Arabs

INTRODUCTION

The Arabs live in medial regions of the world, and their role in history has been

characterized by a receptive attitude towards the thought and civilizations of other

people. In various history periods they experienced contact with the west, sometime

borrow from it and at others contributing to it, but at all times proceeding from a clear

sense of cultural identity. This was natural for a nation a rising in history bearing the

message of Islam, a central role in the formation of the Arab-Islamic civilization. The

cultural surrounding of the Arabs have been of great diversity; but while mutual

influences between cultures have been a common phenomenon, this has involved

neither the negative of diversity nor the effacement of sense of identity [1].

Arabs and Arab's history are deeply rooted in mankind history. With Arab's land

occupying a strategic location on earth, and related to development of human

civilization. It is no strange coincidence that the first building by a civilized human

being is located in Arabian Peninsula as clearly mentioned in the Qur'an" The first

House built for people is the one in Mecca1," meaning the holy mosque built by

prophet Abraham and his son Ishmael.

In the recent years Arabs are presented to the world in a very unrealistic way,

depicting them as terrorist, murderer, and uncivilized. The propaganda played by the

western media has played a very vital role to distort the Arabs image around the

globe, picturing them as desert niggers and Camel lovers. It is only fair to say that this

negative picture is meant for all Muslims in general and Arabs in particular. Well,

Arabs and Islam are two faces of the same coin. Arabs cannot be mentioned without

Islam, nor can Islam be mentioned without Arabs. It is true that not all Arabs are

Muslims; they are some Christian, and Jews.

1Mecca, a place of religious pilgrimage for Muslims and a trading center on the route between southern Arabia and the urban civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean and Iraq, was the birthplace of the prophet of Islam, Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (570-632) A.D.

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The first image that jump to non Arab mind about Arabs is that, they lack the basic

means of the civilized world, but the truth is that Arabs origins extended far back into

antiquity, of the great old civilization, i.e. during the pharos rule, Arabs where known

as hyksos, where "hyk" means king and "sos" means desert, and as far as the

Babylonian2 and the Assyrians3 time [1].

The idea of presenting this book is merely to give a glimpses for non Arabs of Arabs

roots, and history, to establish an idea of how Arab's life really is, and what kind of

people are they. It is not intended for this book to be history document or reference,

even though most of the facts stated are taken from books written either by Arab

authors or oriental historians. It is felt that most of the books are specialized books in

Arab's history and Arab's civilization, and the need arise for a quick reference for

those who want a quick information about the Arab's world. The book combines the

interesting knowledge of Arabs history, geographical information of the Arab

countries, and some enchanting information of some of the Arab's social life and

customs. A historical background is given to establish the idea of how far the Arabs

history goes, and then a brief of each Arab country is presented. A run over of some

of the Arabs contribution to the human Civilization is given, with emphasis on how

this knowledge affected the non Arabs world. Appendices also added for further

reading. It is fair to say that the information presented here in a simple language with

some of the Arabic terminology translated and the Arabic word is put between

brackets. This book is a simple effort to give the reader a fair a mount of information,

and to establish a bright picture a bout Arabs world in appose to the dark one

presented by the recent Arab images.

2 For further reading please see Appendix (A)3 For further reading please see Appendix (A)

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With the Arabs world being the link between the east and the west civilizations, it has

its share of dramatic events that changed the face of the history of the Arabs nation.

From occupations by the Roman and the Persian empires in the past to the most recent

events that are circulating in the Arabs world. Arabs glory started to shine to the

world as a nation with the dawn of Islam. Islam resurrected Arabs from there

differences, and awakens them from their deep sleep. No religious in the world have

done to a nation a favor as what Islam has done for the Arabs. Islam has transferred

Arabs from small tribes fighting each other to an empire that extended from China in

the east to Europe in the west.

There are no political motives presented in this book, and all examples of political

differences have been avoided for example, the reader will notice the use of the word

"Gulf" instead of saying Arabian/Persian Gulf. Even the geographical maps presented

are for mere information, and no political boundaries are intended.

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1.1 WHO ARE ARABS?

Arab origins extend far back into history, but written references to them date back

only to a relatively late period (the ninth century BC). As for the Arabic linguistic

explanations of the word "Arab", these are later restatements of meaning that were

fixed for the term during the first three centuries After Immigration (Hijrah) (AH)4.

There is no clear historical reference that gives the origin of the name "Arab". With

some historian consider the name related to some old places like Araba in old

Palestine [1], other relate the name to the language spoken which is Arabic. It is

believed that the first man spoken the Arabic language was named (Amleeq- Areeb)

and that where the word "Arab" is taken, some Arab scholars have equated Joktan

with the ancient Arab patriarch Qahtan bin Yarub whose tribe is thought to have

originated in south of Arabian Peninsula.

There are modern interpretations that attempt to ascribe the word 'Arab' to ancient

linguistic conjectures (Acadian, Assyrian or Hebrew), taking it to mean 'people of the

west', 'sons of the south', 'people of the desert'. But such appellations refer only to the

location of certain 'Arab' groupings relative to the inhabitants of the cultivated areas,

and especially so in Mesopotamia5. They belong to a category descriptive of location

or condition; hence, it is nothing more than sheer conjecture to cite them as ethnic

evidence [2].

The oldest written reference to the Arabs mention nomadic (Bedouin) or semi-settled

groups that, because of their presence astride the trade routes or the danger they posed

to the agrarian hinterlands, came into conflict with the Assyrians in the Syrian Desert

between the Euphrates and Al-Aqaba and the vicinity of Dumat Al-Jandal and Tayma.

It is worth noting that these inscriptions are Assyrian, dating from the ninth century

4 Muslim calendar begins with Prophet Muhammad flight to Medina in 622 because it marked the founding of a separate Muslim community.5 For further reading please see Appendix (A).

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(853 B.C.) to the end of the seventh B.C. The groups are called by the names "Aribi",

"Urbi", "Arabu" and "Arabaya".

It became clear that during the years, that Arab have started as a race, but later on

evolved to a nation with common Semitic language called "Arabic". This is also

evident from the Qur'an6 which says "and we brought an Arabic Qur'an," where here

the word "Arabic" clearly relate to the language. Ethnically, Arabs are mostly dark

haired with brown eyes, and medium light skin. But there are Arabs that are black,

and Arabs that are quite blond. These differences are regional, and a result of the

process described above. Moreover, the number of ethnically pure Arabs might be

down to a single digit percentage.

Most Arabs are Muslims but there are also millions of Christian Arabs and thousands

of Jewish Arabs, just as there are Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Americans.

References to Arabs as nomads and camel herders of northern Arabia appear in

Assyrian inscriptions of the 9th century B.C. The name was subsequently applied to all

inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula. From time to time Arab kingdoms arose on the

fringes of the desert, including the Nabataeans7 at Petra in southern Jordan in the 2nd

century B.C. and Palmyra in central Syria in the 3rd century A.D., but no great Arab

empire emerged until Islam appeared in the 7th century A.D.

When reading historical works, one asks, where did the Assyrians, the Egyptians, the

Mesopotamians go? The answer is banal enough; they started to speak Arabic, and

calling themselves Arabs. The whole process took centuries in most regions, but in

areas close to Hijaz (now western Saudi Arabia), more of original Arabs seem to have

immigrated, and this has speeded up the "Arabization" process [3].

6 The physical entity of the Holy Qur'an as a book carries a sanctity and reverence as the direct revelation of God (Allah) to the Prophet Muhammad. This revelation is set in 114 chapters (Surah).Included within its pages are detail prescriptions of personal and social conduct covering such things as moral standards, divorce, food, drink and the treatment of prisoners. 7 For further reading please see Appendix (A).

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1.2 The Arab Home Land

The Arabian Peninsula8 was the original home of the Arab, and through its climate

and geographical location it both fashioned their natural environment and impressed a

common stamp on their civilization. The influence of natural environment is

fundamental, especially in the initial stages of cultural formation. These people

created the first civilization in the fertile lands to the north. The language of those

who emigrated from the peninsula and those who stayed there has some common

roots and similarities [1]. This concept is documented by the Arab thinker, Al-Mas'udi

(A.H.345/956). He pointed out that the unity of origins and language in asserting that

one nation had inhabited Iraq, Syria and the Arabian Peninsula: the Assyrian,

Babylonian, Aramaen and the Arabian peoples, he maintained, were off-shoots from a

single nation (the Chaldaean). This nation had one tongue, and the languages that

evolved from it could actually be considered dialects of one language, Arabic being

one of the closest to the original tongue [4].

Thus we see that the Arabian Peninsula was the cradle for the group of peoples that

emerged in the same natural environment, started out from the same linguistic origins

and, in spite of their dispersal and development, continued to bear the same linguistic

heritage. The Arabs were the last group to expand beyond the peninsula. But the

ethnic groups that emigrated obviously did not melt a way in either cultural or ethnic

terms; rather, they established early civilizations of their own. For their part, the

Arabs drove a way the invading peoples, overthrew their authority and founded an

Arab-Islamic civilization that embodied those that had preceded it. It was at that point

8 Arabian Peninsula, 1,000,000 sq mi (2,590,000 sq km), SW Asia, containing the world's largest known reserves of oil and natural gas. It is politically divided between Saudi Arabia (the largest and most populous nation), Yemen, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait. Jordan and Iraq are to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and the Gulf to the east. Rugged mountains rising to 12,000 ft (3,700 m) in the southwest catch what little moisture is available, making the basin-shaped interior of the peninsula one of the world's driest deserts, with less than 4 in. (10 cm) of precipitation annually.

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in history that the peoples who had previously emigrated from the peninsula entered

into framework of the Arab nation.

The Arab land geographical position between India and the Far East, on the one hand,

and the Mediterranean world and the West, on the other, placed astride the

international trade routes. This has a decisive influence on both the settled and

nomadic societies of the Arabs. It led, and is still doing, to extensive commercial

activity on the part of the Arabs, and to their domination of the transit trade. Arab land

was a hub for trades between the East and the West, and now plays a vital role in Oil

supply to the whole world.

It was in the Arab land that the three monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity

and Islam were established, and thus began spreading throughout the world. Back

then; these faiths lived in harmony throughout the centuries in the Arab World, since

all considered themselves the children of Abraham [5].

Three thousand years ago David conquered the city of Jerusalem and established the

Jewish people's physical and spiritual connection to it.

Two thousand years ago, Jesus walked the streets of Jerusalem to preach the message

of peace to the world, leaving the richest possible legacy of Christianity to mankind,

with its non-severable links to the site of the Last Supper, Via Dolorosa, Golgotha,

Calvary and the Resurrection. Indeed, it was just over nine hundred years ago that

Christian Europe marshaled its forces to reclaim Jerusalem in a Crusade that ruled it

for 90 years. There is no place more central to Christianity than Jerusalem.

Fourteen hundred years ago Prophet Muhammad preached the word of Islam,

proclaiming it as a continuation of the two Abrahamic faiths. He designated Jerusalem

as the first direction of prayer (qiblah), the ordination of the five daily prayers. In

Moslem tradition, it is to Jerusalem that he took his nocturnal journey (Al Isra) and

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from the Rock, which is housed at the Dome of the Rock, he ascended to Heaven

where he conversed with the prophets, Al Miraj. Muslims believe that the city is the

site of the Day of Judgment, and the place where the angels convene [6].

Now, Arabs form the bulk of the population of Algeria, Bahrain, the Comoros Islands,

Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Oman, Palestine,

Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and

Yemen, with an approximate population of 200 million.

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1.3 FAMOUS ARAB TRIBES

According to the Arab genealogical works, the Arab race propagated itself in two

lines of descent: 'Adnan and Qahtan', both are the sons of Yarub. The genealogist

point of departure was that the primordial Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula- such tribes

as Ad, Thamud, Tasim, Jadis, Al Amaliqah, Jaharan I – were tribes that disappeared

before the rise of Islam. The sources contain nothing on the identity of these lost Arab

tribes, yet some of them were mentioned in the Qur'an as been destroyed by God

wrath i.e. Thamud and Ad. But the important point is that they were Arab, and indeed,

were primarily regarded as the primordial Arabs. The Arab view concentrates on the

two great ancestors of the Arabs and the two branches descended from them. The

descendent of Qahtan are called the "pure" Arabs (Al Ariba or Al arba), while the

descendents of Adnan are the assimilated Arabs (Al- musta'arriba or Al-musta'riba)

[7]. The Qahtaniya are those Arabs who trace their roots back to the South-Western

corner of Arabia (Yemen), while the Adnaniya are the northern Arabs.

Saba' was considered the descendent of Qahtan and the father of Himyar and Kahlan,

the two main branches of the Yamanya. It is worth mentioning that the Sabaens, Maid

and other peoples of ancient Yemenite kingdoms were regarded as descendents of

Himyar, and that the civilization of their kingdom was characterized collectively as

that of the Himyarites.

In the Islamic time the primary role was played by such scions of Kahlan as Tayyi,

Hamdhan, Al-azud and Madher. There was also Qudh'a, which played an important

part in early Islam. Tracing their descents from Qudh'a are a number of tribes i.e.

Bali, Tanukh, Juhayna II and Kalab.

The northern Arabs trace their descent back to Ma'add the son of Adnan or to his

grand son Nizar. Mudhar and Rabi'a, the two sons of Nizar, became the starting

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points for the two branches of the northern Arabs, while the descendant of Iyad died

out during the Islamic period. Qays "Aylan'" was considered one of the two main

branches of Mudhar, and include such Mudharite tribes as Hawazin, Sulaym, Thaqif,

and Amir ibn Sa'sa'a. as for the other branch of Mudhar, it included Tamim, Huyay,

and Kinana (and from Kinana, Quraysh, which is the tribe of Prophet Muhammad.).

From Rabi'a were traced the tribe of Abdul Qais, the Baker ibn Wail grouping and

Taghlib9.

The division of the Arabs into northern and southern tribes does not accurately

correspond to the territories of these tribes in pre-Islamic times. There is evidence

indicating that the Sabaeans came to Yemen from the north; and many Yemenite

tribes (such as Lakhm, Ghassan, Kinda, Al-Aws and Khazraj) migrated to the north in

pre-Islamic times, in particular to Syria. The division apparently goes back to the

perception among the tribes of their territories at some particular point in history.

It is further noted, that tribal genealogy does not necessarily imply that the tribe were

isolated from one another, each within its own genealogical framework. Indeed,

groups or individuals could, through alliance or clientage, gather under the banner of

a certain tribe and with the passage of time be included in that tribe genealogy [8].

As mentioned earlier, that when Islam came to Arabia, so many non Arab became

Muslims and they started speaking Arabic. Those people are called "Al Ajim", and

they referred to those whom their mother tongue was not Arabic. Since they didn't

belong to any Arab tribes, people use to call them by either their country of origin i.e.

Farsi, Afghani (Iran, Afghanistan) and so on. Some of them even been referred to by

their home town i.e. Asfahani, Khurasani (both towns are in Iran). There are also

other Arabs who kept their original names i.e. the Barbarian (AL Barabirah), in North

Africa, the Coptic (AL Aqbat) in Egypt, and the Kurds in northern Iraq.

9 Please see Appendix (B) for flowchart.

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Most of the modern Arab tribes are either directly rooted to the main tribe or branched

out, were the branch is usually called (fakhydhah). The tribe name or last name is still

widely used in Arabian Peninsula.

1.4 The Arabic Language

Arabic is a Semitic language, part of the family of languages that includes Hebrew,

Aramaic (the language of Jesus), Syriac and Ethiopic. Originally confined to the

northern part of Arabia its use spread during the spread of Islam to the whole region.

Many Arabic words are also found in many other languages like Farsi (Persian),

Urdu, and the languages of the Mediterranean and African countries. As a matter of

fact Swahili (the African Language) is made of Arabic, and Latin languages.

Familiarity with Arabic extends to the wider Muslim community in other parts of the

world. Until today the Arabic script is used with modifications in Farsi and Urdu.

Other Fareast Languages, Swahili, and Turks Language used to use Arabic script.

They were replaced by English letters upon the British colonialism. The languages

that used Arabic script are all written from right to left.

As the revelations of the holy Quran were revealed by God to the Prophet Muhammad

in Arabic, the language has a sacred quality for Muslims. Arabic Language is the

Official language of all the Arab countries.

There are significant differences between written and spoken Arabic. Written or so

called literary Arabic closely resembles the classical language which is enriched in the

Holy Qur'an. This is the Arabic used in newspapers, books, radio and T.V. broadcasts

and speeches. Classical Arabic has an extensive and highly descriptive vocabulary

and an attractive rhythm called rhyme (sej'a).

The spoken language on the other hand differs considerably from country to country,

each one having its own variations or dialect. Arab people always revert to the

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literary or classical Arabic when they come from different dialect countries. Non

Arabs should always learn the classical Arabic since it's recognized every where.

Arabic script has a distinctive letter that is not found in any other language in the

world, that is the letter (dh). It is very difficult to translate this letter, which is why

Arabic among Arabs is known as the Language of a (dhad).

There are good reasons for mastering a little Arabic. For anyone who is serious about

getting on with Arabs it gives an excellent impression. The Arabs are a ware of the

difficulties of their language and are therefore delighted when a foreigner makes the

effort to learn their language. Here is an offer of some of the basic rules of Arabic.

Pronunciation

All but a few Arabic letters or sounds have an equivalent in English but those which

do not are shown below:

Transliteration Pronounced as

Aa a in father

Ow ow in how

u~ u in put

Th th in the

Ch ch in Scottish

Gh r in French rue

Ei eye

Q a guttural k

Kh kh like in Ras Al Khaymah

'(apostrophe) a glottal stop

There is no P or V in Arabic and an Arab will substitute B and F respectively i.e.

Peter is pronounced Beeter and Victor is pronounced Fictor.

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Double consonants should be given double emphasis. The definite article Al is linked

to its noun or adjective by a hyphen.

Learning a foreign language is always improved by practice, so check how an Arab

native pronounce the word and try imitating. Never be shy to ask "would you mind

saying that again? Arabs are used to a wide variety of accents from within the Arab

world. Don't take correction as a criticism- it will improve your fluency and will help

you pronounce the words correctly.

Basic Grammar

Arabic is a bit simpler then English. Firstly, it is phonetic – a word is pronounced as it

is written and there are no silent letters. Secondly, the rules of grammar tend to be

obeyed whereas in English there is always an exception to every rule. Finally,

although it looks complicated, the script has a rational basis with only a few more

letters and sounds than in English.

Tri-literal Roots

Arabic nouns, adjectives and verbs can be traced back to three or sometimes four

consonants. For example, the consonant K plus T plus B is the root for 'writing'. By

putting vowels and other consonants around this root in various combinations, it is

possible to make up the words to do with writing:

KaTab He wrote

KaTaBat She wrote

KaTaBoo They wrote

yaKTaB He will write

taKTaB She will write

KiTaaB A book

KaaTiB A clerk

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maKTaB An office

maKTaBah A library

maKTooB A letter or it is written

Word Order

The word order in a sentence of literary Arabic is verb, subject, and object. In the

spoken language, however, the order is as in English - subject, verb, and object.

The Definite Article

This is Al in Arabic. In spoken Arabic, in front of words beginning with t th d dh s sh

r z n and sometimes g, the l of the article is assimilated. So al-shams (the sun) is

pronounced ash-shams, whereas, al-qamar (the moon) is pronounced as it is. For this

reason it is called al ashamsyah and al al-qamaryah. So for the book you say al-kitab

and for the tree you say ash-shagrah and so on.

Nouns

Nouns in Arabic are either masculine or feminine in gender. Nouns referring only to

females may be assumed to be feminine and so may most nouns ending in h (ha al

tanith) for example emra'ah means woman. Most other nouns will be masculine, for

example rajul means man. There are exceptions, of course, and theses simply need to

be learnt, as the adjective must always agree with its nouns.

Numbers

Numbers in Arabic are not easy to grasp, but with practice it will become an easy

habit. Here are some rules:

0 Sifir 10 Ashra'ah 20 Ishreen

1 Wahid 11 Hada'shar 21 Wahid wa ishreen

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2 Ithnan 12 Ithna'ashar 30 Thalatheen

3 Thalathah 13 Thalathat'ashar 40 Arba'een

4 Arba'ah 14 Arbat'ashar 50 Khamseen

5 Khamsah 15 Khamsat'ashar 60 Sitteen

6 Sitah 16 Sitat'ashar 70 Saba'een

7 Sab'ah 17 Sabat'ashar 80 Thamanee'een

8 Thamanyah 18 Thamanyat'ashar 90 Tisa'een

9 Tisa'ah 19 Tisat'ashar 100 Meeyah

Numbers after 20 are made up on the following pattern:

22 Ithnan wa Ishreen

33 Thalathah wa Thalatheen

48 Thamanyah wa Arba'een

The word wa means and. So it is the opposite of English where the number 21 is

pronounced twenty one in English, whereas, in Arabic the one comes first so it is

pronounced wahid wa Ishreen.

Unlike words or sentences, numbers in Arabic are written from left to right. However,

groups of numbers such as dates are usually written from right to left.

A or An

There is no indefinite article (a/an) in Arabic and it is unnecessary to qualify a single

object by using wahid (one). For example bint (girl), when standing on its own, means

'a' or 'one' girl.

Two

There is a special way of saying 'two' of anything in Arabic. This is known as 'dual'

(al-muthana) and is formed by adding the ending ayn (n) to the noun.e.g. bint means

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'one girl' bintan if subject or bintayn if object means 'two girls'. Same for walid means

'boy' will waladan or waladayn 'two boys'.

Numbers 3 to 10

From 3 to 10 the accompany noun is in the plural but from eleven onwards it is in the

singular, e.g.

Thalathat banat Three girls( banat is the plural of bint)

Ishreen bint Twenty girls

Percentage

Twenty percent is rendered as 'twenty in (a) hundred' i.e. Ishreen bil meeyah.

Fractions

The basic fractions that one might need are the following:

A half Nuss

A quarter Rub'a

A third Thu'lth

Plurals

As explained previously, there are three kinds of quantity in Arabic-the singular, the

dual, and the plurals or sound plurals. The broken plurals are not formed on one

particular pattern but are nevertheless variants of the singular and are best learnt by

rote. For example:

Singular bint (girl) Plural banat (girls)

Singular bayt (house) Plural booyoot (houses)

Sound plurals if they are feminine and end in h form the plural by adding aat.

Singular hukoomah (government)

Plural hukoomaat (governments)

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And masculine nouns referring to people form their plural simply by adding oon if

subject or een if object:

Singular Muslim

Plural Muslimoon or Muslimeen

Adjectives

Adjectives follow their noun. If the noun carries the definite article then so does the

adjective, i.e.

Al-bint al-sagheerah = the small girl

Al-walad al sagheer = the small boy.

Notice that adjective has to agree with noun in gender, and so does in numbers.

However, when the noun is referring to plural 'things' or 'animals' then the adjective is

put in the feminine singular by adding the suffix h for example:

Al-haywant al-aleefah = the domestic animals

Al-jebal al murtafah = the high mountains.

The comparative of most adjectives takes the following form:

Kabeer = big and akbar = bigger

Rakhees = cheap and arkhas = cheaper

Kartheer = many and akthar = more

Verbs

Arabic has only two tenses- one denoting completed action, and the other incomplete

action. In simple terms this means a past tense and a [resent tense. The present tense is

also used to cover the future. For example:

Katab = He wrote (past)

Yaktub = He is writing (present) or He will write (future)

The verb 'to be' does not exist in the present tense. For example:

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Al-bint sagheerah = the girl is small ('is' being understood)

In colloquial Arabic, 'there is' and 'there are' are translated by the word fee, followed

by the noun in the singular or plural:

Fee mat'am hina = there is a restaurant here

Fee fanadaq hinak? = are there hotels there?

'there was' and 'there were' are translated by the words kaan fee.

He was = kaan

She was = kaanat

I was = kunt

He will be = yakoon

She will be = takoon

I will be = akoon

Simple regular verbs in Arabic consist of root of three consonants and when an Arab

refers to a verb he uses the third person singular:

Katab = He wrote (i.e. to write – there in no infinitive in Arabic)

The Past Tense

This formed by attaching suffixes to the root katab.

katabt I wrote katabat She wrote

katabta You(masc.)wrote katabtoo You(pl.)wrote

katabtee You(fem.)wrote katabna We wrote

katab He wrote kataboo They wrote

Note that the subject pronoun (I, you, he etc.) is normally omitted in Arabic, unless

the person wants to emphasis the subject by clearly mentioning the pronoun i.e.

Katabt ana al-resalah = I wrote the letter.

The Present and Future Tense

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This is formed with a prefix (and sometimes also a suffix) to the modified root and by

changing its second vowel:

aktub I write taktub She write

taktub You(masc.)write naktub We write

taktubee You(fem.)write taktuboo You(pl.)write

yaktub He write yaktuboo They write

Although the final vowel change varies and must be learnt for each verb, the same

format is used for most regular verbs.

The Imperative

This formed on the following pattern:

Singular uktub! Write!

Plural uktuboo! Write!

The Negative

This formed by putting maa in front of the verb:

Maa katabt I did not write

Anna maa min maser I am not from Egypt

The imperative is negated by prefixing laa to the present tense:

Laa tuktub don’t write

Personal Pronouns

Anna I Heeya She/it

Inta You(masc.) Nehnu We

Intee You(fem.) Intum You(pl.)

hoowa He /it Hum They

Possession and Object of a Verb

This denoted by the suffix to the noun:

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-ee My -ha hers

-ak yours(masc.) -kum yours(pl.)

