Appropriate Use of FDG PET in Management of Cancer Patients

5/21/2018 Appropriate Use of FDG PET in Management of Cancer Patients

IAEA HUMAN HEALTH SERIES

No. 9

Appropriate Use of FDG-PET

for the Management

of Cancer Patients


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APPROPRIATE USE OF FDG-PETFOR THE MANAGEMENT OF

CANCER PATIENTS


The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency:

The Agencys Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of theIAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. TheHeadquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is to accelerate and enlarge thecontribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world.

AFGHANISTANALBANIAALGERIAANGOLAARGENTINAARMENIAAUSTRALIAAUSTRIAAZERBAIJANBAHRAINBANGLADESHBELARUSBELGIUMBELIZEBENINBOLIVIA

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINABOTSWANABRAZILBULGARIABURKINA FASOBURUNDICAMBODIACAMEROONCANADACENTRAL AFRICAN

REPUBLICCHADCHILE

CHINACOLOMBIACONGOCOSTA RICACTE DIVOIRECROATIACUBACYPRUSCZECH REPUBLICDEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

OF THE CONGODENMARKDOMINICAN REPUBLIC

ECUADOREGYPTEL SALVADORERITREAESTONIAETHIOPIAFINLANDFRANCEGABONGEORGIAGERMANY

GHANAGREECEGUATEMALAHAITIHOLY SEEHONDURASHUNGARYICELANDINDIAINDONESIAIRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OFIRAQIRELANDISRAELITALYJAMAICA

JAPANJORDANKAZAKHSTANKENYAKOREA, REPUBLIC OFKUWAITKYRGYZSTANLATVIALEBANONLESOTHOLIBERIALIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYALIECHTENSTEIN

LITHUANIALUXEMBOURGMADAGASCARMALAWIMALAYSIAMALIMALTAMARSHALL ISLANDSMAURITANIAMAURITIUSMEXICOMONACOMONGOLIA

MONTENEGROMOROCCOMOZAMBIQUEMYANMARNAMIBIANEPALNETHERLANDSNEW ZEALANDNICARAGUANIGERNIGERIA

NORWAYOMANPAKISTAN

PALAUPANAMAPARAGUAYPERUPHILIPPINESPOLANDPORTUGALQATARREPUBLIC OF MOLDOVAROMANIARUSSIAN FEDERATIONSAUDI ARABIASENEGALSERBIASEYCHELLESSIERRA LEONESINGAPORESLOVAKIASLOVENIASOUTH AFRICASPAINSRI LANKASUDANSWEDENSWITZERLAND

SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLICTAJIKISTANTHAILANDTHE FORMER YUGOSLAV

REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIATUNISIATURKEYUGANDAUKRAINEUNITED ARAB EMIRATESUNITED KINGDOM OF

GREAT BRITAIN AND

NORTHERN IRELANDUNITED REPUBLIC

OF TANZANIAUNITED STATES OF AMERICAURUGUAYUZBEKISTANVENEZUELAVIETNAMYEMENZAMBIAZIMBABWE


APPROPRIATE USE OF FDG-PET

FOR THE MANAGEMENT OFCANCER PATIENTS

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCYVIENNA, 2010

IAEA HUMAN HEALTH SERIES No. 9


IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Appropriate use of FDG-PET for the management of cancer patients. Vienna :International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.

p. ; 24 cm. (IAEA human health series, ISSN 20753772 ; no. 9)STI/PUB/1438ISBN 9789201016102Includes bibliographical references.

1. Cancer Patients Treatment. 2. Tomography, Emission Methodology. 3. Positrons Emission. I. International Atomic EnergyAgency. II. Series.

IAEAL 1000631

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IAEA, 2010

Printed by the IAEA in AustriaApril 2010

STI/PUB/1438


FOREWORD

The global incidence of cancer is increasing in both developed anddeveloping countries and will become a heavy health burden in the comingdecade. This increase in the cancer rate will bring with it challenges for healthcare systems, clinicians, and patients and their families. Technologies thatimprove the decision making process and optimize treatment have the potential tobenefit society as a whole.

The purpose of this publication is to develop a consensus based on evidencefrom existing systematic reviews, to make health care providers aware of thevalue and the appropriateness of the introduction of positron emissiontomography (PET), either alone or in combination with computed tomography

(PET/CT) using 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) labelled with18

F, in themanagement of patients affected by cancer.Although the concept of appropriateness has been defined in terms of

clinical utility, it may also be used to assist in the allocation of limited resourcesin an environment of shrinking health budgets. There is, however, the danger thatnew interventions will be underutilized, because they are viewed by health careadministrators as inappropriate. This could be due to a narrow interpretation ofappropriateness that is based solely on the cost of the intervention, isolated fromthe potential cost savings derived from its use. In reality, therefore, there might be

a series of interventions, services and health services of proven effectivenesswhose necessary implementation requires an increase in costs, at least in the shortand medium terms.

Thus, if decision makers are to rely only on appropriateness criteria indecisions to fund health services, they must accept that the main aim ofappropriateness is the optimization of resource allocation and not simply thereduction of costs. Therefore they must also focus on the inappropriateness offailing to introduce innovations of proven effectiveness.

While the use of PET is well established and integrated into oncologicalpractice in many developed countries, it is limited or absent in many developingcountries. Based on these considerations, the IAEA recognizes the need to makereliable information widely available to support Member States in the use of PETscanning. Within the AsiaPacific region, the IAEA has initiated technicalcooperation projects addressing the technical aspects and quality assurance ofPET scanning, and aimed at identifying the indications for PET scanning mostlikely to provide the greatest benefit to both individual patients and the healthsystem.

The regional project on Strengthening Clinical Applications of PET in RCAMember States (RAS/6/049), under the Regional Co-operative Agreement forResearch, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology


(RCA) programme, was formulated to address this need in the AsiaPacificregion. As an integral component of this project, the IAEA convened an expertconsultant group to consider the available systematic reviews and to draft a list ofindications for PET scanning. The expert consultant group was also requested toconsider specific issues that may affect the utility of PET scanning in theAsiaPacific region.

The recommendations included here have been written and approved by theIAEA to promote the optimal use of FDG-PET imaging procedures. These broadrecommendations cannot be rigidly applied to all patients in all clinical settings.This publication represents the state of knowledge at the time of writingregarding the utility of FDG-PET in the treatment of cancers that are common inthe AsiaPacific region. Since FDG-PET is a rapidly evolving technology, this

report will require periodic updating, and readers are advised to seek the mostrecent reports pertinent to this particular area.The IAEA officers responsible for this publication were M. Dondi of the

Division of Human Health and M.P. Dias of the Division for Asia and the Pacific.

EDITORIAL NOTE

Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information contained in

this publication, neither the IAEA nor its Member States assume any responsibility for

consequences which may arise from its use.

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judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of

their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries.

The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as

registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be

construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA.The IAEA has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or

third party Internet web sites referred to in this book and does not guarantee that any content

on such web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.


CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2. Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3. Search strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4. Definitions of the appropriateness criteria for the use of PET . . . 21.5. Definitions of indications for PET scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.6. Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2. CLINICAL SCENARIOS FOR FDG-PET/CT INDICATIONS . . . . 5

2.1. Summary of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3. NON-SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER (NSCLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4. SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER (SCLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

5. LYMPHOMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22


5.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6. BREAST CANCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

6.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

7. MELANOMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

7.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

7.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

8. OVARIAN CANCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

8.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9. CANCER OF THE UTERUS AND CERVIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

9.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

9.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34


9.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

10. HEAD AND NECK CANCERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

10.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3710.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3710.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3810.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3810.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3810.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

10.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

11. KIDNEY CANCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

11.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4011.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4011.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4011.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4011.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41


12. GERMINAL TUMOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43


13. CANCER OF UNKNOWN PRIMARY (CUP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

13.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4513.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

13.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4513.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4513.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46



14. COLORECTAL CANCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47


15. GASTRIC CARCINOMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

15.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5015.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5015.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5015.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5115.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5115.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

15.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

16. SARCOMAS (SOFT TISSUE AND BONE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53


17. PRIMARY TUMOURS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUSSYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

17.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5617.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

17.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5617.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5717.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57



18. NASOPHARYNGEAL CARCINOMAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59


19. GASTROINTESTINAL STROMAL TUMOURS (GISTS) . . . . . . . 62

19.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6219.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6219.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6219.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6219.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6319.6. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

19.7. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

20. PANCREATIC ADENOCARCINOMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64


21. CHOLANGIO- AND GALLBLADDER CARCINOMAS . . . . . . . . 67

21.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6721.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6721.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

21.4. Restaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6721.5. Suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68



22. OESOPHAGEAL CANCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70


23. THYROID CANCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

23.1. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7323.2. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7323.3. Response evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7323.4. Restaging and suspected recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7323.5. Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7423.6. RT planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75


1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND

In the past decade, appropriateness has become a guiding principle to justifythe introduction of new health care interventions, from the use of new drugs or newtreatment modalities to the implementation of new diagnostic procedures. Theconcept of appropriateness, with a decision aid for its assessment, providesclinicians and funders with a tool to determine which diagnostic investigations andtherapies should be implemented. In the context of diagnostic investigations, newinvestigations are deemed appropriate when the difference between the expected

incremental information and the expected or possible adverse effects is sufficientlylarge that the investigation is warranted for the indication concerned. The decisiontool for rating appropriateness includes a literature review and synthesis of theevidence according to designated indications.

Although the concept of appropriateness has been defined in terms ofclinical utility, it may also be used to assist in the allocation of limited resourcesin an environment of shrinking health budgets. There is, however, the danger thatnew interventions will be underutilized, because they are viewed by health careadministrators as inappropriate. This could be due to a narrow interpretation of

appropriateness that is based solely on the cost of the intervention, isolated fromthe potential cost savings derived from its use. In reality, therefore, there might bea series of interventions, services and health services of proven effectiveness thatare widely underutilized, whose necessary implementation requires, at least in theshort and medium terms, an increase in costs.

Funding decision makers must accept that the main aim of appropriateness is

not cost reduction, but rather optimization of health resource allocation, recognizing

the consequences of failure to implement innovations of proven effectiveness. It is

only through acceptance of this perspective that innovations of proven effectiveness

will be introduced for the benefit of both individuals and society.

1.2. OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this publication is to develop a consensus based on evidencefrom existing systematic reviews, to make health care providers aware of thevalue and the appropriateness of the introduction of positron emission

tomography (PET) or PET combined with computed tomography (PET/CT)using 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) labelled with 18F in the management ofpatients affected by cancer.


2

1.3. SEARCH STRATEGY

The search of the available scientific publications was initially confined tosystematic reviews of PET scanning in oncology using full ring PET and/orPET/CT that were published prior to 2009. However, owing to the rapid recentimprovements in PET technology, for indications not deemed appropriate (seedefinition below) in the systematic reviews, a literature review of publicationsmore recent than the current systematic review was undertaken, to determinewhether more recent information changed the classification of appropriateness, asdefined below.

1.4. DEFINITIONS OF THE APPROPRIATENESS CRITERIAFOR THE USE OF PET

The use of PET for clinical indications can be considered appropriate,potentially appropriate, possibly appropriate or inappropriate. The appropriatenesscriteria for the usefulness of PET are defined as follows:

Appropriate (all the conditions below must be met)

There is evidence of improved diagnostic performance (higher sensitivityand specificity) compared with other current techniques.

The information derived from the PET scan influences clinical practice. The information derived from the PET scan has a plausible impact on the

patients outcome, either through adoption of more effective therapeuticstrategies or through non-adoption of ineffective or harmful practices.

Potentially appropriate (potentially useful)

There is evidence of improved diagnostic performance (greater sensitivityand specificity) compared with other current techniques, but evidence of animpact on treatment and outcome is lacking.

Possibly appropriate (appropriateness not yet documented)

There is insufficient evidence for assessment, although there is a strongrationale for clinical benefit from PET.


3

Inappropriate

Improved accuracy of tumour staging will not alter management, or theperformance of PET is poorer than that of other current techniques.

1.5. DEFINITIONS OF INDICATIONS FOR PET SCANNING

Seven different indications for PET scanning are considered here:diagnosis, staging, response evaluation, restaging, suspected recurrence, follow-up and radiotherapy (RT) planning. They are defined as follows:

Diagnosis

Characterization of mass lesion: indication of whether a mass lesion isbenign or malignant;

PET guided biopsy: assistance in guiding biopsy to the region of a tumourwith the highest metabolic activity, identified on the PET scan by thearea(s) of highest FDG uptake;

Detection of occult primary cancer (cancer of unknown primary site); Raised tumour markers: determination of the presence of cancer;

Metastasis: determination of the primary site when metastases have beendetected.

Staging

Assessment of the extent of disease prior to initiation of treatment.

Response evaluation

Assessment of treatment response during or after therapy.

Restaging

Assessment of the extent of disease following initial therapy or whenrecurrence has been confirmed.

Suspected recurrence

Assessment of the presence of cancer following clinical and/or biochemicalsuspicion of recurrence.


4

Follow-up

Surveillance in the absence of clinical evidence of recurrence.

RT planning

Aid in the placement of radiation fields (this assumes that there has been adecision to use RT).

1.6. STRUCTURE

Indications for the use of FDG-PET/CT in the management of 21 types ofcancer are outlined in Section 2 and presented in more detail in Sections 323.Seven different possible indications are considered for each type of cancer, withrecommendations given as to the appropriateness of FDG-PET/CT for eachindication.


5

2. CLINICAL SCENARIOSFOR FDG-PET/CT INDICATIONS

Overall, 21 different types of cancer are considered here, with sevendifferent possible indications for each. It should be noted that therecommendations refer to average individuals. Specific clinical conditions mayrequire the referring physician to take decisions that may differ from theevaluations included in this publication.

