APSE MOSAICS OF THE VIRGIN MARY IN EARLY BYZANTINE CYPRUS

APSE MOSAICS OF THE VIRGIN MARY IN EARLY BYZANTINE CYPRUS
by Brooke L. Shilling
Vol. I
A dissertation submitted to Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Baltimore, Maryland October, 2013
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ABSTRACT
The dissertation examines three early Christian apse mosaics preserved in
medieval churches on the island of Cyprus. The mosaics of the Panagia Kanakariá at
Lythrankomi, the Panagia Angeloktistos at Kiti, and the Panagia tes Kyras at Livadia
portray the Virgin Mary as a central figure, representing a significant development after
the Council of Ephesos in 431, when she was confirmed as Theotokos (God-bearer).
Similar depictions of the Virgin or Virgin and Child would occupy the apse consistently
in middle and late Byzantine programs. Despite the notable subject matter and the rare
survival of wall and vault mosaics in the Eastern Mediterranean, the group has never
been the subject of an extensive inquiry. Part one of the dissertation determines the dates
of the apse mosaics using conventional art historical methods and evaluates the original
production, decline, and preservation of the mosaics. Part two analyzes and
contextualizes the mosaics more fully by concentrating on a set of themes: sacred space
and liturgy, metaphor, and intercession. Through these themes, the dissertation explores
the prominence of the Virgin Mary in the apse mosaics of Cyprus and investigates the
multiple functions of apse decoration in the early Christian period. Prevailing theological
interpretations of early Christian apse decoration emphasize the importance of the Virgin
for Christology, but overlook other essential functions elaborated here. Additionally,
early Byzantine homiletic, hymnographic, hagiographic, and liturgical texts are used to
illuminate various aspects of the mosaics and issues of their contemporary reception.
Advisor: Henry Maguire
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In researching and writing the dissertation, I have benefited from the help and
support of many individuals and institutions. I am especially grateful to my advisor,
Henry Maguire, for taking me on as his last student, for helping to formulate and
organize the project, and for giving generously of his time and expertise. My second
reader, Herbert L. Kessler, has also been a tremendous influence in my years at Johns
Hopkins. His most recent comments and criticisms will make the dissertation a much
better book. I would also like to thank the other members of my committee for carefully
reading the dissertation and offering valuable suggestions: Nino Zchomelidse, Alan
Shapiro, and Richard Jasnow. For her enduring interest and crucial observations at home
and abroad, I would like to thank Eunice Dauterman Maguire.
The Department of the History of Art and Zanvyl Krieger School of Arts and
Sciences at Johns Hopkins University provided four years of funding for the Ph.D. The
Sadie and Louis Roth Fellowship and the Adolf Katzenellenbogen Memorial Prize
allowed me to travel to conferences, archives, and libraries in London and Athens in the
summers of 2006 and 2007, and enabled my participation in the Medieval Greek Summer
Session at the Gennadius Library in Athens in 2009. Among the staff at Johns Hopkins, I
would like to thank Sally Hauf, Don Juedes, Ann Woodward, and more recently Leslie
Bean for help with practical matters. At the Milton S. Eisenhower Library, the people of
Eisenhower Express and Interlibrary Loan made it possible to work anywhere in the
world.
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The Samuel H. Kress Foundation generously funded a two-year institutional
fellowship at the Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute in Nicosia from
2009 to 2011. At CAARI, I would like to thank the former director, Tom Davis, the
administrator, Vathoulla Moustoukki, and the librarian, Evi Karyda, for making
important introductions and supporting the Byzantine library during my tenure. The
many students and scholars who came through CAARI provided good company and
helpful advice, especially Jill Bierly, Cathy Carigiet, Agata Dobosz, Hedvig Enegren,
Sherry Fox, Jody Gordon, Paul Keen, Angelos Papadopoulos, Elizabeth Ridder, Richard
Rutherford, Matthew Spigelman, and Ella Young. While in Cyprus, the Department of
Antiquities of Cyprus granted access to and permission to photograph various sites.