-ik yours(fem.) -na ours

-oh his -hum theirs

e.g. ketab + ee = my book

bayt + na = our house

When a noun has a feminine ending h, then t is put in front of the suffix:

ghorfah = room and ghofatee = my room

ghorfah + t + ee

The object of a verb is also denoted by using the same suffix, with the exception that

ee becomes nee:

He thanked me = shakaranee (the root is shaker = to say thank you).

To Have

This is expressed in arabic by adding the same suffix to the word eind. For example:

Eindee = I have Eindak = you have

But there is a special rule of Possession in Arabic called the construct state: ' the car

of lady' is not translated as such. In Arabic this would be :

Sayarat al- mar'ah = the car of the lady.

The definite article is dropped from the first word and 'of' is understood. Names are

considered definite and so on:

Bayt Fatimah = Fatimah's house.

Questions

To ask a question, use the same intonation as in English:

Eindak foloos? = do you have money?

The Arabic Script

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The complicated appearance of the Arabic script always tends to drive people away

from learning the language. But it is not that difficult if one analyze it.

Arabic script is written from right to left and is cursive, meaning that most of the

letters in any word are joined together.

There are twenty eight characters of the Arabic alphabet; some people consider them

twenty nine if hamzah is added as a letter. All but three have an equivalent sound in

English. There are no capital letters in Arabic. Each letter has a slight different form

depending on its position in a word, but the basic characteristic of the letter is

nevertheless recognizable wherever it is [9]:

Name of the

Letter

Pronunciation in Arabic Example in English

أ Alif A as in apple

ب Ba B as in ball

ت Ta T as in top

ث Tha Th as in thin

ج Jeem J as in job

ح Ha(hard from the throat) H as in hoot

خ Kha(full mouth) Kh as in loch

د Dal D as in day

ذ Dhal Th as in then

ر Ra R rolled as in roar

ز Za Z as in zebra

س Seen S as in sit

ش Sheen Sh as in shine

ص Sa'ad S as in sword

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ض Dha'ad Dh as in dhahar (noon) with emphsis

ط Ta'a(more emphasis on t) T as in taught w/emphasis

ظ Dha Th as in then w/emphasis

ع 'ein Like glottal stop

غ Ghein Like the r in French 'rue'

ف Fa F as in feed

ق Qaaf C as in caught

ك Kaaf K as in kite

ل Lam L as in let

م Meem M as in meet

ن Noon N as in net

ه Ha(soft) H as in hear

و Wow W as in well

ي Ya Y as in yet

1.5 Islam

Islam is all-pervasive in Arabia. A visitor who knows nothing of Islam will find it

difficult to understand the Arab society one has come across, since its teaching govern

all aspects of daily life. The Arabic meaning of the word Islam is "submission to the

will of Allah (God)". Thus Muslim is one who submits. Islam consists of three main

elements. The first and most important is faith and belief in God and in the fact that

Muhammad is his prophet, the last in the line of prophets, through whom the

definitive revelation was made. These central beliefs are repeated five times a day in

the call to prayer. The second element is a respect for the rites of worship and the

revealed law (known as ash-shari'ah). The holy Qur'an, the record of God revelation

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through the prophet Muhammad, is the primary source of these obligations, but is

supplemented as a source of law by the saying of the prophet (the Hadith), which are

collection of reports of the deeds and saying of the prophet Muhammad. Finally,

Islam imposes an obligation of virtue and excellence in the way the Muslim leads his

life. Muslims believe in all of the prophets and their revelations.

The Muslim creed is expressed in the brief statement:

La Illah ila Allah. Muhammad Rasool Allah! = there is no God but one God (and)

Muhammad (is the) messenger of God!

The holly Qur'an occupies a very different place in Islam from that of the Bible in

Christianity. For one thing, it produces the very word of God as spoken in Arabic

through the prophet Muhammad. When it was reveled to the prophet, the Arabic

language was at its most strong proficiency, and Began Arabs used to brag by the

powerful strength of their language. That is way when the Qur'an used to be reveled

to the prophet, the non believers used to listen to it. It is stated in the Qur'an that God

has challenged the Began to make a chapter (surah) like the one in the Qur'an, and

they couldn't. Then God challenged them to make a verse (ayah) and they failed. Then

the ultimate challenge was to bring a word like the Qur'an and they were mystified. It

is agreed by Arab Muslims that the Qur'an is the most powerful and most beautiful

work in the Arabic language, affecting readers and listeners with the power of its

language in a way which non-Arabic speakers find impossible to share.

Any copy of the holly Qur'an is treated with admiration and great respect; non-

Muslims should not handle one without permission, and will give offence if they

show any disrespect to it.

Arabs use phrases from the Qur'an in their every day life in their speech. Perhaps the

best known is the expression " In sha' Allah"- if God wills- which is usually added to

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the expression of any future intention. This is not just a formulaic religious sentiment;

the Muslim believes that it is necessary qualifications of his intention. In the Qur'an it

says "and don't say that I will do so tomorrow unless God wills". To show the respect,

one should return back the same phrase " In sha' Allah" to the person speaking to him.

A feature of Islam which will be evident to the visitor of the Arab World is the extent

to which so many aspects of daily life are regulated by precise directions. These

directions stem from the Qur'an and the prophet way (al-Sunah), and are therefore not

changeable. Whereas, Christianity sets out general moral principles against which

actions may be judged, and the law in Christian society may be amended as

circumstances change, Islam and the shariah may not be altered. So the law of

shariah tell a Muslim precisely how and when to worship; they cover eating and

drinking; marriage, divorce and inheritance; they define honorable behavior and

stipulate how a person should act towards the poor, prisoners and orphans; they lay

down penalties for crimes; they govern tax, capital and the return on capital; and

many things besides. To unfamiliar person, this may appear as odd restrictive system,

but to the Muslims their unchanging nature gives them comfortable feeling that they

know where they stand.

The Five Pillars of Islam

There are five mandatory acts required to be performed by every faithful Muslim:

1- The Declaration of Faith (ash-shahadah)

2- Prayers (as-salah)

3- Almsgiving (Zakat)

4- Fasting the month of Ramadhan (as-sawm)

5- The Pilgrimage to Makkah (al-hajj)

1- The Declaration of Faith

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To testify the unity of God and that Muhammad is his messenger. Person embracing

Islam should say "I bear witness that there is no God but Allah and that Muhammad is

his messenger". Who ever recite these words is declared a Muslim, and he/she should

perform all the other rituals.

2- Prayers

To Muslim prayers are the ways to connect and communicate with the creator.

Prayers are not merely physical actions, but they are physical and spiritual deeds. A

Muslim is required to pray five times a day at the following times: at dawn, at noon,

in late afternoon, after sunset, and at night.

Worship is preceded by ablutions when the worshipper washes his head, arms and feet

with water. If no water is available, for example in the desert, then a symbolic

ablution is performed with sand called (tayamum). The prayer must be said facing the

direction of Makkah. The prayer consists between two and four sections, with a

prologue and an epilogue. It is performed in several attitudes- sitting, standing,

bowing, and with the forehead touching the ground. When the prayer was first

ordered to Prophet Muhammad by God, he was ordered to face the holly Mosque in

Jerusalem. That is why Muslims call the Jerusalem Mosque the First Direction (ula

al-qablatain). Later on the Prophet was ordered to shift toward Makkah.

The mosque (masjid- a place of prostration) is the place of public prayers. Although

worship may be performed anywhere it is preferably done in a mosque. The

worshipper may also pray wherever he happens to be the time of the prayer provided

the place is clean and relatively undisturbed, unlike Christianity where prayer must be

performed in the Church. The visitor to the Arab world should not be surprised when

he/she sees prayers being performed in offices, in the airport lounge, on aircraft or on

the street. This is normal practice. One has to be cautious not to walk in front of

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someone in prayer or take special notice of them. Women shouldn't pray when they

have the period.

The call to the prayer is chanted by the Mu'athen from the mosque. The call is as

follow:

1- Allahu Akbar, Allahu Akbar!

God is the greatest, God is the greatest! (said twice)

2- Ash-hadu an laa Allah illa Allah!

I bear witness (testify) that there is no God but Allah! (said twice)

3- Ash-hadu anna Muhammad Rasool Allah!

I bear witness (testify) that Muhammad is the messenger of God! (said twice)

4- Hayy ala-as-salah!

Come to prayer! (said twice)

5- Hay ala-al-falah!

Come to your salvation! (said twice)

6- Allahu Akbar, Allahu Akbar!

God is the greatest, God is the greatest! (said once)

7- laa Ellah Illa Allah!

There is no God but Allah! (said once)

Upon entering the mosque, Muslims remove their shoes, keep their head covered

(optional) and perform a minor ablution (wudoo) before prayer. Inside the mosque

there is a niche (mihrab) in one wall which indicates the direction of the holy city of

Makkah. In big mosques (ja'ma) there is also a pulpit (minbar) from which the oration

is given at the public prayers held at noon each Friday.

The mosque is attended mainly by men. Women either pray at home or use the special

place allotted to them in most large mosques.

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3- Almsgiving

Each year, all capable Muslims must pay zakat to help the poor. This is traditionally a

fixed proportion of the savings that exceeds the basic sum of approximately $700,one

should give (2.5%) per annum.

4- Fasting

Each year throughout the holy month of Ramadhan, the ninth month in the Muslim

calendar, Muslims observe a fast (by the Gregorian calendar the month of Ramadhan

moves forward eleven or twelve days each year). The fast commemorates the month

of the revelation of the first verses of the Holy Qur'an to the Prophet Muhammad and

the victory of the Muslims over the Began of Makkah at the battle of Bader in AD

624. Between sunrise and sunset the Muslim abstains from food, drink and all

pleasurable pursuits.

Anon- Muslim visiting an Arab country during Ramadhan should not eat, drink or

smoke in the presence of a Muslim in daylight hours.

After sunset the fast is broken with substantial meal. Ramadhan ends with a festival

called Eid Al- Fitar. Muslims wear their finest clothes and gather for prayer after the

sunrise, after which they celebrate with visits to each other's houses and hold feasts.

5- The Pilgrimage to Makkah

It is obligatory for every Muslim once in his lifetime, provided that he can afford it

financially and his health permits, to make the pilgrimage to Makkah. This takes place

during the twelfth month of the Muslim calendar.

For the pilgrimage, the male Muslim exchanges his normal dress for two plain

unstitched sheets of white cloth. This demonstrate that Muslim give away every thing

for the sake of their faith and also show the unity in which all Muslims are equal

before God. There is no difference between rich and poor. Women are not required to

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change their dresses. On arrival in Makkah the person performs various ceremonies.

One must first circle the Kaabah seven times in counter clock wise direction. The

Kaabah, an immense stone cube shrouded in black cloth with the sacred Black Stone

in one corner, is situated in the middle of the Great Mosque in Makkah. It is the most

important shrine in Islam. The pilgrim then perform seven times journey between two

small hills called Al-safa wa Al-Maruah, acting out the frantic search of Abraham's

wife Hagar, hunting for water for her son Ishmael.

The mount of mercy in the plain of Arafat is the next stop for the pilgrim, where

he/she stands and meditates from midday to just before sunset. Finally, the pilgrim

goes to Mina to carry out the stoning of the three pillars, an act symbolic of the

casting out of devils, and then goes on to sacrifice an animal.

The pilgrimage ends with the most important of all Muslims festivals- Eid Al Adha, or

feast of Sacrifice. This is celebrated in the same way as the Eid Al-Fitar except that in

more lavish way.

Traditionally, a sheep or goat is slaughtered in remembrance of the willingness of the

Prophet Abraham to sacrifice his son Ishmael.

The Islamic Calendar

The official start of the Muslim era is the year of the migration (Hijrah) in AD 622

when the Prophet Muhammad fled to Madinah as a result of persecution while

preaching God's message in Makkah. The Muslim calendar begins on the day after

this flight. The Muslim year is based on twelve lunar moths. These lunar months are

shorter than the months of the Gregorian calendar and overall the year is shorter by

around eleven days. This calendar is used today to mark the religious occasions i.e.

fasting and pilgrimage. The twelve months are [9]:

1- Muharam

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2- Safar

3- Rabee Al-Awal

4- Rabee Al-Thanee

5- Jumada Al Awal

6- Jumada Al-Thanee

7- Rajab

8- Shaban

9- Ramadhan

10- Shawaal

11- Dhu Al-Qi'da

12- Dhu Al- Hijjah

The days of the week are:

1- As-Sabat

2- Al- Ahad

3- Al-Ithnain

4- Al- Thalaatha

5- Al-Arba'a

6- Al-Khamees

7- Al- Juma'ah

2.1 Brief on some Arabs Cultures &Customs

Although the Arabs are increasingly aware of western culture through the media and

through frequent travels to the west, there is a strong desire to protect the Arab and

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Islamic culture. The traditional Arab values of honorable behavior, courtesy and

unfailing hospitality survive. Honoring ones word, loyalty to the family, respect for

age, and the care of the poor continues to be a major influence on an Arab's way of

life. Arabs are by tradition a very proud and dignified people; status, influence and

appearance matter.

Although most Arabs are modest, they do not admire those who fail to exercise their

authority or honor, family or faith, however light-hearted, could well cause offence.

Conscious of recent history and the considerable influence wielded by the Western

powers in the region, the Arabs are not unnaturally sensitive to anything which could

be interpreted as exploiting their position or in any way patronizing. They expect to

be dealt with fairly and on equal terms. Even though their customs might vary from

one Arab country to another, but the values remain the same. The following are

examples of these values and customs that are still in existence and practiced by those

Arabs who adhered to their traditions.

2.2 Personal Relationships

Arabs are distinguished by being friendly, courteous and hospitable. They set great

store by personal relationships. The custom of greeting, shaking hands and asking

after someone's health is more than formality. The quires are often searching and

evidence a genuine desire to know of one's well-being and that of one's family. The

establishment of good personal relationship is crucial to success in any dealing in the

Arab's world. Whereas, in the West a friendship may develop from a successful

business deal, in the Arab world the reverse is true. The degree of success in

establishing a rapport depends on one's character, but someone who is polite and

sensitive, straightforward and open is likely to succeed. Perhaps the single most

important additional quality that an Arab will look for is integrity.

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2.3 Arab Women

The special situation with regard to women in the Arab world is one of the most

difficult for a foreigner to judge what they see by their own standards. They would do

well to remind themselves that they are dealing with a different culture and moral

code, then their own.

Women in the Arab world are not judged inferior to men. That may have been the

case before Islam but an important aspect of the Muslim faith is that the rights of

women are protected. Now day's Arab women play increasingly important role in

private and public life. The seclusion of women varies from one country to another.

Countries that still follow the strict Arabian traditions, then seclusion are strong.

Arab women are not seen by strange visitors, and when appearing in public, it is

commonplace to see women wearing the traditional long clock (abaya) and the head

scarf (hijab). Women pray separately from men. Yet, in many Arab counties, one may

find that woman, apparently behaving very much as they were in the west, wearing

western clothes, and driving cars. Arab women may own property, inherit goods, and

money and a wife's individual possession are always protected- she does not have to

share them with her husband.

It is less well known that even in the most conservative of households women are

often the power behind the throne, that although marriages are often arranged, the

bride is still free to decline to marry someone if she wishes. What ever happens,

women can usually find out a lot about her future husband before decision on

marriage is taken and modern reforms have secured the eradication of any

discriminatory practices in the marriage agreement.

Modern Arab women have traveled further a field and are better informed through

newspapers, radio, T.V. and western movies. The most significant advancement in the

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recent years, as with men, has been in education. Women are now able to play an

increasingly vital role in society in a variety of profession. They are women teachers,

medicine doctors, broadcasters, and even engineers. There are also a number of highly

successful Arab businesswomen, and lawyers, and other have risen to the highest

echelons of government. A word of cautious, is that an Arab women may dress as

western, but they don expect to be treated as westerner.

2.4 Marriage

Marriage in Arabia is like all other Muslims affairs dictated by the Islamic law. A

Muslim Arab can only marry a Muslim woman, or a woman of the people of the book

namely, Christian and Jews. A female Muslim can only marry male Muslim, she is

not allowed to marry non-Muslims. The reason is that children usually follow the foot

steps of their father, so if the father is non-Muslim there is a big chance that the

children will embrace the idealism of their father and vice versa. A male Muslim can

marry four women at one time, whereas, a female can only marry one man at a time.

This also attributed that men are more vulnerable to commit an affairs then women,

and since adultery is considered a capital crime in Islam with death punishment, men

are urged to get married legally. But the multiple marriages are only possible

providing that the husband can be just to all his wives. He has to distribute his wealth

and time equally among them. So if he buys a house for one, he will have to buy the

same for the rest of them. The justice goes as far as; he should not love one woman

more then the others. That is why multiple marriages are not common any more. Of

course woman can only marry one man at a time since woman is the one responsible

for bringing kids, so multiple marriages might create confusion on whose children are

who. Divorce is always at the authority of the man, but women can ask the court for

divorce if she can justify the case. When a Muslim woman is divorced she dose not

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take half of the husband owning, but some amount of money that the two couple has

agreed on in the beginning of their marriage and it is called late dowry (muakher

sadaq).

Marriage in the old days used to be arranged where the pride and the groom never see

each other until the wedding days. This custom has vanished and a woman can either

agree or disagree to a certain proposed groom. As a matter of fact, there are couple of

rules that has to be accomplished before any marriage can be announced. These rules

include; the guardian agreement, the pride agreement, witnesses, and finally the

dowry. If any of these prerequisite is not accomplished the marriage is considered

illegal. Of course there are those who might tolerate some of the rules like the

agreement of the guardian, but others are a must. The dowry can be any thing, not

necessary money, but money is preferred to cover some of the wedding expenses. The

dowry is given to the pride and she alone has the right to spend it.

The wedding ceremony differs from one to another, but most of them agree on certain

symbolic celebrations. There usually two occasions, the writing of the book, the

engagement, (katib Al-ktitab) and the wedding night (lailate Al-Dukhalah). The first

one is more of marriage authentications where the religious man announce the

marriage in front of the witnesses and some people follow it with small feast for male

attendance. Women celebrate this occasion by taken the dowry to the pride, singing

and dancing and chanting all kind of prayers that the two wedded should be blessed.

Men don’t mingle in women's party. For the later occasion, people are invited to a big

feast at the groom expenses, those who are financially capable can run celebrations

for several days, with singers and dancers performing in public. For the groom and

pride on this night there are different customs for different countries, these

ceremonies can even be different within each country itself. Non-Arab should ask

33

what is the custom followed where he/she is located. In some countries the pride is

taken to the groom house in a convoy accompanied by some of her close relatives or

friends, who will spend some time with the pride until she settled down. Whereas, in

other cultures it is the opposite way, the groom is taken in convoy to stay with the

pride family for at least a week. That way the pride will be more relaxed and get to

know her new mate before she moves in with him. Even though marriage is not

arranged, usually Muslims are not allowed to date so the pride and the groom can

spend time with each other only after the engagement. Nowadays, people celebrate in

hotels and some of them they can have both men and women at the same party, which

is why an inquiry from foreigner to his host is a must. Gifts are usually given to the

pride, but some gifts can be offered to the couples after the wedding. Non-Arabs are

advised to observe and see the ritual conducted and not get carried a way by

participating unless invited. The wedding night is called the night of the life time

(lailate Al-Umar) so that is why most Arab insists on marking this occasion

passionately, and they usually get irritated when things don't go the way they plan. So

if invited, and this is your first time, ask as many questions as you can; ask about the

location; is it separate party for men and women; what type of dress; can you bring a

friend along; and how long should you stay. The last one is very important, because

Arabs will never ask a visitor to leave, so you should know the leaving time or else

see when other people start to leave and follow them unless you've been told to stay.

2.5 Men Dress

The traditional Arab male dress is a long loose garment called variously a thobe or

dishdasha. This dress is made of fine white cotton which in summer it is ideally suited

for the desert hot climate. In countries with cold winter the dress is with heavier

weave and maybe augmented by brown or black cloak (bisht) or sometime with jacket

34

or over coat. In the Arab Gulf countries, a head cloth (ghutra or shemagh) is also

worn tightly round the head or piled high like turban. The most common headgear in

Oman and some Arab African countries however, is a small round woven cap (qubba

or kumah) worn in a variety of colors and decorations.

2.6 Children

Arabs adore children and used to brag by the number of the kids each father can bring

to this life. In the past, when the strive for living was the most concern of Arab tribes,

men used to be very happy when they know that the new born is a baby boy. A man

used to be an added benefit to the clan, whereas, women are more of a burden to the

tribe then blessing. Women can't defend the tribe from the invaders, can't graze a herd

of camels, and can't be a head of tribe (Sheikh). Moreover, women can be taken as a

prisoner of war and they get raped and bring disgraces to the whole tribe. That is why

before Islam, Arab used to jump with joy when they know that the new comer is a

boy, and their faces darken and frowns when they know that the newly born is a girl.

Some of them used to go to the extreme of burying their infant girl a live, so to

abolish the shame and disgrace that has struck the family and to avoid mockery.

Islam came as a salvation to women, and changed all the old customs. Women

became a very welcome part of the family, and treated as a human being rather than a

devil. Men and women are the same in front of the creator, and they are being judged

by their deeds rather than by their sex. As mentioned earlier, women now play

important role in the Arab's modern society.

There is another tricky customs that non Arabs find odd to understand and that is

circumcision. Male circumcision is a must for all boys born into the Islamic faith. In

the recent past, boys were circumcised outside hospitals, either by a religious men or

even Gypsies who knew the trade. Great celebration used to take place after the

35

circumcisions were done, the feast with singer and dancers. People considered it as a

celebration of cleansing, for both the body and the sole. Nowadays, these rituals are

no more exists, and circumcision is done in hospitals.

As far as female is concerned, circumcision was practiced until very recently. It is not

obligatory for female Muslim women to have circumcision. As a matter of fact, it is

more of tradition then religious ritual. In the past when girls were around six to eight

years old, the tip of the clitoral was snipped of by a known midwife and this practice

is kept very secretly not like the case of boys. With the recent education, young

mothers no longer allow or approve this practice.

Arabs in the old time make two celebrations for the newly born, one after the child

birth called Aqeeqah and the other one when the child complete one year old and in

some countries it is called Hol Hol where the word Hol means year. After forty days

of the child birth it is customary to shave his/ her head and the hair is weighted, with

its weight equivalent money is distributed to the poor.

Nowadays, Arabs celebrate birthdays just like the west, every year with cake, candles,

and gifts.

A child disciplinary in Arabia is always connected to the faith of Islam. There is a

well known saying among Arabs that "spoil them for seven years, teach them and be

firm with them for the next seven years, and be their friend for the last seven years

then leave them when they are twenty one and they will always be on the straight

path". This way of raising kids has been very successful especially for teenagers

where they really need a companion to show them the right path and a guardian to

make them void sliding in the wrong doing. Unfortunately, with the globalization of

the word this way is becoming very difficult to adhere to, since every thing is

36

available at all time, and the line of distinction between the allowed and forbidden has

become very fine or even hard to recognize.

2.7 Shaking Hands

Whenever you greet or take leave of someone always shake hands and only with the

right hand, left hand is considered unclean since it is used for ablution. On entering a

room full of people, there are two ways to go a bout. If the gathering is small, like

small lunch invitation, then start with the host. Otherwise, in big gathering, like

paying condolences on someone's death, always start with the right of your entrance

and shake hands with all attendance. Once an Arab feels he knows you do not be

surprised if he holds on to your hand as a mark of friendship or occasionally taps you

on the arm during conversation to emphasis a point.

One exception to the rule of shaking hands is that it is not normal for a foreign person

to shake the hand of an Arab woman unless she follows the western custom and

specifically offers it. Also don't be offended if a person offered the back of his hand to

shake your hand. Arabs can't refuse to shake hand under any circumstances, so if ones

hand is wet or carrying some thing, he will offer the back of his hand.

2.8 Greeting

It is particularly important to give a person on whom you are calling his correct name

and title. Although Arabs are only too conscious of the difficulties of their language

and will almost certainly greet you in English, you may sometimes gain kudos if you

are able to master one or two of the basic pleasantries in Arabic. Most common

general greeting are given here,

37

Greeting As-Salaam alaykum(peace be on you)

Reply Wa alaykum as-Salaam(And on you be peace)

An Arab may also say;

Greeting Ahlan wa sahlan!OrMarhaba!(they both mean Welcome)

Reply Ahlan was sahlan beekumOr Marhaban beekum(And to you!)

Enquiries are then always made into each other's health; a formula which is invariably

observed no matter how frequently you meet someone or talk on the phone. Even if

you ring an Arab say, twice in one hour it is still considered important to ask how he

is before mentioning the subject of your call. Enquires about the family are restricted

to the collective family and children. Because of the greater privacy accorded to

women in the Arab world one should never enquire after an Arab's wife, unless you or

your wife knows the family very well.

A common customary word used very often in Arab land is "Tafuddal ". The meaning

of the word cannot be exactly translated into English but is the term used when

offering a seat, ushering someone through a doorway or handing over something.

Literally translated it means ' be pleased to' or 'be so good as to' (go first). When

entering a crowded room the seat will probably be on the immediate right or left of

your host and this position is usually reserved for the most important visitors. When

someone else arrives you should stand up, shake hands with the newcomer and be

prepared to vacate your seat for him. Watch your host and take your lead from him.

2.9 The Sole of the Foot

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A traditional custom in the Arab world is still observed today to avoid presenting the

sole of your foot directly at another person. The sole of the foot was traditionally

considered unclean and this used to mean, and still in some countries, that you

intentionally insulting that person. So to be on the safe side it is advisable to sit with

both feet on the floor and not to cross your legs unless your host does so and even

then to avoid presenting your sole directly to him. If you are fortunate enough to be

invited to an Arab meal sitting on the floor the same rule applies. Shoes are removed

and the soles of the feet tucked in underneath or kept behind you.

