Architecture

Architecture

For the professional, see Architect. For other uses, seeArchitecture (disambiguation).

Architecture (Latin architectura, after the Greek

Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of Florence Cathedralin the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building andthe city, but also the role and status of the architect.[1][2]

Section of Brunelleschi's dome drawn by the architect Cigoli (c.1600)

arkhitekton from - chief and builder, carpenter, mason) is both the processand the product of planning, designing, and constructingbuildings and other physical structures. Architecturalworks, in the material form of buildings, are often per-ceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical

civilizations are often identied with their surviving ar-chitectural achievements.Architecture can mean:

A general term to describe buildings and other phys-ical structures.[3]

The art and science of designing buildings and(some) nonbuilding structures.[3]

The style of design and method of construction ofbuildings and other physical structures.[3]

The knowledge of art, science & technology andhumanity.[3]

The practice of the architect, where architecturemeans oering or rendering professional servicesin connection with the design and construction ofbuildings, or built environments.[4]

The design activity of the architect,[3] from themacro-level (urban design, landscape architecture)to the micro-level (construction details and furni-ture).

Architecture has to do with planning, designing and con-structing form, space and ambience to reect functional,technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considera-tions. It requires the creative manipulation and coordina-tion of materials and technology, and of light and shadow.Often, conicting requirements must be resolved. Thepractise of Architecture also encompasses the pragmaticaspects of realizing buildings and structures, includingscheduling, cost estimation and construction administra-tion. Documentation produced by architects, typicallydrawings, plans and technical specications, denes thestructure and/or behavior of a building or other kind ofsystem that is to be or has been constructed.The word architecture has also been adopted to de-scribe other designed systems, especially in informationtechnology.[3]

1 Theory of architectureMain article: Architectural theory

1

2 1 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece, the supreme example amongarchitectural sites. (Fletcher).[5]

1.1 Historic treatisesThe earliest surviving written work on the subject of ar-chitecture is De architectura, by the Roman architectVitruvius in the early 1st century AD.[6] According toVitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three princi-ples of rmitas, utilitas, venustas,[7][8] commonly knownby the original translation rmness, commodity and de-light. An equivalent in modern English would be:

Durability a building should stand up robustly andremain in good condition.

Utility it should be suitable for the purposes forwhich it is used.

Beauty it should be aesthetically pleasing.

According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to ful-ll each of these three attributes as well as possible.Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas ofVitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedicatoria, saw beautyprimarily as a matter of proportion, although ornamentalso played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportionwere those that governed the idealised human gure, theGolden mean. The most important aspect of beauty wastherefore an inherent part of an object, rather than some-thing applied supercially; and was based on universal,recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts wasnot developed until the 16th century, with the writing ofVasari:[9] by the 18th century, his Lives of the Most Ex-cellent Painters, Sculptors, andArchitects had been trans-lated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby NorthmorePugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested,contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he dis-paraged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world.Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only trueChristian form of architecture.The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in hisSeven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849, was much

The Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned byCharles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin

narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Ar-chitecture was the art which so disposes and adorns theedices raised by men ... that the sight of them con-tributes to his mental health, power, and pleasure.[10]

For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding signicance.His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a workof architecture unless it is in some way adorned. ForRuskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functionalbuilding needed string courses or rustication, at the veryleast.[10]

On the dierence between the ideals of architectureand mere construction, the renowned 20th-century ar-chitect Le Corbusier wrote: You employ stone, wood,and concrete, and with these materials you build housesand palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work.But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good.I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That isArchitecture.[11]

Le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohesaid Architecture starts when you carefully put twobricks together. There it begins.[12]

The National Congress of Brazil, designed by Oscar Niemeyer

31.2 Modern concepts of architecture

The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, LouisSullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architecturaldesign: "Form follows function".While the notion that structural and aesthetic consid-erations should be entirely subject to functionality wasmet with both popularity and skepticism, it had the ef-fect of introducing the concept of function in place ofVitruvius' utility. Function came to be seen as en-compassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoy-ment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic,psychological and cultural.

