A VICENA ARABIC MEDICINE Izet Masic Saif Saif Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif ul Haq Saif
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AVICENAAVICENAA
ARABIC MEDICINE
Izet Masic
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LIBRARYOF BIOMEDICAL PUBLICATIONS
Book XVIEditor in charge
Prof. Dr. IZET MASIC
AuthorProf. Dr. IZET MASIC
ReviewersProf. Dr. JUSUF ZIGA
Prof. rof. rof Dr. ENES KUJUNDZIC
LectorProf. LJILJANA OBRADOVIC
Technical editorMIRZA HAMZIC
Edited and printed“Avicena” d.o.o., Sarajevo
CIP - Katalogizacija u publikacijiNacionalna i univerzitetska biblioteka Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo
61 (411.21)
MA[I], Izet. Arabic Medicine /Izet Masic. - Sarajevo: “Avicena”, 2001. - 83 str.: ilustr.; 21 cm - (Library of biomedical publications; book 16) Data about the author: str. (83). - Bibliografija: str. 50.
ISBN 9958-720-21-3COBISS/BiH - ID 10304518
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................7
2. THE ART OF TREATMENT IN THE ISLAMIC MEDICINE....................................................................12
2.1. The Arabic-Islam medicine in the middle age..............132.1.1. The basic significances of the Arabic-Islamic medicine ...........132.1.2. The means and the principles of the physician skill ..................172.1.3. Contribution of the Arabic medicine to the development
of the pharmacy .................................................................................23
3. THE INFLUENCE OF ARABIC MEDICINE TO MODERN ONE...........................................................27
3.1. The majority of arabic medicine ....................................273.2. The basic significances of the middle age Islamic
medicine.............................................................................303.3. Characteristics of the medicine before the appearances
of the gods’ representative Mohammed a.s. .................313.4. The period of the building and the de vel op ment of the
light Islamic medical traditions......................................333.5. The Arabic physicians schools and physicians .............353.6. To them belongs the greatest glory in the medicine ...36
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arabic medicine
3.7. The first Arabic hospitals and the public health .........413.8. How the Arabic medicine widens into Europe.............433.9. Far East continued the Arabic medical traditions .......453.10. Final considerations .........................................................47
4. CONCLUSION ............................................................48
References.............................................................................50
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History is a witness of the great importance and influence of islam- ic science from the period of “Golden Age of Arabic Civilisation”.
A fa mous scientist said: “Science has no country, it is in ter na tion al; we all share in fruits of investigations of people from different traditions and all ages.” Scientists from the early period of the islamic era had set fire of a steam of man’s thought and progress, ob ser va tion, ex per i ments and tradition, that have become a weapon of mod ern sci ence. All of that was based upon Qur’an Hadiths, that have been their guidelines when setting free human mind from taboos.
Medieval Arabian scientists have followed the words of Holly Proph et. Mohammad s.a.v.s., saying that searching for knowledge have had to be the most important task for people, and that ink more saint than blood of the saints. These attitudes of Holly Prophet have awaken desire for studying with muslim scientists. The result of that desire be-came a key of scientific progress.
There are many worldwide famous Arabian scientists: El-Kindi, Er-Razi, Ibn Sina, El-Birunu, Ibn Hajsem, Ez-Zahravi, El-Farabi, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Ru‘d etc.
These names, among several hundreds of Arabian physicians, at tri-bute “Golden Age” of the islamic science. That period was char ac ter ised by movements, reprocessing of ideas. That reprocessing of ideas has gained the great minds together, and that process is continuous. That is why have to be grateful to them.
Famous Muslim physicians defined medicine as skill that dealed in
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keeping good health, coped with ills and health recovering. They have also modified many Greek writings and established basic principles of the art of medicine. What is significant is that, regardless of historical past and principles are still accurate for understanding of medical sci- ence. These principles are what the author is discussing in detail in this book about.
Publisher
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1. INTRODUCTION
One from the more significance motifs what we speak and write about interferences Of Islam and health of public health and Islam and vice versa, is an attemption to give the answers to the sciences, world and themselves about one from “the Bosnian war phenomena”. How is that horrible, undiscreable and up to now originated sufferings of the Bosnian people, have not remained the theoretically and the practically expected healthcare consequences for Bosnian mind, body habitat, en vi-ron ment. From when such a great discrepance between the life con di tions, like those in the stone age, and the consequences which are other wise necessary in such conditions: the number of died, diseased epy demias, postoperative infections, invalidity and other specific health caare indi-cators? But, it is in question the “Phenomen” of the Bosnian spirit, or this is, really, the imanention of the Bosnian being and the tradition, which originate from one and the only scoure - faith in the Almighty and his announcement.
I remembered of written thought: “War is the tragical and sad mo- ment - part of our life. The war is incompatible with the dignity of hu-man and moral. The war is time in which a man of the blooded heart forgives from all what in peace succeeded to assume the human content and sense, from all what succeeded to tear from the animal and most banal in a man; from the thought on the warm room, bath room, family dinner, trip, mother, woman children, love, friends - war all this de vel op and blows off as the wind the leaves.” The war whirl wind brought the arbitrary wasteland”. But the force of the wide, going through the space and lives - left some kinds of vacuum. In such con di tions, it reacted only the actionally being of the creator and not rarely - has taken liberty with its full strength. It happened the life - es sen tion al ly and elementary - happened the birth of the Bosnian national crea ture in all the basic and essential elements. Its is the word about the strong, vital organism which has to live to see the blooming of the intelectual and the creative. Liberated from the restraints which has by ages brought, now has the bril-liant occasion to get build and develop to its max i mum. This is, maybe,
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the most positive side of the war and war horrors in our young state. This can be one of the explanations of the motifs for the organization of one such scientific collections - about the theme “Public health and Islam”. For sure the scientists is their works on this will detailed confirm the above urged considerations and from the medical, phylosophical, ethyc, social, public-healthcare, ar chi tec tu al-urban - and other aspects will clear what an influence has stayed the Islam as a religy and the Islamic scientists as the interpreters and prac ti cal peroformances of the principle based on Kur’an and ha d is ims in its medical praxis. And that influence is also nowadays unmeasurable.
The Islamic science, in the wider sense, in spite of the connections with other traditions, gave such scientific projects and gave such sig nif i-cant names which also nowadays have no rivals, regardless to the tech-ni cal and technologic conditions and the communication systems and media for transfer of knowledge and technologies. Already in the early Islamic period, thanks to the penetration and knowledge, several Is lam ic spiritual and religious leaders, first of all, the halif Mem’una the science becomes international in the real sense of a word, and one language - the Arabic, becomes the general language of the science. The great number of sicientists, who belonged to the different peoples and who represented the various convictions, adapted to the almost all the world terminolo-gies by the Arabic language. So the language of Kur’an became the world language of the exchange of the scientific in for ma tions. “Would Europe be able to light is there were not Arabic visit to Spain” - by this sentence the famous Zija-pasha alluded to the roots of the development of the contemoprary science and civilization of the West.
The Islamic scientce is the constant characteristic of the scientific undertaking of the middle age Islam, so from the eight till the five teenth century appeared the most beautiful and the richest culture which Europe saw in the middle century. The known French phylosopher and chemist Lebon cited the golden Islamic principle: “Perform the trial (check) see, and think over, and you will be learned!”, and the French sociologist Gustav Le Bon says: “The Arabs have the first who shew to the world how gets connected the free thought with faith.” For the Moslems and
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the development of the science by them, another phi los o pher said: The knowledges, which have the Arabs received from the Greeks, were by the Greeks the dead in crusts, closed in the walls of the li brar ies or the pre-cious stones stored in some outstanding per sons in the treasures from them the mankind had no any use besides to look at them. They by the Arabs became the basis of the education and the spiritual food; the main treasure and the means by means of which the human abilitiess went to the perfection. There is none ob jec tive Eu ro pe an man, who studied the history of the human thought de vel op ment, and that to the Moslims and their learning deny the fact that Europe has mostly to thank to them for its performance from the darkness of not knowl edge onto the light of the knowledge: for study ing how to step to the science - how to think, as well as for the com pre hen sion that are the obviousness and the experiements the foundations on which the science gets founded; to them have mostly to thank also for the development of the science, which they through Spain, south Italy and France brought over.
The English physicians and the chemist John William Draper (died in New York 1882 year) wrote in his work “The history of the intelectual development of Europe” for Moslems Arabs: “The Arobs have become the true protectors of the science and with right was told that they haveknocked down the neighbour empires. By their halifs was the custom that the great honour in the state give only those people who were quali-fied with the knowledge”.
Stating further the standpoints of Islam according to the science, he states more handises (the narration that Mohammed said) and the maxims which relate to the science, as is: The ink is of the scientists is so precious as well as the blood of the {ehids (Moslim soldier who with hero death is killed for faith), and for Harun ar-Reshid says: “Harun ar-Re{id has announced a command that must not build any mosque if there was not built also a the primary Moslem religious school (mek teb). He prohibited the performance of the physicians practice to all those who would not undergo and satisfy the examination in front of University professor commission.”
Speaking about the libraries, he says that each more distinguished
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Map
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man had in his lodging a library, that the Moslems rulers by themselves were engaged in all the branches of the science. Of them (does not men-tion which) wrote the literature work from 50 notebooks and El-Havarism wrote an algebra book.
Only in Cordoba, the library counted over 600,000 Arabic manu-scripts from all the sciences, and about 6,000 of them was from the field of the medicine and astronomy.
But, as said the distinguinished professor from Sorbona Red‘a Gar-odi, “the conspiracy of silence against the Islam culture was extremely organized” and that not only in his homeland France than in almost all the west countries and, normally, also former Yugoslav. Are rare those who know or dared to utter the names Rasia, Ibn Sinaa, Ibn Hajsema, Ibn Nefis, Hajam, Gazalija, Kindis, Birunija, Ibn Nedim, Usaibia and other Islamic outstanding persons and that have not bit tery paid for their public mentioning. The west worked that in its style, he stole their ideas, their discoveries their practical proves and ex pe ri enc es in the ap-plication and signing under their or, even, there where he could not that, he changed the names of these great thinkers, phy los o phers, physicians, and represented them according its taste.
Here’s chance that some of these names and their great thoughts and ideas we hear and we announce on our regions and in our lit er a ture. Let it be the impetus to those who come, to return at “the lost trace to the man and humanity, every human sense...” but in the sense of that nice traditional maxim: “To the science one does not go (on goot),” - “El’ ilmu ju’ta ve le je’ti.”
2. THE ART OF TREATMENT IN THE ISLAMIC MEDICINEThe God’s representative Mohammed s.a.v.s. required from the be-
lieveers to acquire the knowledge “let it be in China” (China had at that time the paradigmatic significance of the distance), and compared the
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cost of ink with the spilled blood of {ehids. Such attitudes had waken up in the early Moslems the insatiable thirst whether be the key of the scientific progress and learning through the several centuries was ex-cluseve ly in the property of Moslems. After 13th century appeared the visible decrease of this progress and it continued up to nowadays. It is not our predemonant desire to emphisize or to interprete the chain of causes which had led to this decrease. But, it is true that the freshness of the new learning and tracing for new spaces of the knowledge, which flew through the arteries and veins of the Arabs and other members of the Arabic regions of the middle age, disered in the scientists of the later genereations of the Arabo-Islamic civilization. It appeared the in er tion, and it brought to that the Arabs of the new age became for geta ble and indifferent to the light guiding which the Moslems of the early Islamic period lead through the astrays of darkness.
A famous scientist once said: “The science has no its country, it is international, we all devide the fruits of the researching of people of all kinds and traditions and all the ages” (1).
The science expressed in the simplest words is the sense of the un-usu al i ty of life and our searching of the right answer abut the life leads us to the path of the discoveries. At any case, there does not exist such a thing as is “the accidental discovery”. The discovery is the product of one observed (maybe unusual but sometimes and completely common) fact in the prepared mind. Some minds are more aroused, less imag i na tive, less respond that the others, but if they are not prepared, the sig nif i cance of the events can pass by. So, before then we try to com pre hend why and what the scientist has acheived, it is necessary to know the series of the form of achievements and the people who created the product of their method, and have insured the webing of their ex pe ri ence. It is necessary to comprehend, also, the immediate circumstances - the researches which are now performed, the coleagues on whose ex pe ri ence we cannot count and about whose experiments depends the con fir ma tion of our own.
To the early blooming of the human intelect came on the shores of the Meditteranean, the Summers, Babilon and Egyptian civilization have rubbed in the way to the Greeks and Romans. When it began to
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fall through, existed the danger from the interruption of the continuity and the understanding the natural phenomena, but fortunately for the whole mankind, it was gathered byt he greath Moslem scintists from the period between 8. and 13. century. They had strengthened it be tween 8th and 13the century. They made it strengthed and rich with its own wisdom, clever observations and experiments and continued on its way to West. Zija-pasha saying: “If there were no Spain, could Europe shine!” - he allududed to the significance of the Arabs development and bloom- ing of the science, phylosophy, medicine and other dis ci plines of the modern age.