2.1. SUMMARY OF RESULTS

The following cancers have been considered:

(1) Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)(2) Small cell lung cancer (SCLC)(3) Lymphoma(4) Breast cancer(5) Melanoma(6) Ovarian cancer

(7) Cancer of the uterus and cervix(8) Head and neck cancers(9) Kidney cancer(10) Germinal tumours(11) Cancer of unknown primary (CUP)(12) Colorectal cancer(13) Gastric carcinoma(14) Sarcomas (soft tissue and bone)(15) Primary tumours of the central nervous system(16) Nasopharyngeal carcinomas(17) Gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GISTs)(18) Pancreatic adenocarcinoma(19) Cholangio- and gallbladder carcinomas(20) Oesophageal cancer(21) Thyroid cancer.

Cancers for which FDG-PET has no established role, such as prostate and

hepatocellular carcinoma, are not discussed in this publication. Also, as mostgastro-entero-pancreatic tumours (GEPTs) and mucinous adenocarcinomas arenot FDG avid, FDG-PET is usually inappropriate for them.


6

Tables 14 summarize clinical indications for which the use of FDG-PET isrecognized as appropriate, potentially appropriate, possibly appropriate andinappropriate, respectively.

Text continues on p. 15.


7

TABLE1.INDICATIONSCONSIDEREDAPPROPRIATE

Typeofcancer

Diagnosis

Staging

Response

evaluation

Restaging

Suspected

recurrence

Follow-up

RTplanning

Lungcancer

Characterization

ofSPN

NSC

LCconsidered

forc

urativetreatment

Lymphom

a

HD,aggressiveNHL

AssessFDGavidity

HDandNHL

withproven

FDGavidity

HDandNHL

withproven

FDGavidity

Characterize

masse

safter

treatm

entofHDand

NHLwithproven

FDGavidity

Melanoma

Operable

versusinoperable

recurrence

Ovariancancer

Comp

lementaryto

MRI

Cancerof

theuterus

andcervix

Nstagingintumours

inva

dingbeyond

uterus

Confirmed

recurrence

Yes

Headand

neckcanc

ers

CUP

After

chemotherap

y

and/or

radiotherapy

Endoftreatment

Aftersurgeryand/or

radiotherapy


8

Colorectal

cancer

Inapparently

isolatedlocal

recurrenceor

metastases

priortosurgery

Incaseofrising

tumou

rmarkers

andnon-diagnostic

conventional

imaging

Naso-

pharyngeal

carcinomas

N,Ms

taging

Yes

Endoftreatment

Confirmed

recurrence

Gastrointestinal

stromaltu

mours

(GISTs)

Yes

Yes

Viability

assessment

ofconfirmed

recurrenttumour

Viabilityassessment

ofsuspected

recurrenttumour

Yes

Oesophag

eal

cancer

Ms

taging

Thyroidcancer

Inpatientswith

positiveTgand

negative131I

wholebodyscan

Rising

tumour

marke

rs(Tg,

calcitonine)todetect

lesionsaccessibleto

surgery

Note:CUP:cancerofunknownprimary;

FDG:2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-gluc

ose;HD:Hodgkinsdisease;M

RI:magneticresonanceimaging;NHL:non-

Hodgkinslymphoma;NSCLC:non-smallcelllungcancer;RT:radiotherapy;SPN:solitarypulmonarynodule;Tg:thyroglobulin.

TABLE1.INDICATIONSCONSIDEREDAPPROPRIATE(cont.)

Typeofcancer

Diagnosis

Staging

Response

evaluation

Restaging

Suspected

recurrence

Follow-up

RTplanning


9

TABLE2.INDICATIONSCONSIDEREDPOTENTIALLYA

PPROPRIATE

Typeofcancer

Diagnosis

Staging

Responseevaluation

Restaging

Sus

pected

recurrence

Follow-up

RT

planning

Lungcancer

NSCLC:Following

neoadjuvantCXTto

evaluateoperability

Duringdefinite

RT/CXTtoa

daptdose

accordingto

response

NSCLC

:

Define

RT

treatme

ntfields

Breastcan

cer

Lo

callyadvanced

disease

Advanced/metastatic

disease

Confirmed

recurrence

Incase

ofrising

tumourmarkers

Melanoma

Ad

vanced

(st

ageIIIIV)

disease

Ovariancancer

Yes

Confirmed

recurrence

Cancerof

the

uterusand

cervix

Endof

treatment

RTplanning

(para-aorticnodal

involve

mentin

cervica

lcarcinoma)

Headand

neck

cancers

De

tectnodal

involvement,

distantmetastases,

synchronous

tumours

Confirmed

recurrence

Assistindefining

targetv

olume


10

Kidneyca

ncer

Confirmed

recurrence

Cancerof

unknown

primary,

non-ENT

Detectprimary

Ev

aluate

extentofdisease

Colorectalcancer

Yes

Nasopharyngeal

carcinomas

Identif

ysite(s)

ofrecu

rrence

Pancreatic

adenocarc

inoma

AssessFDG

avidityto

characterize

pancreaticmass

Distinguish

recurrencefrom

post-treatment

changes

Oesophag

eal

cancer

Assessresponseafter

neoadjuvanttherapy

priortosurgery

Identif

ydisease

amenableto

locoregional

therapy

Assistindefining

targetv

olume

Note:CX

T:chemotherapy;ENT:earnosethroat;FDG:2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose;NSCLC:non-sm

allcelllungcancer;RT:radioth

erapy.

TABLE2.INDICATIONSCONSIDEREDPOTENTIALLYA

PPROPRIATE(cont.)

Typeofcancer

Diagnosis

Staging

Responseevaluation

Restaging

Sus

pected

recurrence

Follow-up

RT

planning


11

TABLE3.INDICATIONSCONSIDEREDPOSSIBLYAPPR

OPRIATE

Typeofcancer

Diagnosis

Staging

Response

evaluation

Restaging

Suspected

recurrence

Follow-up

RT

planning

Lungcancer

SCL

C

Guideselectionof

appropriatetherapy

incaseofsolitary

metastasesorlocal

recu

rrenceofNSCLC

NSC

LC

SCL

C

SCLCNSCL

C:Define

totaldose

Breastcan

cer

Assistindefining

target

volume

Melanoma

AssessFDG

avidity

inlesionsnoteasily

amenabletobiopsy

Ovariancancer

Yes

End

oftreatment

Yes

Cancerof

theuterus

andcervix

Yes

Kidneyca

ncer

Inadva

nced

disease

Germinal

tumours

Exceptfor

matureteratoma

Elevatedtumour

markers/equivocalCT

Cancerof

unknown

primary,

non-ENT

Raisedtumour

markersand

normal/

inconclusive

conventional

workup

Evaluate

extento

f

disease


12

Colorectal

cancer

Yes

Yes

Yes

Gastric

carcinoma

Yes

Afterneoadjuvant

therapy

Yes

Sarcomas

(soft

tissue/bon

e)