Sydney Opera House, Australia designed by Jrn Utzon

Nunzia Rondanini stated, Through its aesthetic dimen-sion architecture goes beyond the functional aspects thatit has in common with other human sciences. Throughits own particular way of expressing values, architecturecan stimulate and inuence social life without presumingthat, in and of itself, it will promote social development.'To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism toart for arts sake is not only reactionary; it can also be apurposeless quest for perfection or originality which de-grades form into a mere instrumentality.[13]

Among the philosophies that have inuenced modernarchitects and their approach to building design arerationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism,and phenomenology.In the late 20th century a new concept was added to thoseincluded in the compass of both structure and function,the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable ar-chitecture. To satisfy the contemporary ethos a build-ing should be constructed in a manner which is environ-mentally friendly in terms of the production of its materi-als, its impact upon the natural and built environment ofits surrounding area and the demands that it makes uponnon-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, waterand waste management and lighting.

2 HistoryMain article: History of architecture

2.1 Origins and vernacular architectureMain article: Vernacular architectureBuilding rst evolved out of the dynamics between needs

Vernacular architecture in Norway

(shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (availablebuilding materials and attendant skills). As human cul-tures developed and knowledge began to be formalizedthrough oral traditions and practices, building became acraft, and architecture is the name given to the mosthighly formalized and respected versions of that craft.It is widely assumed that architectural success was theproduct of a process of trial and error, with progressivelyless trial and more replication as the results of the pro-cess proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termedvernacular architecture continues to be produced in manyparts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make upmost of the built world that people experience every day.Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a sur-plus in production the economy began to expand resultingin urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew andevolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of atalHyk in Anatolia andMohenjo Daro of the Indus ValleyCivilization in modern-day Pakistan.

2.2 Ancient architectureIn many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egyptand Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reectedthe constant engagement with the divine and thesupernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to mon-umentality in architecture to represent symbolically thepolitical power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the stateitself.The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civiliza-tions such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic

4 2 HISTORY

The Pyramids at Giza in Egypt

ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and newbuilding types emerged. Architectural style developedin the form of the Classical orders.Texts on architecture have been written since ancienttime. These texts provided both general advice and spe-cic formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples ofcanons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCERoman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the most importantearly examples of canonic architecture are religious.

Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan

2.3 Asian architectureEarly Asian writings on architecture include the KaoGong Ji of China from the 7th5th centuries BCE; theShilpa Shastras of ancient India and Manjusri VasthuVidya Sastra of Sri Lanka.The architecture of dierent parts of Asia developedalong dierent lines from that of Europe; Buddhist,Hindu and Sikh architecture each having dierent char-acteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showedgreat regional diversity. Hindu temple architecture,which developed around the 3rd century BCE, is gov-erned by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is con-cerned with expressing the macrocosm and the micro-cosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion ledto architectural forms that were designed specically toenhance the natural landscape.

The Taj Mahal (16321653), in India

2.4 Islamic architecture

Main article: Islamic architecture

Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incor-porating architectural forms from the ancientMiddle Eastand Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the re-ligious and social needs of the society. Examples can befound throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spainand the Indian Sub-continent. The widespread applica-tion of the pointed arch was to inuence European archi-tecture of the Medieval period.

2.5 Middle ages

Notre Dame de Paris, France

In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds wereformed by craftsmen to organize their trades and writ-ten contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ec-clesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usuallyone with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorumas they are sometimes described in contemporary docu-ments.

2.8 Modernism and reaction 5

The major architectural undertakings were the buildingsof abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 CE onwards,the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carriedarchitectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in thepan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

La Rotonda (1567), Italy by Palladio

2.6 Renaissance and the architect

In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, therewas a revival of Classical learning accompanied by thedevelopment of Renaissance Humanism which placedgreater emphasis on the role of the individual in so-ciety than had been the case during the Medieval pe-riod. Buildings were ascribed to specic architects Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio and thecult of the individual had begun. There was still no di-viding line between artist, architect and engineer, or anyof the related vocations, and the appellation was often oneof regional preference.A revival of the Classical style in architecture was ac-companied by a burgeoning of science and engineeringwhich aected the proportions and structure of buildings.At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design abridge as the level of structural calculations involved waswithin the scope of the generalist.