There is a majority of the prominent names of the Arabic scientists which recognize the total World: Al-Kindi, Ar-Rhazi, Al-Biruni, Ibn-Sina, Az-Zahravi, Al-Farabi, Al-Haitham, Ibn-Nefis and the rests. They are vis-ible figures in the corps of the universally educated Moslem sci en tists who charactherize the golden time of the Islam science. There was in that time alive growth, constant overmaking of the ideas of the thinking process which led the spirits to the gathering. One thinking process which used to live by thousand years can, so much we know, passing from mind to mind, prolong his life for ever, and we mortals answer the call of the immoral ideas, becoming a part of human ideas and thoughts.
2.1. The Arabic-Islam medicine in the middle age
2.1.1.The basic signifi cances of the Arabic-Islamic medicine One from the remembrance of the valid and fascinating aphorisms
which are described to the God representatives, Mohammed a.s. is the expression “al-ilmu, ilman, ilm al-adyan wa-, ilm al-abdan”. “There are two kinds of science the science about the religion and the science about the body”, emphasizing the importance connection of the learn ing and the practice in the medicine with theology and Islamic laws. This and the similar concepts, the religious and social, give the ad di tion al impulse and respect of the medical profession and emphasize the essential value of the physician skill giving the physician the re spect ful place in his community and learned circles. Also, the Islam was that which empha-sized the rights of human body for him everyone believer who wishes to
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Picture 1. Abdullah Ibn Sina (980-1037)
Picture 2. Alauddin Ibn Nefis (1210-
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ensure by nutrition and to prolong healthy life. This was truly stated in the religous sources. Dear Allah always insures the natural treatment of the human diseases at the right time and on the right place. “Ma khalaq Allah ad-da, illa wa-khalaqa lahu ad-dawa’” - “Allah has not created the disease and not to give it the remedy” (2).
And the physician from the other side, was interested and ap pri ci at ed the human relation according to his environment. For him the health and ecology were narrowly connected. He saw the connection of the technology and economy in nature, that is he saw that in fact, nothing produces in vain. By the Moslem physicians the God created everything with good reason. The physician-phylosopher Ibn-Ru{d, examing the com-plex i ty of the anatomy of the human body, proclaimed that the human trust in God surely will be strengthened (and) when once dis cov ers and understands the wonders of the anatomy of the body and recognizes the incomparable God wisdom by the creating of the hu man race. In the sense of his profession and the status, the Moslem phy si cian ap pra ti at ed the perfection in the creation of God and the shrewd ness in the arrangement and forming of the creation. Further, in the observing of its environment, the Moslem physician and the nat u ral ist tried to fiind the drugs which the nature ensuanses for the treat ment of the human physical diseases. And really, in Islam happened that the pharmacy and the pharmacology throught the middle age achieved its greatest expression - the climax, much larger and wider than have ever achieved its antecedents during the early Greek-Roman and the Ori en tal civ i li za tions.
2.1.2. The means and the principles of the physician skillThe medicine have defined the famous Moslem physicians as are:
Ar-Razi (865-925) and Ibn-Sina (980-1037), and that on the following way: that this is the skill which treats the maintaince of good health, by battle with the diseases and the repeated diseases and the repeated es tab lish ment of patient health. This was the interpreting in the early thir ties years of the ninth century, when in the majority of the medical texts the medical skill seperated onto two parts: the theory and the practice. According to the theory of the medicine, the pupil and the begginning civil-service
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Picture 3. Hasan Al Haitham (965-1039)
Picture 4. Zakariyya Ar Razi (865-925)
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employee have studied the elements, the body might and spirit, either the animal or vital, the organs and their use ful ness and the temperament, but, in the practical part have been learned the following branches: the therapeutics (including the use of the sim ple and com bined drugs and medical receipts), setting of bones and less surgical graps. Also, during the same third of the 9th century valued the basic principles of the phy-sicians skills, establish in the Arab med i cine, which were modificided Greek manuscripts, with the important additions. It was interpreted six common principles of health and dis eas es as 6 “unnatural”. The Arab version of these modificated prin ci ples projects that, if these samples which hit the human constitution, cor rect ly and mod er ate ly applied, this will result by balance and gets man i fest ed in good health which someone keeps. Anyhow, if in this main principles, or any which from them, unnormaly manages, if they wrong ly get applied or achieve, then appear the inhalance in the hu man con sti tu tion which results with the desease. That what is in ter est ing is that the majority of these principles about which seriously dis cussed and which the Moslem physicians in the middle age are im por tant for the understanding of the scientists at the field of the medical science now a days (3).
Here are shortly six principles:
• The air of the ambient, for what they required clean air for the Moslem physicians repeatedely explain their conscienciousness of the fact that the polluted air and water are dangerous. Almost 11 hundred years backwards they emphasized the theory which is considered with nowadays main theme in its importance. They were persistant in that and, with right, that the unpoluted air in-sures the necessary elements for the keeping of the healthy living, while the pollution is the poision for the living organism;
• The regulation of taking the food and water, that is the mod er a tion in the diet. It means, in Islam there were interpreted in the clearly expressed statements as the diet considered as the ad di tion and nu tri tion of the body in the goal of the comensating of losses because of the work and the rest activities of the organs and ef-forts. That concept is still always accepted in the modern sci ence
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Picture 5. Ahmad ibn-Rushd (1126-1198)
Picture 6. Ahmed Al Biruni (973-1050)
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of the nutrition;
• Work and rest for the moderation in both cases for the main tance of good health;
• Keeping awake and sleeping, with the insisting on the mod er a tion of human daily work and the number of hours necessary for sleeping every day. This seems as an interesting consideration for the estimation of sleeping besides the rest in the sense of the modern con cepts which concern the necessity of sleeping in its different phases. Really several Moslim physicians as Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (1162-1232) determined the sleep in the most rational manner and spoke about its place, when the health is in question and the normal body function;
• The secreting and the maintaince, including the use of such things as are enema, laxative and the vomiting, by introducing of the drugs and even by drawing blood and the releasing from human body, the so called external secretions from the human body the so called secretions (sweating, and urinyzing);
• The physiological diseases of the emotionally reactions (Al-Ab dath an-Nafsaniyyah).
The most known physicians of the Islamic civilization em pha sized the importance of the interpreting and the application of the “med i cine sole” (At-Tibb ar-Ruhani). In this stheme have been pro claimed the medi-cal teacher and the clinician Abu Bakr Mohammed b. Zakariyya ar-Razi issued the immense book which carried the same title (trans lat ed and published in England 1950 year under the title “The spiritual physics of Razes” from A.J. Arberry). Ar-Razi was the first to write his enciclopaedic text “al-Mansuri” about the different aspects of skill of treatment of the diseases and the drugs as well as the keeping of the physical health. Soon was discovered that the real need existed in the similar texts about the diseases that the real need existed in the similar texts about the similar texts about the diseases of soul and their treat ments, and also its second known book about the soul medicine. These and other his books were known also in Latin language and the Eu ro pe an physicians have consulted even up to the Rennassance (4).
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Picture 7. Abdulah Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Zumbul al-Mahalli (Huneyn bin Ishak)
Picture 8. Moses ben Maimon (1135-1204)
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As the Islam medicine got ripened with the papers of Ar-Razija and his contemporaries in the 10 century, of the new medical theory and the concepts have also begun to appear. Here are 7 principles of the health as they are ramified and explained by Ar-Razija and arranged by the following order (3):
• The moderation of work and rest, the fact realized through the ancient physician education;
• The moderation in eating and drinking, the theory which Ar-Razi cordially proclaimed. He, for example, facing with the strong op po si tion, recommanded that to the patient should be given the certain freedom of diet which he wishes and encouraged him giving him the balanced nutritive meals. The traditional concept of Razes was to lessen the diet up to the extreme. Ar-Razi re quired the loosing of such rules and common sense by the phy si cian who should take into con sid er ation the human im por tance and the importance of the nutrition giv ing the patient the balanced diet;
• Elimination and the throwing out of the human external liq uid, including the urinization, sweating and drawing of the blood in the goal of the treatment;
• To live and stay in the healthy places for the lodging suggesting the importance of the hygienic encirclement and the soujourn, when an individual spents the most part of his time. Also, some should en sure the clean and the refreshing atmosphere at the place of the rest, the beautiful environment and the household - the things which also are considered nowadays important;
• Avoidance of the consideration, falling into the crises, and the surviving of the successive bad events, specially before than they be come uncontrolled and dreadful;
• The maintance of the harmonic endevours in the sense of the physiological ambitions, the emotional conflicts and their fun-da men tal resulting. Making so, a man can escape the emotional conditions which injure, as is the anger, unjustified fear, worries,
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Picture 9. Blood circulation ac-cording to ibn Sina
Picture 10. Pulmonary circulation according to ibn Nefis
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guilt and the unpardonable jelousy;
• Insurance of good, impetus and useful habits which become a part of the healthy and the productive daily living, giving the impetus to the greater achievements instead to become an ob sta cle.
2.1.3. Contribution of the Arabic medicine to the development of the pharmacy
The Arabic medicine had the great contribution in the de vel op ment of the pharmacy in general. The Arabs have introduced and im proved the techniques and the methods as are “evaporation”, “the fil trat tion” and “the destillation”. The Alembic, as and advice was used for the destillation, also, it was invested by the Arabs. Let’s say Rhazi is known according the use, that is, the introduction of the components live in the therapies. The Arabic pharmacists introduced the series of new forms of the dosages including the concentrated plant juices in the form of the pills, called Roob and Julep, as the sweetened drinks, that is mildly cooling syrup (something as menthol), the chocolate fruit (or dense mixture of fruits), sweet syrup with sugar, then Electuarium (pur ga tives mixed with honey or syrup) and the sweatened or silver pills (the pills to which we add something sweet, because they are bitter).
The word “Al-cohel” means “all fine components” that is, in the chemical sense, rephyned components, and in the foundation they re-late to the finest ground mixture of the galene and antymone sulphate, which is used for the making up or decorating of eyes.
The Arabs were not successful in the process of the destillation of alchole, but they were experts in the preparation of the pure scents. Spe-cially is known the rose water (or water with the scent of rose).
3. THE INFLUENCE OF ARABIC MEDICINE TO
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Picture 11. Illustrations from Persian manuscript (12th cen tu ry) of surgical and gynecological patients treatment
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MODERN ONE
3.1. The majority of arabic medicineThe medicine is one of the oldest human activities. Its hystory and
the development in every people very closely are connected with so-cial ly-eco nom ic, cultural and other circumstances, and especially with the development of the natural knowledges. One from the sig nif i cant pe ri od in the development of the medicine in general, and especially of
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Picture 11. Visus the- o ry according to ibn Haitham
Picture 12. Hospital for the insane (1228-29) with department for in fec tion, sur gi cal, internal and eyes diseases founded by Malikaturan Malik in Divrig, Turkey
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the middle aged medicine belongs to the Arabic med i cine. True, all the works have appeared in the period of the Arabic knowledges have not originated only from Moslim authors, and their religious classification would not completely correspond to the re al i ty. The Arabic civ i li za tion is the result of the consecutive, persistant and the con tin ueed efforts of the majority of people, regardless which religion they are, race or co lour of the skin they were, and which religion they are, race or colour of the skin they were, and which lived and produced at the rich and great Arab region. It is irrefutable also this that the Arabic language during the whole middle aged pe ri od was the language of the in tel lec tu al progress in the total Moslim world. It was “the true means of the international exchange of the different knowledges and techniques”, as that constated one from the great thinkers and the physicians of that period Al-Biruni.
The significant reason that the Arabic medicine had and gave a great number of phylosophers, thinkers and physicians, was the strong Arabic state with extraordinary stable internal situations at the great space of the Near and the Middle East, and part of Africa as well as the southwest Europe. Anyhow that the significant role in that played the rich Arabic language, the Arabic letter and the Arabic culture. Thanks to the Arabic visits the Arabic knowledge and the culture will in the course of several centuries widen on the front Asia, then med i ter ra nean, and through the Arabia and according the Far East. The con quer ing visits of the Arabs had no only military and social-political effects in many rich countries with high culture which the Arabs conquered than will the conqueres assume the culture and the customs of the conquered countries, further to develop it and on that way advance the own culture and the civiliza-tion, of which the blooming will radiantly last till the XIV century.