2.10 Refreshments

When one visit an Arab he will invariably offer this person a refreshment, normally

tea or coffee. Usually coffee is served with either fresh dates (palm tree fruit) or dry

dates. It is usual to wait for this refreshment to arrive before mentioning the purpose

of one's visit. However, it is becoming increasingly common in some circles to

dispense with such formalities and start talking seriously as soon as greeting have

been exchanged. Your host's manner and comportment will usually tell you what type

of person he is. If he abides by the traditional customs, the initial greeting will be

followed by a period of silence or confined to general enquiries after your well-being

or journey until refreshments are served.

You can be offered a variety of non-alcoholic refreshments. In many places in the

region you will still be offered Arab coffee (qahwa) in Bedu tradition. It would be

impolite to refuse. Arab coffee is pale, bitter and often flavored with cardamom,

saffron, and some other spices. A small amount is poured from a long spouted brass

coffee pot into a small handless cups (finjan) which should be taken in the right hand,

even if you are left-handed. Only the right hand should be used when drinking, eating

39

or offering any thing to another person (even for waving welcome). Drink as many as

you like but not a lot more than your host or others present. Two or three is usual.

The signal to show that you have had enough is to give the cup a quick twist or shake

when handing it back. If it is handed back without doing this the server will simply

continue to refill it. It is not done to say that you have had sufficient- just indicate by

shaking the cup. You could also be offered thick, strong , Turkish coffee (in a small

cup) after being asked whether you take it without sugar, medium or sweet .Turkish

coffee should be sipped, being careful to leave the thick coffee grounds in the bottom

of the cup. Another refreshment offered is tea in the Arab style which is sweet,

without milk and served in a small glass cup and saucer.

2.11 Communication

Many Arabs can speak good English now days, yet as a general rule one should bear

the following points in mind:

Make due allowance for a limited knowledge of English. A limited vocabulary may

make a person's meaning obscure. If you are in any doubt it is prudent to rephrase it

back to him/her diplomatically to confirm. The limited command of a language can

also make a phrase sound unintentionally rude. An example of this can be seen when

a custom official at the airport says to you ' Give passport!' because those are the only

words he knows in English.

Use simple English. One has to realize that he/she are in a foreign land, speaking

English a second language. So use short sentences rather than long ones for additional

clarity.

Avoid discussing politics, religion and women. These are delicate and often emotive

subjects. For example refer to the Gulf and not the Persian Gulf. Respect Islam but

don't be tempted to comment on it. Finally, women in the Arab world enjoy an

40

altogether more secluded position than in many other cultures and a male visitor

should avoid mentioning them.

Be careful with Arab sense of humor. Arabs have a great sense of fun. Do not be

afraid to show that you have a sense of humor, but as mentioned earlier avoid the

sensitive topics. Here is an example; An Arab Sheikh who, in the early days of the

development of the Arabian Peninsula States, asked a British official to send him an

'expert'. The British official readily agreed but asked what the expert specialization

was to be. The Sheikh replied that he did not want the official to invent problems, just

to provide him with an expert." Right, Your Highness!' said the British official and

took his leave. As he reached the door, the Sheikh called out," And another thing, let

him have only one arm." "Only one arm, Your highness?" queried the official. 'Yes,"

said the Sheikh, "I want none of this,' on the one hand…. and on the other hand'!"

Sometimes when an Arab says 'thank you' he means ' No', for example when replying

to an offer of refreshment, etc. this works in much the same way as merci used in

French. If you wish to accept when something is offered simply say 'Yes'.

2.12 Arab passion for animal

Whereas Arabs love horses, and hawks, and have a great respect for camels, dogs are

generally considered unclean and will not be approached or touched. This is in no

way indicating that Arab hate dogs, or mistreat them. The following are examples of

these animals:

Camels

Domesticated thousands of years ago by frankincense traders, who trained the gangly

cud-chewer to make the long and arduous journey from southern Arabia to the

northern regions of the Middle East, the camel went on to become the desert dweller's

primary source of transport, shade, milk, meat, wool and hides. The Bedouin name the

41

camel as the gift of God (Ata Allah), most Arab nickname the camel as the desert

ship.

Camels have the reputation of being bad-tempered and obstinate creatures that spit

and kick. In reality, they tend to be good-tempered, patient and intelligent. The

moaning and bawling sound they make when they're loaded up and have to rise to

their feet is like the grunting and heavy breathing of a weight-lifter in action, not a

sign of displeasure at having to do some work.

Camels need very little water if their regular diet contains good, moisture-rich pasture.

Although camels can withstand severe dehydration, a large animal can drink as much

as 100 litres/21 gallons in ten minutes. Such an amount would kill another mammal,

but the camel's unique metabolism enables the animal to store the water in its

bloodstream.

Horses

Another important animal in Arabia is the horse. It was used for transportation, for

sport, and for war.

The Arabian horse is thought to be the most beautiful and the fastest of all the horses.

(All thoroughbred race horses are from Arabian horses.) Horses were also ridden on

trips. However, horses couldn't travel well in the desert. They couldn't go very long

without water so the camel was the most prized animal for long distance

transportation.

42

Donkeys

The donkey is a humble "beast of burden" - one that works throughout its life. In

Middle Eastern poetry the donkey is praised for his suffering to help man, and is often

associated with Jesus who was also a beloved Muslim Prophet.

Donkeys were used for carrying heavy loads a short distance and were cheaper to

acquire then horses.

Sheep and Goats

Sheep and goats were important for food (milk and meat) and for hides and wool used

to make clothing. Until today, people raise these animals for domestic consumption,

as explained especially during celebrations (Eid).

43

Extinct and Endangered Animals of Arabia Today

A. The Onager: Hunted into Extinction! The onager, or "wild ass", lived in great

numbers in the dry grassy plains of Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq. Because

of its speed and ability to withstand the worst conditions of the deserts, onagers

continued to live in large numbers even though hunters enjoyed shooting this game

animal with bow and arrows or killing them with spears. It was found in large

numbers in the Middle East for thousands of years and it is mentioned in the Qur'an.

But it had almost disappeared by the middle of the nineteenth century. A few lived on

in Iraq and southeast Jordan until early this century, but now these are gone as well. It

was the invention of guns and automobiles that enabled hunters to destroy this

beautiful animal.

44

B. "The Oryx: On the Verge of Extinction": The Oryx, or Arabian antelope, was

extinct in the wild in the 1970s, but a herd was being raised on a farm. A herd of these

animals was recently "reintroduced" to the plains and they are doing well back in their

natural environment.

2.13 Do Arabs Eat All Meat?

Eating of certain animals is forbidden to Muslims in the Qur'an:

o Pork (meat of pigs or swine)

o All carnivorous (meat eating) animals and birds, e.g. lions, tigers,

vultures, eagles

o Any animal that has died due to natural causes, killed by some wild

animal, by a fall, blow or an animal slaughtered by a non-Muslim.

o Donkeys, monkeys, elephants, etc.

2.14 Arab Names

Arab names can be complicated to spell and may be transliterated from Arabic into

English in a number of ways. The best solution is to use the version written by the

Arab himself, i.e. on his card or letter heading. Note that two names may sound the

same but there might be slight, but important differences: Mohammed is different

45

from Mahmood, Maajid different from Majeed, and Saleem different from Saalim. In

addition, Mohammed is sometimes shortened to Mohd. and the apostrophe is used to

represent a glottal stop, e.g. Sa'aad.

Arab names usually consist of three names – the individual's name followed by that of

their father and grandfather or possibly the family or tribe name. The names are

sometime linked by bin or ibn meaning ' son of' or, in the case of a woman, by bint,

meaning ' daughter of '. For example, a man's full name might be Mazin Hamed Ali

AlRashidi or Mazin bin Hamed bin Ali Al Rashidi, with the last name is the name of

the tribe. His sister in the same way would be called Wisal bint Hamed bin Ali Al

Rashidi. Arab Muslim women do not use their husband name rather they keep their

original name even after marriage.

2.15 Arabs Holidays

There are so many holidays in Arab Countries, but the most notable ones are two

important holidays; Celebration of breaking fasting (Eid Al Fitar) and celebration of

pilgrimage to Mecca or also known as Celebration of the scarifies (Eid Al Adha).

The first one comes after the fasting month of Ramadan, the ninth month in the

Arabic calendar. The second one is celebrated in commemoration of the sacrifice that

Abraham had for his son, and it is held at the same time that Muslim perform the

ritual of pilgrimage to Mecca, on the tenth day of the twelve month (Th'u Al Hijah) of

the Islamic Calendar [9].

3.1 THE ARAB LEAGUE

46

The Arab World consists of 22 countries in the Middle East10 and North Africa:

Algeria, Bahrain, the Comoros Islands, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya,

Morocco, Mauritania, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria,

Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Iran and Turkey are not Arab

countries and their primary languages are Farsi and Turkish respectively.

Arab countries have a rich diversity of ethnic, linguistic, and religious communities.

These include Kurds, Armenians, Berbers and others. There are over 200 million

Arabs.

Since 1945 most Arab countries have joined the Arab League. Several of these

countries control two thirds of the world's oil reserves and are members of

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Since 1948 disputes with the

state of Israel have resulted in Arab-Israeli Wars [10].

3.2 The Country & People of Algeria

10 See Appendix (A) for further information.

47

3.2.1 The Country

Official Name Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Populations 28,539,000 (1995 estimate)

Area 2,381,741 sq. km (919,590 sq. mi )

Location NW Africa, bordered by Mauritania, Morocco, and Western

Sahara (W), the Mediterranean Sea (N), Tunisia and Libya

(E), and Niger and Mali (S).

The principal cities are Algiers (the capital) and Oran. The Atlas Mountains divide

northern Algeria into a coastal lowland strip (the Tell) and a semiarid plateau. In the

south is the much larger, but arid and sparsely populated, Saharan region; Algeria's

highest point, Mountain Tahat (9,541 ft/2,908 m), in the Ahaggar Mountains, is

located here.

3.2.2 The People

48

The earliest known inhabitants of the region that is now Algeria were Berber-speaking

nomads, who were settled there by the 2nd millennium B.C. As Numidia, it became

(9th century B.C.) a province of Carthage and then (106 B.C.) of Rome; during the

Christian era, Saint was bishop at Hippo (now Annaba). With Rome's decline in the

5th century, A.D., Algeria was conquered by the Vandals (430–31), the Byzantine

Empire (6th century), and finally, in the late 7th and early 8th century, by the Arabs,

whose introduction of Islam profoundly altered the character of the area. Spain

captured the coastal cities in the 15th century, but was expelled (middle16th century)

with the help of the Ottoman Turks, who assumed control. During this period the

Algerian coast was a stronghold of pirates and a center of the slave trade. France

invaded Algeria in 1830 and declared it a colony in 1848. Europeans began to arrive

in large numbers, dominating the government and the economy, and leaving the

native Muslim population with scant political or economic power. A nationalist

movement began to develop after World War I, and a war for independence, led by

the National Liberation Front (FLN), broke out in 1954. After more than seven years

of bitter fighting, in which at least 100,000 Muslim and 10,000 French soldiers were

killed, Algeria became independent on July 3, 1962. Since independence, Algeria has

been a prominent nonaligned state and a champion of the movements against white

minority rule in Africa. It also has supported the protracted struggle of the Polisario

Front for the independence of Western Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara) from

Morocco. Ahmed Ben Bella, prime minister and then president of Algeria after

independence, was deposed by Houari Boumedienne in 1965. After Boumedienne's

death (1978), Chadli Benjedid succeeded (1979) him as president. Riots in 1988 led

President Benjedid to reduce the role of the state economically and of the FLN

politically. After Islamic fundamentalists won 42% of the seats in the first round of

49

parliamentary elections in December 1991, the army forced Benjedid to resign (1992)

and canceled the election. A civilian-led state council was installed, but real power

resided with the army. The fundamentalist party was banned and its leaders arrested.

Fundamentalists launched a guerrilla insurrection, and Algeria was torn by violence

from both sides. In 1994 General Liamine Zeroual, the defense minister, was

appointed president, replacing the state council; he won a presidential election the

following year. Zeroual resigned early in 1999 and presidential elections held in

April, 1999, were won by Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the candidate of the military

oligarchy; the opposition candidates had withdrawn before the vote. One of the main

guerrilla groups renounced its struggle against the government in June 1999; however,

other groups continued to wage war. By middle1999, 100,000 people had been killed

in the violence and repression that began in 1992. Under an amnesty approved in

September 1999, 80% of the Islamic guerrillas surrendered to the government by the

middle of January, 2000 deadline, and the violence has since greatly diminished. The

easing of the fighting has brought such issues as government corruption and

widespread poverty and unemployment (estimated at 30%) to the fore. In addition, in

2001 there were large demonstrations and clashes with police by Berbers, who

remained deeply unhappy about Arabic’s status as the sole national language, a policy

that was reversed the following year. Berber protests also sparked demonstrations

against the country’s stagnant economy by non-Berber Algerians. Parliamentary

elections in May, 2002, were boycotted by a number of major opposition parties and

many voters, and the FLN won more than half the seats. French president Jacques

Chirac made a state visit to Algeria in March, 2003; it was the first such visit since

Algerian independence. Two months later a strong earthquake devastated many towns

east of the capital, killing more than 2,200 people.

50

About a quarter of Algeria's workforce are farmers, producing cereals, wine, citrus

fruits, and cork. Mining and manufacturing, developed since the 1960s, contribute the

bulk of the national income. Petroleum is the leading export, and much natural gas is

produced, with proven reserves that are among the worlds largest. The state plays a

leading role in planning the economy and owns many important industrial concerns,

but a 1994 law permitted privatization of some state firms. The great majority of the

populations are Sunni Muslims of Arab-Berber descent; Europeans, who before

independence accounted for 10% of the total, now are only 1% of the population.

Arabic and Tamazight, a Berber language, are official languages, and French is

widely spoken.

3.3 The Country & People of Bahrain

3.3.1 The Country

51

Official Name Kingdom of Bahrain

Populations 666,400 (1999 estimate)

Area 689 sq. km (266 sq. mi )

Location An archipelago in the Persian (Arabian) Gulf between the

Qatar Peninsula and Saudi Arabia.

The two main islands are Bahrain (the largest) and Al Muharraq, which are linked to

each other and Saudi Arabia by causeway. The capital and chief port is Al Manamah.

Flat and sandy, with a few low hills, Bahrain has a hot, humid climate. The economy

has been based on oil, and oil revenues have financed modernization projects,

particularly in health and education. Oil reserves are expected to be exhausted in the

near future, however, and other industries such as shipyards and aluminum smelting

have been established. Bahrain is an important financial center and the site of a major

U.S. navy base.

3.3.2 The people

52

Anciently known as Dilmun, the island was known to the Greeks as Tylos. Ruled by

Portugal (16th century) and Persia (intermittently from 1603, and long claimed by

Iran), Bahrain became a sheikhdom in 1783 and a British-protected state in 1861.

Independence was declared in 1971. A constitution, adopted in 1973, limited the

sheikh's powers and established an elected national assembly, but in 1975 the sheikh

suspended the constitution and dissolved the national assembly. Bahrain established

closer ties with other Gulf States, particularly Saudi Arabia, in the early 1980s, and

Bahraini territory was used by coalition forces during the 1991 Gulf War. Since late

1994, Bahrain's Shiites have staged demonstrations demanding better living

conditions and the return of an elected parliament. Sheikh Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa,

who had ruled since 1961, died in 1999; he was succeeded by his son, Sheikh Hamad

bin Isa al-Khalifa. A new national charter, establishing a constitutional monarchy, was

approved in 2001, and Bahrain was proclaimed a kingdom in 2002. Elections to the

lower house of the national assembly were held in October, 2002.

The majority of the populations are Muslim Arab Bahrainis, but other Arabs and

Iranians, Indians, and other Asians make up over 35% of the inhabitants. About 75%

of the populations are Shiite Muslims; most of the rest are Sunnis. Arabic is the

official language, but English, Farsi, and Urdu are also spoken.

3.4 The Country & People of Comoros

53

3.4.1 The Country

Official Name Union of the Comoros, republic

Populations 549,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 1,862 sq km (718 sq mi)

Location Occupying most of the Comoro Islands, an archipelago in the

Indian Ocean, between the African coast and Madagascar.

The capital is Moroni. It consists of three volcanic main islands—Njazidja, Nzwani,

and Mwali (formerly Grande-Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli, respectively)—as well

as numerous coral reefs and islets. A fourth island, Mayotte, is administered by

France but claimed by the Comoros. Because of poor soil, lack of natural resources,

and overpopulation, the islands have severe economic problems.

3.4.2 The People

Originally populated by immigrants from Africa, Indonesia, and Arabia, the islands

were ceded to the French between 1841 and 1909. After occupation by the British in

World War II, they were granted administrative autonomy within the French Union

54

(1946) and internal self-government (1968). In 1974 the islands voted to become

independent, except for Mayotte, which chose to remain under French control. In

1978 the Comoros was proclaimed a federal Islamic republic; shortly thereafter, a

one-party state was formed under President Ahmed Abdallah Abderrahman. After his

assassination in 1989, Saïd Mohamed Djohar became interim president and

subsequently won election in a multiparty contest. He survived an impeachment

attempt in 1991 and several coup attempts. In 1996 Mohamed Taki Abdulkarim was

elected president. In 1997 rebels took control of the islands of Nzwani and Mwali,

declaring their secession and desire to return to French rule. In 1999 the islands were

granted greater autonomy. Following a coup in April 1999, Colonel Azali Assoumani

assumed the Comoran presidency. Nzwani voted (2000) for indepedence, but in 2001

forces favoring reuniting with the Comoros seized power there, and a Comoran

referendum approved additional autonomy for the three islands. Azali resigned (2002)

prior to new elections, and Prime Minster Hamada Madi became interim president.

After two disputed elections, Azali was declared president in May 2002. An accord in

December, 2003, concerning the division of powers between the federal and island

governments paved the way for legislative elections in 2004.

Most of the population is engaged in agriculture, involving subsistence crops and the

production of vanilla, copra, and essential oils for export. The people are of mixed

African, Arab, Malay, and Indian descent. French and Arabic are the official

languages, but most people speak a local blend of Swahili and Arabic. The state

religion is Islam.

3.5 The Country & People of Djibouti

55

3.5.1 The Country

Official Name Republic of Djibouti, republic

Populations 421,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 22,020 sq km (8,500 sq mi)

Location E Africa, bordered by Eritrea (N), Ethiopia (W, S), Somalia

(SE), and the Gulf of Aden (E).

Djibouti is the capital. Largely a stony desert, the country is economically

underdeveloped. Djibouti is important for its strategic location on the strait between

the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea. Nomadic animal-herding is the chief occupation,

but most revenue is derived from the port of Djibouti and the country's free-trade zone

status. Hides, cattle, and coffee (transshipped from Ethiopia) are the major exports.

Industries include shipbuilding and repair and food processing.

3.5.2 The People

56

France obtained a foothold in the area in 1862 and organized it as a colony, French

Somaliland, in 1896. The colony gained territorial status in 1946 and was renamed the

French Territory of the Afars and the Issas in 1967. In a 1967 referendum the Afars

voted to continue ties with France, while the Issas voted for independence and

eventual reunion with Somalia. Djibouti became independent in 1977 under President

Hassan Gouled Aptidon, who established a single-party state in 1981. The country has

been adversely affected by warfare in and between neighboring Ethiopia and Somalia.

Tensions between Afars and the Issa-dominated government led to an Afar rebellion

in 1991 that finally ended in 2000. Limited multiparty elections were restored under a

1992 constitution and Gouled was reelected in 1993. The 1999 presidential elections

were won by Ismail Omar Guelleh, the government candidate. The French remain a

strong military and technical presence in Djibouti, and the United States has also

established (2002) a base in the strategically located nation. In 1992 a constitution

allowing for a limited multiparty state was approved by Djibouti’s voters. In 1993,

Gouled was reelected in the country’s first multiparty elections, which were widely

boycotted by the opposition. The 1999 presidential election was won by Ismail Omar

Guelleh, the governing party candidate. In 2003 the government sought to expel an

estimated 100,000 illegal immigrants, largely Ethiopians and Somalis, from the

country. The move was prompted by security and unemployment concerns.

The population is about 40% Issa (of Somali origin) and 35% Afar (of Ethiopian

origin), with the rest largely other Somali tribes, Arabs, and Ethiopian refugees. Both

Issas and Afars are Muslim and speak Cushitic languages. French and Arabic are the

official languages.

3.6 The Country & People of Egypt

57

3.6.1 The Country

Official Name Arab Republic of Egypt, republic

Populations 62,360,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 1,001,449 sq km (386,659 sq mi)

Location NE Africa, bordered by the Mediterranean Sea (N), Israel

and the Red Sea (E), Sudan (S), and Libya (W).

The Sinai Peninsula, the only part of Egypt located in Asia, is separated from the rest

of the country by the Suez Canal. Major cities include Cairo (the capital) and

Alexandria. The principal physiographic feature is the Nile River, which flows the

length of the country from south to north and separates the Libyan (Western) and

Arabian (Eastern) deserts that comprise 90% of the land area. Bordering the Nile

between Aswan and Cairo are narrow strips of cultivated land, home of the vast

majority of Egypt's inhabitants. Although the country's industrial base increased

considerably in the 20th century, the Economy has been severely strained by Egypt's

limited farmland and its large and rapidly growing population. Agriculture, which

58

employs about 40% of its population, depends on the Nile for its fertility. Completion

of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 greatly increased arable land, which still constitutes

less than 5% of Egypt's total land area. Cotton is the leading cash crop. Major

manufactures include refined oil, chemicals, textiles, and processed foods. The Suez

Canal and tourism are sources of foreign Exchange.

3.6.2 Ancient Egypt

Egyptian civilization, one of the world's oldest, developed in the valley of the Nile

over 5,000 years ago. The rival kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt were united as a

centralized state 3200 B.C.; by a king named Menes, who established his capital at

Memphis. A high culture developed early, and the use of writing was introduced.

During the Old Kingdom (3110–2258 B.C.) ; Egyptian culture and commerce

flourished, and the great pyramids were built. Its fall introduced a period of anarchy,

which ended 2000 B.C.; with the establishment of the Middle Kingdom, with its

capital at Thebes. Civilization again flourished until in 1786 B.C.; weak rulers

allowed the country to pass under the rule of foreign nomads, known as the Hyksos.

The Hyksos were expelled 1570 B.C.; and the New Kingdom was Established. During

the XVIII dynasty (1570–1342 B.C.), ancient Egyptian civilization reached its zenith;

a vast empire was established and Thebes and Memphis became the political,

commercial, and cultural centers of the world. After the XX dynasty (1200–1085

B.C.), Egypt came increasingly under foreign domination, with periods of rule by

Libya, Sudan, Assyria, Nubia, and Persia. Following a brief reestablishment of native

power in 405 B.C.; Egypt fell without a struggle to Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.;

After Alexander's death (323 B.C.); Egypt was inherited by his general, Ptolemy, who

founded the dynasty of Ptolemies and under whom the new city of Alexandria became

the intellectual and religious center of the Hellenistic world. The Ptolemies

59

maintained a formidable Empire for more than two centuries until, weakened by

internal dynastic disputes, Egypt fell to Rome in 30 B.C.; Christianity was readily

accepted in Egypt, which became part of the Byzantine Empire about A.D.; 395. With

the Arab conquest (639–42) Egypt became an integral part of the Muslim world.

3.6.3 Modern Egypt

After 500 years as part of the caliphate, Egypt was seized by the Mamluks in 1250

and the Ottoman Turks in 1517. The first close contact with the West occurred in

1798, when French forces under Napoleon occupied the country; they were expelled

in 1801 by combined Ottoman and British troops. In 1805 Muhammad Ali, a common

soldier, was appointed pasha of Egypt; under his rule the foundations of the modern

state of Egypt were established. The construction of the Suez Canal (1859–69) put

Egypt deeply into debt, and, although nominally still part of the Ottoman Empire, the

country was forced to appoint a French-British commission to manage its financial

affairs. The British consolidated their control between 1883 and 1907, and during

World War I, when Turkey joined the Central Powers, Great Britain declared Egypt a

British protectorate, which effectively persisted for some years after independence in

1923.

3.6.4 Independent Egypt

In 1952 the Egyptian army deposed King Farouk in a coup; a republic was established

in 1953, and Col. Gamal Abdel Nasser became president (1954). For a brief period

Egypt and Syria merged (1958) in the United Arab Republic, then were joined by

Yemen in the United Arab States; the union was dissolved in 1961. Inaugurating a

program of economic and social reform, modernization of the army, and construction

of the Aswan High Dam, Nasser, with the aid of the USSR, strove to make Egypt the

undisputed leader of the Arab world. His rallying cry was denunciation of Israel; in

60

1967 Egypt lost much territory in the Six-Day War, which also shattered its economy

and armed forces. Nasser died in 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar al-Sadat, who

regained some of Egypt's lost territory in the Yom Kippur War (October War) in1973

and reversed a 20-year trend by ending Soviet influence and seeking closer ties with

the West. In 1977 Sadat angered his Arab allies by traveling to Jerusalem as a

conciliatory gesture to Israel; the two nations signed a peace treaty in 1979. In 1981

Sadat was assassinate, and Hosni Mubarak, who pledged to continue Sadat's policies,

became president. The Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai and its return to Egypt,

which began in 1979, was completed in 1982.

Egypt's inhabitants are mainly a complex racial mixture, descended from the ancient

Egyptians, Berbers, sub-Saharan Africans, Arabs, Greeks, and Turks. The majorities

are Sunni Muslims, but there is a substantial minority of Coptic Christians. Arabic is

the official language.

3.7 The Country & People of Iraq

61

3.7.1 The country

Official Name Republic of Iraq, republic.