Guidebiopsy

Yes(ex

tra-

pulmon

ary

metasta

ses)

Potentiallychange

CXTincaseof

non-response

Yes(extra-

pulmonary

metastases)

Guidebiopsy

Yes

Yes

PrimaryC

NS

tumours

Guidebiopsy

Yes

Distinguish

recurrence

fromradion

ecrosis

Lowgrade

tumour

Guide

RTdose

escala

tion

Naso-

pharyngeal

carcinomas

Yes

Assistindefining

target

volume

Pancreatic

adenocarc

inoma

Ms

taging

Yes

Assistindefining

target

volume;

doseintensification

Cholangio

-/

gallbladder

carcinoma

Differentiate

benignfrom

malignant

lesions

N,Ms

taging

Yes

Note:CN

S:centralnervoussystem;CT:computedtomography;CXT:chemotherapy;ENT:earnosethroat;FDG:2-fluoro-2-deox

y-D-glucose;

NSCLC:non-smallcelllungcancer;RT:

radiotherapy;SCLC:smallcell

lungcancer.

TABLE3.INDICATIONSCONSIDEREDPOSSIBLYAPPR

OPRIATE(cont.)

Typeofcancer

Diagnosis

Staging

Response

evaluation

Restaging

Suspected

recurrence

Follow-up

RT

planning


13

TABLE4.INDICATIONSCONSIDEREDINAPPROPRIATE

Typeofcancer

Diagnosis

Staging

R

esponse

ev

aluation

Restaging

Suspected

recurrence

Follow-up

RTplanning

Lungcancer

SCLC

NSCL

Cafter

definitiveCXT/RT

SCLC

NSCLCatend

of

treatment

SCLC

NSCLC

SCLC

Lymphom

a

HDandNHL

Non-follicular

lowgradeNHL

Yes

Yes

Breastcan

cer

Yes

Axillainthe

absenceof

palpablenodes

Endoftreatme

nt

Yes

Melanoma

Yes

Stagingofstage

IIImelanomas

Yes

Endoftreatme

nt

Yes

Yes

Ovariancancer

Yes

Yes

Cancerof

theuterus

andcervix

Yes

Yes

Headand

neckcancersCharacterizelesion

Guidebiopsy

(exceptCUP)

Yes

Kidneyca

ncer

Yes

Yes(except

advanceddisease)

Yes

Endoftreatme

nt

Yes

Yes

Yes

Germinal

tumours

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Cancerof

unknown

primary(C

UP)with

metastasesoutsideneck

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA


14

Colorectalcancer

Yes

Gastricca

rcinoma

Characterizelesion

Guidebiopsy

Endoftreatment

Yes

Yes

Sarcomas

(soft

tissue/bon

e)

Characterizelesion

PrimaryC

NStumours

Yes

Yes

Endoftreatment

Confirmedrecurrence

Nasopharyngeal

carcinomas

Yes

Gastrointestinal

stromaltu

mours

(GISTs)

Yes

Aftercurativesurgery

Yes

Pancreatic

adenocarc

inoma

Endoftreatment

Confirmedrecurrence

Yes

Cholangio

-/

gallbladdercarcinoma

Endoftreatment

Confirmedrecurrence

Yes

Yes

Yes

Oesophag

ealcancer

Characterizelesion

Guidebiopsy

Endoftreatment

Yes

Thyroidcancer

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Note:CN

S:centralnervoussystem;CU

P:cancerofunknownprimary;CXT/RT:chemotherapy/radiotherapy;HD:Hodgkinsdise

ase;NA:not

applicable

;NHL:non-Hodgkinslympho

ma;NSCLC:non-smallcelllun

gcancer;RT:radiotherapy;SC

LC:smallcelllungcancer.

TABLE4.INDICATIONSCONSIDEREDINAPPROPRIATE

(cont.)

Typeofcancer

Diagnosis

Staging

R

esponse

ev

aluation

Restaging

Suspected

recurrence

Follow-up

RTplanning


15

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CENTERS FOR MEDICARE AND MEDICAID SERVICES, National Oncologic PETRegistry (NOPR) update, www.cms.gov

CLEEMPUT, I., et al., HTA Positron Emission Tomography Imaging in Belgium, BelgianHealth Care Knowledge Centre (KCE), Brussels (2005).

FACEY, K., BRADBURY, I., LAKING, G., PAYNE, E., Overview of the clinical effectivenessof positron emission tomography imaging in selected cancers, Health Technol. Assessment2007 XI 44 (2007).

FLETCHER, J.W., et al., Recommendations on the use of 18F-FDG PET in oncology, J. Nucl.Med. 493 (2008) 480508.

HILLNER, B.E., et al., Impact of positron emission tomography/computed tomography andpositron emission tomography (PET) alone on expected management of patients with cancer:Initial results from the National Oncologic PET Registry, J. Clin. Oncol. 26 13 (2008)21552161.

PODOLOFF, D.A., et al., NCCN task force report: Positron emission tomography(PET)/computed tomography (CT) scanning in cancer, J. Natl. Compr. Cancer Netw. 5 1(2007) 122.


16

3. NON-SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER (NSCLC)

3.1. DIAGNOSIS

Characterization of mass lesion

Recommendation: Appropriate

Solitary pulmonary nodules (SPNs) are common and present a diagnosticchallenge, particularly in persons with chronic pulmonary disease or any othercondition where biopsy may be risky. FDG-PET is used to differentiate malignant

from benign SPNs, with a sensitivity of 97% and specificity of 78% in lesions1 cm or larger. SPNs with high FDG uptake should be considered malignant,whereas lesions with low uptake are likely to be benign or slowly growingmalignancies such as broncho-alveolar carcinoma (BAC) and may be consideredfor surveillance using CT scanning. The use of PET for diagnosticcharacterization of SPNs is cost effective.

3.2. STAGING

Regional lymph nodes


The use of PET represents the standard of care for staging NSCLC in manycountries, with meta-analysis indicating a higher sensitivity and specificity forPET than for CT scanning (85% and 90%, respectively, for PET versus 57% and82%, respectively, for CT). This is especially important for mediastinal lymphnodes close to normal size, with a 20% false negative rate with CT compared withan 80% true positive rate with PET. Histological confirmation of PET positivelymph nodes is highly recommended if the patients management may change,particularly from surgical to non-surgical treatment. PET is accurate even in thoseregions of the world where tuberculosis is endemic.


17

Distant metastases


Approximately one quarter of tumours initially staged as stage III prior toPET scanning are upstaged to stage IV following PET scanning. Brain metastasesare not detected adequately using FDG-PET.

3.3. RESPONSE EVALUATION

Following neoadjuvant chemotherapy

Recommendation: Potentially appropriate

The PET response following neoadjuvant chemotherapy can be used toselect patients with stage III tumours for subsequent surgical resection. Ifmetastatic mediastinal lymph nodes show good response to chemotherapy,debulking or curative surgery may be considered. However, if there is poorresponse in mediastinal nodes, survival is very poor and patients probably shouldnot undergo surgery.

