers and clients today. Some manufacturersreproduce Regency sofas and chairs; others adapt Regencydesigns (Fig. 4-43).

Decorative Arts. Most rooms contain at least one lookingglass or pier glass, which is carefully placed with an eye totheir reflections in and among rooms. Chimney glasses, low,horizontal, and narrow, feature classical moldings, colon-nettes, or figures. Pier glasses may extend to the ceiling.Newly fashionable for Regency is the convex mirror with aheavy circular frame that is usually gilded (Fig. 4-41). Paint-ings, prints, and silhouettes hang on walls, usually in gildedframes. Accessories, such as silverware, clocks, and vases,


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