Populations 20,644,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 434,924 sq km (167,924 sq mi).

Location SW Asia, bordered by the Persian Gulf, Kuwait, and Saudi

Arabia (S), Jordan and Syria (W), Turkey (N), and Iran (E).

Principal cities include Baghdad (the capital), Basra, and Mosul. Iraq is an almost

landlocked country, its only outlet to the sea a short stretch of coast on the Gulf. It is

composed of a mountainous region in the northeast and the vast Syrian Desert,

inhabited by a few nomadic shepherds, in the southwest; in-between is the heart of the

country, a fertile lowland region watered by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Although

about one third of the labor force is engaged in agriculture, oil production, notably in

the great fields of Mosul and Kirkuk, dominates the economy. Iraq is among the

largest oil producers of the Middle East. Its petroleum resources were nationalized in

1972, and oil revenues were used to promote industrialization and to transform Iraq

into a military power. The UN-sponsored economic embargo imposed after the

invasion of Kuwait has severely reduced Iraq's oil exports and devastated the

62

economy. The country has a small, diversified industrial sector, with textiles, shoes,

processed food, and building materials among its products. Iraq is a major producer of

dates; other crops include cotton, cereals, and vegetables. Agriculture depends largely

on irrigation.

3.7.2 The People

Modern Iraq is approximately coextensive with ancient Mesopotamia and prior to the

Arab conquest in the 7th century A.D. it was the site of a number of flourishing

civilizations, including Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia. In the 8th century, as

capital of the Abbasid caliphate, Baghdad became an important center of learning and

the arts. Mesopotamia fell to the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century. The British

invaded Iraq in World War I, and in 1920 the country became a League of Nations

mandate under British administration. Iraq was made a kingdom under Faisal I in

1921, and the British mandate was terminated in 1932, although British military bases

remained. Meanwhile, the first oil concession had been granted in 1925, and in 1934

the export of oil began. Domestic politics were marked by turbulence, and the country

experienced seven military coups between 1936 and 1941. Following an army coup in

1958, Iraq became a republic under General Abdul Karim Qassem. The chronic

Kurdish problem flared up in 1962, when tribes demanding an autonomous

Kurdistan11 gained control of much of Northern Iraq. The rebellion collapsed (1975),

but intermittent warfare continued. In 1968 a coup brought the Ba'ath party to power,

and in 1979 Saddam Hussein became party leader and Iraq's president. Opposition

within Iraq grew among the Shiites, who were the majority of the population yet were

excluded from political control. Iraq launched (1980) a costly war against Iran that

ended (1988) in a stalemate. In 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait, which it had previously

claimed, provoking the Gulf War; economic sanctions were also imposed, and

11 For further information please see Appendix (A).

63

remained in effect long after the war, although they were modified in 2002 to

emphasize military-related goods. The war ended (1991) with Iraq ousted from

Kuwait. Following the war, Iraqi Shiites and Kurds revolted. The uprisings were

crushed, but both groups were provided (1992) with limited UN protection, which

proved ineffective in the case of the Shiites; the Kurds established a self-proclaimed

autonomous region in Northern Iraq. An Iraqi military buildup near the Kuwait border

in 1994 led to the deployment of U.S. troops in Kuwait. In 1996, Iraq reached an

accord with the UN that allowed it to sell $1 billion worth of oil every 90 days, with

the money set aside for food and medicine and compensation to Kuwaitis. Beginning

in late 1997, Iraq resisted cooperating with the weapons inspections; this led to a U.S.

military buildup in the Gulf. U.S. and British bombing raids against Iraq began in

November. 1998 and have persisted on a smaller scale. In 2002 the U.S. threatened

military action against Iraq over its failure to permit weapons inspections, leading Iraq

to announce that inspectors could return. Meanwhile, the U.S. and Britain continued

to prepare for war with Iraq, and in March, 2003 demanded that Saddam Hussein step

down or face an invasion. On March, 19, 2003, they launched an air strike aimed at

Hussein personally, and sizable ground troops began invading the following day.

After less than a month of fighting, Hussein's rule had collapsed, and U.S. and British

forces had established a controlling presence in the major urban areas, although

pockets of resistance remained. Hussein survived the war and went into hiding, and

guerrilla attacks by what were believed to be Ba’ath loyalists and Islamic militants

became an ongoing problem in the following months, largely in Sunni-dominated

central Iraq. The Kurdish-dominated north and Shiite-dominated south were generally

calmer. L. Paul Bremer 3rd was appointed as civilian head of the occupation. UN

economic sanctions were lifted in May, 2003, and in mid-July an interim Governing

64

Council consisting of representatives of Iraqi opposition groups was established.

Nonetheless, civil order and the economy appeared to be being restored at a slow pace

that threatened to create animosity toward the occupying forces. The cost for

rebuilding Iraq was estimated by Bremer in late 2003 to be as much as $100 billion

over three years. Meanwhile, U.S.-British failure to find biological or chemical

weapons led to charges that Anglo-American leaders had exaggerated the Iraqi threat

to international security. In October, 2003, the UN Security Council passed a British-

American resolution calling for a timetable for democratic self-rule in Iraq to be

established by mid-December. Events, however, led the United States to speed up the

process, and in November the Governing Council endorsed a U.S.-proposed plan that

called for self-rule in mid-2004 under a transitional assembly, which would be elected

by a system of caucuses. However, many Shiites objected to this because it would not

involve elections; they feared a diminished voice in the government and greater U.S.

influence if caucuses were used to choose the assembly. Hussein was finally captured

by U.S. forces in December, 2003.

Most of the populations are Muslim Arabs, divided religiously into the Sunnis of

central Iraq and Shiites of the south. The Kurds, who inhabit the north, are the

principal minority. Arabic is the official language in most of the country; Kurdish is

official in northern sections; Assyrian and Armenian are spoken by some.

3.8 The Country & People of Jordan

3.8.1 The Country

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Official Name Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, kingdom.

Population 4,101,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 97,740 sq km (37,737 sq mi).

Location SW Asia, bordered by Israel (W), Syria (N), Iraq (NE), and

Saudi Arabia (E, S).

Amman is the capital and largest city. Pre-1967 Jordan fell into three main

geographical regions: East Jordan, which encompasses about 92% of the country's

land area; the Jordanian Highlands (highest point, 5,755 ft/1,754 m); and West Jordan

(the West Bank, part of historic Palestine. In the Arab-Israeli War of 1967, Israel

captured and occupied the West Bank, and Jordan has since renounced its claim to the

area. Jordan's economy has traditionally been based on agriculture, although less than

5% of the land is arable. The principal crops are vegetables, wheat, and citrus fruits;

olives are grown for oil. Manufactures are limited to such items as foodstuffs,

clothing, and cement, and there is some oil refining. Phosphate rock and potash are

the only minerals produced in quantity. The annual cost of Jordan's imports far

exceeds its earnings from exports. Aqaba, on the Gulf of Aqaba, is the only seaport.

66

3.8.2 The People

The region of present-day Jordan was conquered successively by the Seleucids (4th

century B.C.), Romans (mid-1st century A.D.), and Muslim Arabs (7th century). After

the Crusaders captured (1099) Jerusalem, it became part of the Latin Kingdom of

Jerusalem. The Ottoman Turks gained control in 1516, and what is now Jordan

remained in the Ottoman Empire until World War I. In 1920 Trans-Jordan (as it was

then known) was made part of the British mandate of Palestine. The country gained

independence in 1946, and the name was changed (1949) to Jordan, reflecting its

acquisition of land west of the Jordan River, during the Arab-Israeli War of 1948.

Abdullah ibn Husain, a member of the Hashemite dynasty that headed Jordan since

1921, was assassinated in 1951. His grandson, Hussein I, became king the following

year. Jordanian forces were routed by Israel in the 1967 war and Jordan lost the West

Bank. Growing hostility between Hussein and Palestinian guerrilla organizations

operating in Jordan led to a brief civil war in 1970, and guerrilla bases were destroyed

in 1971. Jordan renounced (1974; reaffirmed 1988) its claims to the West Bank in

order to allow the Palestine Liberation Organization(PLO) eventually to organize a

state in this territory. Jordan also joined most of the other Arab countries in opposing

the 1979 peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. It was officially neutral in the Gulf

War, but many Jordanians supported Iraq. In 1991 Jordan began peace talks with

Israel, and a treaty was signed in 1994. Hussein continued to promote peace between

Arabs and Israelis until his death in 1999; he was succeeded by his son Abdullah II

who pledged to work toward a more open government and to ease restrictions on

public expression. Although there has been some progress in terms of economic

development, the country remains dependent on tourism, which has been hurt by its

location between Israel and Iraq.

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The inhabitants of Jordan are mostly of Arab descent (over half are of Palestinian

descent), and Arabic is the official language, although English is also spoken among

the higher socio-economic groups. About 95% of the people are Sunni Muslims.

Under the 1952 constitution, the king is the most powerful figure in the country; he

appoints a cabinet (headed by a prime minister). The bicameral parliament has been

convened and dissolved by the king several times since 1974; the 1989 elections were

the first in 22 years. Political parties were again permitted to field candidates in 1993.

3.9 The Country & People of Kuwait

3.9.1 The Country

68

Official Name State of Kuwait

Populations 1,817,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 16,000 sq km (6,177 sq mi).

Location NE Arabian peninsula, at the head of the Persian Gulf,

bounded by Saudi Arabia (S) and Iraq (N and W).

The capital is Kuwait. It is a sandy and barren country. With more than 10% of the

world's estimated oil reserves, Kuwait is a leading exporter of petroleum and has used

some of the enormous profits for social improvements. In the 1960s the government

launched a program of industrial diversification, successfully introducing oil refining

and production of natural gas and fertilizers.

3.9.2 The People

Kuwait, settled by Arab tribes in the early 18th century, has been ruled since its

inception by the Al-Sabah dynasty. Nominally an Ottoman province, the sheikhdom

became a British protectorate in 1897, remaining so until independence in 1961. Oil

production began in the 1940s and was controlled by a joint British-American firm

until 1974, when Kuwait nationalized most of the operations. In August 1990, Kuwait

was invaded and forcibly annexed by Iraq, an act that led to and was reversed by the

69

Gulf War. The war and widespread looting and intentional destruction by Iraqi troops

devastated Kuwait, particularly its oil fields, but by the end of 1992 the country had

repaired nearly all the damage and its oil output were at about the pre-war level. Large

areas of land, however, remained environmentally devastated. In 1992, opposition

candidates won a majority of the seats in parliament; the Al-Sabah family, however,

continued to dominate the government. An Iraqi military buildup near the Kuwait

border led the U.S. to send troops to Kuwait in 1994. Parliament was dissolved by the

sheikh in May 1999; elections in July gave Islamist and liberal candidates the most

seats.

The population is predominantly Arab and Sunni Muslim, although only half the

inhabitants are native-born.

3.10 The Country & People of Lebanon

3.10.1 The Country

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Official Name Republic of Lebanon, republic.

Populations 3,695,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 10,400 sq km (4,015 sq mi).

Location SW Asia, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea (W), Syria (N, E),

and Israel (S).

The capital is Beirut. Much of the terrain is mountainous, with two main ranges—the

Lebanon in the west and the Anti-Lebanon in the east—paralleling the coast; the

fertile Al Biqa valley lies between them. Until the disruption caused by the civil strife

of 1975–90, Lebanon had a service-oriented economy, and Beirut, a free port, was the

financial and commercial center of the Middle East. Through the 1980s the

commercial and industrial life of Lebanon was in severe disarray, but by the early

1990s the economy had begun to revive. Banking, food processing, and the

manufacture of textiles and chemicals are now economically important. Principal

crops are citrus fruits, vegetables, olives, and tobacco. Remittances from Lebanese

working abroad are an important source of foreign exchange.

3.10.2 The People

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The site of the ancient maritime city-state of Phoenicia, the area later fell to

successive Middle Eastern powers. Christianity was introduced under the Roman

Empire and persisted even after the coming of Islam with the Arab conquest (7th

century). In the late 11th century Lebanese Christians aided the Crusaders in the

region. The area came under the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century, and after the

Turkish defeat in World War I it became part of a French mandate known as Greater

Lebanon. Since independence in 1945, Lebanon has been plagued by civil strife and

problems with its neighbors. A member of the Arab League, it took little part in the

Arab-Israeli Wars that followed Israel's establishment in 1948, but the stage was set

for future problems when many Palestinians fled Israel and settled in southern

Lebanon. Meanwhile, Lebanon's internal equilibrium was shaken (1958) by a

rebellion against pro-Western policies, and U.S. forces were called in briefly. In 1975

civil war erupted between leftist Muslims, aided by the Palestine Liberation

Organization (PLO), and conservative Christians. In 1976 Syrian troops intervened,

and a cease-fire was declared, but Israel and the PLO engaged in a sporadic border

war in southern Lebanon. In 1978, following an Israeli invasion, a UN peacekeeping

force was placed in south Lebanon. Fighting continued, however, and in 1982 Israel

invaded Lebanon, forcing out many members of the PLO and causing widespread

devastation. The Lebanese parliament in 1988 proved unable to elect a successor to

the Christian president, Amin Gemayel. Gemayel, on the expiration of his term,

appointed a Christian general, Michel Aoun, as interim president, but Muslims

challenged his legitimacy. In 1989 Arab governments brokered a peace agreement

that produced a new constitution that increased the political power of the Muslim

majority. Elias Al Hrawi, a Christian, was elected president, but Aoun refused to step

down and fighting broke out. In 1990, at Al Hrawi's request, Syrian troops attacked

72

Aoun's position; Aoun fled to France, ending the civil war. Al Hrawi signed (1991) a

treaty of friendship and cooperation with Syria that essentially guaranteed Syrian

domination of Lebanon's foreign relations. In 1993, 1994, 1996, and 1999 fighting

again erupted between Shiite Hezbollah (Party of God) guerrillas and Israel in South

Lebanon. Hrawi's presidential term was extended for three years in 1995, as the

country continued to recover from years of heavy fighting which had crippled its

infrastructure and economy. Gen. Emile Lahoud was elected president in 1998. In

May 2000, Israel withdrew its troops from Southern Lebanon. The 2000

parliamentary elections brought the opposition back into power, and Rafiq Hariri

became prime minister; he had previously held the office from 1992 to 1998.

Most Lebanese are Arabs; there is a small Armenian minority. Arabic is the official

language, but French and English are also widely spoken. The population is about

70% Muslim (mainly Sunni and Shiite, but there are other groups as well) and 30%

Christian (mainly Maronite).

3.11 The Country & People of Libya

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3.11.1 The Country

Official Name Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahirya, republic.

Populations 5,248,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 1,759,540 sq km (679,358 sq mi).

Location N Africa, bordered by Algeria and Tunisia (W), the

Mediterranean Sea (N), Egypt and Sudan (E), and Chad and

Niger (S).

The principal cities are Tripoli (the capital) and Tobruk. Most of Libya is part of the

Sahara desert; the population is restricted to a coastal strip along the Mediterranean

and a few widely scattered oases in the Libyan Desert, in the east, and the Fazzan

region, in the south. The discovery of oil, in 1958 transformed Libya from a poor

agricultural country into one of the world's leading petroleum producers, with vast

sums to spend on social, agricultural, and military development. Petroleum accounts

for 95% of export earnings and about a third of national income; Libya is also an

important producer of natural gas. Major crops include cereals, olives, fruits, dates,

74

and vegetables. Lower oil prices and economic sanctions arising from the Lockerbie

incident hurt the economy in the 1990s.

3.11.2 The People

At various times in its history the territory that is now Libya was occupied by

Carthage, Rome, Arabia, Morocco, Egypt, and Spain. It was part of the Ottoman

Empire from 1551 to 1911, serving in the 18th century as a base for pirates who, in

return for immunity, provided large revenues to the local ruler. Libya was seized by

Italy in 1911, but Libyan resistance continued until the 1930s. During World War II,

as an Italian colony, it was one of the main battlegrounds of North Africa, passing

under an Anglo-French military government when the Axis were defeated in the area

in 1943. In accordance with a UN decision, in 1951 the country became independent

as the United Kingdom of Libya, with King Idris I as ruler. Idris was ousted in 1969

in a coup led by Col. Muammar Al-Qaddafi, who established an anti-Western

government. British and American bases were closed in 1970, and unification was

sought, unsuccessfully, with several other Arab countries. In 1979 Libya intervened in

Uganda to help keep Idi Amin in power, and in 1981 it dispatched troops into

neighboring Chad (Libya had occupied the disputed Aozou Strip, in Northern Chad,

in 1973), withdrawing most of them later that year. Qaddafi's forces continued to take

sides in Chadian fighting, for a time occupying much of Northern Chad. In 1990 the

dispute over the Aozou Strip was submitted to the International Court of Justice,

which ruled in Chad's favor, and the strip was returned to Chad in 1994. As a member

of OPEC, Libya has been a leading exponent of limiting production and increasing

prices of petroleum. Since 1986 Libya has attempted to form a union with the Arabic

countries of the Maghreb, especially Algeria and Tunisia. In the late 1980s the U.S.

took action against Libya for its backing of activities against U.S. citizens, including

75

an air strike (1986) on Qaddafi's residence and other sites in Libya. In 1992 the UN

Security Council accused Libya of supporting state terrorism and called for a ban on

air flights and arms sales to it unless suspects in the Lockerbie and another airplane

bombing were turned over to the U.S., Britain, and France. Libya's foreign assets

were also frozen. In April, 1999, Libya handed over the suspects in the Lockerbie

crash to the UN, which lifted its sanctions, but those imposed by the United States

remained in place. Libya agreed in 2003 to a $2.7 billion settlement with the families

of the victims. In December, after negotiations with the United States and Great

Britain, the government renounced the production and use of chemical, biological,

and nuclear weapons and agreed to submit to unannounced international inspections.

The majority of the inhabitants are Arabs, but there are scattered communities of

Berbers and, in the southwest, many of mixed Berber and African descent. There are

large numbers of foreign workers in Libya; in 1995 several thousand of them without

proper papers were expelled. Islam is the official religion (most Libyans are Sunni

Muslims), and Arabic is the official language.

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3.12 The Country & People of Mauritania

3.12.1 The Country

Official Name Islamic Republic of Mauritania, republic.

Populations 2,263,000 (estimate 1995).

Area 1,030,700 sq km (397,953 sq mi).

Location NW Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (W), Western

Sahara (N), Algeria (NE), Mali (E and SE), and Senegal

(SW).

Nouakchott is the capital. Most of the country is low-lying desert, forming part of the

Sahara, but some fertile soil is found in the semiarid Sahel of the southwest, along the

Senegal River. The economy is divided between a traditional agriculture sector and a

modern mining industry developed in the 1960s. Irrigated crops include millet, dates,

77

rice, and sorghum. Stock raising (cattle, sheep, goats, and camels) was sharply

reduced by the great drought of the 1970s and 80s. There is a growing fishing

industry, based in the Atlantic, and fish processing is important. Shipments of iron ore

account for a large portion of export earnings.

3.12.2 The People

Settled by Berbers in the 1st millennium A.D., the region was the center of the ancient

empire of Ghana (700–1200) and later became part of the empire of Mali (14th–15th

centuries). By this time the Sahara had encroached on much of Mauritania, limiting

agriculture and reducing the population. In the 1440s Portuguese navigators

established a fishing base, and from the 17th century, European traders dealt in gum

Arabic along the southern coast. France gained control of Southern Mauritania in the

mid-19th century, declared a protectorate over the region in 1903, and made it a

separate colony in French West Africa in 1920; however, little was done to develop

the economy. Nationalist political activity began after World War II, and Mauritania

gained full independence in 1960. A Muslim state was created in 1961 under Makhtar

Waled Daddah as president. His rule was troubled by ethnic tensions between the

Fulani and the Arab-Berber group, by economic problems aggravated by the severe

drought in the Sahel, and by worker-student protests. The military deposed Waled

Daddah in 1978, and military governments subsequently ruled the country. A 1975

agreement with Spain and Morocco giving Mauritania control over the southern third

of the Spanish (Western) Sahara ignited a conflict in the former colony. The Polisario

Front, a pro-independence guerrilla group backed by Algeria, waged war against

Mauritanian troops until 1979, when Mauritania renounced its claims to the area and

signed a peace treaty with the front. Slavery was only officially abolished in 1980,

and racial unrest erupted in the late 1970s and persisted into the 1990s, aggravated by

78

government repression of black Mauritanians. In 1984 Col. Maouiya Waled Sidi

Ahmed Taya became president after a coup. A new constitution approved in 1991

called for an elected president and national assembly, and the government legalized

political parties. Taya won election as president in 1992 and 1997. In 1993 the United

States ended development aid to Mauritania in protest against the country’s

oppression of its black citizens and its support of Iraq during the Gulf War; the

government subsequently moved toward a pro-Western position. Taya survived a

coup attempt in June, 2003. In the November, 2003, presidential elections he received

66.7% of the vote; his nearest challenger, former president Heydalla, almost 19%.

Heydalla was arrested after the election on charges of plotting a coup, which he

denied; he received a suspended five-year sentence in December.

Nearly a third of the population are nomadic Moors, of Berber and Arab background;

another third are mostly Africans, many of whom live as agriculturalists near the

Senegal; and the rest are of mixed Moor and African descent. Islam is the state

religion; Arabic and Wolof are official languages.

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3.13 The Country & People of Morocco

3.13.1 The Country

Official Name Kingdom of Morocco, kingdom.

Populations 29,161,000 (estimate 1954)

Area 445,050 sq km (171,834 sq mi).

Location NW Africa, bordered by the Mediterranean Sea (N), the

Atlantic Ocean (W), Mauritania (which lies beyond the

disputed territory of Western Sahara, S), and Algeria (E).

Principal cities include Rabat (the capital), Casablanca, Marrakech, and Fas. The

Atlas Mountains, rising to 13,671 ft (4,167 m) in Jebel Toubkal in the southwest,

dominate most of the country. In the south lie the sandy wastes of the Sahara desert,

but in the north is a fertile coastal plain, home of most of the population. Agriculture

and mining are economic mainstays. Morocco is a leading producer and exporter of

phosphates; other important minerals include iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt,

80

manganese, and coal. Food processing and the manufacture of leather goods and

textiles are also important. Half the labor force is employed in agriculture, growing

cereals, citrus fruits, and vegetables. Tourism and fishing also contribute to the

economy.

3.13.2 The People

Originally inhabited by Berbers, Morocco became a province of the Roman Empire in

the 1st century A.D. After successive invasions by barbarian tribes, Islam was brought

by the Arabs in 685. An independent Moroccan kingdom was established in 788; its

dissolution in the 10th century began a period of political anarchy. The country was

finally united in the 11th century by the Almoravids, a Berber-Muslim dynasty, who

established a kingdom reaching from Spain to Senegal. Unity was never complete,

however, and conflict between Arabs and Berbers was incessant. European

encroachment began in 1415, when Portugal captured Ceuta, and ended with the

Portuguese defeat at the battle of Qsar El Kabir (Alcazarquivir) in 1578. In the 19th

and early 20th centuries, the strategic importance and economic potential of Morocco

once again excited the European powers, sparking an intense, often violent, rivalry

among France, Spain, and Germany. Finally, in 1912, most of Morocco became a

French protectorate; a small area became a Spanish protectorate. Nationalist feelings

began to surface in the 1930s, becoming more militant after World War II, and in

1956 Morocco gained its independence. In 1957 the sultan became King Muhammad

V. He was succeeded in 1961 by his son, Hassan II, whose early reign, plagued by

internal unrest, coups, and assassination attempts, was repressive. Hassan's position

was strengthened in 1976, when Spain relinquished the Spanish Sahara (now Western

Sahara) to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control. Challenged by the Polisario Front, a

guerrilla movement backed by Algeria and seeking independence for the area,

81

Mauritania withdrew in 1979, but Morocco continued battling there and claimed the

entire territory. King Hassan died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son Muhammad

VI. Initially extremely popular, the new king revealed himself to be a strong advocate

of social change and economic improvement. In July, 2002, Morocco occupied an

uninhabited islet off Ceuta that is claimed by Spain, drawing international attention to

the disputed Spanish enclaves along Morocco’s Mediterranean coast. After Spanish

forces removed the Moroccans, both sides agreed to leave the islet unoccupied.

Most Moroccans are of mixed Arab-Berber descent and are Muslim; Islam is the state

religion. There are small Christian and Jewish minorities. Arabic is the official

language; Berber dialects, French (a main language of commerce), and Spanish are

also spoken.

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3.14 The Country & People of Oman

3.14.1 The Country

Official Name Sultanate of Oman, formerly Muscat and Oman, independent

sultanate.

Populations 2,340,815 (estimate 2003).

Area 309,000 sq km (83,000 sq mi).

Location SE Arabian peninsula, bounded by the Gulf of Oman (E), the

Arabian Sea (S), Yemen and Saudi Arabia (W), and the United

Arab Emirates (N), which separate the main portion of the

country from an exclave that juts into the Strait of Hormuz.

The capital is Muscat. Oman comprises a coastal plain and an interior region of hills

and desert. Dates, limes, nuts, and vegetables are cultivated in the north and livestock

are raised in the southwest, but the major product is oil. Natural gas production and

copper mining were developed in the early 1980s to diversify the economy.