The majority of the Arabic medicine, of whose the period rise and the greatest blooming covers with “the golden age of the great Arabic state”, lies in that the four Arabic halife (the supreme religious rulers), from which is Al-Memun gave his greatest contribution to the found- ing of the translating schools from foreign language strengthen by the arguments of the basic Islam religion and so defend the Islam. On this way, thanks to the Greek, Indian, Persion, Hebrew and the Arabic phy-
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Picture 13. Cover page of the book “Continens of Rhazes”, written by Rhazes
Picture 14. Cover page of the book “Canon of med i-cine”, written by ibn Sina
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los o phy cal and the medical reviews at the science and the life in gen er al, the Moslims will create the different subtle intellectual aspects which will become the basis of the Islam civilization all up-to nowadays. Thanks to the Arabic phylosophers and the physicians the total Antique cul tur al inheritance, and the inheritance of the other great civilization, will find its refugee at the immense spaces of the Near and the Middle East, Africa and Spain. The appearance and the abrupt widening of Islam as an idea and the practice produced the appeorance of the world culture which for thousands years erradiated to the human race. But after that their carriers have abondened the principles of Is lam about the re search es, work and making contemporary, the Arabic medicine gave the foun da tions and the impetus to Europe and west that through the Ren nais sance and the humanism begins the civ i li za tion which nowadays dom i nates. “If there were no Spain, would Europe could (beginn to) shine!” - the allusion is of the famous Zija-pasha on the Arabic visit into Eu rope and richly culturally and spiritually in her it ance which the Arabs with themselves have brought in Spain.
At least five ages the most important Arabic physicians trans lat ed are the best medical works from Greek, Indian, Persian, Hebrew and other languages, and then by its observations, examinations and the experience have supplemented the matters and overgave to the new generations. In the pleiod of the great names from the golden age the Arabic medicine we shall separate only several greatest and most sig nif i cant, which have with his works obligated the total medicine science and practice: All at-Taberi, Ahmed at-Taberi, Ar-Razi (Latin Rhazes), Ali ibn al-Abbas al-Magusi (Latin Haly), Ibn al-Baitar, Ibn al-Qasim al-Zagrawi (Latin Abulcasis), Ibn Sina (Latin Avicena), Ibn al-Haitam (al-hazen of the West), Ibn abi al-Ala Zuhr (Latin Avenzor), Ibn Ru{d (Lat in Averroes) and Ibn un-Nefis. Every of the numbered giants of the Arabic medicine on his way obligated the medical science and rest the durable stamp in the his-tory of the medicine. It should too much space that the specificums of every from them in detail we describe. The majority of them on West well know also are inserted in the textbooks literature as the donators of the significant of the Middle dark century, would be pale and prosaic, insufficientely studied and un com pre hend ed. Unfortunately, on our
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Bosnian, and on the wider former Yugoslav spaces about all medicine giants very little was written and still more is known. There were rare those, like chief of a staff dr Hamdija Kre{evljakovich prof. dr [a}ir Sikirich, Mustafa ef. Busulad‘ich, Me hmed ef. Hand‘ich and still some other orientalists nonmedicians which have explored the rich historycal material about the famous Arabic physicians and something from that material have translated, com ment ed and published.
From the pleiad of great Arabic physicians we shall seperate two untouchable physicians encyclopaedists - Ibn Sinaa-Avicenna and Ibn Nefis, whose some of papers were translated inte our language.
3.2. The basic signifi cances of the middle age Islamic medicineFrom the end of the 11th till the beginning of the 17th century
the west European medicine is being swamred from Latin translations of the Medical works from the Arabic languages. That arabism begins with Konstantin African (Constantinus Africanus), which according the to the order of that time Norman duke made the translations of the several significant works for the medical school at Salerno by Naple, one from the first medical schools in general. He translated more known medical manuscripts from the Arabic into the Latin language, that is the Arabic translations of the works of the Greek physicians, for ex am ple Hippocrate and Galen, and also the original works of the Arabic physicians from their mother tonge. True, later will be established that are partially well preserved the translations incomplete with the om mi sions, and some are also incorrect, but are though to the European physicians opened the door into the treasury of the known Greek and the Arabic works. Those translation activiies were very expressed and actual in the 12th century, especially in Spain, and in the 13th century live to see its apix and stable remain even till the beginning of the 16th century. After the discovery of Spain, many translations have been wid ene den with the printing into the other parts of Europe and the World. Regarding to that these transla-tions originate from the Arabic lan guage, so that the science on which they related was called the “Arabic med i cine”. The Arabic medicine is,
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by major part remained at the tradition and the experiences of the Greek medicine and belonged to the cultural inheritance which the Islamic people overtook from the Helen tra di tion. By the conquering wars of Alexander the Great penetrated, by the Greek culture, also the medicine into the fields of Orient, where has later dilligently cared and advanced by the own tradition “The rep re sen ta tive medicine” and by the experi-ences of the treatment from that pe ri od. On the region of Asia Small will appear a lot of the famous phy si cians from which some have lived to see the glory like Hippo crates (463-405) and Galens’ (129-201), whose skill system in the treat ment was by centuries untouchable, both in the countries of the East, as well as in the conutries of West. The government of the Greek med i cine pro longed also after the cessation of the high political Vyzantine empire onto the other civilization and people. Even in Persia, which und er Sasanidime (224-641) almost constanely was in war, they ap prea ci at ed the Greek science.
3.3. Characteristics of the medicine before the appearances of the gods’ representative Mohammed a.s.
When the king Justinian 529 year closed the Academy in Athenes be cause it was the location of the atheists of the neoptolomists, the ex-pelled professors of this Academy found the asylum at the High school in Gundeschapur. That school long existed and gave the hundreds of the shooled and capable physicians. Among its pupil is also the Ara bi an al-Harit Ibn Kalada, which lived in Taifi during the Goods’ rep re sen-ta tive Mohammed s.a.v.s., but his activity has not remained the sig nif i-cant traces. The treatments methods which applied Beduins leant at the traditional medicine. The particular significance remained the so called “The representative medicine” which faithfully was leant at the Kuran princpiles and the hadises of Gods’ representative Mohammed s.a.v.s. which related to the health and treatment of the ill people, and strictly recommended hygienic regulations.
The Islam proclaims the maintaince of health by the special duty of every man, so towards that to a man consequentely prohibids to live and behave on the damage of his health. In that sense are significant the Islamic regulations about the cleaness, about the removal of the cleeness,
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about the prohibition of the use of the definite food and drink and similar. It is known that the Gods’ representative Mo hammed s.a.v.s. dillignetely took the drugs according the advice of his phy si cians, and also directed his followers to do that when it was necessary. He used to say: “For every disease there is the remedy, so if it is guessed and finds the remedy of a disease -it will - by Gods’ help - be cured... except the old age and death”. Also, is mentioned his expression “The God has done none disease, and not to give the remedy for it”, what know those who are known and learned, and do not know the ig no rants.” The Islamic regulation and the nursery plants will become later the resource for the blooming of the medical knowledges. Regarding to that the battle for the maintaince of the human healht from the various diseases the old practically how much also the man on earth, normally is to suppose that the every human community had some kind of the medicine that is the treatment, so according to that, can be freely said that in the Rep-re sen ta tive time, the first Moslim community had its Arabic na tion al med i cine and its experiences. All what Mohammed s.a.v.s. took for treat ment or recommmanded to his friends, that is approved as useful for the treatment, his biographs and the Islamic physicians, later have col lect ed into the documents under the title “The representative med i-cine”. That chapter later will become one field in the General Islamic medicine, but on the basis of which will later in the Islamic world the medicine develop into the right medical science, with the famous hos-pi tals. This Islamic medical science will incorporate in itself almost all the medical achievements goods of the old civ i li za tions, especially the Greek and The Indian one.
3.4. The period of the building and the de vel op ment of the light Islamic medical traditions
The social-economic, cultural and other flows and the relations have changed gradually, beginning immediately after the Representative movement 632 year, and then by the migration of the Arabic peoples and widening of the might of the halifs (top religeous rulers of all the Moslims). For less than 1 hundred years the Arabs have conquered the great spaces - widen to the West to Spain and on the East to Indonesia
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and India. In these countries, which have by good part belonged to the empire of Alexander the Great, they got known the tradition of the Helenism, and with that also the Greek medicine. They had the chance to meet and to know the thinkers and the physicians of the different people and ethnyc groupations, consequentely the people, who are well educated as the physicians and whose the medical knowledges and the experiences heartily were put at the disposal to the Arabic, that is, to the new rulers at the disposal. How the main city of the Arabic empire then became Damask, so also the personal physicians Omedia (660-750) were most often the Syrian Christians.
The samples of the that time educated halifs (the top religous rulers of all the Moslims) followed also their mayors, that is the rulers of the towns. So for example the representative of the king of the east ern part of the empire, al-Haggag, in his service had one Christian and one Hebrew physician. The Arabs themsleves during their government rul ing used to decide to attend the difficult and estimated the medicine study ing and they treated with physician profession. They belonged to the gentlemen class and besides the production of the arms, they es ti mat ed only the treatinng with the merchendise, as something what is especially worthy of to a free man. The giants of the empire put under its protection: the poets, singers and the composers, but not also the sci en tists. It is often as the oldest Arabic physician mentioned Masarqis or Masargawaih. He during the ruling of Marwana (ruled 683 years) translated the medical book of Alexander Presbytera Aaron from the Syrian into Arabic lan-guage and then widened two chapters. He lived in the second of the 8th century in the town Basra, and by the origin he was a Jew.
But the Arabs could not continously keep the position of the priv-iliged high class. By the Arab people, between the upper layers and their subjects, appeared the clash, and then began the circle get closed as soon as those from the classes of the subjects get converted to Islam and were accepted into the Arab tribes. These Neomoslims played in the agricul-ture a great role. They are unsatisfied with the newly became relations accompanied into the oppositional groups and significantly contributed of the overturn of the government of Omeiada and es tab lish ment of
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the abaside of halifat (halif - top religious ruler of all the Moslims) (750-1258 year) in which the different nations equally could make assimilate one besides the other. So the Islamic traditions became more and more stronger and began to come to the expression in the countries of the Arabic region. When Bagdad was proclaimed by the capital town, the east part of the empire comes still more to the ex pres sion. Already in the second per order the abaside the top religious ruler of all the Moslems (halif) al-Mansur (ruled 754-775) called the main head of the hospital in Gonde{apur, Nestorian Christian from the fam i ly Bakti{u into Bagdad, and examined his duty of a physician at the court. His descedents, as physicians till 11th century, they will play the great role in the physician duties at court. Soo after that arrive at the halifs’ court also the physi-cians from India. One of them healed the halif Harun ar-Ra{id. At the same time the many numerous books of the Indian medicine, as well as ^arak and [eruta, were translated into Arabic language.
If the Indian medicine was in Abasid empire well known, shows also the description of Ali Ibn Rabban al-Tabarija (850 year) who gave in his medical encyclopaedia. Though the Indian influence is gets lim it ed, as that confirms the orientalist Majerhof only the means for treat ment and some procedures of healing. By this could seriously lessen the influ-ence of the Greek medicine. This demonstrates the immense num bers of the works of the Greek medicians which were translated into the Arabic language of the 8th century. However, although the majority of the physicians up-to-that time were Christians, Jews, Zaratustra and other, and to which is closer was the Syrian than the Arabic language, appeared the need for the medical books in Arabic language. So began already in the 8th century with translations of the Syrian works trans lat ed from the Greek original into the Arabic language. Its top lived to those translated literature during halifa al-Mamun (who ruled 813-833 year) and Mutazille, when dominates the theologic direction, which tries that the definite religious suppositions of the Arabic Islam changes into the rationalism, supported by the Greek phylosophy.
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3.5. The Arabic physicians schools and physiciansIn order that the unheretence of Helenism on the fields of the so
called “the old sci ence” (phy los o phy, math e mat ics, as tron o my, natural sci enc es and the med i cine) again ot to life, halif al-Ma mun he based “the house of wis dom” (Bait al-hikma), that is the trans la tion school, in which also Greek works from the mentioned fields most often were translated from Syr i an, but from time to time also the Greek original works into the Ar a bic lan guage. The special personality among the trans la tors in this school was Hun ain Ign Ishaq (809-873), the Nestorian Christian from the old Bish op town Hir be sides Kuf. There is his records in which he numbers 129 Galen works and by that differentiates them into those which are trans lat ed into Syrian and those onto Arabic lan guage, then who was the translator of these works, by which com mand the transla-tor the work has translated etc. Besides that the pe ri od i cal ly are found also the re marks about the value of the trans lat ed works. Hunains’ par-tic i pa tion was significant. The number fo Galens’ works which he by himself, or using the older translations of the other trans la tors trans lat ed into Syr i an and the Ar a bic translation. From his son Ishaq (died 910 year) orig i nate two Syrian and 10 Arabic translations, while his nephew Hu bai{ represented with 37 Arabic and 3 Syrian trans la tions. By this trans la tions Hunain and his pupils helped that Galen to replace by cen-turies ruling position in the countries of East and West. Hunain work by this has not limited only on Galen. From Hyppo crate he translated the aphorisms while the rest his works had trans lat ed his pupils. Besides that he translated the Synopsis from Oribasius, seven books from Paul from Egine (Agina), and known work “Materia medica” from Di osk o rides. He was a good translator of the Greek and the Arabic language and he did not trans late word by word, but has done a sentence per sentence, according their sense. Besides that he found also the time for his practice - he was a personal physician of halife al-Mutawakkila (he ruled 847-861 year), but also for his personal writing. He wrote the med i cal book in the form of questions and an swers - “Ten compositions about eye”, the oldest systematic supposition of medicine of eye (it is thought at the anat o my and the treat ment), which reached to West.