Following definitive RT or chemoradiation

Recommendation: Inappropriate

Survival following definitive RT or chemoradiation is strongly predicted byPET, with improved survival in patients whose tumours show no uptake on post-treatment PET scans. This predictive value is much greater than that based on CTresponse. However, as this information does not change subsequent management,the use of PET for this purpose is not indicated.

During definitive RT or chemoradiation

Recommendation: Possibly appropriate

Some initial reports suggest that serial PET scans during a course of RTmay be useful in determining the total RT dose. Tumours that fail to show a

reduction in PET uptake during RT may be considered for a higher RT dose.


18

3.4. RESTAGING

End of therapy


There is no rationale for the use of FDG-PET following completion oftherapy.

Confirmed recurrence


Although there are no data regarding the value of PET when recurrence hasbeen confirmed, in a situation involving a solitary metastasis or local recurrence,restaging with PET may allow selection of appropriate therapy.

3.5. SUSPECTED RECURRENCE


Data are lacking for this indication. However, there is a good rationale forthe use of PET to confirm recurrence.

3.6. FOLLOW-UP


While recurrence can probably be detected at an earlier point by PET thanby clinical examination or another type of imaging, there is no evidence thatpatient management or survival would be affected.

3.7. RT PLANNING


Many single centre reports, mostly on limited series of patients, indicatethat the information available from PET scanning alters the size of RT treatment


19

fields in 27100% of the cases. In most cases, the field size is increased toincorporate PET positive areas, while in some cases the field size is reduced inorder to avoid unnecessary radiation to adjacent normal tissues, especially in theproximity of critical anatomic structures. To date there are no data showing animprovement in outcome.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FLETCHER, J.W., et al., A comparison of the diagnostic accuracy of 18F-FDG PET and CT inthe characterization of solitary pulmonary nodules, VA SNAP Cooperative Studies Group,J. Nucl. Med. 492 (2008) 179185.

KIM, Y.K., et al., Mediastinal nodal staging of non-small cell lung cancer using integrated18F-FDG PET/CT in a tuberculosis-endemic country: Diagnostic efficacy in 674 patients,Cancer 1096 (2007) 10681077.

MacMANUS, M., HICKS, R.J., The use of positron emission tomography (PET) in thestaging/evaluation, treatment, and follow-up of patients with lung cancer: A critical review,Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 725 (2008) 12981306.

MacMANUS, M., et al., Use of PET and PET/CT for radiation therapy planning: IAEA expertreport 20062007, Radiother. Oncol. 911 (2009) 8594.

SAMSON, D.J., et al., Evidence for management of small cell lung cancer: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines, 2nd edn, Chest 1323 (2007) 314323.

YEN, R.F., et al., 18F-FDG PET for the lymph node staging of non-small cell lung cancer in atuberculosis-endemic country: Is dual time point imaging worth the effort? Eur. J. Nucl. Med.Mol. Imaging 357 (2008) 13051315.


20

4. SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER (SCLC)

4.1. DIAGNOSIS



SCLC usually presents with a large central mass and concomitant hilo-mediastinal adenopathy; SCLC rarely presents with a peripheral mass. (In therare event of SCLC presenting as an SPN, FDG-PET would be of value, as

indicated for NSCLC.)

4.2. STAGING


Management of SCLC is based on staging derived predominantly from CTfindings. Although a number of reports indicate upstaging in approximately a

quarter of the cases of limited stage SCLC, there are no data to indicate whetherthese patients should be managed as per limited stage or extensive stage disease.



As SCLC shrinks rapidly in response to effective treatment, it is unlikelythat PET would contribute to the assessment of treatment response.

4.4. RESTAGING


Although FDG-PET is likely to be more sensitive than CT in detecting sites

of recurrent disease, recurrence is considered to be incurable and CT should beadequate for identifying recurrence.


21



The high FDG uptake of SCLC suggests that PET is a sensitive tool foridentifying recurrence, although there are insufficient data indicating that PETalters clinical management.

4.6. FOLLOW-UP


Recurrence of SCLC is considered to be incurable, with CT providingadequate detection of recurrence.

4.7. RT PLANNING


It is likely that PET would have the same benefit for SCLC as has beendemonstrated for NSCLC, resulting in a modification of the RT field definitionfor a high proportion of cases.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRADLEY, J.D., et al., Positron emission tomography in limited-stage small-cell lung cancer:A prospective study, J. Clin. Oncol. 2216 (2004) 32483254.

ONITILO, A.A., ENGEL, J.M., DEMOS, J.M., MUKESH, B., Prognostic significance of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucosepositron emission tomography after treatment in patients with limitedstage small cell lung cancer, Clin. Med. Res. 62 (2008) 7277.

SAMSON, D.J., et al., Evidence for management of small cell lung cancer: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines, 2nd edn, Chest 132 3 (2007) 314323 (Review).


22

5. LYMPHOMA

5.1. DIAGNOSIS


There is no rationale to support the use of FDG-PET for the diagnosis oflymphoma, since histology is needed to establish such a diagnosis.

5.2. STAGING


Owing to its superior sensitivity and specificity for most types oflymphoma, FDG-PET is appropriate for staging of Hodgkins disease (HD) andaggressive non-Hodgkins lymphomas (NHLs), but not for non-follicular lowgrade lymphomas. Since diffuse bone marrow involvement and small disease focimay be missed, FDG-PET cannot be recommended to replace bone marrowbiopsy at initial staging.

A baseline FDG-PET scan is also indicated to assess FDG avidity of thetumour when subsequent evaluation of response to treatment with FDG-PET isplanned.



FDG-PET is the method of choice for the assessment of response to therapyin Hodgkins and non-Hodgkins lymphomas with pretreatment FDG avidity, andis superior to the CT based International Workshop Criteria. It helps tocharacterize residual masses, and the absence or persistence of FDG uptake evenafter fewer than three chemotherapy courses permits the separation of patientsinto favourable and unfavourable prognosis categories.


23

5.4. RESTAGING


The role of FDG-PET in restaging is equivalent to that in staging.



FDG-PET is useful in selected patients for determining the nature of newmasses. Positive foci require pathological confirmation.

5.6. FOLLOW-UP


FDG-PET currently has no recognized role in the routine surveillance ofpatients treated for HD and NHL.

5.7. RT PLANNING


There are no data available to support the use of PET for RT planning.

Note:The above recommendations also apply to primary central nervous system(CNS) lymphomas.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRUSAMOLINO, E., et al., Classical Hodgkins lymphoma in adults: Guidelines of the ItalianSociety of Hematology, the Italian Society of Experimental Hematology, and the Italian Groupfor Bone Marrow Transplantation on initial work-up, management, and follow-up,Haematologica 944 (2009) 550565.

CHESON, B.D., et al. Revised response criteria for malignant lymphoma, J. Clin. Oncol. 25(2007) 579586.