83

3.14.2 The People

Occupied by Portugal in 1508 and Turkey in 1659, Oman came under Sultan Ahmad

ibn Said, founder of the present royal line, in 1741. It has had close ties with Britain

since the 19th century. Sultan Qaboos bin Said overthrew the strict regime of his

father, Sultan Said bin Timur, in 1970, instituted a program of liberalization and

modernization, and put down (1975) leftist guerrilla forces operating in Dhofar

Region, in the south. In 1980 the U.S. obtained the use of ports and airfields in Oman

in exchange for economic and military aid. In 1981 Oman joined other Gulf nations in

founding the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). The country opened its bases to

international coalition forces against Iraq in the 1991 Gulf War and to U.S. forces

mounting strikes against Taliban regime in Afghanistan in 2001. In 1996 the sultan

announced a new basic law that provided for a legislature with limited powers and

guaranteed basic civil liberties for Omani citizens. In 2003 the lower house of the

advisory council was freely elected for the first time.

The population is predominantly Muslim Arab, with Pakistani, Indian, Baluchi and

Lawati minorities.

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3.15 The Country of Palestine

3.15.1 The Country

Official Name The State of Palestine

Populations 1,320,000 West Bank

1,200,000 Gaza Strip estimate 1995

Area 5,607 sq km (2,165 sq mi) West Bank.

370 sq km (140 sq mi) Gaza Strip.

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Location West Bank, territory between Israel and Jordan, located W of

the Jordan River. and the Dead Sea.

Gaza Strip, coastal region of the Middle East. On the

Mediterranean Sea, adjoining Egypt and Israel.

3.15.2 Palestine

Historic region on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, comprising parts of

modern Israel, Jordan, and Egypt; also known as the Holy Land. Palestine is the Holy

Land of the Jews, where King David has lived; of the Christians because it was the

scene of Jesus' life; and of the Muslims because Jerusalem is the traditional site of

Muhammad's ascent to heaven. Palestine comprises three geographic zones: a part of

the Great Rift Valley, a ridge, and a coastal plain. The earliest known settlements in

Palestine, e.g. Jericho, may date from 8000 B.C. An independent Hebrew kingdom

was established 1000 B.C. After 950 B.C. this kingdom broke up into two states,

Israel and Judah. Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans in turn

conquered Palestine, which fell to the Muslim Arabs by A.D. 640. The area was the

focus of the Crusades and was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1516. By the late

19th century, Zionism arose with the aim of establishing a Jewish homeland in

Palestine, and during World War I the British, who captured the area, supported this

goal by what is known as Belford Promise. After the League of Nations approved

(1922) the British mandate of Palestine, Jews immigrated there in large numbers

despite Arab opposition. There was tension and violence between Jews and Arabs,

and the British, unable to resolve the problem, turned (1947) the Palestine question

over to the UN. At that time there were about 1,091,000 Muslims, 614,000 Jews, and

146,000 Christians in Palestine.

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3.15.3 West Bank

West Bank is occupied by Israel since the Arab-Israeli War of 1967. Many Israelis

refer to it as Judaea and Samaria. It includes the cities of Hebron, Jericho, and Nablus,

and the Old City of Jerusalem. The north is fertile; the south largely barren. Olives,

fruit, and citrus products are produced; small-scale industries manufacture goods such

as cement and textiles. The inhabitants are mostly Muslim Arab Palestinians; there are

about 198,000 Israeli Jewish settlers. After the partition of Palestine and the formation

(1948) of Israel, the territory was annexed (1950) by Jordan. Following the 1967 war,

the UN Security Council called for Israel's withdrawal from the West Bank. The

Camp David accords (1978) incorporated plans for Arab self-rule in the region. A

peaceful resolution, however, was impeded by the establishment of Israeli settlements

in the area and by Israeli-PLO hostility (Arab states, including Jordan, recognized the

Palestine Liberation Organization as the sole representative of the West Bank Arabs

in 1974). A 1993 accord between Israel and the PLO led to limited Palestinian self-

rule in Jericho and the Gaza Strip in mid-1994. An interim agreement in 1995 called

for the extension of self-rule to, and the withdrawal of most Israeli forces from, all

Arab cities and villages in the West Bank (except East Jerusalem) in 1996. Much of

this had been accomplished when increased tensions between Israel and the

Palestinians put the agreement in jeopardy. However, most of Hebron was turned over

to Palestinian control in 1997. Yasir Arafat was elected president of the Palestinian

government in 1996. A 1998 accord called for further territorial handover; although

there were delays, this was accomplished by March, 2000. Negotiations in 2000

proved unfruitful, and widespread violence erupted in the West Bank (and Gaza) in

the fall after Ariel Sharon visited the Haram esh-Sherif (or Temple Mount) in

87

Jerusalem. Efforts to resume to talks were subsequently mainly unsuccessful, stymied

by mutual distrust and a cycle of fighting and violence, including suicide bombings by

Palestinians and Israeli attacks on facilities of the Palestinian authority and Israeli

reoccupation of Palestinian territory. The continuing growth of Israeli settlements in

the region, which nearly doubled in population from 1992 to 2001, has also proved a

major irritant to Arabs and stumbling block to peace. In March, 2003, the Palestinian

parliament established the post of prime minister. Israel’s construction of a security

barrier in the West Bank became an international issue in 2003. It was begun in 2002

in the north West Bank, where it paralleled the border, and around Jerusalem, but

plans to extend it south and into the West Bank to protect Israeli settlements brought

widespread condemnation. The United Nations estimated that 274,000 Palestinians

would end up in the 15% of the territory on the Israeli side of the 400-mi (640-km)

fence and wall barrier, and that 400,000 more would have their lives disrupted by it.

The United Nations General Assembly requested (December, 2003) that the

International Court of Justice issue an advisory opinion on the barrier.

3.15.4 Gaza Strip

Densely populated and impoverished, it is mainly inhabited by Palestinian refugees;

there is also a small minority of Israeli settlers. The strip was part of the British

mandate for Palestine from 1917 to 1948, passed to Egyptian control in 1949, and has

been occupied by Israel since the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. Autonomy for the region,

promised by the Camp David accords (1978), has yet to be granted. The Palestinian

uprising (intifada) began in Gaza in 1987; the area has been the scene of renewed

violence since 2000. A 1993 accord between Israel and the Palestine Liberation

Organization (PLO) resulted in limited Palestinian self-rule in the area in mid-1994,

88

but the Palestinian National Authority in Gaza has been undermined by conflicts with

both Israel and Hamas, which is especially strong there.

3.16 The Country of Qatar

3.16.1 The Country

Official Name State of Qatar.

Populations 534,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 11,400 sq km (4,400 sq mi).

Location On a largely barren peninsula in the Persian Gulf, bordering

Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (S).

The capital is Doha. The economy of Qatar is dominated by oil and natural gas, which

accounts for 70% of export income. Oil and gas revenues have been used to diversify

the economy, including the development of chemicals, steel, cement, and fertilizer

industries and banking.

3.16.2 The People

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Qatar was ruled by Bahrain from the 1700s until the mid-1800s, when Great Britain

and the Ottoman Empire began vying for control of the peninsula. It was a British

protectorate from 1916 until 1971, when it became independent. In the 1980s and 90s

Qatar had territorial disputes with Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. During the Persian Gulf

War (1991) international coalition forces were deployed on Qatari soil. The present

emir, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power in 1995 after ousting his

father. In the late 1990s Sheikh Hamad eased press censorship and promoted ties with

Iran and Israel. Since 2001 Qatar has allowed U.S. use of the Al Udeid air base, and

the headquarters for the U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003) were in the country.

Minorities (20%) of the population are Qataris (Arabs of the Wahhabi sect of Islam);

the rest are largely other Arabs, Pakistanis, Indians, and Iranians. Arabic is the official

language, but English is also widely spoken.

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3.17 The Country & People of Saudi Arabia

3.17.1 The Country

Official Name Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, kingdom.

Populations 18,730,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 2,149,690 sq km (829,995 sq mi).

Location SW Asia, occupying most of the Arabian peninsula, bounded

by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait (N), the Gulf, Qatar, and the

United Arab Emirates (E), Yemen and Oman (S), and the Red

Sea (W).

Riyadh is the capital, Jidda the principal port. Saudi Arabia has five major physical

regions: the great Rub al-Khali, a sand desert occupying the entire south and

southeast; the Nejd, a vast, barren plateau in the center; the Hejaz and Asir, along the

Red Sea, with mountains rising from an arid coastal plain; and the Eastern Province,

along the Gulf, site of the country's rich oil resources. The climate is usually hot and

dry, although the humidity along the coasts is high. Saudi Arabia has at least one

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quarter of the world's oil reserves, and the oil industry dominates the economy. Huge

revenues from oil exports have been used to diversify the industrial base; metals,

chemicals, plastics, cement, and fertilizer are now produced. Irrigation projects have

reclaimed many acres of desert, and grains, dates, citrus fruits, and vegetables are

grown. Nomadic Bedouins raise camels, sheep, goats, and horses. Income is also

derived from Muslim pilgrims who travel from all parts of the world to the holy cities

of Mecca and Medina.

3.17.2 The People

Arabia has been inhabited for thousands of years by nomadic Semitic tribes. With the

birth (A.D. 570) of Muhammad, in Mecca, Arabia was briefly the center of Islam, but

by the end of the 7th century, the area was disunited. Modern Saudi Arabia owes its

existence to King AbdulAziz Ibn Saud, an adherent of the Wahhabi Muslim sect.

Beginning in 1902 he conquered the Nejd, Al Hasa, and Hejaz regions, and in 1932 he

proclaimed himself king of a united Saudi Arabia. Oil was discovered in 1936;

commercial production began in 1938. Ibn Saud died in 1953 and was succeeded by

his eldest son, Saud. In 1964 Saud was deposed by Faisal, who secured (1974) an

agreement giving the Saudis a 60% majority ownership of foreign oil concessions in

their country. In 1975 Faisal was assassinated; he was replaced by Khalid, who

inaugurated a program of industrialization and social welfare. In the conflict with

Israel, Saudi Arabia has generally supported the Arab states, although as a friend of

the U.S. it is a somewhat moderating force. Its moderating influence has also been felt

in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), in which it usually has

acted to stabilize petroleum prices. Khalid died in 1982 and was succeeded as king by

Fahd. Military clashes, oil-policy disputes, and rioting Iranian pilgrims in Mecca led

Saudi Arabia to sever diplomatic relations with Iran in 1989. In 1990 the kingdom

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joined the coalition that opposed Iraq's forcible annexation of Kuwait, and the forces

of the coalition were largely based in northern Saudi Arabia. In 1992 King Fahd

decreed a new constitution; among its features were an appointed national council

(est. 1993) with the right to review, but not overrule, government acts. However, the

royal family's power was basically undiminished. In the late 1990s, Crown Prince

Abdullah, the king's half-brother and heir to the throne, effectively became the

country's ruler due to King Fahd's poor health. Under the crown prince, the country

has been more openly frustrated with and critical of U.S. support for Israel. A treaty

with Yemen that ended border disputes dating to the 1930s was signed in 2000, and

early the next year both nations withdrew their troops from the border area in

compliance with the pact. The Saudi government restricted the use of American bases

in the country during the U.S.-led invasions of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003),

and by September, 2003, all U.S. combat forces were withdrawn from the country.

Also in 2003, the king issued a decree giving the People Council (Shura) the authority

to propose new laws without first seeking his permission. The move was perhaps

prompted in part by rare protests in favor of government reform; the kingdom also

was shaken by violent incidents, including a massive car bomb attack against a

residential compound in Riyadh.

The overwhelming majority of the populations are Arabs who adhere to the Sunni

(Wahhabi) sect of Islam, but 27% of the population consists of resident foreigners.

Arabic is the official language.

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3.18 The Country & People of Somalia

3.18.1 The Country

Official Name Country

Populations 7,348,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 637,657 sq km (246,200 sq mi).

Location E Africa, directly south of the Arabian Peninsula across the

Gulf of Aden, also bordered by Ethiopia and Kenya (W),

Djibouti (NW), and the Indian Ocean (E).

Mogadishu is the capital; other large cities are Hargeisa, Berbera, and Kismayo. The

country is arid and semi-desert, with a barren coastal lowland rising to the great

interior plateau (generally 3,000 ft/910 m high), which stretches to the northern and

western highlands. Pastoralism is the dominant mode of life, and herding (both

nomadic and sedentary) of cattle, sheep, goats, and camels is the principal occupation.

Livestock, charcoal, bananas, hides, and fish make up the bulk of exports. The major

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cash crops are bananas, mangoes, and sugarcane; subsistence crops include sorghum

and corn. Processing of raw materials constitutes the bulk of the small industry. The

most valuable mineral resource is uranium; many other minerals are largely

unexploited. Petroleum deposits have been found, and a refinery was built in 1979.

However, much industry has been shut down due to civil strife.

3.18.2 The People

Muslim Arabs and Persians established trading posts along Somalia's coasts from the

7th to 10th centuries, and Somali warriors joined Muslim sultanates in their battles with

Christian Ethiopia in the 15th and 16th centuries. Britain, France, and Italy began to

dominate the region in the 19th century. Britain established a protectorate in 1887 and

concluded an agreement with France in 1888 defining their Somali possessions. Italy

created a small protectorate in 1889, added territory in the south, and in 1925

detached Jubaland from Kenya. Somali-speaking districts of Ethiopia were combined

with Italian Somaliland in 1936 to form Italian East Africa. Britain conquered Italian

Somaliland in World War II, and renamed Somalia, it gained internal autonomy in

1956 and independence and unification with British Somaliland in 1960. The presence

of some 350,000 Somalis in neighboring countries stirred demands for a Greater

Somalia, and fighting erupted with Ethiopia in 1964 over the Ogaden region, which

Somalia claims. In 1969 a coup led by Maj. Gen. Muhammad Siyad Barre resulted in

a socialist state. In 1977 the corrupt and repressive regime broke with the USSR over

Soviet aid to Ethiopia and received aid during the 1980s from the U.S. The Somali

army invaded the Ogaden region in 1977 but was defeated (1978) by Ethiopian

forces; skirmishes continued into the early 1980s. Barre was ousted (1991) by rebels

after intense and bloody fighting. The Somali National Movement gained control of

the north, the old British Somaliland, and proclaimed it the Somaliland Republic. The

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north remained relatively peaceful, although clan-based fighting has occurred. In

Mogadishu and most of the south the United Somali Congress achieved control, but

savage warfare erupted between rival sub-clans. Almost a quarter of the population

faced starvation because of the fighting. UN food supplies and peacekeepers arrived

in 1992 and were soon joined by troops from the U.S. and other nations to assure

distribution of food aid. A national cease-fire was signed, but no central government

was formed. Fighting again erupted (1993) in Mogadishu as the UN unsuccessfully

attempted to arrest Gen. Mohammed Farah Aidid. The U.S. and other nations

withdrew their troops in 1994 and the last UN forces were withdrawn in 1995. That

year some factions again proclaimed Aidid president, but the country remained

divided into spheres of influence with no central government. Aidid died from battle

wounds in 1996, and his faction chose his son, former U.S. Marine Hussein

Mohammed Farah, to succeed him. The country was devastated by floods in 1997,

and in the late 1990s was still without any organized, internationally recognized

government. Breakaway states were declared in Puntland (NE) and Jubaland (S) in

1998. In 2000 a South Somali conference in Djibouti established a national charter

and elected a 225-national assembly and a president, Abdikassim Salad Hassan. Salad

returned to Somalia in August, but several militias have refused to recognize the new

government (which has little real authority). Somaliland voted (2001) to remain

independent, and in 2002 warlords in SW Somalia formed another breakaway

government in Baidoa. A cease-fire accord (October, 2002) among all major factions

except Somaliland failed to halt all fighting, and subsequent talks failed to produce

significant results. Meanwhile, the mandate of the essentially symbolic interim

government expired in August, 2003, but the president withdrew from talks, refused

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to resign, and had the prime minister (who remained involved in the talks) removed

from office.

The Somali, who are the vast majority of the population, are divided into many clans

and sub-clans. There are Italian, Indian, and Pakistani minorities. Islam is the state

religion. Somali is the official language, but Arabic, English, and Italian are in wide

use.

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3.19 The Country & People of Sudan

3.19.1 The Country

Official Name Republic of the Sudan, republic.

Population 30,120,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 2,505,813 sq km (967,494 sq mi).

Location The largest country in Africa, bordered by Egypt (N), the Red

Sea (NE), Eritrea and Ethiopia (E), Kenya, Uganda, and the

Democratic Republic of the Congo (S), the Central African

Republic and Chad (W), and Libya (NW).

The principal cities are Khartoum (the capital) and Omdurman. The most notable

geographical feature is the Nile River, which, with its tributaries, flows through

eastern Sudan from south to north. Rainfall in Sudan diminishes from south to north;

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thus the southern part of the country is characterized by swampland and rain forest,

the central region by savanna and grassland, and the north by desert and semi-desert.

There are mountains in the northeast, south, center, and west; the highest point is

Kinyetti (10,456 ft/3,187 m), in the southeast. Agriculture, mostly of a subsistence

nature, dominates the economy. Long-staple cotton, the principal cash crop, is raised

in the irrigated Al Gezira region. Other crops include sesame, sorghum, millet,

peanuts, dates, and sugarcane. Cotton, sesame, gum arabic (much of the world's

production), livestock, and peanuts are exported. The small mining industry extracts

chromites, copper and manganese ores, gypsum, and gold. Industry is largely devoted

to the processing of agricultural products.

3.19.2 The People

Northeast Sudan, called Nubia in ancient times, was colonized by Egypt about 2000

B.C. and was ruled by the Cush kingdom from the 8th century B.C. to the 4th century

A.D. Most of Nubia was converted to Coptic Christianity in the 6th century, but by the

15th century, Islam prevailed. In 1821 the north was conquered by Egypt, but a revolt

by the nationalist Mahdi in 1881 forced an Egyptian withdrawal. In the 1890s an

Anglo-Egyptian force under Herbert Kitchener destroyed the theocratic Mahdist state,

and in 1899 most of Sudan came under the joint rule of Egypt and Britain (with

Britain exercising actual control). Independence was achieved in 1956. In 1955 the

animist southerners, fearing that the new nation would be dominated by the Muslim

north, began a civil war that lasted 17 years. In 1972 Pres. Muhammad Gaafar Al-

Nimeiry ended the war by granting the south a measure of autonomy. However, his

imposition of Islamic law on the entire country in 1983, reopened the conflict, and

close to 2 million people has died since, many from starvation. Nimeiry was deposed

by a military coup in 1986. A short-lived civilian government was overthrown in 1989

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by Lt. Gen. Omar Hassan al-Bashir; he officially became president in 1993 and was

elected to the post in 1996. Bashir's government reinstituted Islamic law, banned

opposition parties, and jailed dissidents. Throughout the 1990s the army mounted

offensives against the rebels in Southern Sudan; several cease-fires were announced

to allow the distribution of food to famine victims, but they did not hold. In 1998 U.S.

missiles destroyed a pharmaceutical plant in Khartoum that was suspected of

manufacturing chemical weapon compounds to be used in terrorist activities, but

international investigators were unable to find evidence to support the charges. In late

1999 a power struggle developed between Bashir and the speaker of the parliament,

Hassan al-Turabi. Bashir dissolved parliament and in 2000 also secured his control of

the ruling National Congress Party. In December, 2000 he was reelected president,

and his party swept the parliamentary elections; the opposition boycotted the vote.

Turabi was put under house arrest in February, 2001 after signing an agreement with

the rebels calling for peaceful resistance to Bashir's government. The government and

rebels agreed in July 2002 to a framework for peace that called for autonomy for the

south and a referendum on independence after six years, and a truce was signed in

October. Despite some cease-fire violations, talks continued in 2003. The Darfur

rebels subsequently agreed to form alliance with the Beja rebels in NE Sudan (around

Kasala) if they were not included in any settlement with the government; the Beja

group had expected to be part of the negotiations with the southern rebels.

The population is divided into three main groups: northerners, who are Muslim and

speak Arabic (the official language); westerners, largely Muslim and originally (20th

century) from W Africa; and southerners, who follow traditional beliefs mostly and

speak Nilotic languages. There is a Christian minority in the south.

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3.20 The Country & People of Syria

3.20.1 The Country

Official Name Syrian Arab Republic, republic.

Population 15,452,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 185,100 sq km (71,467 sq mi).

Location SW Asia, bordered by Israel, Lebanon, and the Mediterranean

Sea (W), Turkey (N), Iraq (E), and Jordan (S).

Principal cities include Damascus (the capital) and Aleppo. Most of Syria is occupied

by the Syrian Desert, which is crossed by the Euphrates River. In the west are the

Anti-Lebanon Mountains, including Mount Hermon (9,232 ft/2,814 m), Syria's

highest point; in the southwest the fertile plain of Hawran extends from the Jabal al-

Duruz Mountains. to the Sea of Galilee. Major crops include wheat, fruit and

vegetables, barley, sugar beets, cotton, and tobacco; poultry, cattle, and sheep are

raised. The state plays a major role in the economy, and a large-scale industrialization

program begun in the early 1960s has diversified the formerly agricultural economy.

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Petroleum production provides the leading export. Refined petroleum, textiles,

processed foods, chemicals, and precision-engineered products are the chief

manufactures. The Euphrates Dam supplies most of the nation's electric power.

3.20.2 The People

Situated on trade and military routes between the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia,

Syria (which historically included all of modern Syria and Lebanon, and parts of

Israel, Jordan, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia) has always been an object of foreign conquest.

Settled (2100 B.C.) by the Amorites, a Semitic people from the Arabian Peninsula, it

fell to the Hittites (15th–13th century B.C.), the Assyrians and Babylonians (11th–6th

century B.C.), the Persians (6th–4th century B.C.), and the Greeks (333 B.C.). Syria

was Hellenized by the Seleucids and had fallen to Rome by 63 B.C. After a period of

Byzantine rule (5th–7th century A.D.), Syria was conquered (633–40) by Muslim

Arabs. Most Syrians converted to Islam, and Damascus, as the usual capital of the

Umayyad caliph (661–750), became the center of the Islamic world. The area was

later ruled by the Seljuk Turks, the Mongols, Saladin, and the Mamluks. Christians

also came to Syria on the Crusades (11th–14th centuries). It was part of the Ottoman

Empire from 1516 until the end of World War I, and in 1920 France received a

League of Nations mandate over the Levant States (roughly modern Syria and

Lebanon). During World War II Free French forces granted (1944) independence to

Syria, but French troops did not leave until 1946. Syria joined with Egypt in the

United Arab Republic in 1958, but withdrew in 1961. Independent Syria has been

characterized by economic growth, political instability, and resentment toward Israel.

In 1981 Israel exacerbated the situation by occupying the Golan Heights, captured

from Syria in the Six-Day War (1967). Syrian troops entered Lebanon in 1976,

ostensibly to quell civil strife, and they continue to maintain a presence in that

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country. During the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Syria suffered severe losses in

combat with Israeli forces. The ruling Ba'ath party, which came to power in a 1963

coup, maintains a policy of socialism and Arab nationalism. In the 1980s Syria

experienced internal unrest, moved closer to the USSR. By 1990, however, the

country was trying to improve relations with Western nations. In 1991 Syria

contributed 20,000 soldiers to the international coalition forces in the Gulf War and in

the same year it participated in initial peace talks with Israel. Although talks broke off

in 1996, Syria appeared more willing to reopen negotiations following the installation

of a Labor government in Israel in 1999. Talks resumed in December, 1999, but after

secret details concerning Syrian concessions were published (January, 2000) in Israel,

Syria took a harder line and talks stalled. After Assad died suddenly in June, 2000, his

son, Bashar Al-Assad, who had been groomed to succeed his father since 1994,

became president. The son was regarded as an advocate of a free-market economy and

political change, but movement toward both has proceeded slowly and has at times

been reversed or hindered. A new cabinet with a mandate to push reforms forward

was appointed in September, 2003. In October, Israel struck at what it called a

terrorist training base in Syria in retaliation for suicide-bombing attacks in Israel; it

was the first Israeli strike against Syrian territory in 20 years.

Most Syrians are Arabic-speaking Muslims, mainly Sunnite with significant Alawite

and Druze minorities; there are also Kurds, Armenians, and Circassians. About 10%

of the people are Christian, mainly Orthodox. Arabic is the official language.

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3.21 The Country & People of Tunisia

3.21.1 The Country

Official Name Republic of Tunisia, republic.

Populations 8,880,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 164,150 sq km (63,378 sq mi).

Location NW Africa, bordered by Algeria (W), the Mediterranean Sea

(N and E), and Libya (SE).

Tunis is the capital. The Atlas Mountains in the north form a dry plateau that merges

with fertile plains near the coast; in the south, below the Chott Djerid and other salt

lakes, stretches the Sahara desert. The irregular coastline has several fine harbors.

Agriculture, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing are all important to the

economy. Wheat, barley, grapes, olives, sugar beets, citrus fruits, and dates are the

leading crops, and petroleum and phosphates are the principal minerals. Manufactured

goods include textiles, steel, and processed food.

3.21.2 The People

Settled in the 12th century, B.C. by Phoenicians, Tunisia became (6th century B.C.) the

center of the powerful city-state of Carthage, which was destroyed by Rome in 146

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B.C. Taken by the Vandals (5th century A.D.) and the Byzantines (6th century), the

Arabs conquered Tunisia in the 7th century, and the Berber population was converted

to Islam. The area came under a succession of Muslim rulers, reaching its peak under

the Berber Hafsid dynasty (1230–1574). In the late 16th century, Tunisia was seized

by the Ottoman Turks, and as one of the Barbary States it became a stronghold of

pirates, on whom the treasury depended for several centuries. European intervention

began in the 19th century, and in 1881 Tunisia became a French protectorate.