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About the medicine study in Bagdad we get to know from Hun ain ov’ above mentioned documents, in which is written how his Chris tian col-leagues daily collected in their school in order to read and in ter prete the master works, and the lecture and comments of these works would stay there for the private studying.
In Hunain’s opinion, at the same way was studied the medicine in Alexandria. Daily was read and interpreted one from twenty main Ga len works and that according to the so called Alexander type, while the rest Galen’s books vary for itself has read, after he studied twenty main works.
3.6. To them belongs the greatest glory in the medicineThe blooming of the Arabic medicine falls in time from 900-1200
year, on whose herehead stands the great thinker and the phy si cian of the Zakarriyyaa ar-Rhazes, one of the greatest practicioner which gave the Islamic middle age. Razi was born about 870 yeara in Raiy in the neareaness of today Teheran in the Moslim family. He studied more directions, that in Bagdad finally turned the studying of the medicine in one pupil Hunain b. Ishaq. He was the personal physician of the mayor Rei and the manager of the hospital, while the political fer men ta tion were not compelled to travel to Bagdad. In the age came back to the fatherland, where he about 925 year died.
As a wise man Razi demonstrated the great independance. In the chemistry he refused all the speculations and exactly we decribed his experiments. As a physician he showed the same empiric spirit. In his diary he care ful ly noticed the behaviour of their patients and gave in the work “about the measles and the krzamak” of the disease picture, which because its accuracy deserve the admiration. In the other hand he gathered almost all the medical knowledge of his time into the en cy clo pe dia, which he deducated to the mayer of Rei al-Mansur. According to him is called the “Mensura medicine” (the of treatment - at-tibb al-Mansuri).
This work was translated into Latin language and from 1481 year several times reprinted; first of all the ninth book was dedicated to the therapy, which was till the 17th century in Europe beloved book for
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learn ing. Still all the comprehensive his work about the Greek med i cine, which he wrote in old age and which remained incompleted.
For every disease are here found the explanations of the Greek, Syr-ian, Arabic, Persian and Indian authors, the Bhudda, and his per son al considerations and the experiences. The work was translated into Latin language under the title “Liber continens” and to the 16th cen tu ry more times printed.
The most known encyclopaedia of the Arabic medicine originates from the physician and the phylosopher Abdulah Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037). He was born in the evnironment of Buhare 980 year and had carefully bringing up. His father was a high clerk in the government, he belonged to the extreme [iit (lawyer) sect of the seven, so that his sys tem of learning rested on the “old science”, and as a boy he aquired the education from logics and astronomy, and then he studied the phys-ics and the medicine. With his 17 year of life he succeeded to recover the ruler of the country from up-to-that time unrecovered disease. That success enabled him the approach to the library from the knight. As he had particularly remebrance and the ability of the quick com pre hen sion, in the mentioned library he read here all the possible what rested at the old science and requred the special knowledges in phylosophy, natural sciences and the medicine, about what testify also his written works.
The unquiet times which appeared in Buhara compelled him to leave the country and uncontinousely he moves from one county to the another, where his physician abilities have brought him the high repu-tation. He died 1037 in Hamadan on the occasion of the visit with the knight from Ishafana as his personal physician. His main medical work is the Cannon (al-Qanum fit-tibb). In fact the medical en cy clo pae dia which in five books gives the systematic supposition of the med i cine, by which ibn Sina amounts his main observations and ex pe ri enc es. In the 12th century the book was translated into the Latin language and had the significant influence at the European medicine. The Ar a bic original issued 1583 in Roma in a great number and was the first comprehensive Arabic text, which was printed in Europe.
The exact sciences of the Islamic world achieved the greatest tar get
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in the physics and first of all in the optics. There they gave the immense and the original contribution to the mankind. The primar merit for this belongs to one man which because of his inventions considers the first inventor after Ptolomey in the optics. This is Ibn Hejsem (Ibn al-Haitham al-Misri, died 1038 year), known to the middle age Europe as Alhazen. This Arab, who is born in Basra, and the most fertile part of life has spent in Cairo, aquired the reputation and name in Europe when his main work about optics translated into the Latin language 1270 year the Polish mathematician, physician and phylosopher Vitelio (the real name is Erazam ^olek) under the title “Opticae thesaurus” (the Arabic original is lost). On that work in the great mea sure founded their papers about the optics Bacon and the rest of that time writers, and has influ-ence even by Leonardo da Vinci and Kepler. He made the foundations to the dyoptics, much more perfect from the Greek one. On occasion of one eclipse of the Sun Ibn Hejsem has on the wall of the room observed the halfmoon picture of the Sun op po site to the fine hole made at the window. This is in fact the first recorded re mem brance about the dark chamber... Ibn Hejsem stood up against Pto lom ej and Euklide theory about nature of the appearance (ac cord ing which the eye sends the rays to the object of the observations). He treated by the examination of the sphere and parabolic mirrors and deeply had put the nature of the otpic focuses, enlargements and in ver sions. He was at the treshhold of the inventions of the optic lens, what practically was performed only three centuries later in Italy.
The most original thinker among the Islamic scientists of that time at the turning point of the century was Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (972-1048). He origanated from Horezmiae. After manyfold studies he goes to the court of the ruler of Gurganja (at the south east coast of the Caspian Sea), where he wrote his known book “The chronology of the old people”. After the return into the fatherland he lived at the court of the ruler, but after his dethrowing 1017 year, he had to leave Horezma and the rest of his life he spent inGhazna in Aphganistan. From Ghazne he visited the North India, where he wrote the book “The travels per India”, in which by facts and without prejudes writes about hinduism, religion and phylosophy. Although with the medecine treated in detail, al-Biruni has
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not about that science written either significant book. In the old age he has written “Pharmacopaea” - a book about the drugs (as-Saidan fit-tibb). Such works with the great significance in which is stat ed the knowing of the drugs by the physician there is in the Arabic language in the great number. Often the books and the en cy clo pae di ae contains the lists with the mixed drugs. They rest on the Greek works as “Materia medica” by Dioskorida and Galen manuscripts - the works “About the simple means for the treatment”, but they show the in fu l ence of the drugs from Persia and other Asian countries. In al-Birunijev’ pharmacopaea, from which nowadays exists only the forword which is translated, it mentioned 850 drugs. Every greater article contains first the name of the definite drug iin Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian language, and periodically also in other Asian languages, after that come the exceptions from the expert litarature and the data about the view and the action of the got up to drug, its origin, of the different kind, about the falsifying and the sup-pstituing. But the greater in flu ence upon the countries of the West that work had not.
The middle aged Islam had no specialists in the medicine, except in the field of the treatment of the eyes.For the oculists existed the special expression: kahval, taken from shining, from which was not made only the colouring for the dying into the black eyelids, than also some other means for the eyes. The ophtalmologic medicine is the field in which the European physicians have far overcome their Greek an te ced ents. The most indipendable among them contains the ex traor di nary disease pictures and the catharracts operation descriptions on eyes. He in vent ed the empty needle, by which assistance he could op er ate the soft sathar ac ta by means of the sucking in. In spite of these advantages, Am ma ra s ov’ book was quickly ckecked by the book with the practical sam ples under the name “The manual for the oph tal mol o gists”, which at the same time the Bagdad Christian Ali Ibn Isa (Jesu Holy) has writ ten. Here the author first wrote the anatomy of the eye, then the ex ter nal visual part, and after that the systematically seperated its internal dis eas es, and by this also the addition with the list from 140 drugs.
In the other hand the physician for wounds, has not enu mar rat ed
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into the physicians than he was the assistance in the treatment as a put-ter of one’s bones together (mugabbir), which the broken ex trem i ties put on its place.
The religious prejudices hindered the section of the corps, so that the anatomic knowledges were insignificant. But the Arabic med i cine gave the contribution also in that field, demonstrates the medical Va-de mecum of the Cordovanian court physician Abu l-Qasim Halaf b. al-Abdus az-Zahrawija (Albucasis, died 1013 year). The chapter of his book was dedicated to the surgery and rests predominently at the sixth book Paulus Aginea, but contains also the significant additions and the pic tures through hundred instruments which were important for the de-vel op ment of the European surgery, from which the majority in vent ed and described the author himself.
The greatest number of the physicians, about of which life there are good data. About less successful colleages periodically was heard and written.
3.7. The fi rst Arabic hospitals and the public healthThe Islamic medicine became first known through nonMoslim data.
That are also the hospitals had nonmoslem models, demonstrates also the Persian name (bimaristan, maristan). The first hospital in Islam was the memorial of Harun ar-Ra{id in Bagdad.
The Barmakidi, who were thrown of 803 year, as is already men tioned, put for the manager of the hospital which founded, an Indian. The short time after that, adviced Tahir, the mayor Chorosana his son, in one popular description about the art of the town, that he should build for the believers of the hospital, to establish the management and bring the physicians. The main city of Egypt became his first hospital during the government of Ahmed Ibn Tulun 874 year. It was intended for the civil inhabitants, especially the poor. To the soldiers was fo bid den the treatment in them. Who would announced for the hospital, had to his cloak and the valuable things evergive by the manager, by the discharge he got them back. The treatment, including the drugs and the sojourn at the hospital was free of charge. To the hospital belonged females and
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males the bathroom, water supplies and the mosque. The physic patients were locked in the cells. Ibn Tulun visited the hospital every Friday as he could gets convicted that the patients, invalids and the physically ill patients, well provided for and treated. In its court mosque besides that has made the chemists’ shop in which every Friday one physician free of charge treated and gave the advices.
In Bagdad hospital, by the beginning of the 10th century was known Sinan Ibn Tabit (died 942 year), which was also the personal physician of halife al-Muqtadire (ruled 908-923 year) and al-Qahira (ruled 932-934 year). He originated from Harran the old Carrahae, and he belonged to the Sabin religion, but per the pressure of al-Qahirsa, he converted to Islam. Year 916 he ruled with five Bagdad hospitals. Ac cord ing to his in-ducement, were opened also the other hospitals alomg side the em pire.
One year in the empire ruled the great epydaemia of the in fec tious diseases, and the vezir Ali Ibn Isa gave the command to Sinan to take care about that as the priseners who diseased had the daily phy si cian care. The vezir even thought also on the diseased in the fields where there were no physicians and directed Sinan to think about that. This should take care also about that how he could sent physicians, and that by this the physician assistance must not be limited only to the Mos lems, but also to, as at the hospitals of the main town, nonmoslems also would be provided for. When 931 year one patient died because of the wrong physician treatment, commanded halif al-Muqfadir that in the practice could work only those physicians who were checked by Sinan and who got his testimony. Although in this command some court physicians were excluded from the practice performance, though their number at the exam by Sinan exceeded the cypher from 360. How ev er, that access could not exclude the charlatans and the quacks to further do their job.
The physicians as the rest halifs the subjects were supervised by the inspectors (muhtasib). That clerk had the role to supervise also in the private life the valuable regulations should not be injured. There ex ist ed very relevant valid regulations for the physicians, who were to be found in the police mannual by Ibn al-Uhuwwa (died 1329 year). They were not valid only for the Egypt in the time of Mamfuk, than they existed
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also earlier. Reliably is known that the physicians created a guild and had their representative. From them was expected that ev ery day visit a patient, that the closer relatives overgive their receipt, which in case of death of a patient could overgive to the commission phy si cian, so in case of the deontologic violation the inheritance could search for the damage. In front of the inspectors would the physician had to give Hippocrates’ oath: the physician would give his oath that he will not anybody give the drug which is harmful, that he will not give the means for the abortion, to males the means for the prevention of the con cep tion, that by the visit to patients if are the women present, the view direct according the floor, that he will not to anybody discover the secret, that he will not anybody lead into the unpleasant situation. The ophtalmologists have to prove that they have pass the exam, that they govern with Hunains’ “The ten articles about the diseases”. By this is rimided to pay the at-tention on the charlatans dulists who in the streets work and do not possess any expert knowledge.