2.7 Early modern and the industrial age

With the emerging knowledge in scientic elds and therise of new materials and technology, architecture andengineering began to separate, and the architect began toconcentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, of-ten at the expense of technical aspects of building design.There was also the rise of the gentleman architect whousually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated pre-dominantly on visual qualities derived usually from his-torical prototypes, typied by the many country housesof Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic orScottish Baronial styles. Formal architectural training inthe 19th century, for example at Ecole des Beaux Arts inFrance, gave much emphasis to the production of beauti-

Paris Opera by Charles Garnier (1875), France

ful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Eectivearchitects generally received their training in the ocesof other architects, graduating to the role from draughts-men or clerks.Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the doorfor mass production and consumption. Aesthetics be-came a criterion for the middle class as ornamented prod-ucts, once within the province of expensive craftsman-ship, became cheaper under machine production.Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental.House builders could use current architectural design intheir work by combining features found in pattern booksand architectural journals.

2.8 Modernism and reactionMain article: Modern architectureAround the beginning of the 20th century, a general

The Bauhaus Dessau architecture department from 1925 byWalter Gropius

dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architec-ture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new linesof thought that served as precursors to Modern Archi-tecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werk-bund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machinemade objects. The rise of the profession of industrial

6 2 HISTORY

design is usually placed here. Following this lead, theBauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919,redened the architectural bounds prior set throughouthistory, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimatesynthesisthe apexof art, craft, and technology.When Modern architecture was rst practiced, it wasan avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, andaesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I,pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a com-pletely new style appropriate for a new post-war socialand economic order, focused on meeting the needs ofthe middle and working classes. They rejected the ar-chitectural practice of the academic renement of his-torical styles which served the rapidly declining aristo-cratic order. The approach of the Modernist architectswas to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing histori-cal references and ornament in favor of functionalist de-tails. Buildings displayed their functional and structuralelements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces in-stead of hiding them behind decorative forms.

Fallingwater, Organic architecture by Frank Lloyd Wright

Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developedOrganic architecture, in which the form was denedby its environment and purpose, with an aim to pro-mote harmony between human habitation and the natu-ral world with prime examples being Robie House andFallingwater.Architects such asMies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson andMarcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the in-herent qualities of building materials and modern con-struction techniques, trading traditional historic forms forsimplied geometric forms, celebrating the new meansand methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution,including steel-frame construction, which gave birth tohigh-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernismhad morphed into the International Style, an aestheticepitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of NewYorks World Trade Center.Many architects resisted Modernism, nding it devoidof the decorative richness of ornamented styles and asthe founders of that movement lost inuence in the late

The Crystal Cathedral, California, by Philip Johnson (1980)

1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against itsausterity. Postmodernism viewed Modernism as beingtoo extreme and even harsh in regards to design. Instead,Postmodernists combined Modernism with older stylesfrom before the 1900s to form a middle ground. RobertVenturi's contention that a decorated shed (an ordinarybuilding which is functionally designed inside and embel-lished on the outside) was better than a duck (an un-gainly building in which the whole form and its functionare tied together) gives an idea of these approaches.

2.9 Architecture today

Postmodern design at Gare do Oriente, Lisbon, Portugal, bySantiago Calatrava

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings beganto increase (in terms of structural systems, services, en-ergy and technologies), the eld of architecture becamemulti-disciplinary with specializations for each projecttype, technological expertise or project delivery meth-ods. In addition, there has been an increased separa-tion of the 'design' architect [Notes 1] from the 'project' ar-chitect who ensures that the project meets the requiredstandards and deals with matters of liability.[Notes 2] Thepreparatory processes for the design of any large build-ing have become increasingly complicated, and requirepreliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustain-

7ability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws.A large structure can no longer be the design of one per-son but must be the work of many. Modernism andPostmodernism, have been criticised by some membersof the architectural profession who feel that successfularchitecture is not a personal philosophical or aestheticpursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider every-day needs of people and use technology to create liveableenvironments, with the design process being informed bystudies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