Nationalist agitation, which first surfaced in the 1920s, became intense after World

War II, and independence was achieved in 1956. In 1957 the country became a

republic, with Habib Bourguiba as president. Under Bourguiba, who was elected

president-for-life in 1975, Tunisia was a moderate Arab state, following a generally

pro-Western foreign policy; support for a negotiated settlement with Israel strained

the country's relations with its Arab neighbors, however. Domestically, Bourguiba

emphasized modernization and planned economic growth. In 1981 he authorized the

legal formation of opposition political parties, indicating a possible shift in the

direction of liberal democracy. In 1987 Bourguiba was deposed, on grounds of

senility, by Gen. Zine Al-Abidine Ben Ali. Ben Ali promised continued democratic

reform, but he has ruled in an increasingly autocratic fashion and sought to crush

Islamic-fundamentalist opposition. Under his regime the economy has seen significant

growth as it has moved away from state control. In recent years relations with Libya

have improved, and Tunisia joined with its North African neighbors in forming

(1989) the Arab Maghreb Union. Ben Ali was reelected unopposed in 1994 and

against token opposition candidates in 1999 and again in 2004.

The population is largely Berber and Arab, and Islam is the dominant religion. Arabic

is the official language, although French is widely spoken.

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3.22 The Country & People of United Arab Emirates

3.22.1 The Country

Official Name Federation of Emirates.

Populations 2,925,000 (estimate 1995)

Area 77,700 sq km (30,000 sq mi).

Location SW Asia, on the E Arabian Peninsula, bordered by the Gulf (N),

the Gulf of Oman (E), Oman (S), Saudi Arabia (S, W), and Qatar

(NW).

It comprises the emirates (in fact, sheikhdoms) of Abu Dhabi (with 80% of the area),

Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Qaiwain. The city of

Abu Dhabi is the capital. The land is largely hot, dry desert; in the east is a portion of

Mountains. Oil, first exploited in the 1960s, is critical to the economy; oil exports

rank among the world's largest, and oil revenues have made the per capita income one

of the world's highest. There are also rich natural-gas deposits, but banking and

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financial services, regional corporate headquarters, and tourism are increasingly

important. Fishing and pearling are traditional occupations.

3.22.2 The People

Formerly known as the Trucial States, Trucial Coast, or Trucial Oman, the seven

constituent emirates were bound to Great Britain by truce (1820) and agreement

(1892). After World War II Britain granted autonomy to the emirates, and in 1971 the

independent federation was formed; neighboring Qatar and Bahrain, which originally

were to be part of the federation, opted for separate statehood. Originally governed by

a provisional constitution, the federation went through a period of severe internal

tensions in the late 1970s and 1980s, with rivalry between Abu Dhabi and Dubai

hampering closer cooperation. The United Arab Emirates participated with the

international coalition against Iraq during the Gulf War (1991) and since then has

expanded its international contacts and diplomatic relations. The federation's

constitution was made permanent in 1996. A dispute erupted with Saudi Arabia in

1999 over relations with Iran, a traditional enemy; while Saudi Arabia appeared

willing to seek improved ties, the emirates still regarded Iran as a foe.

The indigenous population, Sunni Muslim Arabs, is outnumbered by foreign-born

workers, mostly from Asia, originally attracted by the petroleum boom. The official

language is Arabic, but Farsi and English are widely used. Overall governmental

authority is invested in the Supreme Council, which consists of the seven sheikhs; a

majority of five (including both Abu Dhabi and Dubai) must agree to any action.

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3.23 The Country & People of Yemen

3.23.1 The Country

Official Name Republic of Yemen, republic.

Populations 14,728,000 estimate 1995

Area 536,000 sq km (207,000 sq mi).

Location SW Asia, on the S Arabian peninsula, bordered by Saudi

Arabia (N), Oman (E), the Gulf of Aden (S), and the Red Sea

(W).

Formed in 1990 by the union of the Yemen Arab Republic (Yemen or Northern

Yemen), and People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (Southern Yemen). The capital

is Sana; the port of Aden is the commercial capital. A narrow coastal plain rises to

interior highlands and the Rub al Khali desert. The country includes several islands,

e.g., Perim and Socotra. Most of the population is engaged in growing grains,

vegetables, fruits, cotton, coffee, and khat (a stimulant-containing shrub) and raising

sheep, goats, and camels. Oil has been produced since the late 1980s, and imported oil

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is also processed into petroleum products for export. Salt is the only other

commercially exploitable mineral. Manufacturing, largely based on agricultural

products, provides little revenue. Foreign aid and remittances from Yemenis working

abroad are important to the economy.

3.23.2 The People

Once part of the ancient Sabaean kingdom (750 B.C.;–115 B.C.), Yemen was later

ruled by the Himyarites, Romans, Ethiopians, and Persians. It was conquered by

Muslim Arabs in the 7th century A.D.; and in the 16th century, it became part of the

Ottoman Empire. The northwestern portion bordering on the Red Sea became (1918)

an independent kingdom (known as Yemen or Northern Yemen) ruled by the Rassite

dynasty, imams of the Zaidi Shiite sect of Islam. In 1962 an army coup led to the

proclamation of a republic. Civil war followed, with Egypt supporting the republicans

and Saudi Arabia and Jordan backing the royalists; it ended in 1970 with a republic in

place. The southern portion bordering on the Gulf of Aden was penetrated in the 19th

century by the British, who conquered Aden in 1839 and between 1886 and 1914

signed a number of protectorate treaties with local rulers. Aden was made a crown

colony in 1935, and the area to its east became the Aden Protectorate in 1937. In the

1960s, nationalist groups demanding independence began a campaign against the

British, and independence was granted to Southern Yemen in 1967. The National

Liberation Front gained control of the government and established a Marxist regime

in 1971. Unity agreements between the two Yemens in 1971 and 1981 were not

implemented because of recurrent warfare, but a merger negotiated in 1989 resulted in

formal unification in 1990. Ali Abdullah Saleh of Northern Yemen became president.

By 1993, however, relations between the north and south had grown tense, and

fighting between army units in 1994 erupted into a nine-week civil war in which

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northern forces were victorious. Yemen clashed with Eritrea over control of the

Hanish Islands in the Red Sea in 1995; the Hague Tribunal awarded the islands to

Yemen in 1998. In 1999, in Yemen's first direct presidential election, Saleh was

returned to office. A border treaty ending disputes with Saudi Arabia that dated to the

1930s was signed in 2000, and early in 2001 the two nations began implementing the

pact.

Yemen is the second most populous nation on the Arabian Peninsula, after Saudi

Arabia. The great majority of the inhabitants are Arabs, about two thirds of whom are

Sunni Muslims; the rest are Shiite Muslims. Arabic is the official language.

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4.1 Arab Glory Days

The Arab world of the seventh to the thirteenth centuries was a great cosmopolitan

civilization. It was an enormous unifying enterprise, one which joined the peoples of

Spain and North Africa in the west with the peoples of the ancient lands of Egypt,

Syria and Mesopotamia in the east.

It was the rapid expansion of Islam that initially brought this empire together.

Alliances were made, trade routes were opened, lands and peoples were welded into a

new force. Islam provided the dynamism, but it was the Arabic language, which

provided the bond that held it together. Islam spread to lands more distant than North

Africa and the Fertile Crescent, but it was in this area that a common Arab culture

emerged.

To be an Arab, then as now, was not to come from a particular race or lineage. To be

an Arab meant to be from the Arabic-speaking world – a world of common traditions,

customs and value – shaped by a single and unifying language.

The Arab civilization brought together Muslims, Christians and Jews. It unified

Arabians, Africans, Berbers, Egyptians, and the descendants of the Phoenicians,

Canaanites, and many other people. This great “melting pot” was not without

tensions, to be sure, but it was precisely the tension of this mixing and meeting of

peoples that produced the vibrant and dynamic new civilization.

At its peak the Arab empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean across North Africa

and the Middle East to central Asia. A great Arab civilization emerged in which

education, literature, philosophy; medicine, mathematics, and science were highly

developed.

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In Europe the Arab conquests were particularly important in Sicily, from the 9th to late

11th centuries, and in Spain, in the civilization of the Moors.

There were two great Islamic dynasties of Arab origin, the Umayyads12 (661-750),

centered in Damascus, and the Abbasids13 (750-1258), whose capital was Baghdad.

Most Umayyad rulers insisted on Arab primacy over non-Arab converts to Islam,

while the Abbasid caliphs accepted the principle of Arab and non-Arab equality as

Muslims. At its height in the 8th and 9th centuries, the Abbasid caliphate was

extraordinarily wealthy, dominating trade routes between Asia and Europe. Islamic

civilization flourished during the Abbasid period even though the political unity of the

caliphate often shattered into rival dynasties. Greek philosophy was translated into

Arabic and contributed to the expansion of Arab-Persian Islamic scholarship. Islamic

treatises on medicine, philosophy, and science, including Arabic translations of Plato

and Aristotle, greatly influenced Christian thinkers in Europe in the 12th century by

way of Muslim Spain.

The most important of these are the following three, the last two of which are

considered to be the Arab golden age. These are: The Omayad State with its capital

city in Damascus (661-750); the Abbasid State with its capital city in Baghdad (750-

1258); and Arab Andalusia (711-1492) in the European Iberian Peninsula of Spain

and Portugal (a continuation of the Omayad State) with its capital city first in Cordoba

and later in Granada. For centuries Arab Andalusia represented Europe's main cultural

center. Although the Arab Abbasid State of the east and Arab Andalusia of the west

existed at the same time, they were not united because of the rivalry between their

Arab leaders.

12 See Appendix (A) for further information.13 See Appendix (A) for further information.

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Arab civilization reached its golden age during the Abbasid era (750-1258). Baghdad,

the seat of the powerful Abbasid State, was the proud Arab capital city and the

world's major center for the arts and sciences. Abbasid's Baghdad was not only the

largest city in the world in size, about100 square kilometers, but was also the world's

most crowded city, containing about 2 million people. During its heyday, Baghdad

was the center of the richest and most powerful country in the entire world. It

contained two of the world's oldest and greatest universities, the Nizamiyah and the

Mustansiriyah.

Baghdad was also the seat of the legendary, the House of Wisdom (Bait al-Hikmah),

the most widely-respected "think tank" and the major research center in all of the vast

Abbasid Empire. From it came various important translations of Greek and other

earlier non-Arab scientific manuscripts; major breakthroughs in many scientific and

artistic fields; and different discoveries in various scientific fields that enriched Arab

civilization and in turn benefited the West and the rest of the world.

Moreover, Baghdad had many banks, where the world's first checking accounts were

established, with various branches all over the world even as far as China; an

enormous free general public hospital; a thousand physicians; many pharmacies; a

large number of schools and higher institutions of learning; a very well-organized

postal service; countless libraries and bookstores; an excellent water-supply system; a

comprehensive sewage system; and a great paper mill. Even though paper was

invented in China, it was the Arabs who introduced it to the West. The Europeans,

who up to the12th century used only parchment for writing, learned for the first time

the art of manufacturing paper from straw after the Crusaders invaded the Arab world

[11].

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The Arabs Abbasid began almost 8 centuries of Arab occupation and civilization in

Europe's most southwestern part. To be exact, the Arabs stayed in Europe 781 years

during which they introduced to the West a wonderful civilization; religious

tolerance; racial harmony; public baths; and the novel idea of cleanliness expressed in

public and personal hygiene by washing the human body with water.

As early as the10th century, the Arab Andalusian capital, Cordoba, was a magnificent

metropolitan center of progress. The pride of the Arabs in Europe, Cordoba had a half

million people living in it at a time when no European city could claim a population

of even10, 000. Indeed, Arab Cordoba was the largest and most cultured city in all of

Europe. Its jewelry, leather work, woven silk and elaborate brocades were highly

prized throughout the world. Cordoba's Arab women copyists excelled far better than

most European Christian monks in the production of religious works. A traveling

German nun by the name of Hrosvitha, who died in1002, was highly impressed by

Arab Cordoba. She referred to it as "the jewel of the world". She wrote: "In the

western parts of the globe ... there shone forth a fair ornament ... a city well

cultured ... rich and known by the famous name of Cordoba, illustrious because of its

charms and also renowned for all resources, especially abounding in the seven

streams of knowledge, and ever famous for continual victories" [11].

After the fall of Cordoba to the Spanish Christians, the Arabs moved their capital city

to Granada - in the south of the Iberian Peninsula - which also became famous as an

Arab center of arts and learning. Arab Granada was also renowned for its wealth and

trade especially in silk. To immortalize Grenada, its Andalusian Arab rulers built the

magnificent Red Palace (Alhambra Palace). This unique palace has two splendid

courts, the Court of the Lions and the Court of the Myrtles, considered to be the most

magnificent and glorious of all Arab monuments in Spain. The Alhambra Palace,

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which was also an Arab fortress, took about 100 years to build and is today a major

tourist attraction attesting to the beauty and genius of Arab architecture. In addition to

Cordoba and Granada, Seville and Toledo also served as the greatest houses of Arab

Andalusian knowledge. In fact, Toledo was the main center of scientific translation

from Arabic to Latin.

The power of the Arab Abbasid family declined from the 10th century onward due to

internal political and religious rivalries and victories by Christian European Crusaders

seeking to recapture territory lost to Islam. The Mongol invasion of the 13th century

led to the destruction of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258 and opened the way for the

eventual rise of a great Turkish Muslim empire known as the Ottoman Empire. The

Ottomans took Constantinople (Istanbul) from the Byzantines in 1453 and had taken

control of the Arab Middle East and most of North Africa by the end of the 16th

century. Arabs remained subjects of the Ottoman Turks for over 300 years--into the

20th century.

4.2 The Arabs Contributions to Civilizations

The years between the seventh and thirteenth centuries mark a period in history when

culture and learning flourished in North Africa, Asia, Southern Europe, and the

Middle East. When one sets aside the vagaries of politics, intrigue, mistrust, and

suspicion which have plagues Man’s history, one finds that the Arab world continue

to spin out the thread of earliest recorded civilization. It enhanced and developed the

arts and sciences and preserved the libraries of the early centuries of the Greek,

Roman, and Byzantine cultures. Indeed, during the Dark Ages of Europe, much

learning was preserved for the world through the Arab libraries in the universities of

Morocco (Fez), Mali (Timbuktu) and Egypt (al-Azhar). From this period of Arab

influence, new words such as orange, sugar, coffee, sofa, satin, and algebra filtered

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into the languages of Europe and eventually into English14. New discoveries were

made in the sciences and arts which improved the life and condition of Man, and

thousands of Arab contributions have become an integral part of human civilization

[12]. The following are few examples of the fields that Arabs have aced in;

4.2.1 Mathematics

In mathematics, the Arab zero (sifr), provided new solutions for complicated

mathematical problems. The Arabic numeral – an improvement on the original Hindu

concept – and the Arab decimal system facilitated the course of science. The Arabs

invented and developed algebra and made great strides in trigonometry. Al-

Khwarizmi, credited with the founding of algebra, was inspired by the need to find a

more accurate and comprehensive method of ensuring precise land divisions so that

the Qu'ran could be carefully obeyed in the laws of inheritance. The writings of

Leonardo de Vinci, Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa, and Master Jacob of Florence show

the Arab influence on mathematical studies in European universities. The reformation

of the calendar, with a margin of error of only one day in five thousand years, was

also a contribution of Arab intellect.

4.2.2 Astronomy

Like algebra, the astrolabe was improved with religion in mind. It was used to chart

the precise time of sunrises and sunsets, and to determine the period for fasting during

the month of Ramadan, Arab astronomers of the Middle Ages compiles astronomical

charts and tables in observatories such as those at Palmyra and Maragha. Gradually,

they were able to determine the length of a degree, to establish longitude and latitude,

and to investigate the relative speeds of sound and light. Al-Biruni, considered one of

the greatest scientists of all time, discussed the possibility of the earth’s rotation on its

own axis – a theory proven by Galileo six centuries later. Arab astronomers such as

14 For further words please see Appendix (C).

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Al-Fezari, Al-Farghani, and al-Zarqali added to the works of Ptolemy and the classic

pioneers in the development of the magnetic compass and the charting of the zodiac.

Distinguished astronomers from all over the world gathered to work at Maragha in the

thirteenth century.

4.2.3 Medicine

In the field of medicine, the Arabs improved upon the healing arts of ancient

Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Al-Razi, a medical encyclopedist of the ninth century, was an authority on contagion.

Among his many volumes of medical surveys, perhaps the most famous is the Kitab

al-Mansuri. It was used in Europe until the sixteenth century. Al-Razi was the first to

diagnose smallpox and measles, to associate these diseases and others with human

contamination and contagion, to introduce such remedies as mercurial ointment, and

to use animal gut for sutures.

The famous scientist-philosopher known in Europe as Avicenna was Ibn Sina, an

Arab. He was the greatest writer of medicine in the Middle Ages, and his Canon was

required reading throughout Europe until the seventeenth century. Avicenna did

pioneer work in mental health, and was a forerunner of today’s psychotherapists. He

believed that some illnesses were psychosomatic, and he sometimes led patients back

to a recollection of an incident buried in the subconscious in order to explain the

present ailment.

In the fourteenth Century, when the Great Plague ravaged the world, Ibn Khatib and

Ibn Khatima of Granada recognized that it was spread by contagion. In his book,

Kitabu’l Maliki, al-Maglusi showed a rudimentary conception of the capillary system;

an Arab from Syria, Ibn al-Nafis, discovered the fundamental principles of pulmonary

circulation.

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Camphor, cloves, myrrh, syrups, juleps, and rosewater were stocked in Arab

pharmacies (sydaliyah) centuries ago. Herbal medicine was widely used in the Middle

East, and basil, oregano, thyme, fennel, anise, licorice, coriander, rosemary, nutmeg,

and cinnamon found their way through Arab pharmacies to European tables.

4.2.4 Architecture

As with astronomy and mathematics, the great purpose of early Arab architecture was

to glorify Islam. Architects devoted their skills primarily to the building of mosques

and mausoleums. They borrowed the horseshow arch from the Romans, developed it

into their own unique style, and made it an example for the architecture of Europe.

The Great Mosque of Damascus, built in the early eighth century, is a beautiful

demonstration of the use of the horseshoe arch. The mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo,

with its pointed arches, was the inspiration behind the building of many magnificent

cathedrals in Europe.

Arab cusp (tefoil) and ogee arches provided models for the Tudor arch such as those

used in the cathedrals of Wells in England and Chartres in France. The Muslin

minaret, itself inspired by the Greek lighthouse, became the campanile in Europe. One

of the most famous examples of this can be seen in the San Marcos Square in Venice.

Designs from the Islamic mosques of Jerusalem, Mecca, Tripoli, Cairo, Damascus,

and Constantinople were borrowed in the building of ribbed vaults in Europe. The

Arab use of (cubal) transitional supports under domes was incorporated into the

cathedrals and palaces of eleventh and twelfth century Palermo.

Arab styles were elegant and daring. Arabesque designs, calligraphy, and explosions

of color can be seen today in such structures as the Lion Court of the Alhambra Palace

in Granada, the Great Mosque of Cordoba, and many of the great medieval, religious

and civic buildings of Europe.

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While Westerners are more familiar with the influence of Arab architecture of the

Romance countries of Spain, Italy and France, they do not often remember that the

Arab empires reached into Eastern Europe and Asia as well. Startling remnants of a

once powerful conquest are particularly prevalent in Russia. The brilliant blue tiled

dome of the Mosque of Bibi Khanum, Timu’s (Tamerlane) favorite wife, catches the

visitor’s eye in Samarqand. Here, as well as in the complex of tombs called Shah-I-

Zinda (the Living Prince), much of the old beauty is being returned to its former

elegance through restoration.

4.2.5 Navigation and Geography

The world’s earliest navigational and geographical charts were developed by

Canaanites who, probably simultaneously with the Egyptians, discovered the Atlantic

Ocean. The medieval Arabs improved upon ancient navigational practices with the

development of the magnetic needle in the ninth century.

One of the most brilliant geographers of the medieval world was al-Idrisi, a twelfth

century scientist living in Sicily. He was commissioned by the Norman King, roger II,

to compile a world atlas, which contained seventy maps. Some of the areas were

therefore uncharted. Called Kitabal-Rujari (Roger’s book), Idrisi’s work was

considered the best geographical guide of its time.

Ibn Battuta, an Arab, must have been the hardiest traveler of his time. He was not a

professional geographer, but in his travels by horse, camel and sailboat, he covered

over seventy five thousand miles. His wanderings, over a period of decades at a time,

took him to Turkey, Bulgaria, Russia, Persia, and central Asia. He spent several years

in India, and from there was appointed ambassador to the emperor of China. After

China, he toured all of North Africa and many places in western Africa. Ibn Battuta’s

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book, Rihla (journey), is filled with information on the politics, social conditions, and

economics of the places he visited.

A twenty five year old Arab, captured by Italian pirates in 1520, has received much

attention in the West. He was Hassan al-Wazzan, who became a protégé of Pope Leo

X. Leo persuaded the young man to become a Christian, gave him his own name, and

later convinced him to write an account of his travels on the them almost unknown

African continent. Hassan became Leo Africanus and his book was translated into

several European languages. For nearly two hundred year, Leo Africanus was read as

the most authoritative source on Africa.

It should also be remembered that in the fifteenth century Vasco de Gamma,

exploring the east coast of Africa new Malindi, was guided by an Arab pilot who used

maps never before seen by Europeans. The pilot’s name was Ahmed ibn Majid.

4.2.6 Horticulture

The ancient Arabs loved the land, for in earth and water they saw the source of life

and the greatest of God’s gifts. They were pioneers in botany. In the twelfth century

an outstanding reference work, Al-Filahat by Ibn al-Awam, described more than five

hundred different plants and methods of grafting, soil conditioning, and curing of

diseased vines and trees.

The Arab contributions to food production are legion. They were able to graft a

single vine so that it would bear grapes in different colors, and their vineyards were

responsible for the future of wine industries of Europe. Peach, apricot, and loquat

trees were transplanted in southern Europe by Arab soldiers. The hardy olive was

encouraged to grow in the sandy soil of Greece, Spain, and Sicily. From India they

introduced the cultivation of sugar, and from Egypt they brought cotton to European

markets. “May there always be coffee at your house” was their expression, wishing

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prosperity and the joy of hospitality for their friends. Coffee (qahwah) was that which

gives strength and derivatives of that name are used today in almost every country of

the world. They also perfected the storage of soft fruits to be eaten fresh, throughout

the year.

Arab horticulture gave the world the fragrant flowers and herbs from which perfumes

were extracted. Their walled gardens were for the pleasure of the senses – a pine tree

standing green and aromatic in the heart of a garden scented with jasmine; a fountain

or artificial pool to delight the eye amidst lavender and laurel; a special rose garden

blooming in riotous color, the roots injected with saffron to produce yellow, and

indigo to produce blue; vines and trees injected with perfumes in the autumn flooding

the air with fragrance in the spring; a weeping willow dripping gracefully into the

middle of a clear lake; arbors and pergolas constructed where streams of water could

bubble through them, cooling the air and giving relief from the heat of the desert.

Mimosa and wild cherry lavished color against stonewalls, and cypress grew tall,

close and straight bordering alleyways to obliterate from view all that was not

pleasing.

Bulb flowers were already in a highly hybridized and cultivated state when the

Crusaders carried them home from Palestine to Western Europe toward the end of the

centuries of Arab power. Rice, Sesame, pepper, ginger, cloves, melons and shallots,

as well as dates, figs, oranges, lemons, and other citrus fruits, were introduced into

European cuisine via the Crusaders and the trade caravans of Eastern merchants.

The women of Europe borrowed from the cosmetics first prepared by the Egyptians,

Syrians, and Phoenicians. Some of these included lipsticks, nail polishes, eye shadow,

eye liner (kohl), perfumes and powders, hair dyes (henna), body lotions and oils, and

even wigs. A symbol of the vanity of the medieval ladies of European courts was the

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high peaked, pointed cap with its trailing veil of silk. This fashion of Jerusalem was

called the tontour, and noble ladies of both the East and Europe vied with each other

on the height of the tontour and the elegance of the fabrics used in the design of the

face-framing millinery.

Much of our contemporary jewelry is a result of inspiration from adornments of the

ancient and medieval Arabs, and the highly prized squash blossom design was once

on the uniform bottle worn by Spanish Conquistadors.

4.2.7 Other Sciences

Concerning Arab contributions to engineering, one can look to the water wheel,

cisterns, irrigation, water wells at fixed levels, and the water clock. In 860, the three

sons of Musa ibn Shakir published the Book on Artifices, which described a hundred

technical constructions. One of the earliest philosophers, Al-Kindi, wrote on specific

weight, tides, light reflection and optics.

Al-Haytham (known in Europe as Alhazen) wrote a book in the tenth century on

optics, Kitab Al Manazir. He explored optical illusions, the rainbow, and the camera

obscura (which led to the beginning of photographic instruments). He also made

discoveries in atmospheric refractions (mirages and comets, for example), studied the

eclipse, and laid the foundation for the later development of the microscope and the

telescope. Al-Haytham did not limit himself to one branch of the sciences, but like

many of the Arab scientists and thinkers, explored and made contributions to the

fields of physics, anatomy and mathematics.

4.2.8 Crafts

Because the ancient Arabs believed that the arts served God, they raised small scale

artistries to new levels of perfection. Glassware, ceramics, and textile weaves attest to

their imagination and special skills. They covered walls and objects with intricately

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detailed mosaics, tiles, carvings, and paintings. Syrian beakers and rock crystals were

in great demand in Renaissance Europe and the Azulejos. The iridescent luster pottery

from the Moorish kilns in Valencia also enjoyed great popularity. New glazing

techniques were developed, and the brilliant blues took on many names. (The Chinese

called them Muhammedan blues, and Dutch traders called them Chinese blues).

They were masters of silk weaving, and the Arab cape worn by Sicily's King Robert II

on his coronation is one of the best examples of this delicate art. Cotton muslin,

Damask linen and Shiraz wool became watchwords for quality in textiles in Europe.