They which put the bones (mugabbirun) should also be checked whether they studied the sixth book by Paulus from Agine, and wheth er they know 148 bones of the human body. The physicians who are treat- ing with the wounds (goraden) finally have to know Galens’ work about the injuries and the oinments (creams) for the wound.
3.8. How the Arabic medicine widens into EuropeAfter the 11th century dissapear the golden time of the Arabic
med i cine. Though and after 1100 year appears the series of the known phy si cians who emphasized themselves according to their indipendency. Es pe cial ly in that emphasized Marocco, where the Islamic phylosophy lived to see the subsequent blooming and by that contributed also to the medicine. So Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar, about 1091-1161 year), the per son al physician of Almohade the knight Abd al-Mumin in Seville, he con sid-ered that in medicine the experience the best guide. He was the first who described the ulcers, abscesses of the heart pericardium, he knew the artificial feeding or through the aesophagus or through the large intensitive and recommended the section at the trachea. He orginated
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from the famous physician family, his cousin was known as a midwife and understood the female diseases, the field which in the Arabic med i-cine had no special role.
The friend of Ibn Zuhrov was the phylosopher Ibn Ru{d (Aver roes, 1126-1198) who in his work “The main rules inthe treatment” (al-Kul-liyat fit-tibb) expresses as a follower and an interpreter of Aristotel phy-los o phy, and in physiology and in psychology criticizes Galen. In Latin translations is kept the Arabic title in the form of “Colliget”.
Also, is the Jew religious phylosopher Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon, 1135-1201 year) origanated from Spain. During the gov ern ment of Almohad the Jews and the Christians were expelled, so that also their father together with him abondened the fatherland. After the uniquiet life and the peasants, he lived in Egypt. Here he got such a reputation, that the sultan Saladin, and later also his son al-Malik took for his per-sonal physician. Among his works is emphasized one with round 1500 aphorisms - the expert arranged examination of Galen sys tem, where in the 25th chapter Majmon Galen pointed to 40 con tra dic to ries. For al-Malik al-Ajdala he wrote Maimonides dialectics, which as an aphorism was translated into the Latin language. Besides that he wrote the valuable book from farmacopaea.
The most significant physician in Cairo in the 13th century was Alaud din Ibn an-Nafis (died 1288 year). Especially he was influenced by pre pared one excerption from Ibn Sinaov Cannon (Mud‘ez el-Kanun), which still in that century was studied in India. Also he wrote more comments about the works of the old medical authors. Besides that there was the indipendable scientists - thinker - whose critics were ac- cept ed in older authorities. So is with enough accuracy described the lung blood circulation. As the works of Ibn an-Nafis were not trans lat ed into Latin language, so also the lung circulation flow, in the coun tries of East remained unknown, while it did not 1556 year Michael Ser ven-tus, without knowledge of his antecedents, discovered again. Not long after death of Ibn an-Nafis Cairo got by the (charitable) foun da tion of mamlush sultan al-Mansur Qualawuka 1281 year its most known hos-pi tal (al-Maristan al-Mansur’). That monumental building survived the
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storms of time, and when has Pascal Coste between 1818 and 1825 year subscribed and noticed the monuments of Cairo, could even no tice and every individual room and the Halls for patients, for example for those who were in the phasis of the recovery, every seperated ac cord ing to the sexes, the cell for psychic ill, the location of the main phy si cian who lived in the hospital and by it ruled, the rooms for the skin phy si cian, a physician for wounds, the hall for the supervision and the gur d i an, the kizchen, storehouses and the rest following rooms. It was the antecendent of the nowadays modern hospitals.
The black death, the great epydemia of the plague in the 14th cen-tu ry devastated in 1349 year across Spain and gave to the two Mauri phy si cians the motive to write a book about their experiences. One from them was from Granada, Ibn al-Hatib (died 1374 year), another the phy-si cian from Almeria according the name Ibn Hatime. Both dis cov ered the infectious character of the plague and they did not without hes i ta tion those knowledges about the plague clearly to discover in their books. By this they put themselves into the disfavor of the rulers and the mil lieu, because at the plague was looked at as the God per for mance.
3.9. Far East continued the Arabic medical traditionsHowever, in the East countries of the Islamic world lived also fur-
ther the Arabic medicine, only here besides the Arabic was applied the Persian language under Sasanidima (892-999 year). One of the ear li ert h medical works from this field is the kept newpersian work from phar-ma ce paea (originates from the second half of the 9th century). By the arrival of Sel|uk the Arabian language more and more was pushed out. From the one still insufficientely expressed documents from these coun-tries, is seperated the mannual from the anatomy, which in 1396 year wrote Mensur Ibn Mohammed. That book from which has in 1847 year in Delhy issued one lytographic edition, describes (into five parts): the bones, nervs, muscles, veins and artheries. The contents it self does not diserve great attention, but much more deserve the il lus tra tions through five anatomic drawings, with which from time to time comes to the picu-tres of the arterial system of a pragnant woman. These il lus tra tions have
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because its similarity with the corresponding draw ings in the med i cal works of Europe, manyfold occupied the medical historyians, es pe cial ly from the period of Ludwig Choulants. However, the his to ry ans of the medicine could not succeed with safety establish whether they rest on the Greek samples.
Hundred years later with the decrease of Granada 1492 year and by the expelling of Mauras, and with the discovery of America, with the sailing around of Africa elevated the new time for Europein which schedule is the great stroke had also the science. The influence of Ar a-bism in the medicine kept itself deeply till the 16th century, partially and to the 17th century and in the individual fields as for example in the oph thal mo log ic medicine and pharmacy even still the 18th cen tu ry. How ev er, al ready in the 16th century have the heliocentric systems of Co pernik, Galilay’s, laws of falling down, Keplers’ explanations of plan et move ments. Newtons’ mechanics of the sky bodies, had de stroyed the geo cen tric picture of the world of the Middle century and the phy los o-phy on which it was founded.
Simultaneously in the science and the medicine penetrated the ex-per i men tal method and its value has shown, not only as the theory cor-rection, but also the primary source of knowledge. By this were ex ceed ed the deductive systems from the past which rest on the syl lo gisms. In the anatomy appeared at last the interruption with Galen learning by the discoveries and interpretations of Vesalius 1543 year; to the physiology the new foundations gave William Harvey 1618 year discovering the blood circulation. On the contrary, in Islamic coun tries has kept the Arabic medicine its old place and only insignificantly seperated from the modern civilization, especially after Napoleons ex pe di tion into Egypt, when that country opened to the European civ i li za tion.
In the course of the 19th century the medicine of the countries of the setting Sun has become known in almost all the Islamic countries. So the Arabic medicine has of course still nowadays (tibb yunani, unani medicine) has become the location of the IndoMoslim modernism, which is introduced 1927 year at the University Aligarh Muhamedan Anglo-Oriental College. Year 1938 was opened there, also the hospital in which
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could be applied this medicine. Also in Dacca, the capital town of the East Pakistane was opened, not as on University, then as the private medical school (Tibbia College), and that the thirthies years, hoping to wake up the old art of the treatment, leaning at the European medicine.
3.10. Final considerationsThe Islamic culture, including also its contribution of the bio med i cal
sciences, esepcially of the medicine, achieved the greatest de gree of the development between 9th and 11th century, and has brought also the significant number of the new, very important discoveries dur ing 12th, 13th and 14th centuryes. At that time the West only began to waken up from the dark Middle century and to the 12th century up to the period of the Rennaissance through the translations and the copies in the countries from the dark Middle age. From 12th century and to the period of the Rennaissance, through the translations and copies in the countries of the Pyrrinay and the Appenine paninsula, the Arabic medi-cal manuscripts became available in Latin language. Because of the bad quality of the translation the original medical manuscripts of the Arabic physicians and thinkers lost on the quality, by which the more dilligent translations of the later versions received at their value. But, in spite the bad quality of the translations of this manuscripts in to latin and other languages at the level of the medical education in the west University medical centers, these versions revived the spirit of the science in the west Europe during the whole Middle age.
The Islamic authors of the medical and other works have be come very known for West, but under well changed names, as for ex am ple Razes for Ar-Razia, Avicenna for Ibn Sina, Alhazen for Ibn Hai th am, Avenzoar for Ibn Zuhr, Avveroes for Ibn Ru{d etc. Up to those changes in the names has not come at any case come accidentally. This was the result of the religious striving to the cultural worls of the West, and not to speak about the plebs, only the giants are represented wich was imp-possible to avoid. It is indusputable the great contribution of the Islamic authors to the development of the biomedical sciences. They n ot only succeeded to preserve the achievements of the pre Islamic authors, than
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they by the own researches gave the great contribution to the develop-ment of these sciences and their disciplines, and they have overgiven to us as a dowry.
4. CONCLUSIONThe Arab medicine bloomed is the course of only several cen tu ries.
The Arabs have made the great achievments by the basing of the li brar ies rich with the books, and by the foundation of the hospitals and schools in which had been studied the medicine. Indisputably is that are known the papers of the great Arab physicians and the sci en tists, who have united at the same time also the good part of the ancient phylosophy, played the stimulative and the crucial role in the de vel op ment of the west medicine. The knowledges added later directely from the Greek resources in time of the humanism and the Rennasance gave the great contribution in the development of the total medicine or their individual disciplines.
It is interesting, and historycally very significant that the torch of the phylosophical and scientific thought from the ancient Greeks, that is their written text, have not over taken the European im me di ate ly, but the Islamic Arabs, well one people directly from the Orient. Only at the transpass from Middle age into the New one, begins the development of the science at the European west, after that earlier has changed the relation of the Catholic church according to the learning of the ancient pagen classics. The church namely frightened that this learning would bring to danger the Christian religion. However, by the Arabic Moslims, that is to the Islam, the studying of the Greek classics have not at least disturbed and they deliggentely translated from the Greek into the Ar a-bic language almost all the more significant papers of Aristotel, Eu klide, Arhimed, Ptolomey, and others. Knowing with the Moslim schools, especially in Spain, with the Arab translations of the Greek philosophic and scientific documents, and also with the cor re spond ing con tri bu tions of the Arabs themselves, the west etudiants of these souc es began to translate by themselves, this time first from the Arabic language, and later directly from the Greek into Latin language and the contents of these comments, introductions into the own univer isties, which in Europe are being based especially in the 14th century. After all, the Europeans
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have in the Arabic, that is Islam culture and knowl edge, although none was their goal, got to know -through the crusader wars.
Not without irony could be said that the Islam through the Ar abs helped the Christian west to get connected with the knowledge of the ancient Greeks and so base the own science, and that base his own sci-ence, and that for that unestimated service later the Islam world thank to the souless colonizations in that world, as well as to the un crit i cal islamophobya according to him. The certain echo of this re la tion could perceive which time and in some segments of the In ter na tion al atmo-sphere about the agression on Sarajevo and B&H.
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References
1. Izet Ma{i} i sar. Historija zdravstvene i socijalne kulture Bosne i Hercegovine, 1993., str. 48.
2. Izet Ma{i}. Arapska medicina, 1994., str. 58.
3. Izet Ma{i}. Zemaljska bolnica u Sarajevu, 1994., str. 138.
4. Alauddin ibn al-Nefis. Mud‘ez al-kanun, 1995., str. 362.
5. Izet Ma{i}, Zoran Ri|anovi}, Enes Kujund‘i}. Ibn Sina - Avi ce na: @ivot i djelo, 1995., str. 148.
6. Izet Ma{i}. Klasici arapsko-islamske medicine, 1995., str. 96.
7. Izet Ma{i}. Zdravstvo u BiH tokom osmanskog perioda, 1995., str. 40.
8. Izet Ma{i}. Ibn al-Nefis - @ivot i djelo, 1996., str. 40.
9. Kasim Dobra~a. Orijentalni medicinski rukopisi u Gazi Husrev-begovoj biblioteci u Sarajevu, 1997., str. 64.
10. Izet Ma{i}, Almir Budalica. Znanstveni opus Zakariyyaa ar-Razija, 1997., str. 52.
11. Izet Ma{i}. @ivot i djelo Ibn Ru{da, 1997., str. 16.
12. Izet Ma{i}, Almir Budalica. Ibn al-Haitham - otac optike, 1997., str. 43.
13. Enes Kujund‘i}, Izet Ma{i}. Znanstveni opus Abu Rayhan al-Birunija, 1997., str. 32.
14. Izet Ma{i} i sar. Doprinos islamske tradicije razvitku med icin skih znanosti, 1998., str. 212.
15. Sabira Had‘ovi}, Izet Ma{i} i sar. Attari i njihov dop-irnos raz vo ju farmacije u BiH, 1999., str. 160.
16. Izet Ma{i}, Enes Kujund‘i}. Uvod u izvore za istra‘ivanje his tor ije islamske zdravstvene kulture, 1999., str. 100.
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en closeden closeden closed
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Picture 1.