24

ISASI, C.R., LU, P., BLAUFOX, M.D., A metaanalysis of 18F-2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucosepositron emission tomography in the staging and restaging of patients with lymphoma, Cancer1045 (2005) 10661074.

JOHNSTON, P.B., WISEMAN, G.A., MICALLEF, I.N., Positron emission tomography usingF-18 fluorodeoxyglucose pre- and post-autologous stem cell transplant in non-Hodgkinslymphoma, Bone Marrow Transplant 41(2008) 919925.

JUWEID, M.E., et al., Use of positron emission tomography for response assessment oflymphoma: Consensus of the Imaging Subcommittee of the International HarmonizationProject in Lymphoma, J. Clin. Oncol. 25 (2007) 571578.

MIKHAEEL, N.G., Use of FDG-PET to monitor response to chemotherapy and radiotherapy inpatients with lymphomas, Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 331 (2006) 2226.

PAKOS, E.E., FOTOPOULOS, A.D., IOANNIDIS, J.P., 18F-FDG PET for evaluation of bonemarrow infiltration in staging of lymphoma: A meta-analysis, J. Nucl. Med. 46 6 (2005)958963.

SCHAEFER, N.G., et al., Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and Hodgkin disease: Coregistered FDGPET and CT at staging and restaging Do we need contrast-enhanced CT? Radiology 232(2004) 823829.

TERASAWA, T., NIHASHI, T., HOTTA, T., NAGAI, H., 18F-FDG PET for posttherapyassessment of Hodgkins disease and aggressive non-Hodgkins lymphoma: A systematicreview, J. Nucl. Med. 49(2008) 1321.

ZIJLSTRA, J.M., et al., 18F-fluoro-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography for post-treatment evaluation of malignant lymphoma: A systematic review, Haematologica 914 (2006)522529.


25

6. BREAST CANCER

6.1. DIAGNOSIS


Multiple prospective studies have shown a low sensitivity (25%) forprimary tumours 1 cm or smaller in diameter. The uptake of FDG in primarybreast cancers is related to tumour size, histology and grade; more aggressivetumours usually have higher uptake than less aggressive ones. Other factorsrelevant to tumour biology also seem to influence the degree of FDG uptake and

consequently the ability to detect the primary tumour by PET/CT.

6.2. STAGING

Axilla


The sensitivity of FDG-PET is too low to correctly stage the axilla, asmicrometastases may be missed. FDG-PET cannot replace sentinel node biopsy.

Distant metastases


FDG-PET allows detection of extra-axillary nodes and distant metastaseswith higher sensitivity than other diagnostic imaging methods; an exception isbrain metastases, where magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the method ofchoice. The relative role of bone scans using 99mTc compounds or FDG-PET inthe detection of bone metastases remains undefined. Nevertheless, bonemetastases from breast cancer tend to be osteolytic, and such lesions are known tobe detected with higher sensitivity by FDG-PET than are sclerotic bonemetastases.


26



There is growing evidence that FDG-PET permits reliable responseassessment after 13 cycles of chemotherapy in locally advanced and/ormetastatic disease. This is an evolving role for PET-FDG in the management ofbreast cancer.

6.4. RESTAGING

End of therapy


No data are available to support the use of FDG-PET in the restaging ofbreast cancer.



Due to its high sensitivity for distant metastases, particularly nodal andskeletal metastases, FDG-PET is helpful in establishing the extent of recurrentdisease.



There is a role for FDG-PET in the detection of recurrence, especially inpatients with rising tumour markers. So far, however, prospective trials that alsoaddress the issues of management changes, outcome and cost efficiency arelacking.


27

6.6. FOLLOW-UP


No data are available, including from patients on long term therapy.

6.7. RT PLANNING


Although only limited data are available, a rationale exists supporting the

use of FDG-PET to define radiation fields for metastatic lesions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

COOK, G.J., et al., Detection of bone metastases in breast cancer by 18FDG PET: Differingmetabolic activity in osteoblastic and osteolytic lesions, J. Clin. Oncol. 16 10 (1998)

33753379.

COUTURIER, O., JERUSALEM, G., NGUYEN, J.M., HUSTINX, R., Sequential positronemission tomography using [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose for monitoring response to chemotherapyin metastatic breast cancer, Clin. Cancer Res. 12 21 (2006) 64376443.

HODGSON, N.C., GULENCHYN, K.Y., Is there a role for positron emission tomography inbreast cancer staging? J. Clin. Oncol. 265 (2008) 712720.

ISASI, C.R., MOADEL, R.M., BLAUFOX, M.D., A meta-analysis of FDG-PET for the

evaluation of breast cancer recurrence and metastases, Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 90 2 (2005)105112.

LAVAYSSIERE, R., CABEE, A.E., FILMONT, J.E., Positron Emission Tomography (PET)and breast cancer in clinical practice, Eur. J. Radiol. 691 (2009) 5058.


28

7. MELANOMA

7.1. DIAGNOSIS


The diagnosis of melanoma requires biopsy and histopathologicalexamination. FDG-PET does not reliably distinguish between benign andmalignant naevi, particularly for the small cutaneous lesions that usuallycharacterize pigmented skin lesions.

7.2. STAGING

Stages I and II, low pretest probability of metastases


PET is less sensitive than sentinel node biopsy for staging regional lymphnodes. In patients with low pretest probability of distant metastases, the

sensitivity of PET for distant metastases has been reported to be low. Very smallmetastases are common in melanoma and may be beyond the resolution of PET,despite the usually high avidity of these tumours for FDG.

Stages I and II, high pretest probability of metastases


In patients with intermediate or high risk of distant metastases (melanomaof the head, neck and trunk, Breslow index >4 mm, ulceration, high mitotic rate),FDG-PET is appropriate for detecting potentially operable metastases.

Stage III or potential stage IV


There is a role for FDG-PET in assessing locoregional or distant disease to

guide appropriate therapy.


29



There are few data supporting the role of FDG-PET in assessing response tosystemic therapy.

7.4. RESTAGING

End of treatment


There is no rationale for the use of FDG-PET following completion oftherapy.



FDG-PET is of value in distinguishing operable from non-operablerecurrent disease. It should be noted that PET is less sensitive than MRI and CTin the detection of brain and lung metastases, respectively. Management changesare reported to occur in 2234% of patients after PET scanning.



In the case of a lesion that is not readily amenable to biopsy, high uptake ofFDG-PET is strongly suggestive of recurrent melanoma. There is an overlap withthe role of FDG-PET in confirmed recurrence (see discussion above).


30

7.6. FOLLOW-UP


There is no evidence that early detection of unsuspected metastases willinfluence patient outcome.

7.7. RT PLANNING


There is no evidence that FDG-PET contributes to treatment planning.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BELHOCINE, T.Z., et al., Role of nuclear medicine in the management of cutaneous malignantmelanoma, J. Nucl. Med. 47(2006) 957967.