One considers Moroccan leather to be of particularly fine quality. The Moroccan

tanners of the Middle Ages developed methods for tanning hides almost to the

softness of silk, and they used vegetable dyes that retained color indefinitely. These

leathers were used for book bindings, and the gold tooling and colored panels of the

Arab style are still being produced, particularly in Venice and Florence to the present

day.

The Arabs further developed the art of crucible steel forging. They hardened the steel,

polished and decorated it with etchings, and produced tempered Damascene swords.

Other works in metal included intricately cut brass chandeliers, ewers, salvers, jewel

cases inlaid with gold and silver, and, of course, the beautifully decorated astrolabe.

4.2.9 Language and Calligraphy

Muslims venerated the Arabic language. To Muslims, Arabic calligraphy itself

became an art form. It was the chief form of embellishment on all the mosques of the

Arab world, and the religious and public buildings of Palermo, Cordoba, Lisbon and

Malaga are resplendent with it.

The Arabic language is rich and pliant, and poetry, literature, and drama have left

their mark on both East and West. Among the earliest publications of the Arabs were

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the translations into Arabic of the Greek and Roman classics – the works of Aristotle,

Plato, Hippocrates, Ptolemy, Dioscorides and Galen. Some note that the poet Nizami’s

translations of the twelfth century romance, Crazy in Love of Layla (Majnun Layla),

may have been an inspiration for the later work, Romeo and Juliet. Ibn Tufail’s Alive,

Son of Awake (Hayy ibn Yaqdhan), considered by many to be the first real novel, and

was translated by Pocock into Latin in 1671 and by Simon Ockley into English in

1708. It bears many similarities to Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. A Thousand and One

Nights and Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat are among the best loved and most widely read

of Arab literature. The fascination with Arabic, following the Hellenistic period of

Louis XIV, is particularly evident in Shakespeare’s characterizations of the Moors

(Othello and the Price of Morocco), in Christopher Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great,

and in George Peel’s The Battle of Alcazar.

Besides influencing belles letters, the Arabs developed a system of historiography

called isnad. This procedure documents all reliable sources and it provides the

modern historian with accurate and comprehensive materials. Foremost among these

historiographers was Ibn Khaldun, of whose Book of Examples Arnold Toynbee

writes: “Ibn Khaldun, has conceived and formulated a philosophy of history which is

undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has ever yet been created by any mind

in any time.”

4.2.10 Music

The harp, lyre, zither, drum, tambourine, flute, oboe and reed instruments are today

either exactly as they were used from earliest Arab civilization or variations of the

Arabs’ early musical instruments. The guitar and mandolin are sisters to that plaintive,

pear-shaped stringed instrument, the oud.

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The bagpipe was first introduced into Europe by Crusaders returning from the wars in

Palestine. It quickly became identified with the British Isles. Once, the entertainment

of the lonely Arab shepherds, the bagpipe returned to Palestine with the British Army.

This lost musical art was relearned during the period of Sir John Glubb’s

reorganization and command of Jordan’s colorful Bedouin Corps.

Arab poetry was put to music the subtle delicacy of minor key sequences and rhythm.

The modes continue to influence our ballads and folk songs today. Extempore poetry

was perfected into musical expression, and Arab wedding and other occasions are still

celebrated with extempore versing and musical composition.

4.2.11 Philosophy

Arab philosophers effectively integrated faith and scientific fact, letting one exit

within the framework of the other. The Arab philosophers after Byzantium re-

discovered the classic philosophy of Aristotle, Plotinus, and Plato in attempting to

find answers to the fundamental questions concerning God’s creation of the universe,

the nature and destiny of the human soul, and the true existence of the seen as the

unseen.

Among the well-known philosophers of the medieval world were Al-Kindi, who

contributed to the work of Plato and Aristotle; Al-Farabi, who made a model of

Man’s community; Avicenna (Ibn Sina), who developed theories on form and matter

that were incorporated into medieval Christian Scholasticism; Ibn Khaldun, who

expounded the cycles of a state in his Introduction (Muqqadimah).

In discussing contributions to human civilizations of some of the medieval Arab

scientists, artists, educators, philosophers, poets and musicians, one must remember

that their thought was molded and shaped by many ancient cultures – Greek, Roman,

Chinese, Indian, Byzantine, Canaanite and Egyptian, for example. Arab culture, from

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its ancient beginnings to the present, has given us three great monotheistic religions:

Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In government and law, one refers to Hammurabi

(Babylonian), Ulpian and Papinian (Phoenicians). Perhaps the greatest contribution of

the Arabs to human civilization has been the phonetic alphabet [13].

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5.1 Arab and the West

OH, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet,

Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God’s great Judgment Seat;

But there is neither East nor West, Border, nor Breed, nor Birth,

When two strong men stand face to face,

tho’ they come from the ends of the earth [14].

The relation between the Western world and the Arab world has always been in

dispute. Frankly speaking, it is not clashes between two great civilizations, but the

unease is attributed mainly to religion, more then to a racial differences. To

understand this type of resentment between the West and the Arab world, it is

imperative to go back in history to find how this quarrel started.

The existence of Islam has always made the west profoundly uneasy. Islam was the

only major religion to be revealed after the rise of Christianity, and consequently it

was from the moment of the revelation of Islam in the seventh century A.D., viewed

by Christendom as a direct threat and challenge to itself. The threat of Islam to

Christianity was increased by the fact that Muslims regarded Islam as having

superseded Christianity. In Muslim eyes, Christianity was an earlier, and imperfect,

form of Islam. Muhammad was the last, the 'seal' of the prophets. Consequently, the

problem on how to deal with Islam was perhaps the most important problem that faces

Christendom [15].

The problem posed itself on two levels: the political and military, and the theological.

On the political and military level, Christendom had two possible responses open to it:

military counter-action (crusades); and more or less peaceful co-existence. On the

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theological level, Islam could be regarded as a Christian heresy, as a schism within

the ranks of Christians, or as a new religion.

Historically, by the end of the seventh century A.D., the Mediterranean had become a

Muslim lake, with Muslims controlling the whole southern shore of the Gibraltar. In

711, the Arabs seized Gibraltar and, within the next few years, overran the Iberian

Peninsula and crossed the Pyrenees. The defeat of the Arab by Charles Martel at the

battle of Poitiers in 732, though only a minor reverse for the Arabs, in fact marked the

extreme limit of Muslim penetration into Europe for some six centuries. The west

viewed Arabs as only one of the large number of enemies threatening it at that time.

Initially, therefore the political and military reaction of the West was limited and ad

hoc.

On the theological and religion level, the reaction of the West was strong, sustained

and, almost without exception, hostile. Hostility was based on fear, which had its

rooted in ignorance. Christendom feared Islam, and therefore misrepresented it. They

were content to represent Islam as a religion of violence, as a form of idolatry, as a

religion which pandered to man's sexual appetites in this world and the hereafter.

They remained almost totally ignorant of Islam's real beliefs and doctrines.

On the other hand Muslims were equally ignorant of the Western world, but for quite

different reasons. In the Muslim view, since the revelation of God to His Prophet

Muhammad, supplemented and made perfect all previous revelations, it followed that

Islamic civilization was superior to Christian civilization. The Islamic world,

stretching from Spain across North Africa to the Middle East15, was the center of the

civilized world at that time. Since the West was stagnating during the dark Ages,

While Islam was at its peak, Muslims saw no reason to modify this view.

15 See Appendix (A) for further reading.

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After the battle of Poitiers, Islam and Christendom settled down to three and a half

centuries of co-existence; at best, this co-existence was on a cold war basis and, from

time to time, hostilities were renewed. During the ninth century, the Arabs gradually

conquered Sicily, and brought the islands of Corsica and Sardinia under Muslim rule.

The region in which there was the greatest degree of contact and interaction between

the two civilizations was Spain. There, a rich and flourishing culture developed – in

many ways a unique culture, to which Arabs, Christians and Jews each made their

distinctive contribution. The fusion of Arab-Islamic architectural styles produced such

original masterpiece as the Great Mosque at Cordoba, the Alcazar at Seville, and the

Alhambra at Granada. A prosperous trade grew up between Spain and North Africa,

Constantinople and the eastern Mediterranean.

This fascinating experiment in co-existence was not permitted to endure. Christendom

had not reconciled itself to a permanent Muslim presence in Europe, especially as this

presence could not be ignored, for Islam, far from withering away, had produced great

philosophers and scientists. In particular, the Muslim presence could not be ignored

on the level of religion. Not only had Muslims resisted conversion to Christianity, but

many Christians and Jews had become converts to Islam, and had learnt Arabic.

In the eye of Christian church, such a situation could not be allowed to continue, and,

soon after 1000 A.D., Christendom abandoned the idea of co-existence with Islam and

resorted to military counter-action. In 1095 the first Crusade was launched, when

Pope Urban II declared a holy war against Islam. Christendom carried its counter-

attack into the heartlands of Islam in the Middle East.

In October 1187 A.D., the great Muslim leader, Saladin, reoccupied Jerusalem and

recaptured many of the Crusader strongholds. Acre was recaptured by Richard the

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Lionheart on the Third Crusade, and this followed by a treaty with Saladin which

allowed Christian pilgrims safe-conduct to visit Jerusalem.

In terms of cultural interaction, the results of the Crusades are meager. During the

forty years or so the Crusader and Muslim forces were roughly in equilibrium, the

Crusaders learned to live on friendly terms with the local Muslim population, but

learned little from them, and developed little of their own which could influence the

West.

The results of the Crusaders are to be seen rather in the stimulation of trade and

commerce between Europe and the Middle East, and in the impetus given to various

social and political changes in Europe. A by-product of this greatly increased trade

between East and the West was the development of banking and credit, to serve the

needs of pilgrims and knight traveling to the Middle East.

The military strength of the Ottoman Empire16 obliged the West to resign itself to

another period of co-existence with the Arabs. The West ceasing for the moment to

see the Islamic world as the abode of unimaginable evil and vices, put in its place the

concept of the 'exotic East', the home of the rare and bizarre, of fabulous riches and

voluptuous delight. There was increased study of the Arabic language. More people,

especially merchants, traveled to the Middle East, but their accounts of life there were

not always reliable, and many merely fed the need of a public avid for exotica.

This improvement in the relations between Christendom and Islam was not to last.

The advent of the nineteenth century marked the rise of imperialism in the West. As

the West lost its fear of the Ottoman Empire, it also lost much of its temporary respect

for Muslims and for Islamic civilization.

The Western imperialist powers attempted to conceal their economic and political

objectives under a veneer of altruism. As they saw it, there were people in Asia in

16 See Appendix (A) for further reading.

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need of good government and, in the West, there were people who not only knew how

to govern but were eager to confer the benefits of good government on others.

England therefore, shouldered 'the white man's burden', and France devoted itself to

its 'mission civilization'. The technological superiority of the West over the East,

which was the product of the Industrial Revolution brought with it unshakable belief

in the superiority of Western civilization over Islamic civilization. The West wanted

to demonstrate to Muslims not only their technological superiority but the superiority

of Christendom. So with the government officials went the missionaries, and the

nineteenth century saw a fusing of the colonialist/imperialist attitude toward the

Muslim countries with Christian attitude toward Islamic faith.

The Islamic reaction to this double onslaught by the armies and administrators of

Western powers and by Christian missionaries was both religious and nationalist.

Colonial people did not accept the West's belief in its superior moral culture or its

superior religion, but believed rather that the West owed its dominance to the accident

of prior industrialization. At all events, rising nationalism in the Islamic world meant

that, by the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, the

imperial power were faced with simple alternative of relinquishing their colonies or

holding on to them by force.

For fourteen centuries, Christendom and Islam have confronted each other as 'two

incompatible and largely hostile systems of thought, morals, and beliefs'. In

November, 1947 the United Nations divided Palestine, then under British mandate,

into Jewish and Arab states. Six months later the British withdrew, and on May 14,

1948, the state of Israel was proclaimed. Most Arabs view the new state as another

type of Crusader war but under different name. Arabs are seeing that history is

repeating itself, not by the Crusader this time, but by the Jews supported by the

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Christendom either in Europe or in North America. Muslims see the West as the real

threat to Islamic stability. Most see Israel as an agent of the West in the Middle East.

Even secular Arabs who admire the West and fear reintroduction of a Muslim

theocracy nevertheless often feel angered at what they perceive as Western and

especially American ignorance of and unconcern for Arab concerns.

So until the Israeli-Arab conflict is resolved, the unease in both worlds will remain,

and with waging of the war on terror, most Muslims believe that the war is on Islam

as a faith rather then on outlawed gangs that are using the Islam as a cover.

5.2 Arabs Relations with Indian Subcontinent, Far East & Africa

Everyone is aware of the “international,” “cosmopolitan,” “trans-cultural” nature of

Islam, and aware, too, that it has been thus virtually since its beginnings. A generation

after the Prophet’s death it had reached westward through Egypt to Berber North

Africa, eastward through Asia Minor toward Persia and India, after which it moved on

to the Malay world in the one direction and to Black Africa on the other. But through

all this cultural filtering—through Turkish mysticism, through Persian ecclesiasticism,

through Mughal state formation—as intense and as various as any body of thought

and belief has ever passed, the fact that its mid-eastern, Arabic character and image,

however overlaid, reinterpreted, and further developed, has persisted tends to go

unrewarded. It is more sensed than specifically inquired into, more taken for granted

than examined [16].

Religion in general has been one of the major mechanisms by means of which

particular local cultures have projected themselves onto a larger world screen

throughout the course of history. Christianity, especially under the imperialist,

evangelizing impulse that gripped it after the Reformation, brought European views

and values to various parts of Asia and Africa, as well as to the New World.

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Buddhism, the movable form of Indiacism, carried aspects of South Asian sensibility

over into Southeast Asia, China, and even into Japan. But Islam has been particularly

effective in injecting the tone and temper of the Near East into distant contexts, as

well as, what is even more important, in maintaining and reinforcing them once they

were injected.

The focus on Mecca and Medina as the sacred center of Dar al-Islam and the growing

importance, as communications improved over the centuries, of the hajj; the

maintenance of classical Arabic in Arabic script as the sole, untranslatable language

of doctrine, as well as of law, prayer, poetry, ornament, and history; the strongly

literary, iconoclastic, anti-ritualizing rhetorical bent; the scriptualist revitalizations of

the first half of the last century— all these rigorist, not to say purist, institutions and

movements have served to keep the traditions of Arabic culture, and a good deal of its

feel as well, alive within even the most seemingly uncongenial contexts: African

ceremonialism, South Asian hierarchism, Southeast Asian syncretism.

The Arabs had commercial relations with southern India long before Islam, and their

commerce by sea continued -- along with missionary activity -- after the appearance

of the Prophet Muhammad. The Muslim Arabs first settled on the Malabar Coast

about fifty years after the Hijrah, toward the end of the seventh century A.D., at a

time when South India was agitated by religious conflicts and political instability.

Islam, with its simplicity of faith and clarity of doctrine, made a tremendous

impression on the Hindu mind, and within the first twenty-five years many of the

people, including the King of Malabar, had accepted the new religion. 

As for India, Islam entered into the land east of the Indus River peacefully. Gradually

Muslims gained political power beginning in the early 13th century. But this period

which marked the expansion of both Islam and Arabic culture came to an end with the

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conquest of much of India in 1526 by Babur, one of the Timurid princes. He

established the powerful Mogul17 empire which produced such famous rulers as

Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan and which lasted, despite the gradual rise of British

power in India, until 1857 when it was officially abolished (17).

As the old contractual obligations in society were weakened, Islam became the new

binding force of the conquered societies. And in order to cement their rule, Islamic

rulers initially promoted a system in which there was a revolving door between the

clergy, the administrative nobility and the mercantile classes. Ibn Batuta is a classic

example of this phenomenon. He served as an Imam in Delhi, as a judicial official in

the Maldives, and as an envoy and trader in the Malabar. There was never a

contradiction in any of his positions because each of these roles complemented the

other. Islam created a compact under which political power, law and religion became

fused in a manner so as to safeguard the interests of the mercantile class. This led

world trade to expand to the maximum extent possible in the medieval world.

The first Arabs Muslim invasion of India took place during the reign of the Umayyad

Caliph Walid (A.H.87-97; A.D. 705-15) who sent Muhammad Ibn Qasim on an

expedition into Sind, the area which then included most of what is now the Punjab.

Although Sind was at that time governed by a Brahman family, the religion of the

common people was Buddhist. The Buddhists were suffering serious religious, social,

and economic disabilities under the Brahman rule, as is shown by their petition to

Qasim for the right to worship in their Buddhist temples as they used to do.

Muhammad Ibn Qasim treated the Hindus very generously, keeping Hindu ministers

and police inspectors in his service, but he was soon recalled and after his departure

many of the Hindu feudal princes revolted against the Caliph’s authority.

17 For further reading please see Appendix (A).

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The first Abbasid Caliph sent an army into Sind to oust the Umayyad governor, and

the second Caliph, Mansur, sent another expedition which founded the garrison town

of Mansura. During the time of the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mun (A.H.198-218; A.D. 813-

33) many Arab families migrated to Sind, founding a large Arab colony. Later, as the

power of the Abbasid Caliphs declined, Sind became a neglected province governed

by petty princes who acknowledged the Caliph only as their spiritual head. The two

principal Muslim kingdoms of Sind were at that time Multan and Mansura.

The rule of the Arabs in Sind came to an end in (A.H.396, A.D. 1005) when

Mohamed of Ghazna sent an army of Turks and Hindu mercenaries under Abdul’r

Razzaq to uproot the power of the Qarmati Ima’ilis, who seem to have gained

considerable influence there. The Punjab was annexed to the Ghaznavid Empire and

ruled from Ghazna, but Mohamed's successors, faced with the rising power of the

Seljuk Turks, could not hold it.

Although, Arab rule of India was uprooted by the Turks, Islam kept expanding in the

Indian subcontinent, through the Ghorids, rulers of a small mountainous state in

Afghanistan, in North India. Turks vanished, and all avenues to power and office were

open to Indianized Muslims, converts and nonconverts. They extended Muslim power

much farther into southern India than ever before. The farthest southern extension of

Muslim rule came under the Tughluqs, who held power from 720 to 815 (A.D. 1320-

412) and pressed their invasion almost to the southern tip of the continent.

The chief Arab influence centered in the garrison towns established after the

departure of Qasim in an effort to retain some measure of control over the local rulers.

The Arab tribes which settled there left some influence on the language of Sind, but

little is known about them. After the establishment of the Fatimid rule in Egypt,

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toward the end of the third century (A.D. 909), Isma‘ili preachers began to enter Sind

and established a particularly active following. A family of these Isma‘ilis, perhaps of

the same blood as the Druzes of Syria, founded a separate Kingdom near modern

Thatta. Later the Isma‘ilis gained a foothold in Multan, which had long been under

Sunni rule. The name of the Fatimid rulers was recited in the Friday addresses at

Multan and in other centers of Isma‘ili influence.

There were several Sindhi Muslim scholars of note in this period, men whose

influence extended to Iraq where the people thought highly of their learning. Their

judges were also noted for their mastery of Prophet reciting (Hadith). The school of

Hanafi, a sect of Muslim Sunni, came to dominate the whole province of Sind to the

exclusion of all other systems of jurisprudence. Two Sindhi poets, Abul Ata and Abu

Zila, attained great fame. The Arab poets were generally bilingual, writing in both

Sindhi and Arabic. Some of the poetic compositions of the Sind were transmitted

throughout the Arab Empire, and it is related that famous Arab poets visited Sind or

sent their poems to the governors there. The development of literature and poetry in

India was quickened by the coming of many scholars who were driven from their

homes in Iran and Transoxiana by the Mongol invasions. Outstanding among the

immigrant scholars was the famous historian Al-Biruni, author of the epoch-making

Kitabul Hind.

Under the Arabic rule the official language used for governmental and commercial

dealings in Sind was Arabic. The educated classes used both Arabic and Sindhi, but

the common people spoke only their own mother tongue. With the rise of Persian

power, the Persian language gained a firm footing in Sind along with Arabic, with the

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result that modern Sindhi, written in Arabic script, contains more than fifty per cent

Arabic and Persian words.

Although there is considerable debate amongst historians as to how much technology

was actually brought into India by the Arabs, there is one school of thought that

argues that inventions like the water-wheels for irrigation were imported during the

Islamic period. In some other cases, the evidence is much clearer. The use of ceramic

tiles in construction was inspired by architectural traditions prevalent in Iraq, Iran, and

in Central Asia. Rajasthan's blue pottery was an adaptation of Chinese pottery which

was imported in large quantities by the Mughal rulers. There is also the example of

Sultan Abidin (1420-70) sending Kashmiri artisans to Samarqand to learn book-

binding and paper making [18].

The impact of Islam on Hinduism made itself felt in the reform movements it inspired

among the Hindus in the third to the sixth century (ninth to twelfth century A.D.).

These movements, associated with the names of Sankara and Ramanuja and their

followers, appeared first in South India as a result of early contacts with Muslims who

came to India as travelers and merchants, before there were any Muslim conquests in

southern India. It was only later that the reform movements spread to the north where

the rulers were Muslim. The early influence of Islam on Hinduism seems to have

come chiefly from observing the Sufi practices and the rites and customs of Muslims

in their daily life.

Farther east in the Malay world, Islam began to spread in the 12th century in northern

Sumatra and soon Muslim kingdoms were established in Java, Sumatra and mainland

Malaysia. Despite the colonization of the Malay world, Islam spread in that area

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covering present day Indonesia, Malaysia, the southern Philippines and southern

Thailand, and is still continuing in islands farther east.

The most distinctive aspect of the historical career of Islam in the Far East especially

Malaysia and Indonesia is that, more than anywhere else, even more than in India, it

inserted itself, and rather late (mostly after the fourteenth century, and most decisively

only after the seventeenth and eighteenth) into an ethnically, linguistically,

geographically, and religiously complex and differentiated society.

It was in the expansion of trade where Islam's impact was the greatest. One of the

most significant aspects of the Islamic period in world history was the emergence of

Islamic courts capable of imposing a common commercial and legal system that

extended from Morocco in the West to Mongolia in the North East and Indonesia in

the South East. Although this was not of significant benefit to countries such as India

that enjoyed a substantial trade surplus, it was probably of great significance to the

people of the Arabian or Central Asian deserts whose oases depended heavily on

trade.

As far as Africa is concerned, Islam entered into East Africa at the very beginning of

the Islamic period but remained confined to the coast for some time, only the Sudan

and Somaliland becoming gradually both Arabized and Islamized. West Africa felt

the presence of Islam through North African traders who travelled with their camel

caravans south of the Sahara. By the 14th century there were already Muslim

sultanates in such areas as Mali, and Timbuctu in West Africa and Harar in East

Africa had become seats of Islamic learning.

Gradually Islam penetrated both inland and southward. There also appeared major

charismatic figures who inspired intense resistance against European domination. The

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process of the Islamization of Africa did not cease during the colonial period and

continues even today with the result that most Africans are now Muslims carrying on

a tradition which has had practically as long a history in certain areas of sub-Saharan

Africa as Islam itself.

Arab immigration from Southwest Asia into East Africa has been ongoing since pre-

Islamic times. Today, pre-modern Arab genetic infusion can be found in Ethiopia,

Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea, Sudan, as well as Swahili settlements on the coasts of

Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique. Some East Africans of Arab-black descent still

maintain family ties in Asia. These are descended from relatively recent immigrants

and have contact with relatives in Arab countries. Many Swahili have fairly recent

Omani ancestors and have used this link to migrate to well-paid posts in Oman.

Other Afro-Arab mixed East Africans cannot name individual Arab ancestors because

the racial mixing was introduced hundreds, and even thousands of years ago. A 1st

century B.C. Greek source Periplus of the Erythraen Sea reports large ships going to

the East African coast manned by Arab captains and agents who are familiar with the

natives and intermarry with them, and who know the whole coast and understand the

language [13].

The Arab facial features which occur in Ethiopia and Eritrea's black populations also

testify to Arab-black intermarriage prior to the advent of Islam. At the beginning of

the 5th century B.C., Sabaen (south Arabian) armies settled in the Ethiopian highlands.

The resulting intermingling of Sabaen and Ethiopian cultures produced the Axum

kingdom, which became a powerful empire. The term Abyssinia itself is taken from

the Habashan, a powerful southwestern Arabian family which settled in Ethiopia.

Wars in Arabia in the 7th and 8th centuries sent a large influx of Arab refugees from

Arabia and the Gulf to African coastal cities of Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. Out of

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this intermingling of Arabs and black Africans was born the Swahili - a Bantu-based

Arabized culture. By the 10th century, Arabs were living as far south as Sofala.

Immigrants from Yemen and Hadramaut (district in Yemen) came to East Africa in

the 13th and 14th century. Ibn Battuta, who visited the Swahili coast in 1331, wrote of

Mogadishu, then a Swahili town, that Swahili businessmen each had personal ties

with Asian merchants, whom they entertained and accommodated in their own

houses.

Until the 19th century, Arabs tended to integrate into the local culture and had

relatively little impact on local African traditions. But some new imports from Arab

culture became central to East African life. Apparently, East Africans were using

Arabic script at least by the 9th century. According to Chinese official records of the

Zenjistan ambassadors in 9th century China, (Persian Zenj from Arabic Zanj for the

people of the East African coast) the Zenjistan language was "like Arabic". Quite

likely, when asked by the Chinese to write some words, the East African ambassadors

wrote in Arabic script.