This miniature is from Codex A.F. 10 of the Austrian National Li brary. The manu-script, con tain ing a mere 31 pag es, is in valu able as the sec-ond-oldest Galen text ex tant in Arabic. The
oldest manuscript, from the 12th cen tu ry, is in the Bib lio theque nationale in Paris. The illustration shows the portraits of the nine phy si cians who con trib ut ed to improving the theriac, while the text de scribes its pow ers and com po si tion. From right to left we see in the first row: Andromachus, Phere cy des, Pylagoras; in the second row: Pericles, pythagoras, Mari nus; and in the third row: An dro ma chus the Younger, Magnus, Galen. Vienna, Aus tri an National Li brary, Codex A.F. 10. Ar a bic translation of the first book of Galen’s Treatise on electuaries, attributed to John the Gram mar i an. First half of the 13th century. Fo lio 1 verso.
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Picture 2.
Our next il lus tra tion also shows two rare representations of per sons. This min ia ture de picts two doc tors whose names are giv en in the Ar a bic script above their heads: Fartilus and Ven ze-ri us. The il lus tra tion comes from the same manu script as the previous one (2 ver so). The co lours of a third figure, un for tu n al tey, are
al most com plete ly fad ed. The Turks still re gret that Dioscorides, the ‘Fa-ther of phar ma cy’, with out whose orig i nal re search the de vel op ment of later and medieval phar ma col o gy would have been in con ceiv able, re mained an ‘idolater’ and did not become a Christian, thus one of the ‘peo ples of the Book’, even though he was born at the beginning of the sec ond half of the first century. Pedanius Dioscorides came from Ci l i cia, a region in Asia Mi nor (Ana to lia) bordering in the east on Syria and in the south on the Med i ter ra nean. Galen also refers to him as Tarseus, the man from Tar sus, the capital. According to the classical sources, Dioscorides was born in a town called Anazarbus, now in the district of Ceyhan, Adana prov ince, Cilicia, Anazarbus was an ancient city and a centre of civ i li za tion. Arab sources refer to it as ‘Ayn Zarbah’, which later became Ana var za.
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Portraits of Is lam ic doc tors are ex treme ly rare, and only a few ex am ples are known. Either the pic tures show the ide al ized por trait of ‘the doc tor’, lacking any in di vid u al facial traits (there are sim i lar pro traits of the Proph et himself), in which the phy si cian is depicted as an al le-
gor i cal fig ure; or those por trayed are the ‘teach ers’ of Is lam ic med i cine, most ly doctors of clas si cal An tiq ui ty usually clothed in Arab, Persian or Turk- ish dress and bear ing the insignia of the scholar caste. Although the doctor had no of fi cial attire, as a worthy man of learning he wore a long gown and had a beard; he never ap peared in the short coat of the crafts man or peasant. Our il lus tra tion shows two stu dents of Dioscorides. The prohibi-tions of liv ing things in Islam is much disputed. It is not actually found in the Qur’an, but in Hadith (the record of the Tra di tions of Mu ham mad) and is in ter pret ed dif fer ent ly by various schools of thought: the cre ation of images of living beings is viewed as an attempt to vie with God, ‘the creator of all things’. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi Muzesi. De Materia dat ed 626 A.H. (or A.D. 1229). Ahmet III, 2127, Folio 1 recto (left title page).
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In an earlier book let, we re pro duced the dis pen sa ry illustrated in a Bagh-dad manu script from 1224 of the work of Diosco-rides. The orig i nal is now in the Met ro pol i tan Mu se um of Art in New York. The min ia ture de pict ed here is sim i lar and is also dat ed 1224. It is taken from an oth er Di o corides manu script (in Istan bul) con tain ing the fourth and fifth books of ‘Ma te ria Medica’ as well as a work of Hunayn, the ‘Kitab al-karma’. Ac cord ing to E.J. Grube in his article ‘Materialien zum Di osk u rides Ar a bi cus’, only this miniature has remained in the Istanbul manu script. Thir ty leaves con tain ing min ia tures of the very highest quality are now in fifteen different public and private col lec tions in Europe and Amer i ca. Istabnul, Aya Sofya Muz e si, MS 3703. Dated Ra jab 621 (i.e. 1224 AD, June-July). Folio 2 recto.
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There eist various representations of the legend recounting the discovery of the theriac by the physician Andromachus. Although the theriac was not the panacea or cure-all against every type of disease which the al che mists had always sought, it was conidered a universal antidote, especially for snake bites. One explanation is that a scientific foundation to im mu no ther a py and serology was still centuries in the future. The word theriac is probably derived from the Greek ther (wild animal). In Hellenistic times writings known as theriaka dealing with wild and usually poisonous an i mals were widespread. The scene depicted overleaf shows the physician Androma-chus out riding. He sees a boy kill a snake which has just bitten him. The boy then prepares an antidote from the snake’s flesh and the berries of the laurel tree. Vienna, Austrian National Library, Codex A.F. 10. Arabic translation of the first book of Galen’s Treatise on electuaries. First half of the 13th century. Folio 2 verso.
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Picture 6.
Our last illustration, taken from the same manuscript as the previous two, shows how snake venom was obtained to produce the theriac antidote. Snakes (vipers) released their poison by biting puppets with human form from which the venom was then extracted. While most theriac compounds in Islamic manuscripts are clearly derived from classical sources, there do exist recipes of completely Arab origin. Jabir ibn Hayyan, considered the ‘father of Arabic chemistry’, is the greatest alchemicst of the Arabs and perhaps of the Middle Ages. In Western writings he came to be known as Geber. The exact dates of his birth and death are not recorded, but he was probably born in Kufah in Mesopotamia and emigrated to Spain (after the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in A.D. 750) where he taught at the University in Seville. Innumberable works are ascribed to Jabir (some of them no doubt falsely attributed at a later date), including a Book of Poisons, per haps the oldest work on toxicology. It treats not only the production and properties of poisons but also the question of antidotes. The work provides some interesting and specifically Arab the ri ac recipes. Vienna, Austrian National Library, Codex A.F. 10. Arabic trans la tion of the first book of Galen’s Treatise on electuaries. First half of the 13th century. Folio 15 verso.
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This illustration portrays a curiosity, the treatment of hermaphroditism in a woman. In those days, physicians devoted much of their time to the treat ment of any disturbances in man or woman that could impair re pro duc tive ness. At the same time, surgery was concerned with the apparently nu mer ous diseases resulting directly or indirectly from climatic and geo graph i cal conditions (through perspiration, for instance, or the effect of the desert sand). This applied to diseases of the genitalia (prophylaxis: circumcision!) and of the anus. Abscesses, fistulae and hemorrhoids, because common, were discussed indetatil in the medical textbooks. Nowadays, proctology is the Cinderelly of surgery. In ancient Egypt, however, the specialists and personal physicians of the pharaoh also included a ‘guardian of the royal anus’. Paris, Bibliotheque nationale. Sharaf-ad-din ibn ‘Ali (second half of the 15th century). MS Suppl. turc 693, dated 1465. Vol. II, folio 110 verso.
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The surgical text-books, especially the numberous tran scrip tions of Sharaf-ad-din ibn ‘Ali (sec ond half of the 15th century), and works expanded at a later date give con sid er able space to and detailed ad-vice on the subject of gy ne col o gy and, more particularly, ob stet rics. This can-not be said of the il lus tra tions. Rep-re sen ta tion of the female body was theoretically ‘ for-bid den’ or at least frowned upon. The exegete who in ter-pret ed the sacred writings literally was
obliged to denounce, for instance, disregard of the prescriptions regarding fasting or alcohol abstention as a punishable of fence - provided the scrip-tures and their commentaries did n ot allow for exceptions. Medical mat ters had, however, always been exempt. The is lam ic Hakim was a phy si cian, not - like the doctors of ancient Egypt and Persia - a ‘doctor-cleric’, i.e. he had not passed at least the first ex am i na tion for priesthood. How, then, was he to safeguard himself against the criticism of the theologians, whose tolerance depended on whatever rites happened to prevail at the time? Hence, though we find all sorts of sug ges tions and advice in the surgical and obstetric textbooks, illustrations are few and far between. The very few - late - exceptions include this and the preceding miniature, which are taken from a Turkish manuscript. Istanbul, MIllet Kutuphanesi, MS Tibb 79. Folio
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Picture 9.
In the Orient, as in the West, the demarcation-line between the leading dis ci plines of theoretical med i cine - anatomy and phys i ol o gy in their nor mal and pathological man i fes-ta tions - was not so clearly drawn in the Middle Ages, or even more recently, as it is today. Systematic and
exact scientific research, or causal thinking of any kind were, of course, com plete ly out of the question. Sci ence was for the most part speculative and philo soph i cal, deeply rooted in tra di tion, based on ‘weltan scha uung’ or interpreted in the light of religious dog ma; only rarely was it en riched by empirical knowl edge. The core of this world view were mac ro cosm-mi cro-cosm speculation and the theory of the four hu mours. To these doctrines even anatomy and, of course, splanchnology were sub or di nat ed. Our il lus-tra tion shows the muscular system. Phil a del phia, Library of the College of Physicians. Teshirihi Insan (Anatomy of Man), by Mansur bin Mu ham mad bin Ahmed (A.d. 1396). 19th - century Persian manuscript. By cour te sy of Historical Collections, College of Physicians of Philadelphia.
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Picture 10.
In this issue we are show ing miniatures that il lus trate certain outly-ing ar eas of the field of surgery and of medical dis ci plines in the mod-ern sense: ob stet rics, oph thal mol o gy and otorhi no laryn gol o gy. In Eu rope, gy ne col o gy only separated from the com-pre hen sive field of sur gery as a special dis ci pline in the early 19th century, oph thalmi same time and otorhi no laryn gol o gy even later, in the second half of the cen tu ry. In contrast, the an cient Egyptians and oth er ear ly peoples of the Near East had their spe cial ists, and
this in dig e nous tradition passed on in wholly organic fashion to the medical prac ti tio ners of the Copts and of Islam, though without today’s high degree of com part men tal iza tion. The first il lus tra tion in the present series represents an event of Iranian mythology: the birth of the Persian national hero Rus tum by ‘cesarian section’. Sty lis ti cal ly and also chronologically, this min ia ture is a natural extension of those already pre sent ed here from manu scripts belonging to the Musee Conde in Chantilly and the Metropolitan Museum in New York. Other notable examples are to be found in the British Library and in the Library of the India Office, Lon don. Naples, Bib lio te ca Nazionale, MS III. Birth of Rus tum. 16-17th cen tu ry miniature from a manuscript of the ‘Shah-nameh’ (‘Book of Kings’) of Ferdowsi (11th cen tu ry).
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Picture 11.
This miniature (and the one that follows) are two individual manuscript leaves in the possesion of the Metropolitan Mu se um of Art in New York. They belong to a uniaue manuscript of the Hagia Sofia LIbrary that is now in the Top-kapi Sarayi Museum in Istanbul, con tain ing the fourth and fifth books of the Materia Meica by Di-oscorides and a work by Hunayn, Kitab al-Kar ma. Only a single min ia ture remains in the Istan bul manuscript; thir ty leaves
with miniatures are scattered throught out fifteen public col lec tions in Eu rope and America. They are of particular interest because they depict not only the plants and animals found in all illustrated Dioscorides’ manu scripts but also persons and techniques of drug preparation in use at the time (A.d. 1224). ‘The manufacture of an aromatic (strongly spiced) wine against cold and coughs: between two trees, a funnel is suspended on a tripod over a large vessel placed on the ground. A physician, his right hand lifted to his face while he hendles a mortar with his left, is seated on a stool to the right. A large jar stands at the left.’ New York, The Met ro pol i tan Museum of Art. dioscorides and Hunayn, Baghdad school of min ia tur ists, dated Rajab 621 AH (June-July A.D. 1224). Calligrapher and and min ia tur ist (?) ‘Abdallah ibn al-Fadl. Inv. No. 13.152.6.
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Picture 12.
This illustration and the one that follows depict the manufacture of drugs. It is said that the ancient Egyptians dis cov ered chemistry as well as astrology. In d ded, the root of the word ‘chemistry’ has by some been traced back to the Egyptian kem, meaning black (now a days we refer to sor cery as ‘black magic’). Once the al-chemists realized that they were unsuccessful in pro duc ing precious met als or the panacea, many turned to che mo-
ther a py, a science neglected in the writings of the Ancients who had devoted their energy in the main to investigating drugs of vegetable and animal origin. The pharmacists also adopted production processes from the al che mists. The oldest distillate of organic matter is probably alcohol (pro duc tion of which is theoretically forbidden by an interpretation of the Qur’an, but permitted for medicinal purposes). Many technical terms have been assimilated by modern European languages. The alembic and aludel, a destillation still and sublimation pot invented by the Arabs and first pro duced in Syria, are but two examples. Our illustration shows the prep a ra tion of a compress against a tarantula bite. Presumably from Pseudo-Dioscorides’s book on poisonous animals. From an Arabic Dioscorides manuscript of Mesopotamian origin (Baghdad School), A.D. 1224. Wash ing ton, Freer Gallery of Art.