Above all, I would like to thank the Director, Maria Hadjicosti and the Curator of
Ancient Monuments, Marina Solomidou-Ieronymidou. In the Photographic Archive and
Publications Department, I am indebted to Maria Hadjinicolaou, Sofia Hadjizorzi, and
Efthymios Shaftacolas for supplying scans of photographs that are available nowhere
else. Also at the Department of Antiquities, Fryni Hadjichristophi and Eleni Procopiou
shared information about unpublished and ongoing excavations. At the Byzantine
Museum of the Archbishop Makarios III Foundation, I offer special thanks to the
Director, Ioannis Eliades, for providing photographs of the repatriated Kanakariá mosaics
and permission to handle, inspect, and photograph the smaller mosaic fragments. At the
University of Cyprus, I would like to thank Demetrios Michaelides, who sorted through
Megaw’s personal papers on my behalf before they were available for consultation;
Maria Parani, who invited me to give a paper at the interdepartmental colloquium in
Byzantine Studies; and Panagiotis Agapitos, who made valuable suggestions on that
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occasion. Also in Cyprus, I would like to thank Nikolas Bakirtzis for his hospitality and
advice, and the many caretakers, whose names I do not know, for providing special
access to local museums, churches, and archaeological sites.
Archival and photographic collections outside of Cyprus also made essential
contributions to the dissertation. Current and former staff members at the Image
Collections and Fieldwork Archives at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington DC supplied
digital copies of high-quality color transparencies and allowed me to examine the
Byzantine Institute and Dumbarton Oaks Fieldwork Records and Papers. At the
Dumbarton Oaks library, I would like to thank Deb Brown. Nicholas Orchard facilitated
access to Hawkins’ slides at the Slide Library of the Courtauld Institute of Art in London
and Amalia Kakissis facilitated access to Megaw’s papers and photographs at the British
School at Athens.
I am especially grateful to Alexander Alexakis, Stratis Papaioannou, Jeffrey
Rosenberg, and Michael Sullivan for teaching me ancient and medieval Greek. Despina
Christodoulou helped me with modern Greek. Ingela Nilsson and Charles Stewart
invited me to give papers in Sweden and Cyprus respectively. At Johns Hopkins, I am
grateful for the friendship, encouragement, and insights of my fellow graduate students,
especially Doron Bauer, Laura Blom, Rachel Danford, Andrea Olsen Lam, Jamie
Magruder, Ruth Noyes, Riccardo Pizzinato, and Meredith Raucher. I would also like to
thank my friends and colleagues Rebecca Dubay and Naomi Pitamber, the latter in
particular for engaging a mukhtar in Turkish at a most critical time. For timely advice
and support, I am grateful to Richard Anderson, Leslie Brubaker, Annemarie Weyl Carr,
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Madeline Caviness, Robin Cormack, Maria Georgopoulou, John Hayes, and Judith
Herrin.
On a personal note, I would like to thank my family, especially my parents,
Michael and Renée Shilling, and also my brothers and sister-in-law, Hale, Reid, and
Meredith, for a lifetime of sustenance and confidence, even as they must have wondered
what I was doing all this time. Along with my family, my friends Monica West Porter
and Sara Rothleder provided welcome distractions from the dissertation. Finally, I am
forever indebted to my husband, Paul Stephenson, who found me in a basement and
helped me climb to a much better room on the twelfth floor. I would never have
undertaken the dissertation without him, nor would it have taken the same form without
his intellectual engagement and expert advice.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Part I: The Apse Mosaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Chapter 1: The Apse Mosaic at Lythrankomi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1 History and Naming of the Site 1.2 Architectural Context 1.3 Wall Paintings 1.4 Description of the Mosaic 1.5 Early Photographs 1.6 Conservation 1.7 Materials and Technique 1.8 Evidence for Dating
a. Apostle Border b. Intermediate and Outer Borders c. Landscape d. Lyre-Backed Throne e. Vertical Inscriptions f. Conclusion
Chapter 2: The Apse Mosaic at Kiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 2.1 History of the Site 2.2 Architectural Context 2.3 Description of the Mosaic 2.4 Early Photographs 2.5 Restoration 2.6 Materials and Technique 2.7 Evidence for Dating a. Inhabited Acanthus Border b. Outer and Lower Borders c. Light Effects: Radiating Cross and Translucent Orbs d. Archangels’ Inscriptions e. Η ΑΓΙΑ ΜΑΡΙΑ f. Conclusion
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Chapter 3: The Apse Mosaic at Livadia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 3.1 History of the Site 3.2 Architectural Context 3.3 Description of the Mosaic 3.4 Early Photographs and Conservation 3.5 Materials and Technique 3.6 Evidence for Dating
a. The Mid-Seventh Century as Terminus Ante Quem b. Rising Scale Pattern c. The Orant Virgin
d. Conclusion Part I: Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Part II: The Apse Mosaics in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Chapter 4: Sacred Space and Liturgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 4.1 The Apse 4.2 The Real Presence of the Virgin: The Projecting Footstool and the Mandorla 4.3 Angels with Peacock-Feathered Wings Chapter 5: Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 5.1 The Fountain of Paradise 5.2 Metaphors of the Virgin Mary 5.3 Nature Personifications and the Virgin 5.4 The Rejection of Nature at Livadia Chapter 6: Intercession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 6.1 Textual Evidence for Marian Intercession 6.2 Invocations and Ex-votos in the Minor Arts 6.3 Invocations and Ex-votos in Painting and Mosaic 6.4 The Solitary Orant Virgin in the Apse Part II: Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Curriculum Vitae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