CONSTANTINIDOU, A., et al., Routine positron emission tomography and positron emissiontomography/computed tomography in melanoma staging with positive sentinel node biopsy isof limited benefit, Melanoma Res. 181 (2008) 5660.

DANCEY, A.L., MAHON, B.S., RAYATT, S.S., A review of diagnostic imaging in melanoma,J. Plast. Reconstr. Aesthet. Surg. 61(2008) 12751283.

FLETCHER, J.W., et al. Recommendations on the use of 18F-FDG PET in oncology, J. Nucl.Med. 493 (2008) 480508.

FRIEDMAN, K.P., WAHL, R.L., Clinical use of positron emission tomography in themanagement of cutaneous melanoma, Semin. Nucl. Med. 34(2004) 242253.

MIJNHOUT, G.S., et al., Systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in melanoma patients, Cancer 918 (2001)15301542.

PLEISS, C., RISSE, J.H., BIERSACK, H.J., BENDER, H., Role of FDG-PET in theassessment of survival prognosis in melanoma, Cancer Biother. Radiopharm. 22 6 (2007)

740747.


31

8. OVARIAN CANCER

8.1. DIAGNOSIS


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in the initialdiagnostic approach to ovarian cancer.

8.2. STAGING


Although staging of ovarian cancers is usually performed surgically, the USNational Oncologic PET Registry (NOPR) shows an impact of FDG-PET onintended management at initial staging of ovarian cancer in 16.1% of patients.



Relevant prospective studies are lacking.

8.4. RESTAGING

End of treatment


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in the restaging ofovarian cancer.


32



According to the NOPR, the use of FDG-PET changed the intendedmanagement plan in 37.7% of the cases where it was used in restaging and in44.5% of the cases where it was used in detection of recurrence.



The number of patients in prospective controlled studies is small.Nevertheless, most studies show the diagnostic accuracy of FDG-PET, andparticularly PET/CT, to be slightly superior to that of other imaging methods, inparticular contrast-enhanced CT. In some studies, MRI was shown to be slightlymore accurate; other studies found MRI and PET to be complementary for lesioncharacterization. In cases of peritoneal involvement, no currently used imagingmethod is sensitive enough to depict the full extent of the disease, as earlyproliferative peritoneal lesions are less than 1 mm thick.

8.6. FOLLOW-UP


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in follow-up ofovarian cancer, although a strong rationale exists for its use.

8.7. RT PLANNING


RT has a very limited role in the management of ovarian carcinoma. Whenused palliatively, RT is directed at symptomatic masses identified by CT.

Note: Mucinous adenocarcinomas are usually non-FDG avid, and PET maytherefore be inappropriate in this particular subgroup.


33

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHUNG, H.H., et al., Role of [18F]FDG PET/CT in the assessment of suspected recurrentovarian cancer: Correlation with clinical or histological findings, Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol.

Imaging 344 (2007) 480486.

HILLNER, B.E., et al., Impact of positron emission tomography/computed tomography andpositron emission tomography (PET) alone on expected management of patients with cancer:Initial results from the National Oncologic PET Registry, J. Clin. Oncol. 26 13 (2008)21552161.

KITAJIMA, K., et al., Diagnostic accuracy of integrated FDG-PET/contrast-enhanced CT instaging ovarian cancer: Comparison with enhanced CT, Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 3510(2008) 19121920.

MANGILI, G., et al., Integrated PET/CT as a first-line re-staging modality in patients withsuspected recurrence of ovarian cancer, Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 345 (2007) 658666.

SOUSSAN, M., et al., Impact of FDG PET-CT imaging on the decision making in the biologicsuspicion of ovarian carcinoma recurrence, Gynecol. Oncol. 1081 (2008) 160165.


34

9. CANCER OF THE UTERUS AND CERVIX

9.1. DIAGNOSIS


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in the diagnosis ofcancer of the uterus and cervix.

9.2. STAGING


In stage IbIV cervical cancer, FDG-PET is a valuable adjunct toconventional imaging methods, namely CT. Although MRI is the preferredmethod for evaluation of local extension, PET is superior for the evaluation ofnodal involvement. The sentinel lymph node technique combined with surgicalstaging is more sensitive for local node involvement. In a recent NOPRevaluation, the use of PET changed the intended management plan in 14.1% of

the cases where it was used in staging cancer of the uterus and in 9.1% of thecases where it was used in staging cancer of the cervix.



There is insufficient evidence to validate the usefulness of FDG-PET inassessing response to chemoradiation therapy, although persistent FDG avidityseems to be related to unfavourable outcome.

9.4. RESTAGING

End of therapy


Persistence of FDG uptake seems to be related to unfavourable outcome.


35



There is evidence of the improved diagnostic accuracy of FDG-PET inrestaging of these tumours. The NOPR study confirmed that the addition of FDG-PET changed the intended management plan in 30.5% of patients with uterinecancer and in 26.9% of patients with cervical cancer.



According to the NOPR study, the impact of FDG-PET on detection ofsuspected recurrence resulted in a change of the intended management plan in38.8% of patients with uterine carcinomas and in 35.9% of patients with cervicalcarcinomas.

9.6. FOLLOW-UP


There are no data to support the use of FDG-PET in this setting.

9.7. RT PLANNING


For locally advanced tumours, the detection by FDG-PET of metastasis inpara-aortic lymph nodes may lead to modification of treatment fields. This is ofparticular importance in cervical cancer.


36

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GRIGSBY, P.W., SIEGEL, B.A., DEHDASHTI, F., Lymph node staging by positron emissiontomography in patients with carcinoma of the cervix, J. Clin. Oncol. 1917 (2001) 37453749.

GRIGSBY, P.W., et al., Posttherapy [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography incarcinoma of the cervix: Response and outcome, J. Clin. Oncol. 2211 (2004) 21672171.

HILLNER, B.E., et al., Relationship between cancer type and impact of PET and PET/CT onintended management: Findings of the National Oncologic PET Registry, J. Nucl. Med. 4912(2008) 19281935.

KITAJIMA, K., et al., Performance of FDG-PET/CT for diagnosis of recurrent uterine cervicalcancer, Eur. Radiol. 1810 (2008) 20402047.

LAI, C.H., YEN, T.C., CHANG, T.C., Positron emission tomography imaging for gynecologicmalignancy, Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 191 (2007) 3741.

SUZUKI, R., et al., Validity of positron emission tomography using fluoro-2-deoxyglucose forthe preoperative evaluation of endometrial cancer, Int. J. Gynecol. Cancer 174 (2007) 890896.


37

10. HEAD AND NECK CANCERS

The following discussion does not include nasopharyngeal and thyroidcancers; these are discussed in separate sections.

10.1. DIAGNOSIS



The diagnosis of primary head and neck cancers is made on the basis ofclinical examination, endoscopy with biopsies, and imaging with CT/MRI and/orultrasound.

PET guided biopsy


No data are available to suggest that FDG-PET improves imaging guidedbiopsy.