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Picture 13.
The iatric ‘sciences’ of the Middle Ages go back to the writings of the mythical Hermes Tris-megis tos. Our par tic u lar interest in this context is iatric chemistry rather than iatric math e mat ics and physics (iatrike tekhne is Greek for the ‘art of healing’). Only iatric mathematics can be traced back to ear-li est times. Synonymous with ‘astrological med i-cine’, it is apparently of Babylonian origin and was passed on by the Greeks and their His-pa no-Arab and Jewish trans la tors. Iatric chem-is try and physics began
in the 16th and 17th centuries when medicine was being underpinned by scientific disciplines. Iatric chemistry was doubtless a product of the al che-mists who also supplied the necessary ac ces so ries for a doctrine that was later declared a ‘science’. It was founded partly on traditional theoretical beliefs and partly on traditional theoretical beliefs and partly on empirical discoveries. There is no byproduct or waste product from the refining pro cess of stone or metal that has not been tested for its pharmacological properties at one time or another. Here we have the origins of modern chemotherapy! Our illustration shows the production of an phthalmic med i cine from the buds of the wild vine or oinanthe mentioned by Dioscorides. From an Arabic Dioscorides manuscript dated A.D. 1224. Me so pot a mia; Baghdad School of Miniaturists. Washington, Freer Gallery of Art.
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Picture 14.
Abu’ l-Qasim’ s writ ings on in-stru ments show a peltho ra of arte-facts adapt ed for use in the medical field. It is pos si ble that the author did not go beyond the pic to ri al rep re-sen ta tion of these
in stru ments. Practical text books in medieval Islamic coun tries were in con-ceiv able without il lu mi nat ed let ter ing and illustrations. But just as the artist had to dispense with the most effective of the dec o ra tive elements, i.e. the rep re sen ta tion of human be ings and animals - turn ing in stead to cal lig ra phy, ar a besques and geo met ri cal designs - so, too, did the scientist ap par ent ly limit himself to re pro duc tion of medical and sur gi cal in stru ments. Just as the artist went on creating new arabesques, so, too, may the scientific author have con tent ed himslef with the purely pic to ri al creation of ever different
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Picture 15.
In the western world, it was not until the second half of the lest century that laryngology was deteched from general surgery to form a special dis ci pline, followed a few decades later by rhinology and otology. In the Islamic Orient as in Europe, these medical fields were for centuries a part of sur gery per se (unlike ophthalmology and dentistry, for instance). In both East and West, the combination oto-rhinolaryngology may be said to be a cre ation of the last hundred years. As regards investigation methods, the tech ni cal resources which we today take for granted were indeed limited. This was due mainly to the empiricism of the diagnostician and its theoretical basis, i.e. the humoral pa-thology passed down from time immemorial. The cellular pathology found ed by Rudolf Virchow in the middle of the 19th centruy brought about a basic change and led indirectly to the emergence of distanct medical disciplines. The diagnostic measures performed with technical aids or instrument in me di-eval times are not immediately dis tin guish able from thereapeutic pro ce dures. From Antiquity, an empirical meth od of diagnosis has been handed down which was based on trial treat ment: ex iuvantibus. The results of ex per i men tal research (not to mention their distribution and statistical evaluation) were to come later. This il lus tra tion shows the investigation (and/or treat ment) of a patient with an ear disorder. Istanbul, Millet Kutuphanesi, MS Tibb 79. Folio 55 verso. A.D. 1465/66.
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Picture 16.
Since the days of An tiq ui ty, geographical, geo log i cal and climatic factors have resulted in a much greater frequency of eye diseasess in the Orient than in the European West. As an-cient Egypt, Islam had spe-cial ists in oph thal mol o gy who add ed to the store of knowl edge of the Ancients (more so than in other fields of medicine) through their ownn experience and
whose writings had a more permanent effect on Western thinking than did lslamic textbooks of other disciplines. Our il lus tra tion is taken from a 13th-century manuscript of Hunain bin Ishaq (809-873). His ten books on the eye, known as Kitab al-’ashr maqalat fi ‘l-’ain, the oldest textbook of its kind, is divided into the following subjects: 1. Nature of the eye; 2. Nature of the brain; 3. Optic nerve, and sight; 4. Hygiene; 5. Cause of accidents to the eye; 6. Features of diseases of the eye; 7. Medicinal powers; 8. Medicines for the eye; 9. Treatment of ocular diseases; 10. Prescriptions. Cairo, Egyp-tian National Library. MS 100 Tibb Taimur.
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Picture 17.
Title page of The Book of the True Prop-er ties of Drugs by Abu Mansur Mu waf fak ibn ‘Ali al-Harawi (Codex Vin do bon en sis A.F. 340). This is an ex-ceptionally valu able manuscript be cause it is the old est ex tant specimen in Per sian. Arabic served as the lan guage of prose and po et ry in Persia from the time of the Arab con quest in the sev en ty cen tu ry. It was not until the tenth cen-tu ry that feel ings of
nationhood be gan to awake at the courts of the national dynasties which had risen to power in Persia and that poetry and scientific prose were ren-dered in Persian. Noth ing is known about the or i gin of this manuscript. As an item in the Imperial Court Library (now the Austrian National Library) in Vienna it predates the year 1820. A complete facsimile edition of the work was published in 1972 in Graz (Austria) by the Akademische Druck - und Verlagsanstalt, by whose cour te sy the illustration of the title page is reproduced here.
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Picture 18.
The illustrations of the present manuscript are, in part, copies of the Arabic original, which was il lu mi-nat ed iin Mesopotamia towards the end of the 12th century. The text was translated into Persian at the command of Il-Khan Mahmud Ghazan (1295-1304), the Mongolian rul er of Persia. Drugs of an i mal origin utilize a broad variety of creatures: in sects, freshwater and salt wa ter fish, amphib-ians and reptiles, birds, ro dents, mammals, ven i-son, domestic animals, ar tio dac ty la and peris so-dac ty la. The restrictions
of Is lam ic dietary laws extend not only to pork but also to various other mam mals (in particular perissodactyla) and especially to reptiles, insects, birds of prey and all carnivorous animals; they do not apply to the medical field. It would appear that the medicinal use of animal species forbidden as food was intended as a kind of ‘irritation therapy’ (as it is still practised today in the trditional medicine of India, Cina and Japan). The Illustration shows a rhinoceros. New York, The Pierpont Morgan Library. Manafi’ al-hayawan, by Bukht Yishu’. Tabriz 1295. MS 500, folio 14 verso.
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Picture 19.
The original tratise Manafi’ al-hayawan was probably written by ‘Ubayd Allah, son of Gibril and personal physician to the Ab- basid cacliph Al-Mut- ta qi. According to a lesslikely hypothesis, it is the work of Abu Sa ‘id ‘Ubayd Allah II, a grandson of the afore men tioned, who died about 1058 A.D. The genealogical table of the Bukht Yishu’ dy-nas ty of physicians is giv en in A Medical
History of Persia (1951) by C. Elgood. In Islamic phar ma col o gy, medicines of vegetable origin are much more frequent than those of animal or min-eral origin. However, the pharmacopeias always include some animal and mineral recipes, such as the theriac. This il lus tra tion shows two elephants. Healing properties in paronychia have been at trib ut ed to gratings of elephant tusk ever since the time of Dioscorides. It has astringent powers and is midly desiccant. ‘Ali ibn ‘Isa ibn ‘Ali, a student of Ishaq ibn Hunayn, and the later Ibn al-Durayhim (14th century) also wrote treatises of the same name. New York, The Pierpont Morgan Library. Manafi’ al-hayawan, by Bukht Yishu’.
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Picture 20.
The plant depicted here is called shauk yahudi in the text of Dioscorides, and is identical to Acanthus mol lis L. (Acan-thace ae) - the white acanthus. It also goes by the name of ‘bear’s-breech’ or ‘bear’s-paw’; the des ig na tion ‘bear’s-breech’, how ev er, is ap plied as well to an entirely dif fer ent plant, viz. Heracleum sphondy li um L. (Apiaceae family, formerly Um bel lifer ae); both plants are de scribed in the writ ings of Di-oscorides and of more ancient authors. The use of the popular name for dif fer ent plants is not im por tant, since this oc curred ina wide variety of plants, in-clud ing medicinal herbs. Pliny and Dioscorides dis tin guish be tween two dif fer ent ‘spe cies’
of acan thus: the one re pro duced here, and the so-called wild acanthus-a ‘spe cies’ that likewise be longs to the Acanthanceae family, but which has been described in differing terms by a number of authors. In antiquity, Acan-thus mollis was cultivated in gardens, partly also as an or na men tal plant. Ac cord ing to Vitruvius IV, 1,8, the leaves were used by the sculp tor Kal li ma-chos as a model for the capitals of Corin thian columns, where we still find them today. In the pharmacognosy of the ancient Egyp tians, the acan thus is apparently not described, and is absent too in the pharmacology of the Copts. In Islamic medicine, it plays a specific, but not prominent, role. The Dioscorides text stattes that the roots of these plants serve as a poultice in burns and sprains; when taken as a po tion, they promote the production of urine and alleviate diarrhea. They are also high ly effective in tuberculosis, internal ruptures, and spasm. Detailed medical formulations are not given. Thus the plant, which today has such sig nif i cance as a model in art-his-tor i cal ornamentation and which has be come generally well known, en joys com par a tive ly less sig nif i cance in med i cal terms. But like many va ri et ies of this tie it was used as a decorative plant in antiquity; and this fact most likely ex pa lins why the plant was to play such a significant role in the or na men-ta tion of buildings. ‘De Materia Medica’, dated 866-869 AH (1461-1464
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Picture 21.
These are leaves from the plant lovage, which over a number of de cades have been re dis cov ered in northem and cen tral Europe as a spice for fla vour ing sauces and soups. In the Dioscorides text it is called kasham (ka{am) (in Greek, Lug stikon; in Latin, Levisticum of fi ci na le, or ‘genu-ine lovage’). However, only the root of the lovage herb - RAdix levistici Koch (Um bel lifer ae) - has been used for medicinal purposes ever since ancient times. Cul ti vat ed as a pot-herb in cot tage gardens, above all in Ger ma ny, its original habitat cannot be determined with com plete cer tain ty (most likely southem Eu rope). As with most pot-herbs that are also used for medical purposes, the plant’s content in es sen tial oils, res ins, and bitter con stit u ents is
de ci sive, with the leaves and the root ex hib it ing highly dif fer ing con cen tra tions and proportions of these sub stanc es. The root of the bi en ni al-to-tri en ni al plant is used, whereas the plant itself is cultivated from strip cuttings. Even today, Radix levistici is men tioned in phar ma cope ias and phar ma cog nos tic textbooks. Dioscorides equat ed the effect of the root with that of the seed. He wrote that the root’s potency exerted an effect of warmth, aided di ges tion, and also helped in intestinal diseases, in digestion,and in edema and flatulence, particularly in the stom ach (i.e. as a carminative, in modern parlance, just as are many essential oils) - and for the treatment of bites from poisonous animals. When drunk as a po tion, these plants pro mote urinary output and aid menstruation; the root, if inserted as a sup pos i to ry, achieves the same ef fect. As digestants, both the root and the seed are often admixed with the constituents from other me dic i nal herbs. The na tives of Liguria, a region in nortwestern Italy, use the seeds of the plant instetad of pepper to add to their meals. Istan bul, Top ka pi Sarayi Museum. Dioscorides, ‘De Ma te ria Medica’, dated 866-869 AH (1461-1464 A.D.). Ahmet III, 2147. Folio 384 recto.
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Picture 22.
The plant on the right is identified as a species of anemone (Ra nun cu lace ae), while that on the left as a species of orchis (Orchidaceae). Dioscorides distinguishes two types of anemone, a wild and a cultivated one. The root can be variously employed to lear the head, loosen sputum, heal different ocular conditions and clean ulers. The leaves and the stalk im prove lac ta tion, aid menstruation and also cure leprosy. The remarks of Dioscorides on the orchis are, apparently, based on ‘hear-say’. He claims that the large roots, if eaten by a man, will bring about the birth of a boy, while the small roots, if eaten by a woman, will cause the birth of a girl. It was variously ascribed aphrodisiacal and antiaphrodisiacal properties. More over, it has the power to cure edema, clean ulcers and arrest serpiginous ulers. It removes fistulae and soothes inflammations. In dry form, it stops putrefaction and ulceration, while, when taken with wine, it cures diarrhea. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi Mu-seum. Dioscorides, ‘De Materia Medica’, dat ed 866-869 AH (1461-1464 A.D.). Ahmet III, 2147. Folio 319 recto.