The Swahili language is Bantu with a high proportion of Arab loan words. The word

"Swahili" itself is derived from the Arabic word for "coast". The Swahilis wrote their

language in Arabic script for centuries before switching to the Roman script recently.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Sultans of Omani descent built Zanzibar City, (now part

of Tanzania). Between 1880 and 1950, Immigrants from Arabia, from Aden and

Hadramaut in particular, flocked to East Africa. These newcomers brought with them

changes in fashion, architectural styles and vocabulary. Hadrahmi merchants began to

dominate the Swahili trade with southern Arabia. Other Arabs of lower economic

classes worked in Zanzibar City and Mombassa as hawkers, coffee sellers and

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unskilled laborers. Many died in the Zanzibar revolution of 1964, and the remaining

has returned to Oman.

5.3 Arabs Doom Days

The Arab world of today is the product of Ottoman decline, European colonialism,

and Arab demands for freedom from European occupation. At the beginning of World

War I all of North Africa was under French (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco), Italian

(Libya), or British (Egypt) domination. After World War I the League of Nations

divided the Arab lands that had remained Ottoman during the war between Britain

and France, with the understanding that each power would encourage the

development of the peoples of the region toward self-rule. Iraq and Palestine

(including part of what is now Jordan) went to Britain, and Syria and Lebanon to

France. Britain had suggested to Arab leaders during the war that Palestine would be

included in areas to be given Arab self-determination, but British officials then

promised the region to the Zionist movement, which called for a Jewish state there.

The Arab lands gained their independence in stages after World War II, sometimes, as

in Algeria, after long and bitter struggles. Much of Palestine became the state of Israel

in May 1948, setting the stage for the Arab-Israeli conflict, in which five wars have

occurred (1948-49, 1956, 1967, 1973, and 1982), and contributing to the rise of the

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which gained prominence after the

humiliating Arab losses in the 1967 war.

Arab unity has been a central motive in Arab politics from the first days of Islam.

This unity has only been fulfilled in the first century, before the world of Islam was

divided into kingdoms and states.

In modern times, Arab unity was a central political inducement in the time following

independence of the different Arab states, that is in the 50's and the 60's. The only

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viable example of Arab unity was the United Arab Republic, consisting of Egypt,

Syria and Yemen, from 1958 to 1961. In this union Egypt was too dominant and the

two other countries felt they had to leave. Today Arab unity on the level of political

leaders have lost its credibility, as the leaders will never agree upon who should give

up his position as president or king. In the Arab's hearts, though, Arab unity is

strongly felt, even if Arabs living in poor countries are provoked by the rich oil

countries of the Gulf.

The Arab League, formed in 1945, has been more a forum for Arab infighting than a

framework for cooperation. Arabs genuinely feel common bonds based on language

and a shared historical and cultural legacy, but they also identify themselves as

Egyptians, Iraqis, and so on. Their ideological differences reflect the wide range of

governing systems in the Arab world, from socialist regimes to oil-rich monarchies.

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Conclusions

Arabs have traditionally been considered nomads, epitomized by the Bedouin of

Arabia. Stereotypical portrayals of Arabs today use the image of the nomad or tribal

sheikh, usually with prejudicial intent. In fact, it is difficult to generalize about Arabs

in terms of appearance or way of life. Bedouin are less than 10 percent of the total

Arab population. Most Arab societies are heavily urbanized, particularly the oil-rich

states of the Arabian Peninsula.

This reversal of the stereotype of the desert Arab owes much to the fact that there is

little if any agriculture in such societies. Major peasant populations are found in

countries such as Egypt, Syria, Algeria, and Iraq, where there is water for irrigation,

but even there generalizations are difficult. All these nations have heavy urban

concentrations; Cairo, for example, has a population of 14 million and is still

expanding. As a whole, then, Arab society today is more heavily urban than rural, as a

result of major political, economic, and social changes that have occurred in the last

century. In addition, there are important variations in political and religious outlooks

among Arabs.

This rapid pace of urbanization and social change has been encouraged by economic

constraints found in many Arab societies. Except for oil, there are few natural

resources to be exploited for industrial development. Agricultural productivity is

generally high in Arab countries, but productive land is scarce in some regions

because of the lack of water, and droughts and rising demand have increased the

possibility of conflicts over water resources shared by neighboring countries. Fewer

opportunities in agriculture, coupled with social modernization, have caused young

people to flock to major cities seeking education and employment. This has placed

serious strains on governmental abilities to respond to social needs.

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This process has been exacerbated by another factor--the rapid rate of population

growth in many Arab countries. Most have a rate of increase near 3 percent annually,

as compared to rates of growth in Western Europe of less than 1 percent. These

growth rates reflect the impact of modern medicine and social services that have

lessened infant mortality. The tendency to smaller families found in Western urban

societies has not occurred because of the prevalence of traditional attitudes favoring

large families, particularly among the poor and in areas where tribal values prevail.

Oman has a growth rate approaching 5 percent, and even a rate of 2.3 percent for

Egypt means that nearly 1.4 million Egyptians are born every year in a country where

agricultural land comprises only 12 percent of the total land area, forcing further

urban congestion and the need to import more food to maintain subsistence levels.

This inability to feed the population from indigenous resources leads to increased

indebtedness and a diversion of funds from development.

The Arab world holds potential for both growth and conflict. Some Arab efforts to

promote more unified approaches to common problems have been made in recent

years, including the formation of the Gulf Cooperation Council (1981) and the Arab

Maghrib Union 1989), and the union of the Yemens. Efforts to forge Arab unity are

strained by competition among Iraq, Syria, and Egypt for leadership of the Arab

world, and the varied Arab reactions to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait shattered the myth

of such unity. Prospects for regional stability improved somewhat with the ending of

the cold war and the signing of the 1993 and 1994 accords between the PLO and

Israel, the 1994 accord between Israel and Jordan, and other Arab moves toward

peace with Israel.

The impact of population growth on development is a crucial factor, as is the

emergence in many Arab countries of radical, populist Muslim movements with mass

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supporters. Such movements have been kept under uneasy restraint in some nations,

as in Jordan, or have been ruthlessly suppressed, as in Algeria. In one Arab nation,

Sudan, they have won power.

the life of the people of Arabia continue to struggle toward brighter future,

shouldering economics burden, enhancing scientific knowledge, diversifying social

cultures, and dreaming of Arab unity. So in that sense Arabs are no different then any

other societies of the world that seeks stable life, and demand a prosperous future.

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References1- The Arab in Old history, The Arab History and its Geography, Ameen

Madani, P 27,28.

2- The Historical formation of the Arab nation, translated by Lawrence I. Conrad, Published by Croom Helen & Centre for Arab Unity Studies.

3- http://i-cias.com/e.o/index.htm, Encyclopedia of the Orient, lexicorient.com/e.o by Charles D. Smith.

4- Al-Mas'udi, AL-tanbih wa-l-ishraf, ed.M.J.de Goeje (E.J.Brill, Leiden, 1892), pp.75-76.

5- http://www.apomie.com/arabhistory.htm

6- http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/opinion/?id=7894

7- Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddima, ed.Nasr al-Hurini (Bulaq,Cairo, AH 1274),pp.9,46-47,236.

8- Al-Baladhuri, Anasab Al-Sharif, vol.I.ed.Mohd.Hamidullah (dar Al-marif, Cairo, 1959) pp.15-16, 19-20, 25.

9- Taken with edition from "The Arab world hand book, Arabian Peninsula edition" by James Peters, ed. Stacey International, 128 Kensington Church st. London. Pp.60-83.

10- http://www.hejleh.com/countries, Copyright (c) 2003 Columbia University Press.

11- www.adc.org/index.php?id=247, for further reading on Arab contributions to civilization, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance (John Hayes, ed., New York University Press, 1975), History of the Arabs (Philip K. Hitti, St. Martin’s Press, tenth edition 1970), and The Legacy of Islam (Sir Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guillaume, eds., Oxford University Press (1968).

12- http://www.ismaili.net/Source/1221b.html.

13- http://www.barkati.net/english/#07 .

14- The Ballad of East and West, Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936).

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15- Islamic Civilization, Editor R.M. Savory. Christendom vs. Islam: interaction and co0existance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp.127-135.

16- www.abbc.com/sindi/arab.htm#08.

17- “The Near East in the Far East” was a paper that Geertz presented as the Sabbagh Lecture on Arabic Culture at the University of Arizona, Tucson in February, 2000 as part of a Festschrift for Lucette Valensi that will appear soon. Valensi, a Member of the School in 1976-77, is the Director of Studies of the Institut d’Études de l’Islam et des Sociétés du Monde Musulman, which is a section of the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris. She is author, among other texts, of The Birth of the Despot: Venice and the Sublime Porte (English translation 1993).

18- http://india_resource.tripod.com/islam.html.

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Appendix A

Assyria ashur, assur (Ancient)

Ancient country in the Middle East, with centre in modern Iraq along the Tigris River. At its height in the 9th century BCE, Assyria covered areas of also modern eastern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, western Iran, Kuwait, and Egypt.Central to the central region of Assyria was farming, fed by both the Tigris River and water from the Armenian mountains in the north and the Zagros Mountains the east. With the expansion of Assyria more land with other economies were including, like mining and forestry.It is believed that the civilization of Assyria came from the immigration of an unknown people into the area around 6000 BCE. This was followed by Semitic immigration about 3 millenniums later.Life was located to small villages, and there was an intricate system of irrigation that fed the agriculture. There were few larger cities, and these served as trade and craft centers. Assyria had some slaves, but these played only a small part of the economy.The Assyrians were noted for their high knowledge in warfare and organization.

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Babylonia

Ancient kingdom in Mesopotamia, lasting from approximately 18th century till the 6th century.The Babylonian society was both an urban society and an agricultural one. The economy rested upon agriculture, but governance, industries and fine arts were performed in the cities. In the entire kingdom there were no more than about 10- 15 cities with 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. Apart from that, people belonged to villages and hamlets. The Babylonian heartland was between the rivers of Euphrates and Tigris, but at its largest the kingdom extended to the entire populated Middle East.

Mesopotamia

A region in the Middle East which is defined as the land lying between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris in what is Iraq today. This region was the birthplace of the first civilizations and among the leading regions in the world for about 3,000 years. A wider definition of Mesopotamia is the land that that lies between the Zagros and Anti-Taurus mountains in the northern end, and the Arabian plateau and Gulf to the south, corresponding to modern Iraq, eastern Syria and southeastern Turkey.

The name 'Mesopotamia' comes from Greek, and means 'between rivers'.The most important ancient civilizations in the region were first the Sumerian (3500 BC- 2000 BCE), the Babylonian (18th century BC- 539 BCE) and Assyrian (1350 BC- 612 BCE). During the last two millenniums the Muslim Abbasids must be considered as the strongest rulers of Mesopotamia, both in might and in cultural achievements.It was the two rivers that became the basis upon which the wealth of the region was based. Through relatively easy irrigation the agriculture could yield heavy crops. There were fish in the rivers, the area had a diversified agriculture and wildfowl was available out near the coast. There was never a regular supply of water in Mesopotamia, and therefore Irrigation was central to controlling the crops in southern

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Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, agriculture proved successful at an earlier date, dating back to 10th millennium BCE.

NabateansAncient people of northwestern Arabia centered to modern Jordan. They formed a kingdom in the 4th century BCE or possibly earlier which lasted until 106 CE, representing about 450 years of existence. Their capital was Petra.The Nabateans are most likely of the same ethnic origin as other peoples of Arabia, and their modern descendants are either labelled Arabs or Bedouins.Their core land was one without rivers or lakes, but they had cisterns built into the mountains, fetching rain water.

KurdistanKurdistan, extensive plateau and mountain region in SW Asia (74,000 sq mi/191,660 sq km), inhabited mainly by Kurds and including parts of E Turkey, N Syria, NE Iraq, S Armenia, and NW Iran. Ethnically and linguistically close to the Iranians, the Kurds, who number about 20 million, were traditionally nomadic herders but are now mostly semi-nomadic or sedentary. The majorities are Sunni Muslims and speak Kurdish. The Kurds have traditionally resisted subjugation by other nations. Kurdistan was conquered by the Arabs and converted to Islam in the 7th cent. The region was held by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th cent., by the Mongols from the 13th to 15th century, and then by the Ottoman Empire. Since World War I the Kurds have struggled unsuccessfully in the various countries in which they live for self-determination and independence. In 1946 a short-lived, Soviet-backed Kurdish republic was formed in Iran. There were Kurdish uprisings in Iraq in the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. After the Persian Gulf War, Kurdish groups again rose against Iraq but were crushed, and perhaps 1.5 million fled to Turkey and Iran. Returning under UN protection, they established (1992) an autonomous region in N Iraq, but in 1994 fighting erupted among the rival Kurdish factions, and control of the area is divided between two rival groups. Iraqi Kurds aided U.S.-British forces in 2003 in their war to oust Saddam Hussein from power.

The Ottoman Empire

Empire based around the Turkish sultan, lasting from 1300 till 1922, and covering at its peak (1683- 99) an area including today's Hungary, Yugoslavia, Croatia, Bosnia, Albania, Macedonia, Greece, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, southern Ukraine, Turkey, Georgia, Armenia Iraq, Kuwait,

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Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, eastern and western Saudi Arabia, Oman, Bahrain, eastern Yemen, Egypt, Northern Libya, Tunisia, and northern Algeria.

UmayyadThe Umayyad caliphate established in 661 was to last for about a century. During this time Damascus became the capital of an Islamic world which stretched from the western borders of China to southern France. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this period through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind, Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were established.

AbbasidsAbbasids dynasty ruled from 750 until 1258. The Abbasids were all of one big family that claimed to descend from Abbas, an uncle of Prophet Muhammad. The Abbasids governed from Baghdad, a city the second Abbasid Caliph founded in 762, and Samara for some periods in the 9th century. The Abbasids took the power from the Ummawiyys in 750, and stayed in power until the Mongols conquered Baghdad in 1258, and had the Caliph killed for their first 100 years, the Abbasids were leaders, both of Islam and of the Muslim community. The Shi'is of the period rejected the legitimacy of the Abbasid leadership. The change came towards the end of the 9th century, and started with the takeover by Sunni scholars of religious leadership, of the cost of the Caliph. This change became especially clear after the Mihna of mid - 9th century. In political terms, the Abbasid Caliphs became puppets in the hands of the Turkish military troops, and in 935 the title Emiru l-Umara was transferred to the chief of the Turkish soldiers. The Persian Shi'i Buwayhids were the real rulers from 945 until the 10th century. The Buwayhids were so strong that they had the power to remove Caliphs at their own will. Branch of Abbasids, stayed in office until 1517.At the same time as the Caliphs lost the grip of power, the unity of the Caliphate also fell apart, and independent states were formed. These new states recognized the position of the Caliph, but it was only the symbolic value that survived. In 1055 the Turkish Seljuqs conquered Baghdad, but this had little influence to the position of the Caliphs, who continued to play only his limited symbolical role. With the fall of the traditional Caliphate in 1258, when the Mongols took over Baghdad, a new line of Abbasid Caliphs continued in Cairo. In Cairo they played the same type of role as in Baghdad, but now even the symbolical role was limited by geography. This, the last Harun Al-Rashid is the most famous of the Abbasid Caliphs. The Abbasid period, is recognized of being the one in Muslim history bringing the most elevated scientific works. The Muslim world continued the achievements of classical Europe (especially the 9th and 10th centuries), India and former science of the Middle East, during a period when Europe was unable contribute much to the cultural and scientific fields. The Abbasid era is often regarded as the golden age of Muslim civilization. MughalIt was under the Mughals that Muslim rule in India was finally consolidated. After fifty years of rule Akbar was followed by Jahangir, who reigned from 1014 to 1038 (A.D. 1605-28). Shah Jahan, famous as the builder of the Taj Mahal, was emperor from 1038 until 1070 (A.D. 1628-59), when the control of the government was taken over by his son Aurangzeb, the last of the great Mughal emperors, who died in 1119 (A.D. 1707). Although the Mughal rule continued after Aurangzeb, it was a prolonged period of disintegration, which lasted until the Mutiny of 1274 (A.D. 1857).

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The Mughal system of administration was patterned on the Abbasid government as adapted to Indian needs. The emperor was the spiritual as well as the temporal head of the state. He had a Vizier, or Chief Minister, aided by secretaries, but no cabinet of ministers. The chief of the religious department occupied an important position as the guardian of Islamic law. He awarded lands and stipends to religious scholars, schools, and colleges and was charged with the duty of helping the needy. The chief judge was the highest judicial officer, overseeing the Qadis and Muftis who tried and decided the civil and criminal cases of the Hindus and Muslims. They were chiefly concerned with the administration of sacred law based on the interpretations of the four Muslim schools of law.

After about 983 (A.D. 1575) Akbar began to show unusual interest in religious discussions, largely as a result of association with some of his courtiers who were free-thinkers. Akbar erected a special hall where religious discussions were held with scholars of all views and schools. The controversies could not, of course, be restricted to the differing views of the Sunnis and Shi‘as, or the conflicts of the various schools of law. Soon the fundamentals of religion came under discussion and Akbar felt dissatisfied with the existing state of religion. He then began to invite people of all religions to take part in the discussions. Even the Christian fathers from Goa, represented by Aquaviva and Monserrate, came to join this debate, but they failed to influence Akbar. Gradually he was led to assume the mantle of a religious leader. He issued a decree of infallibility which made him the supreme arbiter in matters of religion and then went a step further by promulgating a new religion compounded of Muslim, Hindu and Christian elements. In the new religion Akbar required the followers to prostrate themselves before the emperor and forbade circumcision, prohibited the use of beef, and discouraged the growing of beards. Eighteen of his courtiers joined the new religion but all the rest kept aloof. In the end, Akbar achieved only the exasperation of the ulama.

The palaces and forts constructed by the Mughals are a mixture of Indian and Muslim styles, but the mosques and mausoleums are chiefly Islamic in conception and execution, with the dome and the pointed arch as their most characteristic features. Of all the Mughals, Shah Jahan holds the preeminent position in the history of Muslim architecture. His Special Hall (Diwan-i-Khas) and the Taj Mahal, which is the mausoleum of his wife, are the finest achievements of Mughal architecture. Among the characteristics of this architecture are the lavish use of marble and the decoration of walls and roofs with multi-colored carved and inlaid lacework.

The art of calligraphy received great encouragement from the Mughals, who had many famous calligraphers attached to the court. Even greater favor was shown to painters. When Babar conquered India, the popularity of the great Persian painter Bihzad was at its zenith. His style of miniature painting was the standard which Mughal painters chose to follow. After the return of Humayun from his enforced exile in Persia, the Mughal nobles took the Persian style of painting for their model, thus making Bihzad and his school the example as Persian art was engrafted on Indian painting.

Miniature painting is characterized by its intense individualism which shows no interest in masses and crowds or the interrelation of forms in their infinite multiplicity. It looks at every detail of the individual figure. Since this art form was

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born in the courts of Genghis Khan and Timur it naturally depicts scenes of battles and the hunt -- but chivalry and romance, youths and maidens dallying in gardens, and gorgeous receptions in princely courts are also represented, and of piety and mysticism there is no lack. The king and the beggar were the two poles around which the individual moved. The Sultan of today may be the darwish of tomorrow -- hence the frequency of the scenes showing the darwish living in the wild forest or the lonely cave, the darwish as the miraculous master leading fierce animals as if they were lambs, and the darwish dancing in the ecstacy of mystic joy. The supernatural was represented in the figures of Jinn, goblins, monsters, and fairies.

The disintegration of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb in 1119 (A.D. 1707 went on rapidly, but the Muslim literature of this period shows no consciousness of the fate that was overtaking the Muslims. Age-old methods of education and the cultivation of established sciences went on as before because of the large endowments which learned scholars had received at the hands of the Mughal emperors. A significant feature of this period was the rise of the Urdu language. The new language was a combination of Hindi, Arabic, and Persian, its grammar and syntax being based on Sanskrit while its vocabulary was largely Arabic and Persian.

Middle East

Term applied to a region that includes SW Asia and part of NE Africa, lying W of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. It includes the Asian part of Turkey; Syria; Israel; Jordan; Iraq; Iran; Lebanon; the countries of the Arabian peninsula, that is, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait; Egypt; and Libya. The region was the site of great ancient civilizations, e.g., Mesopotamia and Egypt, and it was the birthplace of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It contains much of the world's oil reserves and has many strategic trade routes, e.g., the Suez Canal. In the 20th century the area has been the scene of political turmoil and major warfare, e.g., in World War I, World War II, the Arab-Israeli Wars, the Iran-Iraq War, and the Persian Gulf War. The term Middle East is also sometimes used in a cultural sense for that part of the world predominantly Islamic in culture, in which case Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the remaining countries of North Africa are included.

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Adnani, Al- musta'arriba (Northern Arab)

Qahtani, Al Ariba (Southern Arab)Primordial

Ad, Thamud, Tasim, Jadis, Al Amaliqah, Jaharan I

Saba

KahlanHimyar

Tayyi, Hamdhan, Al-azud and Madher

Qudh'a

Bali, Tanukh, Juhayna II and Kalab

Ma'add

Nizar

Iyad MudharRabi'a

TaghlibBaker ibn Wail

Tamim Huyay KinanaQays"Aylan'"

Amir ibn Sa'sa'a QurayshHawazinSulaymThaqif

Appendix (B)

 Appendix (C )  

Arabic words used in English Language;

A

[aba, abelmosk, abutilon, Achernar, acrab, admiral, adobe, afreet (or afrit), albacore,

albatross, alcalde, alcazar, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, Aldebaran, alembic, alfalfa,

alforja, algarroba, algebra, Algol, algorism (or algorithm), alidade, alkali, alkanet,

Allah, almanac, alphabet, Altair, amalgam, amber, ameer (or amir), aniline, antimony,

apricot, ardeb, argan, ariel, arrack, arroba, arsenal, artichoke, assassin, atabal (or

attabal), attar, aubergine, average, azimuth, azure ...

B

 baldachin, banana, barberry, bard (or barde), bark, barkentine, bedouin, benzoin,

berseem, Betelgeuse, bint, bonduc, borax, buckram, bulbul, burnoose (or burnous) ...

C  

cable, cadi (or kadi or qadi), calabash, caliber (or calibre), caliph, caliphate, camel,

camise, camlet, camphor, canal, candy, cane, Caph, carafe, carat, caravan, caraway,

carmine, carob, carrack, Casbah (or Kasbah), check (from the Arabic word "sakk"),

checkmate, chiffon, cinnabar, cipher, civet, coffee, coffer, coffle, colcothar, Copt,

cotton, crimson, crocus, cubeb, cumin, curcuma ...

 D

dahabeah, damascene, damask (from Damascus), damson, darabukka, Deneb, dhow,

dinar, dirham, djin (or djinn or djinni), dragoman, drub, durra ...

 E

elixir, emir, emirate ...

F  

fakir, fedayee (or fedayeen), fellah, fennec, fils, Fomalhaut, fustic ...

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 G

gabelle, galingale, garble, gauze, gazelle, genet, genie, ghibli, ghoul, Gibraltar, ginger,

giraffe, grab, guitar, gundi, gypsum ...

H  

haik, hajj, hajji, hakim, halva (or halvah), hamal (or hammal), hardim, harem, hashish,

hazard, hegira (or hejiara), henna, hookah, houri, howdah ...

I  

imam, imamate, imaret ...

J  

jar, jasmine, jebel, jerboe, jereed, jessamine, jihad, jinn (or jinni), jubba (or jubbah),

julep ...

 K

Kaabah, kabob (or kebab), Kabyle, kafir (or kaffir), kantar (or qantar), kaph, kat (or

qat), kef, kermes, khamsin, khan, khanjar, kismet, kohl, Koran (or Qur'an)...

L  

lacquer, lake, lapislazuli, latakia, leban (or leben), lemon, lilac, lime, lute ...

M  

magazine, Mahdi, majoon, mancus, marabout, marcasite, marzipan, mascara, mask,

massage, mastaba, mate (as in checkmate in Chess), mattress, mecca (after Makkah or

Mecca), mezereon, minaret, Mizar, mizen (or mizzen),

mocha (from Mocha, Yemen), mohair, monsoon, mosque, muezzin, mufti, mullah,

mummy, Muslim, muslin (from Mosul), Mussalman (or Mussulman), myrrh ...

 N

nabob, nacre, nadir, natron, nizam, noria, nucha, nuchal ...

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 O

oka (or oke), olibanum, orange, Ottoman, oud ...

 P

pandore, pistachio, pherkard, popinjay ...

 Q

qintar, quintal ...

 R

racket, realgar, ream, rebec (or rebeck), retem, retina, rial, ribes, Rigel, rice, risk,

riyal, rob, roc, rook, rotl...

 S

safari, safflower, saffron, Sahara, Sahel, sahib, saker, salam, salamoniac, salep,

saloop, saluki, sambul, santir, saphena, sash, satin, sayyid, scallion, senna, sequin,

serendipity, sesame, shadoof (or shaduf), shaitan, shallot, sharif, sheik (or sheikh),

sherbet, sherbert, sherif (or sheriff), shish-kebab, shrub, simoom (or simoon),

sinologue, sirocco, sirup, sloop, soda, sofa, spinach, sudd, Sufi, Sufism, sugar, sultan,

sultana, sultanate, sumac (or sumach), sumbal (or sumbul or

sumbal), sura, Swahili, syce, syrup ...

 T

tabby, tabla, tabor (or tabour), taffeta, talc, talisman, tamarind, tambour, tambourine,

tangerine, taraxacum, tarboosh (or tarbush), tare, tariff, tarragon, tazza, timbal (or

tymbal), traffic, tutty, typhoon ...

U  

ulama (or ulema) ...

 V

Vega, vizier ...

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W  

wadi ...

 X

xeba, xebec ...

 Y

yashmac (or yashmak) ...

 Z

zaffer (or zaffre), zareba (or zariba), zenith, zero, zibet (or zibeth).

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