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LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Exterior View from Southwest, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.2 a: Painted Lunette over South Door, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi (Megaw and Hawkins, 1977)
b: Painted Lunette over South Door, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi (Present View)
1.3 Inscription over West Door, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi, 1779
1.4 Alexander Drummond, Drawing, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi,
1750
1.5 Jakov Smirnov, Plan, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.6 Georgios Soteriou, Plan and Elevation, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi
1.7 Megaw and Hawkins, Plan, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.8 Megaw and Hawkins, Cross Section through Main Dome, Church of the Panagia
Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.9 Megaw and Hawkins, Reconstruction of Pier-Basilica of First Renovation,
Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.10 Megaw and Hawkins, Composite Plan of Original Column-Basilica and Pier-
Basilica of First Restoration, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.11 Megaw and Hawkins, Plan of North Side of Bema, Church of the Panagia
Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.12 Exterior View, Main Apse, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
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1.13 Interior View, Main Apse, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
(Present View)
1.14 Capital and Column Shaft, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.15 a: Wall Painting: St. Barbara, Pier of North Arcade, Church of the Panagia
Kanakariá, Lythrankomi (Megaw and Hawkins, 1977)
b: Wall Painting: St. Barbara, Pier of North Arcade, Church of the Panagia
Kanakariá, Lythrankomi (Present View)
1.16 a: Wall Painting: Nativity, East Wall, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi (Megaw and Hawkins, 1977)
b: Wall Painting: Nativity, East Wall, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi (Present View)
1.17 a: Wall Painting: St. Helena and St. Mamas, Pier of South Arcade, Church of the
Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi (Megaw and Hawkins, 1977)
b: Wall Painting: St. Helena, Pier of South Arcade, Church of the Panagia
Kanakariá, Lythrankomi (Present View)
1.18 Interior View to East, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.19 Apse Mosaic, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.20 Apse Mosaic: Virgin and Child with Angels, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi
1.21 Apse Mosaic: Christ Child, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.22 Apse Mosaic: Apostles, North Side, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi
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1.23 Apse Mosaic: Apostles, South Side, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi
1.24 Apse Mosaic: Intermediate Border, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi
1.25 Megaw and Hawkins, Reconstruction of Outer Border, Church of the Panagia
Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.26 Apse Mosaic: Crowstep Border, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.27 Megaw and Hawkins, Reconstruction of Apse Mosaic, Church of the Panagia
Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.30 Mosaic Fragment, Soffit, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.31 Apse Mosaic, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi (Jakov Smirnov,
1895)
1.32 Apse Mosaic, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi (Georgios Soteriou,
1935)
1.33 Apse Mosaic: North Archangel, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.34 Apse Mosaic: Virgin and Child, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.35 Apse Conch, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi (Present View)
1.36 Mosaic Fragment: North Archangel, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi, Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.37 Mosaic Fragment: Christ Child, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi,
Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.38 Mosaic Fragment: Matthew, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi,
Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.39 Mosaic Fragment: James, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi,
Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.40 Mosaic Fragment: Bartholomew, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi,
Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.41 Mosaic Fragment: Luke, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi,
Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.42 Mosaic Fragment: Jude, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi,
Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.43 Mosaic Fragment: Irisated Border, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi, Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.44 Mosaic Fragment: Irisated Border, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi, Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.45 Mosaic Fragment: Acanthus Leaf, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi, Byzantine Museum, Nicosia
1.46 Apse Mosaic: Face of North Archangel, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi
1.47 Apse Mosaic: Face of Christ Child, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi
1.48 Apse Mosaic: Face of Jude, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.49 Apse Mosaic: Face of Mark, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
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1.50 Apse Mosaic: James and Bartholomew, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá,
Lythrankomi
1.51 Apse Mosaic: Philip and Luke, Church of the Panagia Kanakariá, Lythrankomi
1.52 Apse Mosaic: Arm of South Archangel and…