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Picture 23.
This and the following il lus tra tions of me dic i-nal plants were chosen for their ar tis ti cal ly pleas ing com po si tion, combining plants and an i mals. This il lus-tra tion rep re sents a plant called bri t an i ke or bret annni ka or bet- ton i ka in Dioscorides.
The iden ti ty of the plant, which is sim i lar to and yet dif fer ent from wild sorrel, cannot be as cer tained. It is also mentioned by Pliny, who calls it bri tan ni ca and says that it cured thrush and pa ral y sis of the knee in a sl-od i er on Cae sar’s cam paign beyond the Rhine. Dioscorides or one of his students has this to say about the in di ca tion: ‘Fresh ly pounded and laid on a head wound caused by a blow, it relieves pain. It also closes wounds and extracts bro ken bones if it is changed every day until healing takes place. It cures headaches if it is boiled in water which is then poured over the head; alternatively, it may be rubbed with asphalt into the temples or the latter may be treated with the smoke of the root.’
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Picture 24.
The lower illustration shows a plant that is called dhanb al-khayl in the Dioscorides text (Equisetum arventse L.), and which belongs to the Eq ui seta ce ae family, the horsetails (or scouring rush). It was known as pherphra to the Egyptians, hippuris to the Greeks, and equisetum to the Romans. It grows up wards by attaching itself to neighbouring stems, and then hangs down, sur- round ed by dark hair-like struc tures, similar to a horse’s tail. The medicinal plant is rich in silcic acid, and con tains a saponin - eq ui se to nin. Pliny provides a pre cise description of the
horsetail, and reports that the plant possesses such potency that merely touching it controly hemorrhage. Dioscorides gives a more detailed de-scription: the root is wooden and hard in consistency; the foliage acts as an astringent, and hence the plant’s juice arrests severe bleeding from the uterus. When taken as a potion with wine, the plants is an aid in dysentery, and also promotes urinary output. The leaves, when sprinkled on the affected area as a finely ground powder, seal bleeding wounds; the root and foliage exert a healing action in cough, orthopnea, and internal ruptures. ‘It also said that when the leaves are taken with water, they can heal trauma of the viscera, rupture of the blad der, or hernia.’ Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi Mu se um, Dioscorides, ‘De Ma te ria Medica’, dated 866-869 AH (1461-1464 A.D.). Ahmet III, 2147. Folio 388 verso.
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Picture 25.
This illustration shows four spe cies of the Batra ch i um, an Asi at ic Ra nun cu lus (but ter-cup). Dioscorides too distinguished four spe cies, which later com men ta tors have identified as Ra-nun cu lus asi at i cus, Ra nun cu lus lan gui-no sus, RA nun cu lus mu ri ca tus and Ra nun-cu lus aquatilis. The in di ca tions for these
four plants seem to be essentially identical. The leaves, blossoms and stalk have scab-forming properties. They cure scabby nails and the itch, remove stigmate and warts, and correct alopecia. They can also be em ployed in a warm poultice for frostbite. Furthermore, the roots were used against tooth ache and to cause sneezing. Later herbals ascribed a h yper er mic, as-trin gent and, in particular, keratolytic action to this drug. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi Museum. Dioscorides, ‘De Materia Medica’, dat ed 866-869 AH (1461-1464 A.D.). Ahmet III, 2147. Folio 327 verso.
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Picture 26.
This illustration is taken from a manuscript of the Kha wass al-Ashijar (The Properties of Plants) by Dioscorides. It is of Mesopotamian origin (Bagh-dad) and dated A.D. 1240. The copyist was Al-Hasan ibn Ahmad ibn Mu ham mad an-Nashawi. This miniature shows the same plant in two dif fer ent stag es: before and after flow er ing. The family is called luffah or yaqtini in Arabic and resembles the eggplant when the latter
turns yellow. However, to judge by the unmistakably an thro poid form of the rootstock, the plant presumably was a mandrake (Man drag o ra of fi ci na lis). Man drake, along with the other Solanceae, played a key role in Oriental and Western mys ti cism and pharmacology from the Middle Ages right up to modern times because of this resemblance and its efficacious alkaloids. Al-Biruni (A.D. 973-1051) provides a long de scrip tion in his treatise on phar-ma ceu tics: ‘Two forms appear when it (man drake) is cloven in the middle: the male and the female shapes.’ The flow er, he continues, resembles the mask of an actor stickingout his tongue. Mandrake ‘brings sleep within three or four hours’. Prior to the discovery of anesthesia, a ‘soporific sponge’, con sist ing of extract of mandrake com pound ed with other medicinals, was used to induce insensitivity to pain. Oxford, Bodle ian Library, MS. arab. d. 138, gift of Sir William Osler, 1926. Folio 120 a. By courtesy of the Cu ra tors of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, England.
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Picture 27.
This is an illustration of the lentil plant (Lens culinaris or Lens esculenta). It is as-ton ish ing to note the phar-ma co log i cal importance Dioscorides at tached to the common lentil. He says, among other things: ‘It (the lentil) arrests di ar rhea when eaten with the pod. Its ef fect is man i fest ed in gas troin tet i nal peri stal sis, when vin e gar, wild succory or purslane, beetroot, myrtle ber ri ers, pomegranate bark, dried roses, medlars, moun-tain-ash berries, The ban pears, quinces, chic o ries, plan tain, or whole nut galls are admixed, or sumac for that matter. The con-sump tion of thirty len tils 9pods re moved0 helps to
alleviate upset stomach. Boiled with barley and applied as a poul tice, they relieve po da gra (gout). When mixed with honey, they seal fis tu lous openings, loos en scabs and cleanse ulcers. When boiled with vinegar, they soften in du-ra tions and decrease glandular swelling. Boiled with white clover or quinces, and added to rose oil, they can cure tumours of the eye and anus; when larger body apertures are affected, honey is admixed to the lentils. The ad di tion of sea water is recommended: in cor ro sive, gan gre nous ulcers; for pus tules, ser pig i-nous ulcers, rosette-like in flam ma tions and frostibite, and in du rat ed and swollen breasts.’ But Dioscorides also warns about the occurrence of me te or ism and bad dreams if lentils are eaten to excess, above al when the initial decoction is not discarded. Hence lentils served partly as a vehicle for other ingredients, but partly too as a type of wound paste or healing plaster, just as honey, or in a mixture with the latter. Istan bul, Topkapi Sarayi Muzesi. From an Arabic translation of Dioscorides, De Materia Medica. Northern Iraq, or Syria, dated 1229. Ahmet III, 2, 127, folio 80, recto.
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Picture 28.
This illustration shows the me dic i-nal plant sadij. The Islamic prohibition against images, so often misjudged in
the Oc ci den tal literature, the o ret i cal ly refers to like ness es of men and ani-mals. The his tor i cal developpent, however, has wit nessed wide ly disparate interpretations of this prohibition by the various rites and orders of Islam. Nevertheless, even the most rig or ous religious observance ex cept ed sci-entific rep re sen ta tion from all these restrictions. This is even true of those laws which are directly derived from the Qu’ran. A single example will suffice: the con sump tion of alcohol - or rather wine - is freely permitted if its use is justified for medical reasons. In this event if is con sid ered a drug
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Picture 29.
Like the preceding il lus-tra tion, this picture comes from one of the most in-ter est ing manuscripts in the possession of the Brit ish Library: an Arabic ‘bes tia ry’ that represents a com pi la tion made in the 13th century, based on Ar is to t le (and other au thors of Antiquity) and writ ings by ‘Ubayd Allah ibn Gibra ‘ill ibn Bukht Yishu’. We have already explained the sig nif i cance of the Bukht Yishu’ fam-ily in con nec tion with the fore go ing plate. Like his ancestors and his broth er. ‘Ubayd Allah i served as the personal phy si cian and court doc tor of an Abbasid caliph, re put ed ly
al-Muttaqi, while his father. Gibra’il I, had per formed these duties in Bagh-dad for Harun ar-Rashid, al-Amin, and al-Ma’mun (after Browne’s Chahar Maqala, page 145). The subject of an i mals as a source of ther a peu tic agents was scarce ly ever discussed, since plant and mineral prep a ra tions were chiefly em ployed, where as those of animal origin were of sec ond ary immportance. The illustration does not focus on the medicinal plant, which it seems can no longer be classified, even today, while the cicadas shown in the picture are im me di ate ly dis cern ible as such. If nowadays we compare the phar ma col o gy known in Antiquity with, for example, the ‘jna n ani’ system of med i cine in India, which - like its name - is based on the tradition of the ancient lonians, then we note that animal ingredients were employed above all in compounded drugs and antidotes, which in them selves were hardly more than aph ro di si acs (e.g. pulverized sea-horse, such as is still used in tra di tion al Chinese medicine). London, The British Library. MS or. 2,784, folio 60, verso. Re pro duced by permission of The British Library.
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Picture 30.
The illustrations re pro duced here show three ‘spe cies’ of the halfa or alfa (needlegrass) plant, as ex plained in the text. This so-called needlegrass, or ‘halfa grass’ is what the Span iards know as ‘es par to’, a designation giv en to sev er al va ri et ies of grass, in particualr Stipa te na cis si ma L. (Mac ro chloa te na ciss ma Kunth) and Lygeum spartum, both of which are very common in Spain and northern Africa. The leaves, mea sur ing 30-50 cm in length, display a green ish co lour, and are yellowich after they have lain a long time on the ground; they are also blade-like and cylindri-cal (the two more or less semi cir cu lar halves of each leaf fit tightly to geth er). The leaves are ex treme ly del i cate and flex i ble, yet tough and sinewy, and do not break easily; they have been used since earliest times iin waving and in the man u fac ture of ropes. By treating
the raw fibre with chemicals, a slender, white fibre is obtained, which consists of whilly intact epidermal and bast-fibre cells. From about the year 1890, this raw material became a commodity much in demand; England in par tic u lar imported it for the manufacture of paper (needlegrass paper) in large quantities from Spain, Algeria, and Tunisia. As early as 1870, the dried leaves were utilized in Austria to pro duce ‘draught straws’ for Virginia cigars. Needlegrass as an actual med i-cine does not enjoy a prominent position; however, it may be assumed that the grass has been used since earliest times as a bandaging material when suit ably processed. The use of needlegrass for dressings is probably older than mankind itself. Halfaya (Dar Halfai) is the name of the region in south ern Nubia, situated on both sides of the River NIle, below the confluence of the White NIle and the Blue Nile. This area abounds in bird life, and numerous species of birds are fond of using needlegrass to build their nests. A certain number of species in this region, displaying behaviour obviously derived from their nest-build ing in stinct, have also been observed to apply genuine ban dag es fash ioned from needlegrass to wounds or injuries on their ‘legs’ (ex trem i ties). Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi Museum. Dioscorides, ‘De Materia Medica’, dat ed 866-869 AH (1461-1464 A.D.). Ahmet III, 2147. Folio 390 verso.
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Data about the authorIZET MA[IC born on the June 1952, Gra~anica
(B&H) where he finished the pri ma ry school and secondary gram mar school. The Med i cal faculty graduated in 1976. The Postgraduate study ing from the Social medicine and the or ga ni za tion of the health care pro tec tion he graduated at the Medical faculty in Sa ra je vo 1978 year. The spe cial is tic ex am i-na tion from Socail medicine and the or ga ni za tion of the health care protection he passed in 1982 year. The master thesis from the field of the Medical in-for mat ics he retained suc ces ful ly in 1985 year, and the doc tor thesis from the same field he retained sucessfully in 1990.
He worked as assistant professor on the subject the Social med i cine in 1991 year at the Medical Faculty, Faculty of Dental Medicine and at the High er Medical School of the University of Sarajevo. From March 1998 year he is work ing as the full professor of the Medical informatics. He is the founder and the head of the Centre for the Medical in for-mat ics of the Med i cal faculty of the University of Sarajevo. He stayed at the im prove ment in several University centers (Montpellier, London, Mos cow, Warshava, Prra gue). He is visiting professor, also in some uni-ver si ty centers.
Up to now has published about 30 different monographic pub li-ca tions, and over 300 scientific and research papers. He is the founder and the pres i dent of the Society for the medical in for mat ics B&H, and the member of the Executive committee of the Eu ro pe an Federation of the Medical Informatics and the General As sem bly of the International Medical Informatics Association and Eu ro pe an Pub lic Health As so-ci a tion (EU PHA).
Instantenously is the chief and editor in charge of the journals: “Acta Informtica Medica”, “Materia socio Medica” and “Medical ar chive”.
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