Cervical adenopathy with occult primary


The true positive rate for PET is approximately 30% where PET isperformed when all other diagnostic tests are negative or when some other testsmay have been positive. Small tumours (


38



If performed 810 weeks after treatment, FDG-PET is accurate in detectingresidual disease after chemotherapy alone or combined with RT. If performedearlier, false positive results due to inflammatory changes are possible.Persistently enlarged FDG negative nodes need to be clinically monitored.

10.4. RESTAGING

End of therapy


The role of FDG-PET in the restaging of head and neck cancers is the sameas in response evaluation (see Section 10.3).



FDG-PET is accurate in detecting regional nodal recurrence, distantmetastases and second tumours.



Since distortion of tissue structures following surgery and RT may limit thediagnostic abilities of anatomic imaging techniques, the use of PET to identifyrecurrences is appropriate if conventional methods of diagnosing recurrence areinconclusive.


39

10.6. FOLLOW-UP


There is no evidence that FDG-PET is useful in patients who have alreadybeen treated and are without any evidence of disease.

10.7. RT PLANNING


Data demonstrate that target volumes and doses may be modified on thebasis of FDG-PET findings. In particular, FDG-PET is helpful for the inclusion orexclusion of lymph nodes in the radiation field, although no data on patientoutcome are available.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ISLES, M.G., McCONKEY, C., MEHANNA, H.M., A systematic review and meta-analysis ofthe role of positron emission tomography in the follow-up of head and neck squamous cellcarcinoma following radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy, Clin. Otolaryngol. 33 3 (2008)210222.

LANGO, M.N., MYERS, J.N., GARDEN, A.S., Controversies in surgical management of thenode-positive neck after chemoradiation, Semin. Radiat. Oncol. 191 (2009) 2428.

PORCEDDU, S.V., BURMEISTER, B.H., HICKS, R.J., Role of functional imaging in head

and neck squamous cell carcinoma: Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography andbeyond, Hematol. Oncol. Clin. North Am. 226 (2008) 12211238.

SHAH, G.V., WESOLOWSKI, J.R., ANSARI, S.A., MUKHERJI, S.K., New directions in headand neck imaging, J. Surg. Oncol. 978 (2008) 644648.

WONG, R.J., Current status of FDG-PET for head and neck cancer, J. Surg. Oncol. 978 (2008)649652.


40

11. KIDNEY CANCER

11.1. DIAGNOSIS


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in the diagnosis ofkidney cancer.

11.2. STAGING


Although some studies suggest a potential role for FDG-PET in advancedkidney cancer, there are still insufficient data to support its use for routinestaging.



Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in the assessmentof treatment response.

11.4. RESTAGING

End of treatment


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in the restaging ofkidney cancer.


41



Limited studies suggest that FDG-PET has good accuracy for the detectionof unsuspected metastatic disease.



Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in detectingsuspected recurrence of kidney cancer.

11.6. FOLLOW-UP


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in follow-up of

kidney cancer.

11.7. RT PLANNING


The placement of radiation fields is based on the presence of symptomaticgross disease, which is evident from results of conventional imaging.


42

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOUCHELOUCHE, K., OEHR, P., Recent developments in urologic oncology: Positronemission tomography molecular imaging, Curr. Opin. Oncol. 203 (2008) 321326.

GOLDFARB, C.R., et al., Radionuclide imaging in urology, Urol. Clin. North Am. 33 3 (2006)319328.

LAWRENTSCHUK, N., DAVIS, I.D., BOLTON, D.M., SCOTT, A.M., Positron emissiontomography (PET), immuno-PET and radioimmunotherapy in renal cell carcinoma: Adeveloping diagnostic and therapeutic relationship, BJU Int. 975 (2006) 916922.

MUELLER-LISSE, U.G., et al., Staging of renal cell carcinoma, Eur. Radiol. 17 9 (2007)22682277.


43

12. GERMINAL TUMOURS

12.1. DIAGNOSIS


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in the diagnosis ofgerminal tumours.

12.2. STAGING


The negative predictive value is not high enough to avoid adjuvanttherapies in the case of negative results.



FDG-PET is superior to CT, with a reported sensitivity of 5989% andspecificity of 92100%. With the exception of mature teratoma, PET candistinguish residual tumour from necrosis and/or fibrosis.

12.4. RESTAGING


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in the restaging ofgerminal tumours.


44



In cases of equivocal CT findings and/or elevation of serum tumourmarkers, PET can be used to diagnose recurrence when other imaging techniquesare not helpful.

12.6. FOLLOW-UP


Currently, there is no evidence of the value of FDG-PET in follow-up ofgerminal tumours.

12.7. RT PLANNING


RT has a minimal role in non-seminomatous germ cell tumours, and thereare no data indicating that PET has an impact. For early stage seminomas, forwhich the patterns of failure are well described, there are no data to suggest thatPET may influence radiation fields.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOUCHELOUCHE, K., OEHR, P., Recent developments in urologic oncology: Positronemission tomography molecular imaging, Curr. Opin. Oncol. 203 (2008) 321326.

FANTI, S., et al., PET in genitourinary tract cancers, Q. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 51 3(2007) 260271.

HEIDENREICH, A., THER, D., POLYAKOV, S., Postchemotherapy retroperitoneal lymphnode dissection in advanced germ cell tumours of the testis, Eur. Urol. 532 (2008) 260272.

SOHAIB, S.A., KOH, D.M., HUSBAND, J.E., The role of imaging in the diagnosis, staging,and management of testicular cancer, AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 1912 (2008) 387395.


45

13. CANCER OF UNKNOWN PRIMARY (CUP)

13.1. DIAGNOSIS

Raised tumour markers


For tumour types that are potential origins of the raised markers and that aregenerally FDG avid, PET-CT should be used if the conventional workup hasfailed to identify the primary tumour.

Metastases outside the neck


A single-trial analysis comparing PET and CT in locating primary tumourin patients with cancer of unknown origin indicated that the sensitivity of PET-CTwas 36% versus 15% for CT.

Metastases in the head and neck area

See the discussion of head and neck cancers in Section 10 of this report.

13.2. STAGING


FDG-PET may be appropriate for evaluation of the extent of disease.


Not applicable

13.4. RESTAGING

Not applicable


46


Not applicable

13.6. FOLLOW-UP

Not applicable

13.7. RT PLANNING

Not applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DONG, M.J., et al., Role of fluorodeoxyglucose-PET versus fluorodeoxyglucose-PET/computed tomography in detection of unknown primary tumor: A meta-analysis of the

literature, Nucl. Med. Commun. 299 (2008) 791802.

FREUDENBERG, L.S., et al., Cancer of unknown primary, Recent Results Cancer Res. 170(2008) 193202.

KAYA, A.O., et al., Whole body 18F-FDG PET/CT imaging in the detection of primary tumoursin patients with a metastatic carcinoma of unknown origin, Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 9 4(2008) 683686.

KWEE, T.C., KWEE, R.M., Combined FDG-PET/CT for the detection of unknown primary

tumo

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