Green roof planted with native species at L'Historial de laVende, a new museum in western France

Environmental sustainability has become a mainstreamissue, with profound aect on the architectural profes-sion. Many developers, those who support the nanc-ing of buildings, have become educated to encourage thefacilitation of environmentally sustainable design, ratherthan solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Majorexamples of this can be found in Passive solar building de-sign, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, andmore attention to a structures energy usage. This majorshift in architecture has also changed architecture schoolsto focus more on the environment. Sustainability in ar-chitecture was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the1960s by Buckminster Fuller and in the 1970s by archi-tects such as Ian McHarg and Sim Van der Ryn in the USand Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand.There has been an acceleration in the number of build-ings which seek to meet green building sustainable designprinciples. Sustainable practices that were at the core ofvernacular architecture increasingly provide inspirationfor environmentally and socially sustainable contempo-rary techniques.[14] The U.S. Green Building CouncilsLEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)rating system has been instrumental in this.[15]

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanismand New Classical Architecture promote a sustainableapproach towards construction, that appreciates and de-velops smart growth, architectural tradition and classicaldesign.[16][17] This in contrast to modernist and globallyuniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitaryhousing estates and suburban sprawl.[18]

3 See also

Angkor Wat, Cambodia, symmetry and elevation haveoften been utilised in the architectural expression ofreligious devotion or political power.

Machu Picchu, Peru, shows the adaptations of architec-ture and town planning to a rugged natural site

Lower Manhattan, March 2001. The 20th century sawcities across the world transformed by highrise buildingsin the International Style

Architectural design competition Architectural drawing Architectural style Architectural technology Architectural theory Architecture prizes Building materials Contemporary architecture Glossary of architecture List of human habitation forms Organic architecture Outline of architecture Sociology of architecture Sustainable architecture

8 6 EXTERNAL LINKS

4 Notes[1] A design architect is one who is responsible for the design.[2] A project architect is one who is responsible for ensuring

the design is built correctly and who administers build-ing contracts in non-specialist architectural practices theproject architect is also the design architect and the termrefers to the diering roles the architect plays at dieringstages of the process.

5 References[1] Museo Galileo, Museum and Institute of History and Sci-

ence, The Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, (accessed 30January 2013)

[2] Giovanni Fanelli, Brunelleschi, Becocci, Florence (1980),Chapter: The Dome pp. 10-41.

[3] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1993), Oxford, ISBN0 19 860575 7

[4] Gov.ns.ca. Gov.ns.ca. Archived from the original on 21July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011.

[5] Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Com-parative Method

[6] D. Rowland T.N. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books onArchitecture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-3

[7] Translated by Henry Wotton in 1624[8] Vitruvius. Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2 July

2011.[9] Franoise Choay, Alberti and Vitruvius, editor, Joseph

Rykwert, Prole 21, Architectural Design, Vol 49 No 5-6[10] John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, G. Allen

(1880), reprinted Dover, (1989) ISBN 0-486-26145-X[11] Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, Dover Publi-

cations(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7[12] Mies van der Rohe quotation at Brainyquote[13] Rondanini, Nunzia Architecture and Social Change Here-

sies II, Vol. 3, No. 3, New York, Neresies Collective Inc.,1981.

[14] OneWorld.net (31 March 2004). Vernacular Architec-ture in India. El.doccentre.info. Retrieved 2 July 2011.

[15] Other energy eciency and green building rating sys-tems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS(Collaborative for High Performance Schools).

[16] Charter of the New Urbanism[17] Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Fu-

ture. Traditional Architecture Group. Retrieved 23March 2014.

[18] Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communi-ties. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 23March 2014.

6 External links Global Architecture and Urbanity Community SSC World Architecture Community Architecture.com, published by Royal Institute ofBritish Architects

Architectural centers and museums in the world, listof links from the UIA

Architecture Week American Institute of Architects Glossary of Architecture Terms (with dictionarydenitions)

Cities and Buildings Database - Collection of dig-itized images of buildings and cities drawn fromacross time and throughout the world from the Uni-versity of Washington Library

97 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses7.1 Text

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